Individualism

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Individualism makes the individual its
focus[1] and so starts "with the
fundamental premise that the human
individual is of primary importance in the
struggle for liberation."[6] Classical
liberalism, existentialism, and anarchism
are examples of movements that take the
human individual as a central unit of
analysis.[6] Individualism thus involves "the
right of the individual to freedom and self-
realization".[7]

It has also been used as a term denoting

"The quality of being an individual;
individuality"[3] related to possessing "An
individual characteristic; a quirk."[3]
Individualism is thus also associated with
artistic and bohemian interests and
lifestyles where there is a tendency
towards self-creation and experimentation
as opposed to tradition or popular mass
opinions and behaviors,[3][8] as with
humanist philosophical positions and
ethics.[9][10]

Etymology
In the English language, the word
"individualism" was first introduced, as a
pejorative, by the Owenites in the late
1830s, although it is unclear if they were
influenced by Saint-Simonianism or came
up with it independently.[11] A more
positive use of the term in Britain came to
be used with the writings of James
Elishama Smith, who was a millenarian
and a Christian Israelite. Although an early
Owenite socialist, he eventually rejected its
collective idea of property, and found in
individualism a "universalism" that allowed
for the development of the "original
genius." Without individualism, Smith
argued, individuals cannot amass property
to increase one's happiness.[11] William
Maccall, another Unitarian preacher, and
probably an acquaintance of Smith, came
somewhat later, although influenced by
John Stuart Mill, Thomas Carlyle, and
German Romanticism, to the same
positive conclusions, in his 1847 work
"Elements of Individualism".[12]

Individual
An individual is a person or any specific
object in a collection. In the 15th century
and earlier, and also today within the fields
of statistics and metaphysics, individual
means "indivisible", typically describing
any numerically singular thing, but
sometimes meaning "a person." (q.v. "The
problem of proper names"). From the 17th
century on, individual indicates
separateness, as in individualism.[13]
Individuality is the state or quality of being
an individuated being; a person separated
from everything with unique character by
possessing his or her own needs, goals,
and desires in comparison to other
persons.[14]

Individuation principle

The principle of individuation, or

principium individuationis,[15] describes
the manner in which a thing is identified as
distinguished from other things.[16] For
Carl Jung, individuation is a process of
transformation, whereby the personal and
collective unconscious is brought into
consciousness (by means of dreams,
active imagination or free association to
take examples) to be assimilated into the
whole personality. It is a completely
natural process necessary for the
integration of the psyche to take place.[17]
Jung considered individuation to be the
central process of human development.[18]
In L'individuation psychique et collective,
Gilbert Simondon developed a theory of
individual and collective individuation in
which the individual subject is considered
as an effect of individuation rather than a
cause. Thus, the individual atom is
replaced by a never-ending ontological
process of individuation. Individuation is
an always incomplete process, always
leaving a "pre-individual" left-over, itself
making possible future individuations.[19]
The philosophy of Bernard Stiegler draws
upon and modifies the work of Gilbert
Simondon on individuation and also upon
similar ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche and
Sigmund Freud. For Stiegler "the I, as a
psychic individual, can only be thought in
relationship to we, which is a collective
individual. The I is constituted in adopting
a collective tradition, which it inherits and
in which a plurality of I 's acknowledge
each other's existence."[20]

Individualism and society

Individualism holds that a person taking
part in society attempts to learn and
discover what his or her own interests are
on a personal basis, without a presumed
following of the interests of a societal
structure (an individualist need not be an
egoist). The individualist does not follow
one particular philosophy, rather creates
an amalgamation of elements of many,
based on personal interests in particular
aspects that he/she finds of use. On a
societal level, the individualist participates
on a personally structured political and
moral ground. Independent thinking and
opinion is a common trait of an
individualist. Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
claims that his concept of "general will" in
the "social contract" is not the simple
collection of individual wills and that it
furthers the interests of the individual (the
constraint of law itself would be beneficial
for the individual, as the lack of respect for
the law necessarily entails, in Rousseau's
eyes, a form of ignorance and submission
to one's passions instead of the preferred
autonomy of reason).

Societies and groups can differ in the

extent to which they are based upon
predominantly "self-regarding"
(individualistic, and/or self-interested)
behaviors, rather than "other-regarding"
(group-oriented, and group, or society-
minded) behaviors. Ruth Benedict made a
distinction, relevant in this context,
between "guilt" societies (e.g., medieval
Europe) with an "internal reference
standard", and "shame" societies (e.g.,
Japan, "bringing shame upon one's
ancestors") with an "external reference
standard", where people look to their peers
for feedback on whether an action is
"acceptable" or not.[21]

Individualism is often contrasted[5] either

with totalitarianism or with collectivism,
but in fact, there is a spectrum of
behaviors at the societal level ranging
from highly individualistic societies
through mixed societies to collectivist.

Methodological individualism

Methodological individualism is the view

that phenomena can only be understood
by examining how they result from the
motivations and actions of individual
agents.[22] In economics, people's behavior
is explained in terms of rational choices,
as constrained by prices and incomes. The
economist accepts individuals'
preferences as givens. Becker and Stigler
provide a forceful statement of this view:
On the traditional view, an
explanation of economic
phenomena that reaches a
difference in tastes between
people or times is the terminus
of the argument: the problem is
abandoned at this point to
whoever studies and explains
tastes (psychologists?
anthropologists? phrenologists?
sociobiologists?). On our
preferred interpretation, one
never reaches this impasse: the
economist continues to search
 for differences in prices or
incomes to explain any
differences or changes in
behavior.[23]

Competitive individualism

It is a form of individualism that arises

from competitive systems. The function of
the system is to maintain an inequality in
the society and fields of human
engagement. This pins the ups and downs
of a person's life onto themselves by not
acknowledging a range of factors like
influence of socioeconomic class, race,
gender, etc. It supports the privilege
theories that affirms position of certain
individuals higher in the hierarchy of ranks
at the expense of others. For better
individuality cooperation is considered to
be a better remedy for personal growth.[24]

Political individualism
Individualists are chiefly
With the
concerned with protecting abolition of
individual autonomy private
against obligations property,
imposed by social then, we

institutions (such as the shall have

true,
state or religious morality).
beautiful,
For L. Susan Brown,
healthy
"Liberalism and anarchism Individualis

are two political m. Nobody

will waste
philosophies that are
his life in
fundamentally concerned
accumulatin
with individual freedom yet
g things, and
differ from one another in the symbols
very distinct ways. for things.
Anarchism shares with One will live.
liberalism a radical To live is the
rarest thing
commitment to individual
in the world.
freedom while rejecting
Most people
liberalism's competitive
exist, that is
property relations."[6] all.

Civil libertarianism is a Oscar Wilde,

The Soul of
strain of political thought
Man under
that supports civil liberties, Socialism,
or which emphasizes the 1891

supremacy of individual
rights and personal freedoms over and
against any kind of authority (such as a
state, a corporation, social norms imposed
through peer pressure, etc.).[25] Civil
libertarianism is not a complete ideology;
rather, it is a collection of views on the
specific issues of civil liberties and civil
rights. Because of this, a civil libertarian
outlook is compatible with many other
political philosophies, and civil
libertarianism is found on both the right
and left in modern politics.[26] For scholar
Ellen Meiksins Wood, "there are doctrines
of individualism that are opposed to
Lockean individualism ... and non-lockean
individualism may encompass
socialism".[27]

British Historians Emily Robinson, Camilla

Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite,
and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that
by the 1970s Britons were keen about
defining and claiming their individual
rights, identities and perspectives. They
demanded greater personal autonomy and
self-determination and less outside
control. They angrily complained that the
'establishment' was withholding it. They
argue this shift in concerns helped cause
Thatcherism, and was incorporated into
Thatcherism's appeal.[28]

Liberalism

Liberalism (from the Latin liberalis, "of

freedom; worthy of a free man,
gentlemanlike, courteous, generous")[29] is
the belief in the importance of individual
freedom. This belief is widely accepted in
the United States, Europe, Australia and
other Western nations, and was
recognized as an important value by many
Western philosophers throughout history,
in particular since the Enlightenment. It is
often rejected by collectivist, Abrahamic or
Confucian in civilized societies (though
Taoists were and are known to be
individualists).[30] The Roman Emperor
Marcus Aurelius wrote praising "the idea
of a polity administered with regard to
equal rights and equal freedom of speech,
and the idea of a kingly government which
respects most of all the freedom of the
governed".[31]

