Design of a High-Precision 3D-Coordinate Measuring Machine

M. M. P.A. Vermeulen, P.C. J.N. Rosielle, P. H.J. Schellekens (2)

Eindhoven University of Technology, Precision Engineering Section, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Received on January 8,1998

Abstract

In Precision Engineering components are getting smaller and tolerances become tighter, so demands for
accuracy are increasing. To improve the precision of Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs) we
designed an alternative high precision 3D-CMM with measuring uncertainty beneath 0.1 pm in a
measuring volume of 1 dm3. The machine design is based on the Abbe and Bryan principle, thus smaller
measuring errors are feasible with less effort on software compensation. Application of a light and stiff
construction, compensated air bearings and well-positioned linear motors result in high stiffness and
favourable dynamic behaviour. A statically determined design, extensive use of aluminium and
mechanical thermal length compensation make the machine less sensitive to temperature changes. To
prevent mechanical disturbances an active vibration isolation system was designed. This paper focuses
on machine design aspects showing analytical- and experimental results and design synthesis.

Keywords: Coordinate Measuring Machine, High-precision Design

1. Introduction complexity and unfavourable dynamic behaviour. The

Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs) are often used much simpler design of figure 2 has a vertical slide in the
to measure dimensions and shapes of rather complex platform, with an internal scale, satisfying the Abbe
products. The tendency of decreasing product sizes and principle. For measurements outside the mid-plane only
tighter tolerances requires CMMs with higher precision. small errors appear (Abbe-offset equals the vertical travel
CMM inaccuracies are primarily determined by geometric (50 mm)). ,This structure also satisfies the Bryan principle
errors of the guides and deformations of machine parts due in x- and y-direction, making the machine nonsusceptible
to finite stiffness, inertia and temperature changes. When for straightness errors of the scale support beams.
the measuring systems are on the machine outside -like in
conventional CMMs- Abbe errors may occur. These errors
can be decreased by reducing the distance between the
product and the measuring systems, called the Abbe offset
[2][3]. Hence an alternative approach for a high precision
CMM was generated [12]. based on the Abbe principle and
another basic principle of measurement: the Bryan principle
[2]. The main objective was to avoid rotational errors
caused by the mechanical design and apply software
correction for the remaining translational errors. By
minimising the quantities to be corrected a higher
measuring accuracy is feasible, because measurement of
the interference factor is possible only within limited
accuracy [I].

2. Design Principles Figure 1; Top view of the alternative 3D-CMM

In the proposed design much attention is paid to satisfying
the Abbe principle to reach higher accuracy. For that
purpose separate intermediate bodies in x- and y-direction
and crossing beams are used. In figure 1 the x- and y-
scales (S, and S), used in the measuring systems each are
supported on orthogonal beams (x and y), connected to the
probe (P) by a moving platform (PL). The beams move
through their respective intermediate bodies (A and B), each
carrying a measuring head (M, and My). These bodies can
move along their respective guiding beams (I and 11) which
are mounted on a base. From this base a granite table ( l)
for the products to be measured is suspended. The scales
are always aligned with the probe motion, so measuring
without any Abbe errors is realised in the horizontal mid-
plane of the machine (i.e. figure 1). This principle could be
expanded to a CMM-design satisfying both principles of
measurement in the whole measuring volume. However,
that would introduce six intermediate bodies, causing high
7
Figure 2: Schematic drawing of the alternative 3D-CMM

