ELECTRICAL POWER QUALITY

By
HARI MADHAVA REDDY
Assistant Professor

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 UNIT–II
Voltage imperfections in power systems
2.1. Power quality terms
2.2. Voltage sags – Voltage swells and interruptions
2.3. Sources of voltage sag, swell and interruptions
2.4. Nonlinear loads
2.5. IEEE and IEC standards.
2.6. Source of transient over voltages
2.7. Principles of over voltage protection
2.8. Devices for over voltage protection
2.9. Utility capacitor switching transients.
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 2.1. Power quality terms
active filter Any of a number of sophisticated power electronic devices for eliminating
harmonic distortion
CBEMA curve A set of curves representing the withstand capabilities of com- puters
in terms of the magnitude and duration of the voltage disturbance. Developed by the
Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA), it had become the
de facto standard for measuring the performance of all types of equipment and power
systems and is commonly referred to by this name.9 CBEMA has been replaced by the
Information Technology Industry Council (ITI), and a new curve has been developed
that is commonly referred to as the ITI curve.

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 Sources of Power Quality Problems
Power quality experts find it a challenge and difficult
to analyze any power quality problem and determine the source of the
problem.

The major sources of power quality problems can be

divided into two categories, depending on the location of the source in
relationship to the power meter.
One category is on the utility side of the meter and includes
switching operations, power system faults, and lightning.
The other category is on the end-user side of the meter
and includes non-linear loads, poor grounding, electromagnetic
interference, and static electricity.

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 Utility side of the meter:

They can be either man-made or natural events. They all involve

some type of interruption of the current or voltage. The most common
man made causes are switching operations.
Utilities switch equipment on and off by the use of breakers,
disconnect switches, or reclosers and other are fault on the power
system causes a breaker to trip.
Lightning striking a power line or substation equipment, a tree
touching a power line, a car hitting a power pole, or even an animal
touching an energized line may cause the fault. The tripping of the
breaker and the initiating fault can cause the voltage to sag or swell,
Depending on when in the periodic wave the tripping occurs. Utilities
set breakers and reclosers to reclose on the fault to determine if the
fault has cleared. If the fault has not cleared, the breaker or recloser
trips again and stays open. Page 9 of 118 9
 Utilities use power factor improvement capacitors to improve
the power factor by adding capacitive reactance to the power system.
This causes the current and voltage to be in phase and thus reduces
losses in the power system. When utilities insert capacitors in the
power system, they momentarily cause an increase in the voltage and
cause transients. Capacitors, if tuned to harmonics on the power
system, can also amplify the harmonics. This is especially true if the
utility and end user both switch their capacitors on at the same time.
Utility system faults occur on power lines or in power
equipment. They are usually categorized by single-phase faults to
ground, phase to-phase faults, or three-phase faults to ground. On the
utility side of the meter, the type of fault often determines the type of
disturbance. On the end-user side of the meter, the type of load or
wiring and grounding conditions determine the type of power quality
disturbance.

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 End-user side of the meter

Sources of power quality problems on the end-user side

of the meter usually involve a disruption of the sinusoidal voltage and
current delivered to the end user by the utility. These disruptions can
damage or cause miss operation of sensitive electronic equipment in
not only the end-user’s facilities but also in another end-user’s
facilities that is electrically connected. The following is a list of power
quality problems caused by end users: nonlinear inrush current from
the start-up of large motors, static electricity, power factor
improvement capacitors amplifying harmonics, and poor wiring and
grounding techniques.

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 2.4. Nonlinear loads.
The Non-linear loads include all types of electronic
equipment that use switched-mode power supplies, adjustable-speed
drives, rectifiers converting ac to dc, inverters converting dc to ac, arc
welders and arc furnaces, electronic and magnetic ballast in fluorescent
lighting, and medical equipment like MRI (magnetic radiation
imaging) and x-ray machines. Other devices that convert ac to dc and
generate harmonics include battery chargers, UPSs, electron beam
furnaces, and induction furnaces, to name just a few. All these devices
change a smooth sinusoidal wave into irregular distorted wave shapes.
The distorted wave shapes produce harmonics.

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Most electronic devices use switched-mode power supplies that produce
harmonics. Manufacturers of electronic equipment have found that they
can eliminate a filter and eliminate the power supply transformer by the
use of a switched-mode power supply.

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 What is a switched-mode power supply?

How does it produce harmonics?

The switched-mode process converts ac to dc using a rectifier bridge,

converts dc back to ac at a high frequency using a switcher, steps the ac
voltage down to 5 V using a small transformer, and finally converts the
ac to dc using another rectifier. Electronic equipment requires 5 V dc to
operate. Go inside a switched mode power supply and you’ll find a
switching circuit that takes stored energy from a capacitor in short pulses
and delivers voltage at a frequency of 20 to 100 kHz to a transformer in
the form of a square wave.
The high-frequency switching requires a small and light transformer.
However, the pulsed square wave distorts the sine wave and produces
harmonics. 15
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Adjustable-speed drives save energy by adjusting the speed of the
motor to fit the load. Residential heat pumps, commercial heating and
ventilating systems, and factories that use motors in their processes
benefit from the use of adjustable-speed drives. However, adjustable
speed drives cause harmonics by varying the fundamental frequency in
order to vary the speed of the drive.