For all intents and purposes, liberalism

here refers to classical liberalism and
should not be confused with modern
liberalism in the United States,.[32]
Liberalism has its roots in the Age of
Enlightenment and rejects many
foundational assumptions that dominated
most earlier theories of government, such
as the Divine Right of Kings, hereditary
status, and established religion. John
Locke is often credited with the
philosophical foundations of classical
liberalism. He wrote "no one ought to harm
another in his life, health, liberty, or
possessions."[33]

In the 17th century, liberal ideas began to

influence governments in Europe, in
nations such as The Netherlands,
Switzerland, England and Poland, but they
were strongly opposed, often by armed
might, by those who favored absolute
monarchy and established religion. In the
18th century, in America, the first modern
liberal state was founded, without a
monarch or a hereditary aristocracy.[34]
The American Declaration of
Independence includes the words (which
echo Locke) "all men are created equal;
that they are endowed by their Creator with
certain unalienable rights; that among
these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness; that to insure these rights,
governments are instituted among men,
deriving their just powers from the
consent of the governed."[35]
Liberalism comes in many forms.
According to John N. Gray, the essence of
liberalism is toleration of different beliefs
and of different ideas as to what
constitutes a good life.[36]

Anarchism

Anarchism is a set of political

philosophies that hold the state to be
undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful,[37][38]
and often advocate stateless
societies.[39][40][41][42] While anti-statism is
central, some argue[43] that anarchism
entails opposing authority or hierarchical
organisation in the conduct of human
relations, including, but not limited to, the
state system.[44][45][46][47][48][49][50]

For influential Italian anarchist Errico

Malatesta "All anarchists, whatever
tendency they belong to, are individualists
in some way or other. But the opposite is
not true; not by any means. The
individualists are thus divided into two
distinct categories: one which claims the
right to full development for all human
individuality, their own and that of others;
the other which only thinks about its own
individuality and has absolutely no
hesitation in sacrificing the individuality of
others. The Tsar of all the Russias belongs
to the latter category of individualists. We
belong to the former."[51]

Individualist anarchism

Individualist anarchism refers to several

traditions of thought within the anarchist
movement that emphasize the individual
and their will over any kinds of external
determinants such as groups, society,
traditions, and ideological systems.[52][53]
Individualist anarchism is not a single
philosophy but refers to a group of
individualistic philosophies that
sometimes are in conflict.
In 1793, William Godwin, who has often[54]
been cited as the first anarchist, wrote
Political Justice, which some consider to
be the first expression of anarchism.[55][56]
Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a
rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed
revolutionary action and saw a minimal
state as a present "necessary evil" that
would become increasingly irrelevant and
powerless by the gradual spread of
knowledge.[55][57] Godwin advocated
individualism, proposing that all
cooperation in labour be eliminated on the
premise that this would be most
conducive with the general good.[58][59]
An influential form of individualist
anarchism, called "egoism,"[60] or egoist
anarchism, was expounded by one of the
earliest and best-known proponents of
individualist anarchism, the German Max
Stirner.[61] Stirner's The Ego and Its Own,
published in 1844, is a founding text of the
philosophy.[61] According to Stirner, the
only limitation on the rights of the
individual is their power to obtain what
they desire,[62] without regard for God,
state, or morality.[63] To Stirner, rights were
spooks in the mind, and he held that
society does not exist but "the individuals
are its reality".[64] Stirner advocated self-
assertion and foresaw unions of egoists,
non-systematic associations continually
renewed by all parties' support through an
act of will,[65] which Stirner proposed as a
form of organization in place of the
state.[66] Egoist anarchists claim that
egoism will foster genuine and
spontaneous union between
individuals.[67] "Egoism" has inspired many
interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It
was re-discovered and promoted by
German philosophical anarchist and LGBT
activist John Henry Mackay.

Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the

first American anarchist,[68] and the four-
page weekly paper he edited during 1833,
The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first
anarchist periodical published.[69] For
American anarchist historian Eunice
Minette Schuster "It is apparent...that
Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found
in the United States at least as early as
1848 and that it was not conscious of its
affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of
Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl
Andrews...William B. Greene presented
this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest
and most systematic form.".[70] Henry
David Thoreau (1817–1862) was an
important early influence in individualist
anarchist thought in the United States and
Europe.[71] Thoreau was an American
author, poet, naturalist, tax resister,
development critic, surveyor, historian,
philosopher, and leading transcendentalist.
He is best known for his books Walden, a
reflection upon simple living in natural
surroundings, and his essay, Civil
Disobedience, an argument for individual
resistance to civil government in moral
opposition to an unjust state. Later
Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner's egoism
with the economics of Warren and
Proudhon in his eclectic influential
publication Liberty.

From these early influences individualist

anarchism in different countries attracted
a small but diverse following of bohemian
artists and intellectuals,[72] free love and
birth control advocates (see Anarchism
and issues related to love and sex),[73][74]
individualist naturists nudists (see
anarcho-naturism),[75][76][77] freethought
and anti-clerical activists[78] as well as
young anarchist outlaws in what came to
be known as illegalism and individual
reclamation[79][80] (see European
individualist anarchism and individualist
anarchism in France). These authors and
activists included Oscar Wilde, Emile
Armand, Han Ryner, Henri Zisly, Renzo
Novatore, Miguel Gimenez Igualada, Adolf
Brand and Lev Chernyi among others. In
his important essay The Soul of Man
under Socialism from 1891 Oscar Wilde
defended socialism as the way to
guarantee individualism and so he saw
that "With the abolition of private property,
then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy
Individualism. Nobody will waste his life in
accumulating things, and the symbols for
things. One will live. To live is the rarest
thing in the world. Most people exist, that
is all."[81] For anarchist historian George
Woodcock "Wilde's aim in The Soul of Man
under Socialism is to seek the society
most favorable to the artist ... for Wilde art
is the supreme end, containing within itself
enlightenment and regeneration, to which
all else in society must be subordinated ...
Wilde represents the anarchist as
aesthete."[82] Woodcock finds that "The
most ambitious contribution to literary
anarchism during the 1890s was
undoubtedly Oscar Wilde The Soul of Man
under Socialism" and finds that it is
influenced mainly by the thought of
William Godwin.[82]

Philosophical individualism
Ethical egoism

Ethical egoism (also called simply

egoism)[83] is the normative ethical
position that moral agents ought to do
what is in their own self-interest. It differs
from psychological egoism, which claims
that people do only act in their self-
interest. Ethical egoism also differs from
rational egoism, which holds merely that it
is rational to act in one's self-interest.
However, these doctrines may
occasionally be combined with ethical
egoism.

Ethical egoism contrasts with ethical

altruism, which holds that moral agents
have an obligation to help and serve
others. Egoism and altruism both contrast
with ethical utilitarianism, which holds that
a moral agent should treat one's self (also
known as the subject) with no higher
regard than one has for others (as egoism
does, by elevating self-interests and "the
self" to a status not granted to others), but
that one also should not (as altruism
does) sacrifice one's own interests to help
others' interests, so long as one's own
interests (i.e. one's own desires or well-
being) are substantially-equivalent to the
others' interests and well-being. Egoism,
utilitarianism, and altruism are all forms of
consequentialism, but egoism and
altruism contrast with utilitarianism, in that
egoism and altruism are both agent-
focused forms of consequentialism (i.e.
subject-focused or subjective), but
Caricature of Max Stirner taken from a sketch by
Friedrich Engels. Egoist philosopher Max Stirner has
been called a proto-existentialist philosopher while at

the same time is a central theorist of individualist

anarchism
Ethical egoism is sometimes the
philosophical basis for support of
libertarianism or individualist anarchism
as in Max Stirner, although these can also
be based on altruistic motivations.[85]
These are political positions based partly
on a belief that individuals should not
coercively prevent others from exercising
freedom of action.

