A Grain of Wheat Symbols, Allegory and Motifs

Christ (Symbol)
Kihika claims that all who stand up for Kenya are symbols for Christ: "So I can say that you,
Karanja, are Christ. I am Christ, Everybody who takes the Oath of Unity to change things in
Kenya is a Christ" (93).
Symbol
Mugo's hut symbolizes himself. It was built by him alone, and is closed-off and private and
dark. It "was an extension of himself, his hopes and dreams" (182).
Rain (Motif)
It is often drizzly or raining in the novel. This rain is sometimes purifying, sometimes
harmful and an omen of gloom and subversion of promise and hope. It is rainy the night
before and the day of Uhuru, a day during which Warui claims something went wrong.
Karanja's Hood (Symbol)
Karanja's hood is a symbol of the power he once held. It cloaks him, conceals him, and
allows him to hold sway over people. It represents his "hiding" behind the power of the
British when he was a homeguard and Chief.
Grains of Wheat (Symbol)
Mugo and Kihika are "grains of wheat", which symbolizes their seeming insignificance with
its concomitant reality of the fact that their death/planting brings about unity and
healing/sustenance for the community as a whole.

A Grain of Wheat Metaphors and Similes

"People stood on the roofs of shops. They appeared like
clusters of locusts perched on trees" (14) (Simile)
Here, Ngugi uses nature metaphor to invoke the image of a mass of humanity gathered high
above the ground.
Artistic Performance (Metaphor)
Warui uses the metaphor of song and dance to illustrate how Thabai will participate in and
shape Uhuru: "We of Thabai Village must also dance our part...Yes, we must dance the song
the way we know how. For, let it never be said Thabai dragged to shame the names of sons
she lost in war" (19).
Light in Darkness (Metaphor)
Thompson uses the metaphor of a light in darkness to describe the British Empire and his
recognition of its greatness: "In a flash I was convinced that the growth of the British Empire
was the development of a great moral idea: it means, it must surely lead to the creation of one
British nation, embracing peoples of all colours and creeds, based on the just proposition that
all men were created equal...For me, a great night had shone in the darkness" (53).
Drowning (Metaphor)
Mugo uses the metaphor of drowning to describe Mumbi's impact upon him: "She was still
young, vulnerable; but it was he who was scurrying with hands and feet at the bottom of the
silen pool. It was terrible for him: he did not want to drown" (133).
"...to Karanja, John Thompson had always assumed the
symbol of whiteman's power, unmoveable like a rock..."
(151) (Simile)
Here, white power, unflinching and seemingly indomitable, is compared to the immovable
force of a rock.

A Grain of Wheat Irony

Mugo's Heroism (Situational Irony)
It is ironic that Mugo becomes a hero to the villagers and is asked to speak about Kihika at
Uhuru when he is the man who betrayed the great hero. The line "By refusing to lead, Mugo
had become a legendary hero" (171) exemplifies this irony.
Healing through Betrayal (Situational Irony)
It is ironic that it takes a confession of an individual act of betrayal (Mugo's) to bring about a
modicum of healing for the community.
Superficial Independence (Dramatic Irony)
There is deep-rooted irony in the fact that Kenya after Uhuru will not be changed in a
meaningful way because of the pervasiveness of European colonialism and capitalism that
have rendered many of its people materialistic and individualistic at the expense of their
community.
Thompson's Ideas (Situational Irony)
There is great irony in Thompson's ideas and writings about the Africans being evil, savage,
and morally ruined, because the whiteman is perhaps the best exemplar of those things.

A Grain of Wheat Imagery

Nature Imagery
Ngugi's nature imagery is particularly well done (and important to the story): blustery wind,
gloomy drizzle, fertile land, barren hot deserts, and more all all vividly depicted.
Gikonyo's Stool
The imagery of Gikonyo's stool as he sketches it out in his head is important because it is an
indication of: his return to his relationship with Mumbi; to new life, fertility, and growth in
the post-independence world; and to redemption for this character.
The Race
The race at the end of the novel is particularly memorable, as almost all the main characters
are running as fast as they can for various reasons: expiation, fame, love, revenge, and so on.
Gikonyo and Mumbi's Lovemaking
The scene where Gikonyo and Mumbi first make love in the forest is romantic, erotic, and
vividly described. Ngugi uses the fertility of nature to comment on their bodies melding into
one and achieving pleasure.

A Grain of Wheat State of Emergency and Mau Mau

The State of Emergency was a period in Kenyan history in which the British government, led
by Sir Evelyn Baring, tried to stamp out resistance to its colonial rule. Beginning in 1952 and
lasting until 1959-60, the Emergency was characterized by the aggressive resistance of the
Mau Mau, an infamous rebel group.