Arc furnaces use extreme heat (3000°F) to melt metal. The furnace
uses an electrical arc striking from a high-voltage electrode to the
grounded metal to create this extreme heat. The arc is extinguished
every half-cycle. The short circuit to ground causes the voltage to dip
each time the arc strikes. This causes the lights to flicker at a
frequency typically less than 50 Hz that is irritating to humans. Arc
Furnaces also generate harmonic currents.

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Most nonlinear loads not only generate harmonics but cause low
power factor. They cause low power factor by shifting the phase angle
between the voltage and current.

What is power factor and why is low power factor bad?

Power factor is a way to measure the amount of reactive power

required to supply an electrical system and an end-user’s facility.
Reactive power represents wasted electrical energy, because it does no
useful work. Inductive loads require reactive power and constitute a
major portion of the power consumed in industrial plants. Motors,
transformers, fluorescent lights, arc welders, and induction heating
furnaces all use reactive power.

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Power factor is also a way of measuring the phase difference between
voltage and current. Just as a rotating alternating current and voltage
can be represented by a sine wave, the phase difference between
voltage and current can be represented by the cosine of the phase shift
angle.
Nonlinear loads often shift the phase angle between the load
current and voltage, require reactive power to serve them, and
cause low power factor.
Linear motor loads require reactive power to turn the rotating
magnetic field in the motor and cause low power factor. Nonlinear
And linear loads that cause low power factor include induction
motors of all types, power electronic power converters, arc welding
machines, electric arc and induction furnaces, and fluorescent and
other types of arc lighting.

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 Harmonic resonance.
Electrical harmonic resonance occurs when the inductive reactance of a
power system equals the capacitive reactance of a power system. This is
a good thing at the fundamental frequency of 50 Hz and results in the
current and voltage being in phase and unity power factor. However, it is
not so good when it occurs at a harmonic frequency. If resonance occurs
at a harmonic frequency, the harmonic current reaches a maximum value
and causes overheating of transformers, capacitors, and motors; tripping
of relays; and incorrect meter readings.

How does resonance occur at a harmonic frequency?

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The amount of inductive and capacitive reactance are dependent on the
frequency of the current and voltage. Thus, resonance can occur at
various harmonic frequencies. The formulas for inductive and
capacitive reactance illustrate this relationship:

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Capacitors can cause two types of resonance: parallel and series
resonance. Since most power factor improvement capacitors are in
parallel with the inductance of the power system, as shown in the
schematic of a parallel resonant circuit (Figure 2.28), parallel resonance
occurs most often.
When capacitive and inductive reactance connect in parallel in the power
system, the magnitude of the total reactance or impedance becomes

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 How do you prevent resonance?
You prevent resonance by sizing and locating capacitors to avoid the
harmonic resonance frequency or by using filters. A filter is simply an
inductor (reactor) in series with a capacitor, as shown in Figure 2.29.
Filters detune the capacitor away from the resonant frequency. Filters
usually cost twice as much as capacitors. Filters also remove the effect
of distortion power factor and increase the true power factor.

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 Poor wiring and grounding.
An EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute ) survey found poor wiring
and grounding in the end-user’s facilities cause 80 percent of all power
quality problems.

Why does poor wiring and grounding cause most of the power quality
problems?

The National Electrical Code (NEC) determines the design of the

wiring and grounding. However, the NEC, as described in Section 90-
1(b), is intended to protect people from fire and electrocution, not to
protect sensitive electronic equipment from damage.

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As a consequence there is a great need to establish guidelines for
wiring and grounding that not only protects the public but prevents
power quality problems. When poor wiring and grounding cause
equipment to fail, utility customers often attribute the failure to the
utility. They may even buy expensive power conditioning equipment
that only treats the symptom of the power quality problem and does not
solve the underlining cause of the problem. They should, instead,
identify the effects of poor wiring and grounding, determine the cause
of the power quality problem, and find a simple way to correct the
problem.

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 Electromagnetic interference (EMI).

Another source of power quality problems is electromagnetic

interference (EMI). Some devices, like a large motor during start-up,
emit a magnetic field that intersects with an adjacent sensitive device,
like a computer or telephone. Michael Faraday’s transformer law
explains this phenomenon. Faraday’s transformer law says that when
an alternating magnetic field cuts across an adjacent conductor, it will
induce an alternating current and voltage in that conductor. The
induced current and voltage can damage sensitive electronic equipment
or cause it to malfunction. Sensitive equipment in hospitals often
experiences EMI problems. For example, in one open-heart-surgery
training center, electromagnetic fields from an adjacent electrical
equipment room were causing heart monitors to read incorrectly.
Moving cables emitting the electromagnetic fields a safe distance from
the cables feeding the heart monitors solved this problem.
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 Static electricity.

Another cause of power quality problems is static electricity. Static

electricity occurs when the rubbing of one object against another causes
a voltage build-up. For example, you can build up an electric charge on
your body when you rub your shoes on a carpet. A discharge of static
electricity can occur when you then touch a grounded object, like
another person or a metal object. Although static electricity power
quality problems are infrequent, they are often overlooked. Static
electricity can create voltages of 3000 V or more and damage sensitive
electronic equipment. You can minimize static electricity problems by
increasing the humidity, changing the carpet, clothing, and furniture to
non-static types, and by grounding the person working on a piece of
equipment to the equipment with a wrist strap.