Egoist anarchism

Egoist anarchism is a school of anarchist

thought that originated in the philosophy
of Max Stirner, a nineteenth-century
Hegelian philosopher whose "name
appears with familiar regularity in
historically orientated surveys of anarchist
thought as one of the earliest and best-
known exponents of individualist
anarchism."[61] According to Stirner, the
only limitation on the rights of the
individual is their power to obtain what
they desire,[62] without regard for God,
state, or morality.[63] Stirner advocated
self-assertion and foresaw unions of
egoists, non-systematic associations
continually renewed by all parties' support
through an act of will,[65] which Stirner
proposed as a form of organisation in
place of the state.[66] Egoist anarchists
argue that egoism will foster genuine and
spontaneous union between
individuals.[67] "Egoism" has inspired many
interpretations of Stirner's philosophy but
within anarchism it has also gone beyond
Stirner. It was re-discovered and promoted
by German philosophical anarchist and
LGBT activist John Henry Mackay. John
Beverley Robinson wrote an essay called
"Egoism" in which he states that "Modern
egoism, as propounded by Stirner and
Nietzsche, and expounded by Ibsen, Shaw
and others, is all these; but it is more. It is
the realization by the individual that they
are an individual; that, as far as they are
concerned, they are the only individual."[86]
Nietzsche (see Anarchism and Friedrich
Nietzsche) and Stirner were frequently
compared by French "literary anarchists"
and anarchist interpretations of
Nietzschean ideas appear to have also
been influential in the United States.[87]
Anarchists who adhered to egoism include
Benjamin Tucker, Émile Armand, John
Beverley Robinson, Adolf Brand, Steven T.
Byington, Renzo Novatore, James L.
Walker, Enrico Arrigoni, Biofilo Panclasta,
Jun Tsuji, André Arru and contemporary
ones such as Hakim Bey, Bob Black and
Wolfi Landstreicher.

Existentialism
Existentialism is a term applied to the
work of a number of 19th- and 20th-
century philosophers who, despite
profound doctrinal differences,[88][89]
generally held that the focus of
philosophical thought should be to deal
with the conditions of existence of the
individual person and his or her emotions,
actions, responsibilities, and
thoughts.[90][91] The early 19th century
philosopher Søren Kierkegaard,
posthumously regarded as the father of
existentialism,[92][93] maintained that the
individual solely has the responsibilities of
giving one's own life meaning and living
that life passionately and sincerely,[94][95]
in spite of many existential obstacles and
distractions including despair, angst,
absurdity, alienation, and boredom.[96]

Subsequent existential philosophers retain

the emphasis on the individual, but differ,
in varying degrees, on how one achieves
and what constitutes a fulfilling life, what
obstacles must be overcome, and what
external and internal factors are involved,
including the potential consequences of
the existence[97][98] or non-existence of
God.[99][100] Many existentialists have also
regarded traditional systematic or
academic philosophy, in both style and
content, as too abstract and remote from
concrete human experience.[101][102]
Existentialism became fashionable after
World War II as a way to reassert the
importance of human individuality and
freedom.[103]

Freethought

Freethought holds that individuals should

not accept ideas proposed as truth
without recourse to knowledge and
reason. Thus, freethinkers strive to build
their opinions on the basis of facts,
scientific inquiry, and logical principles,
independent of any logical fallacies or
intellectually limiting effects of authority,
confirmation bias, cognitive bias,
conventional wisdom, popular culture,
prejudice, sectarianism, tradition, urban
legend, and all other dogmas. Regarding
religion, freethinkers hold that there is
insufficient evidence to scientifically
validate the existence of supernatural
phenomena.[104]

Humanism

Humanism is a perspective common to a

wide range of ethical stances that
attaches importance to human dignity,
concerns, and capabilities, particularly
rationality. Although the word has many
senses, its meaning comes into focus
when contrasted to the supernatural or to
appeals to authority.[105][106] Since the 19th
century, humanism has been associated
with an anti-clericalism inherited from the
18th-century Enlightenment philosophes.
21st century Humanism tends to strongly
endorse human rights, including
reproductive rights, gender equality, social
justice, and the separation of church and
state. The term covers organized non-
theistic religions, secular humanism, and a
humanistic life stance.[107]

Hedonism
Philosophical hedonism is a meta-ethical
theory of value which argues that pleasure
is the only intrinsic good and pain is the
only intrinsic bad.[108] The basic idea
behind hedonistic thought is that pleasure
(an umbrella term for all inherently likable
emotions) is the only thing that is good in
and of itself or by its very nature. This
implies evaluating the moral worth of
character or behavior according to the
extent that the pleasure it produces
exceeds the pain it entails.

Libertinism
A libertine is one devoid of most moral
restraints, which are seen as unnecessary
or undesirable, especially one who ignores
or even spurns accepted morals and
forms of behaviour sanctified by the larger
society.[109][110] Libertines place value on
physical pleasures, meaning those
experienced through the senses. As a
philosophy, libertinism gained new-found
adherents in the 17th, 18th, and 19th
centuries, particularly in France and Great
Britain. Notable among these were John
Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, and the
Marquis de Sade. During the Baroque era
in France, there existed a freethinking
circle of philosophers and intellectuals
who were collectively known as libertinage
érudit and which included Gabriel Naudé,
Élie Diodati and François de La Mothe Le
Vayer.[111][112] The critic Vivian de Sola
Pinto linked John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of
Rochester's libertinism to Hobbesian
materialism.[113]

Objectivism

Objectivism is a system of philosophy

created by philosopher and novelist Ayn
Rand (1905–1982) that holds: reality
exists independent of consciousness;
human beings gain knowledge rationally
from perception through the process of
concept formation and inductive and
deductive logic; the moral purpose of one's
life is the pursuit of one's own happiness
or rational self-interest. Rand thinks the
only social system consistent with this
morality is full respect for individual rights,
embodied in pure laissez faire capitalism;
and the role of art in human life is to
transform man's widest metaphysical
ideas, by selective reproduction of reality,
into a physical form—a work of art—that
he can comprehend and to which he can
respond emotionally. Objectivism
celebrates man as his own hero, "with his
own happiness as the moral purpose of
his life, with productive achievement as his
noblest activity, and reason as his only
absolute."[114]

Philosophical anarchism

Benjamin Tucker, American individualist anarchist

who focused on economics calling them "Anarchistic-
Socialism"[115] and adhering to the mutualist
economics of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Josiah
Warren
Philosophical anarchism is an anarchist
school of thought[116] which contends that
the State lacks moral legitimacy and – in
contrast to revolutionary anarchism –
does not advocate violent revolution to
eliminate it but advocates peaceful
evolution to superate it.[117] Though
philosophical anarchism does not
necessarily imply any action or desire for
the elimination of the State, philosophical
anarchists do not believe that they have an
obligation or duty to obey the State, or
conversely, that the State has a right to
command.
Philosophical anarchism is a component
especially of individualist anarchism.[118]
Philosophical anarchists of historical note
include Mohandas Gandhi, William
Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Max
Stirner,[119] Benjamin Tucker,[120] and Henry
David Thoreau.[121] Contemporary
philosophical anarchists include A. John
Simmons and Robert Paul Wolff.

Subjectivism

Subjectivism is a philosophical tenet that

accords primacy to subjective experience
as fundamental of all measure and law. In
extreme forms like Solipsism, it may hold
that the nature and existence of every
object depends solely on someone's
subjective awareness of it. For example,
Wittgenstein wrote in Tractatus Logico-
Philosophicus: "The subject doesn't belong
to the world, but it is a limit of the world"
(proposition 5.632). Metaphysical
subjectivism is the theory that reality is
what we perceive to be real, and that there
is no underlying true reality that exists
independently of perception. One can also
hold that it is consciousness rather than
perception that is reality (subjective
idealism). In probability, a subjectivism
stands for the belief that probabilities are
simply degrees-of-belief by rational agents
in a certain proposition, and which have no
objective reality in and of themselves.