Annals of the ClRP Vol. 47/1/7998 447

The x- and y-drives (described in section 3.4) are
connected between the platform and the intermediate
bodies B respectively A (see figure 2: D, and Dy), so their
driving forces are directed through the centre of mass of
the platform to minimise inertial rotational effects. The z-
drive is mounted next to the pinole as close as possible to
it's centre of mass. Hence this machine concept is
transferable to large size machines. With respect to it's
measuring volume (0.1x0.1x0.1m3) the dimensions of the
CMM ( 0 . 6 ~ 0 . 6.4m3)
~ 1 are consistent with conventional
machines. The machine should act as a platform for a
large variety of both contact and non-contact probes,
measuring shapes, and scanning surfaces. Especially for
scanning, a 20 probing system is being developed [8] with
low probing force (mN-range). and an expected accuracy
of 10 nm.
3. Mechanical Design
3.1 Machine Frame
Deformations in the machine frame directly cause
measuring errors. To minimise these deformations several
design strategies with respect to dynamic- and
thermomechanical behaviour are applied:
Dynamic Behaviour:
The machine slides are built up as a closed-box plate-
construction to create light and stiff moving parts. The
platform has a pyramid-shape for optimal material
utilisation (i.e. a uniform mechanical stress distribution).
Additional to the geometry of a construction it's dynamic
behaviour is determined by the material property Hp, the
specific stiffness, given for several materials in table 1.
With respect to conventional materials like aluminium and
steel a gain factor 3 to 6 can be attained using ceramics.
For this reason these materials are used more and more,
(e.g. for the pinole in this CMM). However, the machine
frame components are made of aluminium because of it's
excellent thermal behaviour (see next section) and it's
easy obtainability and machinibility, resulting in great
design flexibility. These components are CNC milled out
of massive blocks, preventing hysteresis and loss of
stiffness and conductivity in the plate connections. In
plate-constructions both mass and stiffness are directly
proportional to the plate thickness. To attain equal
stiffness of an aluminium construction with respect to it's
steel version, the plate thickness is tripled due to it's
smaller density. As a result transversal plate dynamics
have improved considerably.
Thermomechanical Behaviour:
The main reason for choosing an aluminium machine
frame above a steel one is it's excellent thermal
behaviour, (see table 1): The thermal sensitivity for
gradients a/A of aluminium is 2.1 times smaller than steel.
Gradients are not likely to occur due to the excellent
thermal conductivity A, which is for aluminium 4.6 times
better than for steel. The thermal diffusivity .vpC, for
aluminium is 5.9 times better than for steel.
Material
Granite 1.9
Al203-ceramic 84 0.24 7.5
Table 1: Material properties ') 191, fr], 3, supplier
To minimise the machine sensitivity to temperature
changes due to a large coefficient of thermal expansion
448
for aluminium, the distance between the probe and the
measuring systems ('the measuring cirde') is minirnised and
mechanically thermal length compensation is integrated
for all principal axes. The x- and y-directions have
coinciding thermal centres for the machine base and the
slide construction in the centre of the measuring volume.
For the z-axis different materials are chosen to
compensate thermal expansions. Although coefficients of
thermal expansion are not better known than within
0.5.106 K [ l ] thermal length compensation can be
improved by measuring expansion of machine
components due to controlled temperature changes [5]
and subsequently creating equal thermal lengths by
choosing the proper fixed clamping point of the scales. A
granite table plate is chosen despite it's poor thermal
behaviour with respect to aluminium [5][7] because of it's
availability with high surface flatness. Thermal errors are
minimised by several measures:
The operators thermal radiation to the machine is
shielded by remote motion control.
Heat production in the drives (see 3.4) is small due to a
high motor constant and a small electrical resistance.
Distortions of the granite will be minimised by isolation
around the table.
Room temperature fluctuations are limited to normal
laboratory conditions: &2 K.
3.2 Membrane Air Bearings
For all slides air bearings were chosen to attain high
guiding accuracy and reproducibility and negligible
friction. To optimise the stiffness, passively compensated
thrust bearings were developed, based on existing
compensation techniques [lo]. In [ll] a comparison is
given for five different bearing types, with respect to the
static bearing characteristic. In the membrane bearings
the compliance of the air film is passively compensated by
the deflection of a membrane as a result of a pressure
distribution at the front- and backside of the membrane.
The membrane thickness and height of the chamber at
the membrane backside are used as tuning parameters to
experimentally attain infinite static stiffness. For this CMM
two bearing diameters (040mm and 060mm) were
chosen considering space and load capacity. While slowly
decreasing preload, force and axial displacement h (#gap
height) were measured. To exclude the influence of tilt,
displacement was measured using three sensors. In
figure 3 the static bearing characteristic is given for a