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2.2. Voltage sags – Voltage swells and interruptions
Sags (Dips). Sags are short-duration reductions in the rms voltage
between 0.1 and 0.9 pu, as shown by Fig. 1.7. There is no clear definition
for the duration of sag, but it is usually between 0.5 cycles and 1 minute.
Voltage sags are usually caused by
energization of heavy loads (e.g., arc furnace),
starting of large induction motors,
single line-to-ground faults, and
load transferring from one power source to another.

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Each of these cases may cause a sag with a special (magnitude and
duration) characteristic. For example, if a device is sensitive to voltage
sag of 25 %, it will be affected by induction motor starting. Sags are
main reasons for malfunctions of electrical low-voltage devices.
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) or power conditioners are mostly
used to prevent voltage sags.

Swells. The increase of voltage magnitude between 1.1 and 1.8 pu is

called swell, as shown by Fig. 1.8. The most accepted duration of a
swell is from 0.5 cycles to 1 minute. Swells are not as common as sags
and their main causes are

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 switching off of a large load,
 energizing a capacitor bank, or
 voltage increase of the unfaulted phases during a single line-to-
ground fault.
In some textbooks the term "momentary overvoltage" is used as a
synonym for the term swell. As in the case of sags, UPS or power
conditioners are typical solutions to limit the effect of swell.
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Interruption. Interruption occurs when the supply voltage (or load
current) decreases to less than 0.1 pu for less than 1 minute, as shown
by Fig. 1.6. Some causes of interruption are equipment failures, control
malfunction, and blown fuse or breaker opening. The difference
between long (or sustained) interruption and interruption is that in the
former the supply is restored manually, but during the latter the supply
is restored automatically. Interruption is usually measured by its
duration. For example, according to the European standard EN-50160 :
A short interruption is up to 3 minutes; and
A long interruption is longer than 3 minutes.
However, based on the standard IEEE-1250 :
An instantaneous interruption is between 0.5 and 30 cycles;
A momentary interruption is between 30 cycles and 2 seconds;
A temporary interruption is between 2 seconds and 2 minutes; and
A sustained interruption is longer than 2 minutes.

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2.3. Sources of voltage sag, swell and interruptions

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2.4. Nonlinear loads

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Nonlinear loads and their current waveforms

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 2.5. CBEMA and ITI Curves
• One of the most frequently employed displays of data to
represent the power quality is the so-called CBEMA curve.
• A portion of the curve adapted from IEEE Standard 446 that we
typically use in our analysis of power quality monitoring results
is shown in Fig.
• This curve was originally developed by CBEMA to describe the
tolerance of main- frame computer equipment to the magnitude
and duration of voltage variations on the power system.
• While many modern computers have greater tolerance than this,
the curve has become a standard design target for sensitive
equipment to be applied on the power system and a common
format for reporting power quality variation data.

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 A set of curves representing the withstand capabilities of computers in terms of the
magnitude and duration of the voltage disturbance. Developed by the Computer
Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA), it had become the de
facto standard for measuring the performance of all types of equipment and power
systems and is commonly referred to by this name.9 CBEMA has been replaced by
the Information Technology Industry Council (ITI), and a new curve has been
developed that is commonly referred to as the ITI curve.
• The axes represent magnitude and duration of the event.
Points below the envelope are presumed to cause the load to
drop out due to lack of energy.
• Points above the envelope are presumed to cause other
malfunctions such as insulation failure, overvoltage trip, and
over excitation.
• The upper curve is actually defined down to 0.001 cycle where
it has a value of about 375 percent voltage.
• We typically employ the curve only from 0.1 cycle and higher
due to limitations in power quality monitoring instruments and
differences in opinion over defining the magnitude values in the
sub cycle time frame. 39
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• The CBEMA organization has been replaced by ITI, and a
modified curve has been developed that specifically applies to
common 120-V computer equipment (see Fig.).
• The concept is similar to the CBEMA curve. Although developed
for 120-V computer equipment, the curve has been applied to
general power quality evaluation like its predecessor curve.
• Both curves are used as a reference to define the withstand
capability of various loads and devices for protection from power
quality variations.
• For display of large quantities of power quality monitoring data, we
frequently add a third axis to the plot to denote the number of
events within a certain predefined cell of magnitude and duration.
If restricted to just the two-dimensional views shown in Fig., the
plot tends to turn into a solid mass of points over time, which is
not useful.

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 2.5. IEEE and IEC standards.
Many documents for control of power quality have been generated by
different organizations and institutes. These documents come in three
levels of applicability and validity: guidelines, recommendations, and
standards.
Power quality guidelines are illustrations and exemplary procedures that contain
typical parameters and representative solutions to commonly
encountered power quality problems.
Power quality recommended practices recognize that there are many solutions
to power quality problems and recommend certain solutions over others. Any operating
limits that are indicated by recommendations are not required but should be targets for
designs
Power quality standards are formal agreements between industry, users, and the
government as to the proper procedure to generate, test, measure, manufacture, and
consume electric power. In all jurisdictions, violation of standards could be used as
evidence in courts of law for litigation purposes.