Ethical subjectivism stands in opposition

to moral realism, which claims that moral
propositions refer to objective facts,
independent of human opinion; to error
theory, which denies that any moral
propositions are true in any sense; and to
non-cognitivism, which denies that moral
sentences express propositions at all. The
most common forms of ethical
subjectivism are also forms of moral
relativism, with moral standards held to be
relative to each culture or society (c.f.
cultural relativism), or even to every
individual. The latter view, as put forward
by Protagoras, holds that there are as
many distinct scales of good and evil as
there are subjects in the world. Moral
subjectivism is that species of moral
relativism that relativizes moral value to
the individual subject.

Horst Matthai Quelle was a Spanish

language German anarchist philosopher
influenced by Max Stirner.[122] He argued
that since the individual gives form to the
world, he is those objects, the others and
the whole universe.[122] One of his main
views was a "theory of infinite worlds"
which for him was developed by pre-
socratic philosophers.[122]

Solipsism

Solipsism is the philosophical idea that

only one's own mind is sure to exist. The
term comes from Latin solus (alone) and
ipse (self). Solipsism as an
epistemological position holds that
knowledge of anything outside one's own
mind is unsure. The external world and
other minds cannot be known, and might
not exist outside the mind. As a
metaphysical position, solipsism goes
further to the conclusion that the world
and other minds do not exist. As such it is
the only epistemological position that, by
its own postulate, is both irrefutable and
yet indefensible in the same manner.
Although the number of individuals
sincerely espousing solipsism has been
small, it is not uncommon for one
philosopher to accuse another's
arguments of entailing solipsism as an
unwanted consequence, in a kind of
reductio ad absurdum. In the history of
philosophy, solipsism has served as a
skeptical hypothesis.

Economic individualism
The doctrine of economic individualism
holds that each individual should be
allowed autonomy in making his or her
own economic decisions as opposed to
those decisions being made by the state,
the community, the corporation etc. for
him or her.

Liberalism

Classical liberalism is a political ideology

that developed in the 19th century in
England, Western Europe, and the
Americas. It followed earlier forms of
liberalism in its commitment to personal
freedom and popular government, but
differed from earlier forms of liberalism in
its commitment to free markets and
classical economics.[123] Notable classical
liberals in the 19th century include Jean-
Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus, and David
Ricardo. Classical liberalism was revived in
the 20th century by Ludwig von Mises and
Friedrich Hayek, and further developed by
Milton Friedman, Robert Nozick, Loren
Lomasky, and Jan Narveson.[124] The
phrase classical liberalism is also
sometimes used to refer to all forms of
liberalism before the 20th century.

Individualist anarchism and

economics
Influential French individualist anarchist Emile
Armand

In regards to economic questions within

individualist anarchism there are
adherents to mutualism (Pierre Joseph
Proudhon, Emile Armand, early Benjamin
Tucker); natural rights positions (early
Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner,
Josiah Warren); and egoistic disrespect
for "ghosts" such as private property and
markets (Max Stirner, John Henry Mackay,
Lev Chernyi, later Benjamin Tucker, Renzo
Novatore, illegalism). Contemporary
individualist anarchist Kevin Carson
characterizes American individualist
anarchism saying that "Unlike the rest of
the socialist movement, the individualist
anarchists believed that the natural wage
of labor in a free market was its product,
and that economic exploitation could only
take place when capitalists and landlords
harnessed the power of the state in their
interests. Thus, individualist anarchism
was an alternative both to the increasing
statism of the mainstream socialist
movement, and to a classical liberal
movement that was moving toward a mere
apologetic for the power of big business."
[125]

Mutualism

Mutualism is an anarchist school of

thought which can be traced to the
writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who
envisioned a society where each person
might possess a means of production,
either individually or collectively, with trade
representing equivalent amounts of labor
in the free market.[126] Integral to the
scheme was the establishment of a
mutual-credit bank which would lend to
producers at a minimal interest rate only
high enough to cover the costs of
administration.[127] Mutualism is based on
a labor theory of value which holds that
when labor or its product is sold, in
exchange, it ought to receive goods or
services embodying "the amount of labor
necessary to produce an article of exactly
similar and equal utility".[128] Receiving
anything less would be considered
exploitation, theft of labor, or usury.
Libertarian socialism

Libertarian socialism, sometimes dubbed

socialist libertarianism,[129] or left-
libertarianism,[130][131] is a group of anti-
authoritarian[132] political philosophies
inside the socialist movement that rejects
socialism as centralized state ownership
and control of the economy,[133] as well as
the state itself.[134] It criticizes wage
labour relationships within the
workplace.[135] Instead, it emphasizes
workers' self-management of the
workplace[134] and decentralized
structures of political
organization.[136][137][138] It asserts that a
society based on freedom and justice can
be achieved through abolishing
authoritarian institutions that control
certain means of production and
subordinate the majority to an owning
class or political and economic elite.[139]
Libertarian socialists advocate for
decentralized structures based on direct
democracy and federal or confederal
associations such as libertarian
municipalism, citizens' assemblies, trade
unions, and workers' councils.[140][141] All
of this is generally done within a general
call for libertarian[142][143] and voluntary
human relationships[144] through the
identification, criticism, and practical
dismantling of illegitimate authority in all
aspects of human
life.[44][48][145][146][46][147][148][50] As such
libertarian socialism, within the larger
socialist movement, seeks to distinguish
itself both from Leninism/Bolshevism and
from social democracy.[149][150]

Past and present political philosophies

and movements commonly described as
libertarian socialist include anarchism
(especially anarchist communism,
anarchist collectivism, anarcho-
syndicalism,[151] and mutualism[152]) as
well as autonomism, communalism,
participism, guild socialism,[153]
revolutionary syndicalism, and libertarian
Marxist[154] philosophies such as council
communism[155] and Luxemburgism;[156]
as well as some versions of "utopian
socialism"[157] and individualist
anarchism.[158][159][160][161]

Left-libertarianism

Left-libertarianism, or left-wing
libertarianism,[note 1] names several related
but distinct approaches to politics, society,
culture, and political and social theory,
which stress both individual freedom and
social justice. Unlike right-libertarians, they
believe that neither claiming nor mixing
one's labor with natural resources is
enough to generate full private property
rights,[162][163] and maintain that natural
resources (land, oil, gold, trees) ought to
be held in some egalitarian manner, either
unowned or owned collectively.[163] Those
left-libertarians who support private
property do so under the condition that
recompense is offered to the local
community.

Left-libertarianism can refer generally to

these related and overlapping schools of
thought:
Anti-authoritarian varieties of left-wing
politics and, in particular, the socialist
movement, usually known as libertarian
socialism.[164]
Geolibertarianism: a synthesis of
libertarianism and geoism (or
Georgism)[165][166]
The Steiner–Vallentyne school, whose
proponents draw conclusions from
classical liberal or market liberal
premises.[167]
Left-wing market anarchism, which
stresses the socially transformative
potential of non-aggression and
anticapitalist, freed markets.[168]
Right-libertarianism

Right-libertarianism, or right libertarianism,

is a phrase used by some to describe
either non-collectivist forms of
libertarianism[169] or a variety of different
libertarian views some label "right" of
mainstream libertarianism including
"libertarian conservatism".