Throughout the early decades of the 20th century, dissent simmered among the Kikuyu, the
major ethnic group in Kenya. Jomo Kenyattaand other nationalists had pressured the
British to enact political and land reforms, but they were not successful. Some members of
their group, the Kenya African Union (KAU), split off to form a more militant nationalist
group.
These Mau Mau rebels began to attack their political opponents and raid farms, killing white
settlers’ livestock. Members took oaths to bind them to the cause. They often attacked other
Africans for being loyal to the British or refusing to take the oath; this incurred a lot of
tension and resentment amongst Kenyans. The Lari massacre in 1953 saw over 120 Kenyans
murdered for being “loyalists.” Kenyatta publicly referred to the Mau Mau as “scum.”

The African Home Guard, African men recruited by the British, countered the Mau Mau.
Search-and-destroy missions against the Mau Mau were conducted in the forests, and
concentration camps were used to pressure members to renounce the group and their oath.
The camps featured torture, beatings, sexual assault, and malnutrition. A letter from a Police
Commissioner to Baring in 1954 read, “[T]he horror of some of the so-called Screening
Camps now present a state of affairs so deplorable that they should be investigated without
delay, so that the ever increasing allegations of inhumanity and disregard of the rights of the
African citizen are dealt with and so that the Government will have no reason to be ashamed
of the acts which are done in its own name by its own servants.” At home, villages were
forcibly resettled and harassed.

In terms of numbers killed, official numbers stand at 11,000 for the rebels and only 32 for
whites. However, the Kenya Human Rights Commission says 90,000 Kenyans were
executed, tortured, or maimed; 160,000 were detained.

Currently there are many debates, discussions, and lawsuits pending regarding compensation
for the Kenyans. The Mau Mau remain controversial in Kenya.

A Grain of Wheat Literary Elements

Genre
Novel; Historical Fiction
Setting and Context
Kenya, 1963 and flashbacks to the late 1950s
Narrator and Point of View
Multiple narrators: first person omniscient, and third person omniscient.
Tone and Mood
Varies. At times hopeful, breathless, excited, and celebratory. At times
disillusioned, apprehensive, and unsettled.
Protagonist and Antagonist
Protagonists: Mugo; Mumbi Antagonists: Karanja; DO Thompson
Major Conflict
Whether Mugo will admit he betrayed Kihika, and what that will mean for
the community; whether Uhuru will bring about positive change.
Climax
Mugo's confession at the Uhuru ceremony.
Foreshadowing
-"Was the dog's threat a prelude to disaster, thought Karanja?" (153); this
foreshadows the drama of Uhuru and Karanja's veritable exile
-"Everybody waited for something to happen" (199) at Uhuru; soon Mugo
would confess his great secret
-"The wind and the rain were so strong that some trees were uprooted
whole, while others broke by the stems, or lost their branches" (200) on
the night of Uhuru foreshadows the difficulties of the next day and of
Kenya's post-colonial struggles in general
-On the eve of Uhuru, "...we all vaguely expected that something
extraordinary would happen. It was not exactly a happy feeling; it was
more a disturbing sense of doom" (212)
Understatement
-"Let us talk about the child" (242) is Gikonyo's way of saying that he and
Mumbi ought to reconsider their whole relationship and pledge themselves
to each other again.
Allusions
-There are many allusions to WWII, such as "...tanks last seen on the road
during Churchill's war with Hitler" (4)
-Harry Thuku is seen encouraging people to ask Pharaoh to let his people
go (12)
-Mumbi compares herself to Esther from the Bible (75)
Imagery
See Imagery section.
Paradox
A grain of wheat must fall to the earth and die before it can bring about
new life. This is the message of the novel's title.
Parallelism
N/A.
Metonymy and Synecdoche
N/A.
Personification
-"Let the sun find you already there and it'll not be a match for you" (2)
-"The world had conspired against him, first to deprive him of his father
and mother, and then to make him dependent on an aging harridan" (7)