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The main reasons for setting guidelines, recommendations, and
standards in power systems with non sinusoidal voltages or currents
are to keep disturbances to user equipment within permissible limits,
to provide uniform terminology and test procedures for power quality
problems, and to provide a common basis on which a wide range of
engineering is referenced.
There are many standards and related documents that deal with power
quality issues. The mostly adopted documents are
 The North American Standards adopted by many countries of North
and South America:
a) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (IEEE).
b) American National Standards Institute(ANSI).
c) Military Specifications (MIL-Specs) published by the U.S.
Department of Defense and Canadian Electric Association (CEA).
 British Standards (BS).
 European (Standards) Norms (EN).
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 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
 Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association
(CBEMA) curves.
 Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) curves
 VDE (Verein Deutscher Elektrotechniker) of the German
association of individuals and groups concerned with electro
technics.
 NEMA of the U.S. National ElectricManufacturers Association.

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 IEC 61000 Series of Standards for Power Quality
The IEC 61000 (or EN 61000) series, one of the most commonly used
references for power quality in Europe, contains six parts, each with
standards and technical reports
Part 1 (General). Two sections cover application and interpretation
aspects of EMC (electromagnetic compatibility).
Part 2 (Environment). Twelve sections give classification of the
electromagnetic environment and compatibility levels for different
environments. Some aspects of this document include harmonic
compatibility levels of residential LV (low voltage) systems (IEC
61000-2-2), industrial plants (IEC 61000-24), and residential MV
(medium voltage) systems (IEC 61000-2-12).

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Part 3 (Limits). Eleven sections cover emission limits for harmonics and
other disturbances. Some aspects of this document include harmonic
current emission limits for equipment connected at LV with low (less
than 16 A per phase) current (IEC 61000-3-2), flicker (IEC 61000-3-3),
harmonic current emission limits for equipment connected at LV with
high (more than 16 A per phase) current (IEC 61000-3-4), and
assessment of emission limits for distorting loads in MV and HV (high
voltage) power systems (IEC 61000-3-6).
Part 4 (Testing and Measurement Techniques). Thirty-one sections
describe standard methods for testing equipment of emission and
immunity to different disturbances. Some aspects of this document
include harmonic and interharmonic measurements and instrumentation
(IEC 61000-4-7), dips and interruptions (EN 61000-4-11),
interharmonics (EN 61000-4-13), and power quality measurement
methods (IEC 61000-4-30).
Part 5 (Installation and Mitigation Guidelines).Seven sections cover
earthing (grounding), cabling, mitigation, and degrees of protection
gainst EM (electromagnetic) disturbances.
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Part 6 (Generic Standards). Five sections cover immunity and
emission standards for residential, commercial, industrial, and power
station environments.

EN 61000-3-2 [2] introduces power quality limits for four classes of

equipment:

Class A: Balanced three-phase equipment and all other equipment,

except those listed in other classes.

Class B: Portable tools.

Class C: Lighting equipment, including dimming devices.

Class D: Equipment with a "special wave shape“ and an input power

of 75 to 600 W.
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 IEEE-519 Standard
IEEE-519 contains thirteen sections, each with standards and technical
reports:
Section 1 (Introduction and Scope). Includes application of the standards.
Section 2 (Definition and Letter Symbols).
Section 3 (References). Includes standard references.
Section 4 (Converter Theory and Harmonic Generation). Includes
documents for converters, arc furnaces, static VAr compensators,
inverters for dispersed generation, electronic control, transformers, and
generators.
Section 5 (System Response Characteristics). Includes resonance
conditions, effect of system loading, and typical characteristics of
industrial, distribution, and transmission systems.
Section 6 (Effect of Harmonics). Detrimental effects of harmonics on
motors, generators, transformers, capacitors, electronic equipments,
meters, relaying, communication systems, and converters.

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Section 7 (Reactive Power Compensation and Harmonic Control).
Discusses converter power factor, reactive power compensation, and
control of harmonics.
Section 8 (Calculation Methods). Includes calculations of harmonic currents,
telephone interference, line notching, distortion factor, and power factor.
Section 9 (Measurements). For line notching, harmonic voltage and current,
telephone-interface, flicker, power factor improvement, instrumentation, and
statistical characteristics of harmonics.
Section 10 (Recommended Practices for Individual Consumers). Addresses
standard impedance, customer voltage distortion limits, customer application of
capacitors and filters, effect of multiple sources at a single customer, and line
notching calculations.
Section 11 (Recommended Harmonic Limits on the System). Recommends
voltage distortion limits on various voltage levels, TIF limits versus voltage
level, and IT products.
Section 12 (Recommended Methodology for Evaluation of New Harmonic
Sources).
Section 13 (Bibliography). Includes books and general discussions.
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IEEE-519 sets limits on the voltage and current harmonics distortion at
the point of common coupling (PCC, usually the secondary of the
supply transformer). The total harmonic distortion at the PCC is
dependent on the percentage of harmonic distortion from each
nonlinear device with respect to the total capacity of the transformer
and the relative load of the system. There are two criteria that are used
in IEEE-519 to evaluate harmonics distortion:
 limitation of the harmonic current that a user can transmit/inject
into utility system (THDi), and
 limitation of the voltage distortion that the utility must furnish the
user (THDv).
The interrelationship of these two criteria shows that the harmonic
problem is a system problem and not tied just to the individual load
that generates the harmonic current.
Tables 1.7 and 1.8 list the harmonic current and voltage limits based
on the size of the user with respect to the size of the power system to
which the user is connected
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Table 1.8 lists the amount of voltage distortion [1, 64] specified by
IEEE-519 that is acceptable for a user as provided by a utility. To meet
the power quality values of Tables 1.7 and 1.8, cooperation among all
users and the utility is needed.