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy calls

it "right libertarianism" but states:
"Libertarianism is often thought of as
'right-wing' doctrine. This, however, is
mistaken for at least two reasons. First, on
social—rather than economic—issues,
libertarianism tends to be 'left-wing'. It
opposes laws that restrict consensual and
private sexual relationships between
adults (e.g., gay sex, non-marital sex, and
deviant sex), laws that restrict drug use,
laws that impose religious views or
practices on individuals, and compulsory
military service. Second, in addition to the
better-known version of libertarianism—
right-libertarianism—there is also a version
known as 'left-libertarianism'. Both
endorse full self-ownership, but they differ
with respect to the powers agents have to
appropriate unappropriated natural
resources (land, air, water, etc.)."[170]

As creative independent
lifestyle

Oscar Wilde, famous Irish socialist writer of the

decadent movement and famous dandy

The anarchist[171] writer and bohemian

Oscar Wilde wrote in his famous essay
The Soul of Man under Socialism that "Art
is individualism, and individualism is a
disturbing and disintegrating force. There
lies its immense value. For what it seeks is
to disturb monotony of type, slavery of
custom, tyranny of habit, and the reduction
of man to the level of a machine."[81] For
anarchist historian George Woodcock
"Wilde's aim in The Soul of Man under
Socialism is to seek the society most
favorable to the artist...for Wilde art is the
supreme end, containing within itself
enlightenment and regeneration, to which
all else in society must be
subordinated...Wilde represents the
anarchist as aesthete."[82] The word
individualism in this way has been used to
denote a personality with a strong
tendency towards self-creation and
experimentation as opposed to tradition or
popular mass opinions and behaviors.[3][8]

Anarchist writer Murray Bookchin

describes a lot of individualist anarchists
as people who "expressed their opposition
in uniquely personal forms, especially in
fiery tracts, outrageous behavior, and
aberrant lifestyles in the cultural ghettos of
fin de siècle New York, Paris, and London.
As a credo, individualist anarchism
remained largely a bohemian lifestyle,
most conspicuous in its demands for
sexual freedom ('free love') and enamored
of innovations in art, behavior, and
clothing."[72]
In relation to this view of individuality,
French Individualist anarchist Emile
Armand advocates egoistical denial of
social conventions and dogmas to live in
accord to one's own ways and desires in
daily life since he emphasized anarchism
as a way of life and practice. In this way he
opines "So the anarchist individualist
tends to reproduce himself, to perpetuate
his spirit in other individuals who will share
his views and who will make it possible for
a state of affairs to be established from
which authoritarianism has been
banished. It is this desire, this will, not only
to live, but also to reproduce oneself,
which we shall call "activity".[172]
In the book Imperfect garden : the legacy
of humanism, humanist philosopher
Tzvetan Todorov identifies individualism
as an important current of socio-political
thought within modernity and as examples
of it he mentions Michel de Montaigne,
François de La Rochefoucauld, Marquis de
Sade, and Charles Baudelaire.[173] In La
Rochefoucauld, he identifies a tendency
similar to stoicism in which "the honest
person works his being in the manner of a
sculptor who searches the liberation of the
forms which are inside a block of marble,
to extract the truth of that matter."[173] In
Baudelaire he finds the dandy trait in which
one searches to cultivate "the idea of
beauty within oneself, of satisfying one's
passions of feeling and thinking."[173]

The Russian-American poet Joseph

Brodsky once wrote that "The surest
defense against Evil is extreme
individualism, originality of thinking,
whimsicality, even—if you will—
eccentricity. That is, something that can't
be feigned, faked, imitated; something
even a seasoned imposter couldn't be
happy with."[174] Ralph Waldo Emerson
famously declared, "Whoso would be a
man must be a nonconformist"—a point of
view developed at length in both the life
and work of Henry David Thoreau. Equally
memorable and influential on Walt
Whitman is Emerson's idea that "a foolish
consistency is the hobgoblin of small
minds, adored by little statesmen and
philosophers and divines." Emerson
opposes on principle the reliance on civil
and religious social structures precisely
because through them the individual
approaches the divine second-hand,
mediated by the once original experience
of a genius from another age. "An
institution," he explains, "is the lengthened
shadow of one man." To achieve this
original relation one must "Insist on one's
self; never imitate" for if the relationship is
secondary the connection is lost.[175]
See also
Anti-individualism
Collectivism
Global issue
Human nature
Market fundamentalism
Narcissism
Natural and legal rights
Negative and positive rights
Non-aggression principle
Personalism
Social issue
Voluntaryism
Notes
1. Related, arguably synonymous, terms
include libertarianism, left-wing
libertarianism, egalitarian-libertarianism,
and libertarian socialism.
Sundstrom, William A. "An Egalitarian-
Libertarian Manifesto Archived
October 29, 2013, at the Wayback
Machine."
Bookchin, Murray and Biehl, Janet
(1997). The Murray Bookchin Reader.
New York:Cassell. p. 170.
Sullivan, Mark A. (July 2003). "Why the
Georgist Movement Has Not
Succeeded: A Personal Response to
 the Question Raised by Warren J.
Samuels." American Journal of
Economics and Sociology. 62:3. p.
612.