060mm bearing pad and for the membrane.
'Oo0
i
'' \
membrane
I
I_ . L
!
!
r- - --
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
hQ + h bml
Figure 3: Characteristic of 060mm membrane bearing
At a preload-level of Fp= 500 N infinite static stiffness was
attained. From the membrane characteristic the actual air
gap can be read: h, = 6 pm. For limited-space applications
(vertical slide), 040mm bearings were developed. For
these bearings infinite static stiffness was reached at a
preload level of 250 N and similar gap height.
To investigate the dynamic behaviour of the air bearings,
vibration tests were performed on the z-slide of the CMM.
Figure 4 shows the test set-up with the pinole in a
horizontal position. A dynamic radial force (white noise
force spectrum) was applied to the nose of the pinole by a
shaker (E) and measured by a piezo electric crystal. The
radial displacement at the nose of the pinole was
measured by eddy current sensors (S) (differential
measurement) on aluminium targets. From the force- and
displacement signal a dynamic analyser calculated the
dynamic stiffness as a function of frequency: Cmse. The
preload level per membrane bearing was varied from 150
to 300 N. by changing the pressure of the preload
bearings (see section 3.3). The protruding length of the
pinole a was varied in three positions: (min.- mid- and
max.-position). With respect to the relative bearing
distance Ithe dimensionless protruding length ad varies
respectively from 0.2. 0.45 to 0.70. Figure 5 shows the
dynamic stiffness, c for the mid-position.
Figure 4: Test set-up of dynamic measurementof pinole
.--
E
10'
0 second effect is the translation of the pinole caused by the
T effect is the rotation of the pinole due to the cantilever-
1o6
1o5
t .............. :............... .;...\1 ...:........ ;.. .....
j i
....... ........ ......... Cmrn ............ i ........
0 100 200
--f f [Hz]
Figure 5: Dynamic stiffness at the nose of the pinole
against frequency for the mid-position
The following can be concluded:
The bandwidth of the pinole for the mid-position is 160
Hz. (For minimum and maximum protruding length the
bandwidth is 165 and 110 Hz respectively).
The minimum stiffness Cmin at the nose for the mid
position arises at 217 Hz, being the first natural
frequency of the system. (For the min. and max.
protruding length the first natural frequency appears at
196 respectively 166 Hz). The minimum stiffness value
does not vary much with preload.
In the frequency range from 5 to 100 Hz the stiffness is
approximately constant, described by Canst. Below 5 Hz
the stiffness increases tremendously to infinite stiffness
for static situations. The dependence of Canst on the
preload level is small.
Obviously the compensation mechanism in the air
bearings can not follow well vibrations above 5 Hz. The
air-flow rate to the chamber at the membrane backside is
too small to bend the membrane fast enough, so
compensation for air gap change does not occur above
this frequency. The drop frequency could be increased by
a smaller membrane chamber and by enlarging the
(number of) channel(s). connecting the chamber to the
membrane front side. The resulting stiffness above 5 Hz
equals the stiffness of the air film. being proportional to
the bearing surface. Hence the dynamic stiffnesses Cmrn
and Cmnst could be increased, using larger bearings.
Nevertheless, for (quasi)static forces an enormous
stiffness-gain is attained with respect to conventional
bearings, using bearings of only 40 mm in diameter. For a
preload level of 250 N per bearing (optimum static
stiffness) the dynamic stiffness values Cmm and Canst are
shown in figure 6 as a function of the dimensionless
protruding length: an.
105 ...... ._ - . . . . __ ... -. . .
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
[-] 4all
Figure 6: Cmrn and Cmnst against an (preload Fp= 250 N)
At large protruding length the stiffness at the nose of the
pinole Cmse is reduced considerably with respect to the
bearing stiffness c. For this effect three causes are
responsible. In table 2 the compliance contribution of each
cause is given for the three protruding positions. The first
effect is the compliance of the pinole. having a third power
relation to aA. Using a ceramic pinole o50x50mm this
effect is negligible for the resulting compliance. The
compliance of the bearings. The third and determinative
effect: the ratio the dimensionless stiffness Cnose /c is
proportional to the square of a/l.
1
Compliance-contribution["h]
Dinole comdiance
translation-effect
min
I 0 1
34
I
mid
1 1
21
rnax
3
14
I I
300 400
rotation-effect (cantilever effect) 66 78 83
total 100 100 100
Table 2: Compliance-contributions for min.- mid- and
max.- protruding positions
3.3 Preload Bearings
To attain a constant gap height the membrane bearings
are preloaded in a force closed way by adjusting the
preload level with a spring and an additional preload
bearing (in contrast to form closed preload where the
optimum gap between two bearings and a guide has to be
adjusted). The spring absorbs geometric errors of the
guideway and thermal expansions between the slide and
the guide. In common metal springs a relatively large
spring volume and adjustment-mechanism is needed,
affecting both it's size and it's price. To provide a safe and
simple assembly a very compact preload bearing was
designed with integrated pneumatic spring. The
pneumatic spring is an air chamber in the air supply