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 2.6. Source of transient over voltages
There are two main sources of transient overvoltages on utility
systems: capacitor switching and lightning.
These are also sources of transient overvoltages as well as a myriad of
other switching phenomena within end-user facilities. Some power
electronic devices generate significant transients when they switch.
Transient overvoltages can be generated at high frequency (load
switching and lightning), medium frequency (capacitor energizing),
or low frequency. The following are the main sources of transient
over voltages

2.6.1. Capacitor switching

2.6.2. Magnification of capacitor-switching transients
2.6.3. Lightning
2.6.4. Ferroresonance
2.6.5. Other switching transients
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2.6.1. Capacitor switching

Capacitor switching is one of the most common switching events on

utility systems to provide reactive power (in units of vars) to correct
the power factor, which reduces losses and supports the voltage on the
system.
They are a very economical and generally trouble-free means of
accomplishing these goals. Alternative methods such as the use of
rotating machines and electronic var compensators are much more
costly or have high maintenance costs.
Drawbacks to the use of capacitors is that they yield oscillatory
transients when switched. Some capacitors are energized all the time
(a fixed bank), while others are switched according to load levels.
Various control means, including time, temperature, voltage, current,
and reactive power, are used to determine when the capacitors are
switched. It is common for controls to combine two or more of these
functions, such as temperature with voltage override.
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The common symptoms of power quality problems related to utility
capacitor switching overvoltages and the problems are adjustable-speed-
drive trips and malfunctions of other electronically controlled load
equipment that occur without a noticeable blinking of the lights or
impact on other, more conventional loads.

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Figure 4.1 shows the one-line diagram of a typical utility feeder
capacitor-switching situation. When the switch is closed, a transient
similar to the one in Fig. 4.2 may be observed upline from the capacitor
at the monitor location.
The capacitor switch
contacts close at a point
near the system voltage
peak and the insulation
across the switch
contacts tends to break
down when the voltage
across the switch is at a
maximum value.

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 The voltage across the capacitor at this instant is zero. Since the
capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously, the system voltage at
the capacitor location is briefly pulled down to zero and rises as the
capacitor begins to charge toward the system voltage. Because the
power system source is inductive, the capacitor voltage overshoots and
rings at the natural frequency of the system.
The overshoot will generate a transient between 1.0 and 2.0 pu
depending on system damping and 2.0 pu are not generally damaging to
the system insulation, they can often cause misoperation of electronic
power conversion devices.
Switching of grounded-wye transformer banks may also result in
unusual transient voltages in the local grounding system due to the
current surge that accompanies the energization. The transient current
flowing in the feeder peaks at nearly 4 times the load current.

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 2.6.2. Magnification of capacitor-switching transients

 Transients of this magnitude and duration are usually not a problem

on the utility system, but they can produce problems at a user
facility. Severe overvoltages can appear on facility capacitors
through a phenomenon known as voltage magnification.
 The voltage at the end-user capacitor can be greater than the
voltage at the utility capacitor. This translates to a peak voltage
with a theoretical upper value of 400%, although this is rarely seen.
 The highest transient voltages occur at the low voltage capacitor
bank when the characteristic frequency of the switching transient is
nearly equal to the resonant frequency of the low voltage system
and when the switched capacitor is ten or more times the size of the
low-voltage capacitor.

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 2.6.3. Lightning
Lightning is a potent source of impulsive transients.

how lightning causes transient overvoltages to appear on power systems.

Figure illustrates some of the places where lightning can strike that
results in lightning currents being conducted from the power system
into loads.

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The most obvious conduction path occurs during a direct strike to a
phase wire, either on the primary or the secondary side of the
transformer.
This can generate very high overvoltages, this is the most common way
that lightning surges enter load facilities and cause damage. Very similar
transient overvoltages can be generated by lightning currents flowing
along ground conductor paths.
There can be numerous paths for lightning currents to enter the
grounding system. Common ones, indicated by the dotted lines in Fig.,
include the primary ground, the secondary ground, and the structure of
the load facilities. The primary phase are conducted to the ground
circuits through the arresters on the service transformer. Thus, many
more lightning impulses may be observed at loads

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Keep in mind that grounds are never perfect conductors, especially for
impulses. While most of the surge current may eventually be dissipated
into the ground connection closest to the strike, there will be substantial
surge currents flowing in other connected ground conductors in the first
few microseconds of the strike.
A direct strike to a phase conductor generally causes line flashover near
the strike point and generates impulsive transient causes fault like
voltage sag or interruptions.