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follow either the path of Authority or the
path of Liberty. Marx went one way;
Warren and Proudhon the other. Thus were
born State Socialism and Anarchism ...
Authority, takes many shapes, but, broadly
speaking, her enemies divide themselves
into three classes: first, those who abhor
her both as a means and as an end of
progress, opposing her openly, avowedly,
sincerely, consistently, universally; second,
those who profess to believe in her as a
means of progress, but who accept her
only so far as they think she will subserve
their own selfish interests, denying her and
her blessings to the rest of the world; third,
those who distrust her as a means of
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be obtained by first trampling upon,
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almost every sphere of thought and
human activity. Good representatives of
the first are seen in the Catholic Church
and the Russian autocracy; of the second,
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Retrieved 2008-12-04.
68. Palmer, Brian (2010-12-29) What do
anarchists want from us? , Slate.com
69. William Bailie, "Archived copy" (PDF).
Archived from the original (PDF) on
February 4, 2012. Retrieved June 17, 2013.
Josiah Warren: The First American
Anarchist — A Sociological Study, Boston:
Small, Maynard & Co., 1906, p. 20
70. Native American Anarchism: A Study
of Left-Wing American Individualism by
Eunice Minette Schuster Archived
February 14, 2016, at the Wayback
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71. "Paralelamente, al otro lado del
atlántico, en el diferente contexto de una
nación a medio hacer, los Estados Unidos,
otros filósofos elaboraron un pensamiento
individualista similar, aunque con sus
propias especificidades. Henry David
Thoreau (1817–1862), uno de los
escritores próximos al movimiento de la
filosofía trascendentalista, es uno de los
más conocidos. Su obra más
representativa es Walden, aparecida en
1854, aunque redactada entre 1845 y
1847, cuando Thoreau decide instalarse
en el aislamiento de una cabaña en el
bosque, y vivir en íntimo contacto con la
naturaleza, en una vida de soledad y
sobriedad. De esta experiencia, su filosofía
trata de transmitirnos la idea que resulta
necesario un retorno respetuoso a la
naturaleza, y que la felicidad es sobre todo
fruto de la riqueza interior y de la armonía
de los individuos con el entorno natural.
Muchos han visto en Thoreau a uno de los
precursores del ecologismo y del
anarquismo primitivista representado en la
actualidad por Jonh Zerzan. Para George
Woodcock, esta actitud puede estar
también motivada por una cierta idea de
resistencia al progreso y de rechazo al
materialismo creciente que caracteriza la
sociedad norteamericana de mediados de
siglo XIX.""Voluntary non-submission.
Spanish individualist anarchism during
dictatorship and the second republic
(1923–1938)" Archived July 23, 2011, at
the Wayback Machine
72. "2. Individualist Anarchism and
Reaction" .
73. "The Free Love Movement and Radical
Individualism, By Wendy McElroy" .
74. "La insumisión voluntaria: El
anarquismo individualista español durante
la Dictadura y la Segunda República
(1923–1938)" by Xavier Díez Archived
July 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
75. "Los anarco-individualistas, G.I.A...Una
escisión de la FAI producida en el IX
Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se pr odujo
cuando un sector de anarquistas de
tendencia humanista rechazan la
interpretación que ellos juzgan
disciplinaria del pacto asociativo" clásico,
y crean los GIA (Gruppi di Iniziativa
Anarchica) . Esta pequeña federación de
grupos, hoy nutrida sobre todo de
veteranos anarco-individualistas de
orientación pacifista, naturista, etcétera
defiende la autonomía personal y rechaza
a rajatabla toda forma de intervención en
los procesos del sistema, como sería por
ejemplo el sindicalismo. Su portavoz es
L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La
escisión de los GIA prefiguraba, en sentido
contrario, el gran debate que pronto había
de comenzar en el seno del
movimiento""El movimiento libertario en
Italia" by Bicicleta. REVISTA DE
COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS Year 1
No. Noviembre, 1 1977 Archived October
12, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
76. "Proliferarán así diversos grupos que
practicarán el excursionismo, el naturismo,
el nudismo, la emancipación sexual o el
esperantismo, alrededor de asociaciones
informales vinculadas de una manera o de
otra al anarquismo. Precisamente las
limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras
impuestas desde la legislación especial de
la Dictadura potenciarán indirectamente
esta especie de asociacionismo informal
en que confluirá el movimiento anarquista
con esta heterogeneidad de prácticas y
tendencias. Uno de los grupos más
destacados, que será el impulsor de la
revista individualista Ética será el Ateneo
Naturista Ecléctico, con sede en
Barcelona, con sus diferentes secciones la
más destacada de las cuales será el grupo
excursionista Sol y Vida.""La insumisión
voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista
español durante la Dictadura y la Segunda
República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Díez
Archived July 23, 2011, at the Wayback
Machine
77. "Les anarchistes individualistes du
début du siècle l'avaient bien compris, et
intégraient le naturisme dans leurs
préoccupations. Il est vraiment dommage
que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé,
d'antan plus que nous assistons, en ce
moment, à un retour en force du
puritanisme (conservateur par
essence).""Anarchisme et naturisme,
aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak Archived
February 25, 2009, at the Wayback
Machine
78. anne (30 July 2014). "Culture of
Individualist Anarchism in Late 19th
Century America" (PDF).
79. The "Illegalists" Archived September
8, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, by Doug
Imrie (published by Anarchy: A Journal of
Desire Armed)
80. Parry, Richard. The Bonnot Gang. Rebel
Press, 1987. p. 15
81. "Oscar Wilde essay The soul of man
under Socialism" . Archived from the
original on 2013-09-14.
82. George Woodcock. Anarchism: A
History of Libertarian Ideas and
Movements. 1962. (p. 447)
83. Sanders, Steven M. Is egoism morally
defensible? Philosophia. Springer
Netherlands. Volume 18, Numbers 2–3 /
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84. Rachels 2008, p. 534.
85. Ridgely, D.A. (August 24, 2008).
"Selfishness, Egoism and Altruistic
Libertarianism" . Archived from the
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2008-08-24.
86. "Egoism - The Anarchist Library" .
87. O. Ewald, "German Philosophy in 1907",
in The Philosophical Review, Vol. 17, No. 4,
Jul., 1908, pp. 400–26; T. A. Riley, "Anti-
Statism in German Literature, as
Exemplified by the Work of John Henry
Mackay", in PMLA, Vol. 62, No. 3, Sep.
1947, pp. 828–43; C. E. Forth, "Nietzsche,
Decadence, and Regeneration in France,
1891–95", in Journal of the History of
Ideas, Vol. 54, No. 1, Jan., 1993, pp. 97–
117; see also Robert C. Holub's Nietzsche:
Socialist, Anarchist, Feminist, an essay
available online at the University of
California, Berkeley website.
88. Macquarrie, John. Existentialism, New
York (1972), pp. 18–21.
89. Oxford Companion to Philosophy, ed.
Ted Honderich, New York (1995), p. 259.
90. Macquarrie. Existentialism, pp. 14–15.
91. Cooper, D. E. Existentialism: A
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8)
92. Marino, Gordon. Basic Writings of
Existentialism (Modern Library, 2004, pp.
ix, 3).
93. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kierkega
ard/
94. Watts, Michael. Kierkegaard
(Oneworld, 2003, pp. 4–6).
95. Lowrie, Walter. Kierkegaard's attack
upon "Christendom" (Princeton, 1968, pp.
37–40)
96. Corrigan, John. The Oxford handbook
of religion and emotion (Oxford, 2008, pp.
387–88)
97. Livingston, James et al. Modern
Christian Thought: The Twentieth Century
(Fortress Press, 2006, Chapter 5: Christian
Existentialism).
98. Martin, Clancy. Religious Existentialism
in Companion to Phenomenology and
Existentialism (Blackwell, 2006, pp. 188–
205)
99. Robert C. Solomon, Existentialism
(McGraw-Hill, 1974, pp. 1–2)
100. D.E. Cooper Existentialism: A
Reconstruction (Basil Blackwell, 1999, p.
8).
101. Ernst Breisach, Introduction to
Modern Existentialism, New York (1962),
p. 5
102. Walter Kaufmann, Existentialism:
From Dostoevesky to Sartre, New York
(1956), p. 12
103. Guignon, Charles B. and Derk
Pereboom. Existentialism: basic writings
(Hackett Publishing, 2001, p. xiii)
104. Hastings, James. Encyclopedia of
Religion
105. Compact Oxford English Dictionary.
Oxford University Press. 2007. "humanism
n. 1 a rationalistic system of thought
attaching prime importance to human
rather than divine or supernatural matters.
2 a Renaissance cultural movement that
turned away from medieval scholasticism
and revived interest in ancient Greek and
Roman thought." Typically, abridgments of
this definition omit all senses except #1,
such as in the Cambridge Advanced
Learner's Dictionary , Collins Essential
English Dictionary , and Webster's Concise
Dictionary. New York: RHR Press. 2001.
p. 177.
106. "Definitions of humanism
(subsection)" . Institute for Humanist
Studies. Archived from the original on
2007-01-18. Retrieved 16 Jan 2007.
107. Edwords, Fred (1989). "What Is
Humanism?" . American Humanist
Association. Archived from the original on
30 January 2010. Retrieved 19 August
2009. "Secular and Religious Humanists
both share the same worldview and the
same basic principles... From the
standpoint of philosophy alone, there is no
difference between the two. It is only in the
definition of religion and in the practice of
the philosophy that Religious and Secular
Humanists effectively disagree."
108. Moore, Andrew (1 January 2013).
Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Metaphysics
Research Lab, Stanford University – via
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
109. "libertine" – via The Free Dictionary.
110. "WordNet Search - 3.1" .
111. René Pintard (2000). Le Libertinage
érudit dans la première moitié du XVIIe
siècle . Slatkine. p. 11. ISBN 978-2-05-
101818-0. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
112. Amesbury, Richard (1 January 2016).
Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Metaphysics
Research Lab, Stanford University – via