behind the bearing disk. For a given preload level of a
membrane bearing, pressure and chamber diameter are
chosen. The membrane bearing and it's preload bearing
are placed as an opposite pair to prevent bending of the
guide. In case of pressure drop the bearing becomes
forceless, protecting the guideway from contact damage.
449
3.4 Drives
To enable accurate positioning in high precision machines
the application of linear motor drives is increasing due to
their favourable properties with respect to conventional
feed drives: high dynamic characteristics, high servo
bandwidth due to a direct and linear relation between
motor current and feed force, simple design and neither
friction nor backlash. These drives are used in the CMM in
a closed loop servo system with 5 nm resolution
interference scales for position feed back. Tests have
shown [13][11] that practical positioning accuracies are
restricted by the controller and the measuring systems:
position errors of 10 nm (a few counts) are feasible. The
effect of disturbing motor forces is very low due to a non-
ferro coil-carrier causing neither cogging nor attraction
forces between magnets and coils perpendicular to the
axial direction. For driving at very low speed additional
damping should be added (e.g. in the controller software)
due to the absence of friction. Proper tuning between the
servo controller and the motor is important. For high feed
forces motor cooling might be required [13]. In our case
power dissipation is limited to 1 W because of a high force
constant, a small electrical resistance and small (inertial)
feed forces.
3.5 Vibration Isolation and Machine Levelling
To separate the machine from mechanical disturbances,
passive vibration isolation is applied [4].Pneumatic isolators
are used instead of metal springs because preload and
additional damping are easily feasible and slinky modes -
present in metal springs- are absent. Furthermore
automatic pneumatic levelling of the machine is easily
performed: by changing the pressure of each pneumatic
spring, the machine can be levelled in 20s. During operation
the load on the isolators changes due to machine
movements. To avoid machine tilt an additional levelling
system is required, fast enough to keep up with machine
movements (bandwidth 10 Hz). A mechatronic design is
chosen, using differential inductive sensors, voice coil
actuators and cantilevers. The dynamic behaviour of the
levelling system is investigated by modelling and simulation,
using bond graph techniques. The maximum tilt angle during
set-up is limited to 2.102mrad.
4. Error Analysis and Calibration
An extensive error analysis was made to predict the
machine error budget. The following can be concluded:
Application of the right design principles to geometry
and assembly of -machine components leads to high
static stiffness 10' Nlm, (resulting in a finite-stiffness
error of 5 nm) and favourable dynamic behaviour
(lowest natural frequency: 90 Hz. and resulting dynamic
error of positioning: 4 nm).
rn The machine susceptibility to temperature changes and
gradients is minimised by extensive use of aluminium
and mechanical thermal length compensation. The
resulting thermomechanical errors -mainly caused by
distortions of the granite table [7]- are about 10 nm.
For the 20-probe. that is being developed [8], the
estimated probing errors are 10 nm.
The inaccuracy of the measuring systems is 100 nm for
100 mm measuring length. This error will be reduced by
software correction to 20 nm.
This machine concept with intermediate bodies
satisfying the Abbe and Bryan principle reduces
rotational errors to 12 nm. For the remaining
translational errors (straightness errors of the guiding
beams (I and II), the granite table and the ceramic
pinole): about 3 pm, error correction will be applied.
Using a laser interferometer 30 nm straightness error
can be reached.
450
A relatively easy and accurate calibration can be
executed using the PTB-method of measuring 2D
reference objects in different optimally selected
positions [6]. This method allows a direct traceability of
the CMM via one pre-calibrated reference artefact, that
has to be developed for this CMM. Using this calibration
method a total measuring uncertainty of 0.1 pm is
expected.
5. Realisation
To construct, test and calibrate a prototype of this
machine, a Ph.D. project was started in 1994. The project
is executed in the Precision Engineering section and the
Design and Engineering Facilities, both of EUT. CMM
manufacturer Zeiss contributes motion control and
measuring sofiware. Calibration procedures and error
compensation are prepared to precede the envisaged use
as from the end of 1998 in the Precision Engineering section
of EUT and in the Dutch Metrology Institute (NMI), which
financially supports the project.
6.Conclusion
The design of the high precision 3D-CMM, described in this
paper, with a measuring volume of 1 dm3 is quite
alternative with respect to conventional CMMs. The
machine design -transferable to large size machines- is
based on the Abbe and Bryan principle, thus a higher
measuring accuracy is feasible with less effort on software
compensation. The main objective was to avoid rotational
errors caused by the mechanical design and apply
software correction for the remaining translational errors.
The resulting estimated volumetric measuring uncertainty
is 0.1 pm.
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