Lightning does not have to actually strike a conductor to inject

impulses into the power system. Lightning may simply strike near the
line and induce an impulse by the collapse of the electric field.
Lightning may also simply strike the ground near a facility causing the
local ground reference to rise considerably. This may force currents
along grounded conductors into a remote ground, possibly passing near
sensitive load apparatus.

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Lightning surges enter loads from the utility system through the inter
winding capacitance of the service transformer as shown in Fig.
The concept is that the lightning
impulse is so fast that the
inductance of the transformer
windings blocks the first part of the
wave from passing through by the
turns ratio. However, the inter
winding capacitance may offer a
ready path for the high-frequency
surge. This can permit the existence
of a voltage on the secondary
terminals that is much higher than
what the turns ratio of the windings
would suggest.

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The degree to which capacitive coupling occurs is greatly dependent on
the design of the transformer. Not all transformers have a straightforward
high-to-low capacitance because of the way the windings are
constructed.
The winding-to-ground capacitance may be greater than the winding-to-
winding capacitance, and more of the impulse may actually be coupled to
ground than to the secondary winding. In any case, the resulting transient
is a very short single impulse, or train of impulses, because the
interwinding capacitance charges quickly.
Arresters on the secondary winding should have no difficulty dissipating
the energy in such a surge, but the rates of rise can be high. Thus, lead
length becomes very important to the success of an arrester in keeping
this impulse out of load equipment.

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Many times, a longer impulse, which is sometimes oscillatory, is
observed on the secondary when there is a strike to a utility’s primary
distribution system. This is likely due not to capacitive coupling through
the service transformer but to conduction around the transformer
through the grounding systems as shown in Fig.

The chief power quality problems with lightning stroke currents

entering the ground system are

1. They raise the potential of the local ground above other grounds in
the vicinity by several kilovolts. Sensitive electronic equipment that
is connected between two ground references, such as a computer
connected to the telephone system through a modem, can fail when
subjected to the lightning surge voltages.

2. They induce high voltages in phase conductors as they pass through

cables on the way to a better ground.
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Page 81 of 118 81
2.6.4. Ferroresonance

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Now, let us assume that the inductive element in the circuit has a
nonlinear reactance characteristic like that found in transformer
magnetizing reactance. Figure 4.11 illustrates the graphical solution of
the equations following the methodology just presented for linear
circuits. While the analogy cannot be made perfectly, the diagram is
useful to help understand ferroresonance phenomena.

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Page 87 of 118 87
There may be as many as three intersections between the capacitive
reactance line and the inductive reactance curve. Intersection 2 is an
unstable solution, and this operating point gives rise to some of the
chaotic behaviour of ferroresonance. Intersections 1 and 3 are stable and
will exist in the steady state. Intersection 3 results in high voltages and
high currents.

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 2.7. Principles of over voltage protection
The fundamental principles of overvoltage protection of load
equipment are
1. Limit the voltage across sensitive insulation.
2. Divert the surge current away from the load.
3. Block the surge current from entering the load.
4. Bond grounds together at the equipment.
5. Reduce, or prevent, surge current from flowing between
grounds.
6. Create a low-pass filter using limiting and blocking
principles.
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The main function of surge arresters and transient voltage surge
suppressors (TVSSs) is to limit the voltage that can appear between
two points in the circuit.
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One of the common misconceptions about varistors, and similar devices, is
that they somehow are able to absorb the surge or divert it to ground
independently of the rest of the system. That may be a beneficial side effect of
the arrester application if there is a suitable path for the surge current to flow into,
but the foremost concern in arrester application is to place the arresters directly
across the sensitive insulation that is to be protected so that the voltage seen by
the insulation is limited to a safe value.

Keep in mind that the local ground may not remain at zero potential during
transient impulse events.
Surge suppression devices should be located as closely as possible to the critical
insulation with a minimum of lead length on all terminals. While it is common to
find arresters located at the main panels and subpanels, arresters applied at the
point where the power line enters the load equipment are generally the most
effective in protecting that particular load. In some cases, the best location is
actually inside the load device. For example, many electronic controls made for
service in the power system environment have protectors [metal-oxide varistor
(MOV) arresters, gaps, zener diodes, or surge capacitors] on every line that leaves
the cabinet.

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In Fig. 4.16 the first arrester is connected from the line to the neutral-ground
bond at the service entrance. It limits the line voltage V1 from rising too high
relative to the neutral and ground voltage at the panel. When it performs its voltage-
limiting action, it provides a low- impedance path for the surge current to travel onto
the ground lead. Note that the ground lead and the ground connection itself have
significant impedance. Therefore, the potential of the whole power system is raised
with respect to that of the remote ground by the voltage drop across the ground
impedance.

Surge energy will be discharged through the first arrester directly into ground. In
that sense, the arrester becomes a surge “diverter.”

It call a surge arrester a surge diverter because its voltage-limiting action offers a
low-impedance path around the load being protected. However, it can only be a
diverter if there is a suitable path into which the current can be diverted.

There is another possible path for the surge current— the signal cable indicated by
the dotted line and bonded to the safety ground. If this is connected to another
device that is referenced to ground elsewhere, there will be some amount of surge
current flowing down the safety ground conductor.
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The first arrester at the service entrance is electrically too remote to provide
adequate load protection. Therefore, a second arrester is applied at the load—
again, directly across the insulation to be protected. It is connected “line to neutral”
so that it only protects against normal mode transients.