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
113. A Martyr to Sin
114. "About the Author" in Rand 1992,
pp. 1170–71
115. Tucker said, "the fact that one class
of men are dependent for their living upon
the sale of their labour, while another class
of men are relieved of the necessity of
labour by being legally privileged to sell
something that is not labour. . . . And to
such a state of things I am as much
opposed as any one. But the minute you
remove privilege. . . every man will be a
labourer exchanging with fellow-labourers
. . . What Anarchistic-Socialism aims to
abolish is usury . . . it wants to deprive
capital of its reward."Benjamin Tucker.
Instead of a Book, p. 404
116. Wayne Gabardi, review of Anarchism
by David Miller, published in American
Political Science Review Vol. 80, No. 1.
(Mar., 1986), pp. 300—02.
117. According to scholar Allan Antliff,
Benjamin Tucker coined the term
"philosophical anarchism," to distinguish
peaceful evolutionary anarchism from
revolutionary variants. Antliff, Allan. 2001.
Anarchist Modernism: Art, Politics, and the
First American Avant-Garde . University of
Chicago Press. p. 4
118. Outhwaite, William & Tourain, Alain
(Eds.). (2003). Anarchism. The Blackwell
Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2nd
Edition, p. 12). Blackwell Publishing
119. Michael Freeden identifies four broad
types of individualist anarchism. He says
the first is the type associated with William
Godwin that advocates self-government
with a "progressive rationalism that
included benevolence to others." The
second type is the amoral self-serving
rationality of Egoism, as most associated
with Max Stirner. The third type is "found in
Herbert Spencer's early predictions, and in
that of some of his disciples such as
Donisthorpe, foreseeing the redundancy of
the state in the source of social evolution."
The fourth type retains a moderated form
of Egoism and accounts for social
cooperation through the advocacy of
market. Freeden, Michael. Ideologies and
Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach .
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
829414-X. pp. 313–14.
120. Tucker, Benjamin R., Instead of a
Book, by a Man too Busy to Write One: A
Fragmentary Exposition of Philosophical
Anarchism (1897, New York)
121. Broderick, John C. Thoreau's
Proposals for Legislation. American
Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 3 (Autumn, 1955). p.
285
122. Horst Matthai Quelle. Textos
Filosóficos (1989-1999). p. 15
123. Hudelson, Richard (1 January 1999).
"Modern Political Philosophy" . M.E.
Sharpe – via Google Books.
124. David Conway. Classical Liberalism:
The Unvanquished Ideal. Palgrave
Macmillan. 1998. ISBN 978-0-312-21932-1
p. 8
125. Kevin Carson. Organization Theory: A
Libertarian Perspective. BOOKSURGE.
2008. p. 1
126. Mutualist.org Introduction
127. Miller, David. 1987. "Mutualism." The
Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political
Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11
128. Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary
Socialism, chapter 6, paragraph 15.
129. Miller, Wilbur R. (2012). The social
history of crime and punishment in
America. An encyclopedia. 5 vols. London:
Sage Publications. p. 1007.
ISBN 1412988764. "There exist three
major camps in libertarian thought: right-
libertarianism, socialist libertarianism, and
..."
130. Bookchin, Murray and Janet Biehl.
The Murray Bookchin Reader. Cassell,
1997. p. 170 ISBN 0-304-33873-7
131. Hicks, Steven V. and Daniel E.
Shannon. The American journal of
economics and sociolology. Blackwell
Pub, 2003. p. 612
132. "It implies a classless and anti-
authoritarian (i.e. libertarian) society in
which people manage their own affairs" I.1
Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron?
at An Anarchist FAQ
133. "unlike other socialists, they tend to
see (to various different degrees,
depending on the thinker) to be skeptical
of centralized state intervention as the
solution to capitalist exploitation..."
Roderick T. Long. "Toward a libertarian
theory of class." Social Philosophy and
Policy. Volume 15. Issue 02. Summer
1998. Pg. 305
134. "So, libertarian socialism rejects the
idea of state ownership and control of the
economy, along with the state as such.
Through workers' self-management it
proposes to bring an end to authority,
exploitation, and hierarchy in production."
"I1. Isn't libertarian socialism an
oxymoron" in An Anarchist FAQ
135. "Therefore, rather than being an
oxymoron, "libertarian socialism" indicates
that true socialism must be libertarian and
that a libertarian who is not a socialist is a
phoney. As true socialists oppose wage
labour, they must also oppose the state for
the same reasons. Similarly, libertarians
must oppose wage labour for the same
reasons they must oppose the state." "I1.
Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron" in
An Anarchist FAQ
136. "Their analysis treats libertarian
socialism as a form of anti-parliamentary,
democratic, antibureaucratic grass roots
socialist organisation, strongly linked to
working class activism." Alex Prichard,
Ruth Kinna, Saku Pinta and Dave Berry
(eds) Libertarian Socialism: Politics in
Black and Red. Palgrave Macmillan,
December 2012. pg. 13
137. " ...preferringa system of popular self
governance via networks of decentralized,
local voluntary, participatory, cooperative
associations. Roderick T. Long. "Toward a
libertarian theory of class." Social
Philosophy and Policy. Volume 15. Issue
02. Summer 1998. Pg. 305
138. "What is of particular interest here,
however, is the appeal to a form of
emancipation grounded in decentralized,
cooperative and democratic forms of
political and economic governance which
most libertarian socialist visions, including
Cole's, tend to share." Charles Masquelier.
Critical theory and libertarian socialism:
Realizing the political potential of critical
social theory. Bloombury. New York-
London. 2014. pg. 189
139. Mendes, Silva. Socialismo Libertário
ou Anarchismo Vol. 1 (1896): "Society
should be free through mankind's
spontaneous federative affiliation to life,
based on the community of land and tools
of the trade; meaning: Anarchy will be
equality by abolition of private property
(while retaining respect for personal
property) and liberty by abolition of
authority".
140. "...preferring a system of popular self
governance via networks of decentralized,
local, voluntary, participatory, cooperative
associations-sometimes as a complement
to and check on state power..."
141. Rocker, Rudolf (2004). Anarcho-
Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. AK
Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-902593-92-0.
142. "LibSoc share with LibCap an
aversion to any interference to freedom of
thought, expression or choice of lifestyle."
Roderick T. Long. "Toward a libertarian
theory of class." Social Philosophy and
Policy. Volume 15. Issue 02. Summer
1998. pp 305
143. "...what categorizes libertarian
socialism is a focus on forms of social
organization to further the freedom of the
individual combined with an advocacy of
non-state means for achieving this." Matt
Dawson. Late modernity, individualization
and socialism: An Associational Critique
of Neoliberalism. Palgrave MacMillan.
2013. pg. 64
144. "What is implied by the term
'libertarian socialism'?: The idea that
socialism is first and foremost about
freedom and therefore about overcoming
the domination, repression, and alienation
that block the free flow of human
creativity, thought, and action...An
approach to socialism that incorporates
cultural revolution, women's and children's
liberation, and the critique and
transformation of daily life, as well as the
more traditional concerns of socialist
politics. A politics that is completely
revolutionary because it seeks to
transform all of reality. We do not think
that capturing the economy and the state
lead automatically to the transformation of
the rest of social being, nor do we equate
liberation with changing our life-styles and
our heads. Capitalism is a total system
that invades all areas of life: socialism
must be the overcoming of capitalist
reality in its entirety, or it is nothing." "What
is Libertarian Socialism?" by Ulli Diemer.
Volume 2, Number 1 (Summer 1997 issue)
of The Red Menace.
145. "The Soviet Union Versus Socialism" .
chomsky.info. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
"Libertarian socialism, furthermore, does
not limit its aims to democratic control by
producers over production, but seeks to
abolish all forms of domination and
hierarchy in every aspect of social and
personal life, an unending struggle, since
progress in achieving a more just society
will lead to new insight and understanding
of forms of oppression that may be
concealed in traditional practice and
consciousness."
146. "Authority is defined in terms of the
right to exercise social control (as
explored in the "sociology of power") and
the correlative duty to obey (as explred in
the "philosophy of practical reason").
Anarchism is distinguished,
philosophically, by its scepticism towards
such moral relations – by its questioning
of the claims made for such normative
power – and, practically, by its challenge to
those "authoritative" powers which cannot
justify their claims and which are therefore
deemed illegitimate or without moral
foundation."Anarchism and Authority: A
Philosophical Introduction to Classical
Anarchism by Paul McLaughlin. AshGate.
2007. p. 1
147. Individualist anarchist Benjamin
Tucker defined anarchism as opposition to
authority as follows "They found that they
must turn either to the right or to the left, —
follow either the path of Authority or the
path of Liberty. Marx went one way;
Warren and Proudhon the other. Thus were
born State Socialism and
Anarchism...Authority, takes many shapes,
but, broadly speaking, her enemies divide
themselves into three classes: first, those
who abhor her both as a means and as an
end of progress, opposing her openly,
avowedly, sincerely, consistently,
universally; second, those who profess to
believe in her as a means of progress, but
who accept her only so far as they think
she will subserve their own selfish
interests, denying her and her blessings to
the rest of the world; third, those who
distrust her as a means of progress,
believing in her only as an end to be
obtained by first trampling upon, violating,
and outraging her. These three phases of
opposition to Liberty are met in almost
every sphere of thought and human