The signal cable is bonded to the local ground reference at the load just before
the cable enters the cabinet. It might seem that this creates an unwanted ground
loop. However, it is essential to achieving protection of the load and the low-
voltage signal circuits. Otherwise, the power components can rise in potential
with respect to the signal circuit reference by several kilovolts. Many loads have
multiple power and signal cables connected to them. Also, a load may be in an
environment where it is close to another load and operators or sensitive
equipment are routinely in contact with both loads. This raises the possibility that a
lightning strike may raise the potential of one ground much higher than the
others. This can cause a flashover across the insulation that is between the two
ground references or cause physical harm to operators.

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2.8. Devices for over voltage protection
Surge arresters and transient voltage surge
suppressors
Isolation transformers
Low-pass filters
Low-impedance power conditioners
Utility surge arresters

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Surge arresters and transient voltage surge suppressors
Arresters and TVSS devices protect equipment from transient over- voltages by limiting
the maximum voltage. However, TVSSs are generally associated with devices used at the
load equipment. A TVSS will sometimes have more surge-limiting elements than an
arrester, which most commonly consists solely of MOV blocks. An arrester may have
more energy-handling capability. However, the distinction between the two is blurred by
common language usage.
The elements that make up these devices can be classified by two different modes
of operation, crowbar and clamping.

Crowbar:
Crowbar devices are normally open devices that conduct current during overvoltage
transients. Once the device conducts, the line voltage will drop to nearly zero due to
the short circuit imposed across the line. These devices are usually manufactured with a
gap filled with air or a special gas. The gap arcs over when a sufficiently high over-
voltage transient appears. Once the gap arcs over, usually power frequency current, or
“follow current,” will continue to flow in the gap until the next current zero. Thus, these
devices have the disadvantage that the power frequency voltage drops to zero or to a
very low value for at least one-half cycle. This will cause some loads to drop off- line
unnecessarily.
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Clamping:
Clamping devices for ac circuits are commonly nonlinear resistors (varistors)
that conduct very low amounts of current until an overvoltage occurs. Then they
start to conduct heavily, and their impedance drops rapidly with increasing
voltage. These devices effectively conduct increasing amounts of current (and
energy) to limit the voltage rise of a surge. They have an advantage over gap-
type devices in that the voltage is not reduced below the conduction level
when they begin to conduct the surge current. Zener diodes are also used in
this application. Example characteristics of MOV arresters for load systems are
shown in Figs. 4.17 and 4.18.
MOV arresters have two important ratings. The first is maximum continuous
operating voltage (MCOV), which must be higher than the line voltage and will
often be at least 125 percent of the system nominal volt- age. The second rating is
the energy dissipation rating (in joules). MOVs are available in a wide range of
energy ratings. Figure 4.18 shows the typical energy-handling capability versus
operating voltages.

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Page 103 of 118 103
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Isolation transformers

Page 105 of 118 105

Figure 4.19 shows a diagram of an isolation transformer used to attenuate high-
frequency noise and transients as they attempt to pass from one side to the other.
However, some common-mode and normal-mode noise can still reach the load.
An electrostatic shield, as shown in Figure 4.20, is effective in eliminating
common-mode noise. However, some normal-mode noise can still reach the load
due to magnetic and capacitive coupling.
The chief characteristic of isolation transformers for electrically isolating the load
from the system for transients is their leakage inductance. Therefore, high-
frequency noise and transients are kept from reaching the load, and any load-
generated noise and transients are kept from reaching the rest of the power
system. Voltage notching due to power electronic switching is one example of a
problem that can be limited to the load side by an isolation transformer.
Capacitor-switching and lightning transients coming from the utility system can
be attenuated, thereby preventing nuisance tripping of adjustable-speed drives and
other equipment.

An additional use of isolation transformers is that they allow the user to define a
new ground reference, or separately derived system. This new neutral-to-ground
bond limits neutral-to-ground voltages at sensitive equipment
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 Low-pass filters
Low-pass filters use the pi-circuit principle illustrated in Fig. 4.16(slide
number 9) to achieve even better protection for high-frequency transients.
For general usage in electric circuits, low-pass filters are composed of series
inductors and parallel capacitors. This LC combination provides a low-
impedance path to ground for selected resonant frequencies. In surge protection
usage, voltage clamping devices are added in parallel to the capacitors. In some
designs, there are no capacitors.

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 Figure 4.21 shows a common hybrid protector that combines two surge
suppressors and a low-pass filter to provide maximum protection. It uses a gap-
type protector on the front end to handle high-energy transients. The low-pass
filter limits transfer of high-frequency transients. The inductor helps block high-
frequency transients and forces them into the first suppressor. The capacitor
limits the rate of rise, while the nonlinear resistor (MOV) clamps the voltage
magnitude at the protected equipment.
Other variations on this design will employ MOVs on both sides of the
filters and may have capacitors on the front end as well.

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 Low-impedance power conditioners
Low-impedance power conditioners (LIPCs) are used primarily to interface
with the switch-mode power supplies found in electronic equipment.
LIPCs differ from isolation transformers in that these conditioners have a much
lower impedance and have a filter as part of their design (Fig. 4.22). The
filter is on the output side and protects against high-frequency, source-side,
common-mode, and normal-mode disturbances (i.e., noise and impulses). Note
the new neutral-to-ground connection that can be made on the load side
because of the existence of an isolation transformer. However, low- to medium-
frequency transients (capacitor switching) can cause problems for LIPCs: The
transient can be magnified by the output filter capacitor.

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Utility surge arresters

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Most arresters manufactured today use a MOV as the main voltage-limiting element. The
chief ingredient of a MOV is zinc oxide (ZnO), which is combined with several proprietary
ingredients to achieve the necessary characteristics and durability. Older-technology
arresters, of which there are still many installed on the power system, used silicon carbide
(SiC) as the energy-dissipating nonlinear resistive element.

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 Originally, arresters were little more than spark gaps, which would result in a
fault each time the gap sparked over. Also, the sparkover transient injected a
very steep fronted voltage wave into the apparatus being protected, which was
blamed for many insulation failures. The addition of an SiC nonlinear resistance
in series with a spark gap corrected some of these difficulties. It allowed the
spark gap to clear and reseal without causing a fault and reduced the sparkover
transient to perhaps 50 percent of the total sparkover voltage insulation failures
were still blamed on this front-of-wave transient.
Also, there is substantial power-follow current after sparkover, which heats the
SiC material and erodes the gap structures, eventually leading to arrester failures
or loss of protection.
Gaps are necessary with the SiC because an economical SiC element giving the
required discharge voltage is unable to withstand continuous system operating
voltage. The development of MOV technology enabled the elimination of the
gaps. This technology could withstand continuous system voltage without gaps
and still provide a discharge voltage comparable to the SiC arresters (see Fig.
4.24b). By the late 1980s, SiC arrester technology was being phased out in
favour of the gapless MOV technology. The gapless MOV provided a somewhat
better discharge characteristic without the objectionable sparkover transient. The
majority of utility distribution arrestersPage
manufactured
112 of 118 today are of this design. 112
The gapped MOV technology was introduced commercially about 1990 and has gained
acceptance in some applications where there is need for increased protective margins. By
combining resistance-graded gaps (with SiC grading rings) and MOV blocks, this arrester
technology has some very interesting, and counterintuitive, characteristics. It has a lower
lightning-discharge voltage (Fig. 4.24c), but has a higher transient overvoltage (TOV)
withstand characteristic than a gapless MOV arrester. To achieve the required protective
level for lightning, gapless MOV arresters typically begin to conduct heavily for low-
frequency transients at about 1.7 pu.

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2.9. Utility capacitor switching transients.
Switching times:

Capacitor-switching transients are very common and usually not damaging.

However, the timing of switching may be unfortunate for some sensitive
industrial loads. For example, if the load picks up the same time each day,
the utility may decide to switch the capacitors coincident with that load increase.
There have been several cases where this coincides with the beginning of a
work shift and the resulting transient causes several adjustable-speed drives to
shut down shortly after the process starts. One simple and inexpensive solution
is to determine if there is a switching time that might be more acceptable. For
example, it may be possible to switch on the capacitor a few minutes before
the beginning of the shift and before the load actually picks up. It may not be
needed then, but probably won’t hurt anything. If this can’t be worked out,
other, more expensive solutions will have to be found.

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Pre-insertion resistors :

Preinsertion resistors can reduce the capacitor-switching transient considerably. The

first peak of the transient is usually the most dam- aging. The idea is to insert a resistor
into the circuit briefly so that the first peak is damped significantly. This is old
technology but is still quite effective.

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 Switches with preinsertion reactors have also been developed for this purpose.
The inductor is helpful in limiting the higher-frequency components of the
transient. In some designs, the reactors are intention- ally built with high
resistance so that they appear lossy to the energization transient. This helps
the transient damp out quickly.

Synchronous closing :
Another popular strategy for reducing transients on capacitor switch- ing is to
use a synchronous closing breaker. This is a relatively new technology for
controlling capacitor-switching transients. Synchronous closing prevents
transients by timing the contact closure such that the system voltage closely
matches the capacitor voltage at the instant the contacts mate. This avoids the
step change in voltage that normally occurs when capacitors are switched,
causing the circuit to oscillate.

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Capacitor location:
For distribution feeder banks, a switched capacitor may be too close to a sensitive load or
at a location where the transient overvoltages tend to be much higher. Often, it may be
possible to move the capacitor downline or to another branch of the circuit and eliminate
the problem. The strategy is to either create more damping with more resistance in the
circuit or to get more impedance between the capacitor and the sensitive load.
The success of this strategy will depend on a number of factors. Of course, if the
capacitor is placed at a large load to supply reactive power specifically for that load, moving
the bank may not be an option. Then, techniques for soft switching or switching at
noncritical times must be explored. Besides utility-side solutions, one should also explore
load- side solutions. In some cases, it will be more cost-effective to harden load
equipment against capacitor-switching transients by the application of line chokes, TVSSs,
etc.

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04-12-2018 HARI MADHAVA
Page 118REDDY .Y (Ph.D)
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