activity. Good representatives of the first
are seen in the Catholic Church and the
Russian autocracy; of the second, in the
Protestant Church and the Manchester
school of politics and political economy; of
the third, in the atheism of Gambetta and
the socialism of Karl Marx." Benjamin
Tucker. Individual Liberty.
148. Anarchist historian George Woodcock
report of Mikhail Bakunin's anti-
authoritarianism and shows opposition to
both state and non-state forms of
authority as follows: "All anarchists deny
authority; many of them fight against it."
(p. 9)...Bakunin did not convert the
League's central committee to his full
program, but he did persuade them to
accept a remarkably radical
recommendation to the Berne Congress of
September 1868, demanding economic
equality and implicitly attacking authority
in both Church and State."
149. "It is forgotten that the early
defenders of commercial society like
(Adam) Smith were as much concerned
with criticising the associational blocks to
mobile labour represented by guilds as
they were to the activities of the state. The
history of socialist thought includes a long
associational and anti-statist tradition
prior to the political victory of the
Bolshevism in the east and varieties of
Fabianism in the west. John O'Neil." The
Market: Ethics, knowledge and politics.
Routledge. 1998. Pg. 3
150. "In some ways, it is perhaps fair to
say that if Left communism is an
intellectual- political formation, it is so,
first and foremost, negatively – as
opposed to other socialist traditions. I
have labelled this negative pole 'socialist
orthodoxy', composed of both Leninists
and social democrats...What I suggested
was that these Left communist thinkers
differentiated their own understandings of
communism from a strand of socialism
that came to follow a largely electoral road
in the West, pursuing a kind of social
capitalism, and a path to socialism that
predominated in the peripheral and semi-
peripheral countries, which sought
revolutionary conquest of power and led to
something like state capitalism. Generally,
the Left communist thinkers were to find
these paths locked within the horizons of
capitalism (the law of value, money,
private property, class, the state), and they
were to characterize these solutions as
statist, substitutionist and authoritarian."
Chamsy el- Ojeili. Beyond post-socialism.
Dialogues with the far-left. Palgrave
Macmillan. 2015. pg 8
151. Sims, Franwa (2006). The Anacostia
Diaries As It Is. Lulu Press. p. 160.
152. A Mutualist FAQ: A.4. Are Mutualists
Socialists? Archived 2009-06-09 at the
Wayback Machine
153. "It is by meeting such a twofold
requirement that the libertarian socialism
of G.D.H. Cole could be said to offer timely
and sustainable avenues for the
institutionalization of the liberal value of
autonomy..." Charles Masquelier. Critical
theory and libertarian socialism: Realizing
the political potential of critical social
theory. Bloombury. New York-London.
2014. pg. 190
154. "Locating libertarian socialism in a
grey area between anarchist and Marxist
extremes, they argue that the multiple
experiences of historical convergence
remain inspirational and that, through
these examples, the hope of socialist
transformation survives." Alex Prichard,
Ruth Kinna, Saku Pinta and Dave Berry
(eds) Libertarian Socialism: Politics in
Black and Red. Palgrave Macmillan,
December 2012. pg. 13
155. "Councilism and anarchism loosely
merged into 'libertarian socialism', offering
a non-dogmatic path by which both
council communism and anarchism could
be updated for the changed conditions of
the time, and for the new forms of
proletarian resistance to these new
conditions." Toby Boraman. "Carnival and
Class: Anarchism and Councilism in
Australasia during the 1970s" in Alex
Prichard, Ruth Kinna, Saku Pinta and Dave
Berry (eds). Libertarian Socialism: Politics
in Black and Red. Palgrave Macmillan,
December 2012. pg. 268.
156. Murray Bookchin, Ghost of Anarcho-
Syndicalism; Robert Graham, The General
Idea of Proudhon's Revolution
157. Kent Bromley, in his preface to Peter
Kropotkin's book The Conquest of Bread,
considered early French utopian socialist
Charles Fourier to be the founder of the
libertarian branch of socialist thought, as
opposed to the authoritarian socialist
ideas of Babeuf and Buonarroti."
Kropotkin, Peter. The Conquest of Bread,
preface by Kent Bromley, New York and
London, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1906.
158. "(Benjamin) Tucker referred to
himself many times as a socialist and
considered his philosophy to be
"Anarchistic socialism." An Anarchist FAQ
by Various Authors
159. French individualist anarchist Émile
Armand shows clearly opposition to
capitalism and centralized economies
when he said that the individualist
anarchist "inwardly he remains refractory
– fatally refractory – morally, intellectually,
economically (The capitalist economy and
the directed economy, the speculators and
the fabricators of single are equally
repugnant to him.)""Anarchist
Individualism as a Life and Activity" by
Emile Armand
160. Anarchist Peter Sabatini reports that
In the United States "of early to mid-19th
century, there appeared an array of
communal and "utopian" counterculture
groups (including the so-called free love
movement). William Godwin's anarchism
exerted an ideological influence on some
of this, but more so the socialism of
Robert Owen and Charles Fourier. After
success of his British venture, Owen
himself established a cooperative
community within the United States at
New Harmony, Indiana during 1825. One
member of this commune was Josiah
Warren (1798–1874), considered to be the
first individualist anarchist"Peter Sabatini.
"Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy"
161. "It introduces an eye-opening
approach to radical social thought, rooted
equally in libertarian socialism and market
anarchism." Chartier, Gary; Johnson,
Charles W. (2011). Markets Not
Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism
Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate
Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn,
NY:Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. Pg.
Back cover
162. Vallentyne, Peter; Steiner, Hillel;
Otsuka, Michael (2005). "Why Left-
Libertarianism Is Not Incoherent,
Indeterminate, or Irrelevant: A Reply to
Fried" (PDF). Philosophy and Public
Affairs. Blackwell Publishing, Inc. 33 (2).
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-
11-03. Retrieved 2013-07-23.
163. Narveson, Jan; Trenchard, David
(2008). "Left libertarianism" . In Hamowy,
Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of
Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE;
Cato Institute. pp. 288–89.
doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n174 .
ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4.
LCCN 2008009151 . OCLC 750831024 .
164. Bookchin, Murray and Biehl, Janet
(1997). The Murray Bookchin Reader.
Cassell: p. 170. ISBN 0-304-33873-7
165. "Foldvary, Fred E. Geoism and
Libertarianism. The Progress Report" .
Progress.org. Archived from the original
on November 4, 2012. Retrieved
2013-03-26.
166. Karen DeCoster, Henry George and
the Tariff Question , LewRockwell.com,
April 19, 2006.
167. Will Kymlicka (2005). "libertarianism,
left-". In Ted Honderich (ed.). The Oxford
Companion to Philosophy. New York City:
Oxford University Press.
168. Chartier, Gary. Johnson, Charles W.
(2011). Markets Not Capitalism:
Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses,
Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural
Poverty. Minor Compositions. pp. 1–11.
ISBN 978-1570272424
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171. "The most ambitious contribution to
literary anarchism during the 1890s was
undoubtedly Oscar Wilde The Soul of Man
under Socialism. Wilde, as we have seen,
declared himself an anarchist on at least
one occasion during the 1890s, and he
greatly admired Peter Kropotkin, whom he
had met. Later, in De Profundis, he
described Kropotkin's life as one "of the
most perfect lives I have come across in
my own experience" and talked of him as
"a man with a soul of that beautiful white
Christ that seems coming out of Russia."
But in The Soul of Man under Socialism,
which appeared in 1890, it is Godwin
rather than Kropotkin whose influence
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Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas
and Movements. 1962. (p. 447)
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Further reading
Albrecht, James M. (2012)
Reconstructing Individualism : A
Pragmatic Tradition from Emerson to
Ellison. Fordham University Press.
Brown, L. Susan (1993). The Politics of
Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal
Feminism, and Anarchism. Black Rose
Books.
Dewey, John. (1930). Individualism Old
and New.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1847). Self-
Reliance. London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd.
Gagnier, Regenia. (2010). Individualism,
Decadence and Globalization: On the
Relationship of Part to Whole, 1859–
1920. Palgrave Macmillan.
Dumont, Louis (1986). Essays on
Individualism: Modern Ideology in
Anthropological Perspective. Chicago:
University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-
226-16958-8.
Lukes, Steven (1973). Individualism.
New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-631-
14750-0.
Meiksins Wood, Ellen. (1972). Mind and
Politics: An Approach to the Meaning of
Liberal and Socialist Individualism.
University of California Press. ISBN 0-
520-02029-4
Renaut, Alain (1999). The Era of the
Individual. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press. ISBN 0-691-02938-5.
Shanahan, Daniel. (1991) Toward a
Genealogy of Individualism. Amherst,
MA: University of Massachusetts Press.
ISBN 0-87023-811-6.
Watt, Ian. (1996) Myths of Modern
Individualism. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-48011-6.
 Barzilai, Gad. (2003). Communities and
Law. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press. ISBN 0-472-11315-1.
Fruehwald, Edwin, "A Biological Basis of
Rights", 19 Southern California
Interdisciplinary Law Journal 195
(2010).

External links

Wikisource has the text of the 1921

Collier's Encyclopedia article
Individualism.

Media related to Individualism at

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 Wikiquote has quotations related to:
Individualism

Archive of individualist texts at The

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