A Grain of Wheat Themes

Colonialism and its Legacies
Kenya was colonized by the British in 1895 and was not independent until 1963. In the
subsequent years the country struggled to negotiate a post-colonial reality in which the
divisions caused by political and economic oppression, the Emergency, violence, racism,
exploitation of rivalry and competition amongst Kenyans, and psychological trauma endured
and deepened. Even though Ngugi does not take his readers into the days after colonialism,
he hints at the difficulties the characters will face. Thompson's claim that Africa will always
need Europe may not be true in the sense he wishes it to be, but it is prescient in that Europe's
involvement in the region can never fully be erased. Finally, on a more personal level, all of
the characters' lives are affected by colonialism, whether they are in detention camps or the
Movement or losing their homes and land or trying to repair their fractured families or
dealing with paternalistic colonial administrators. Colonialism is an inescapable reality, even
after it is ostensibly over.
Individuals and the Community
The novel's narrative focuses on the individual, with time given
to Mugo, Mumbi, Gikonyo, Karanja, Kihika, and even minor characters
like General R and Koina. Individual stories are significant, especially Mumbi's, as they
facilitate greater growth for the self and for the community. As for that community, it is also
Ngugi's focus, and one that has attracted a large amount of critical writing discussing whether
or not he successfully managed to convey the struggles of the masses at the same time as he
relayed the individuals' tales. Indeed, some of the individual characters seem as if they are
thinly drawn in order to promote the understanding that they are merely part of the Kenyan
people as a whole, and when individuals do make choices for themselves those choices
reverberate back through the community.
Betrayal, Guilt, and Redemption
Almost every character feels guilty about something in this novel, and those sources of guilt
tend to derive from a betrayal of another character or of the Kenyan people. Mumbi has
betrayed her husband, Karanja has betrayed his people by becoming a homeguard and Chief,
and Mugo has betrayed Kihika. These characters manifest their guilt differently, with both
Mumbi and Mugo eventually taking the path toward redemption while Karanja can only
choose that of exile. Mumbi and Mugo's redemption comes from open confession of their sin
and a willingness to accept the consequences. Mumbi's also comes from being true to herself
and regaining control of her life; she will be able to live out those choices, whereas Mugo's
fate is death. Nevertheless, Mugo's death offers redemption to the community as a whole.
Forgiveness
Many of the characters in this novel do reprehensible things: they betray loved ones and their
community and the Movement, they commit acts of violence, they engage in selfishness and
bitterness, and they compete and fight with each other. Some characters ask for forgiveness
(either directly or subtly), while others do not. Forgiveness is important on both a personal
and communal level, and those levels are related to each other. Individuals must work to
forgive those who have wronged them in order to work together to build a stronger
community. In the vacuum left by British rule, it will be more important than ever for
Kenyans to trust each other, work together, and create a mutually sustaining and fulfilling
community. Mugo's public confession, an act of asking for forgiveness, is significant, and
indicates a model for the future.
Power of Nature
Kenya has extremes of temperature, weather, and landscape; nature has a thematic as well as
literal importance in the novel. Fertile land of one's own (the shambas) signifies autonomy,
independence, and fulfillment. The detention camp located in the hot, barren sandy desert
signifies monotony, despair, emptiness, and estrangement. The sun can be warm and life-
giving or burning-hot and oppressive. Rain can be cleansing or a gloomy omen of troubles to
come. The forest is a place to hide safely as well as a place to commit acts of violence.
Digging in the earth can be sustaining or it can be traumatic (the trench). Ngugi's weaving of
nature into his story is not surprising given its prominence in Kenya's history and society, and
also serves as a useful literary tool to suggest, signify, and convey.
Violence
Violence is an undeniable part of the Movement. Many characters carry out violent acts,
speak positively of violence, or ignore it when it happens in front of them. Others decry and
excoriate it, but usually this happens when the British or their African loyalists do it. Ngugi's
view of violence is thus complex. He understands that violence is necessary to the Mau Mau
because occasionally it is the only tool they have in their quest to throw off their colonial
oppressor. That oppressor uses violence with abandon, so why should the oppressed not rise
up and use violence for their own ends? Ngugi isn't unequivocally supportive of violence,
though, and several of his scenes (such as the scene between Koina and Dr. Lynd) make
the reader uncomfortable and hint at some of the problems of using violence in promoting
human rights.
Silence and Confession
Silence in this novel rarely leads to redemption, whereas confession does. Mugo's silence
about his role in Kihika's death is poisonous, disturbing his own psyche and polluting the
health of the community. It is mistaken for courage and helps create the mythic reputation he
has in the village, but it is false. Silence can also lead to death, as it does for the deaf and
mute Gitogo. Real healing only happens when someone speaks up, confesses, and reveals
secrets. Mumbi's story and the resulting confession from Mugo tear away the facade of unity
and allow a more authentic (albeit painful) reality to emerge; this reality allows for an honest
assessment of the community's divisions and needs, and facilitates a move toward a better
future.

A Grain of Wheat Character List

Mugo
A handsome, introverted, mysterious man who lives in the village and spent time in the
detainment camps. Mugo is viewed by everyone as a hero because he worked with Kihika
and never cracked under pressure. He secretly was the one who betrayed Kihika, which he
eventually admits after hearing Mumbi confide in him regarding her own life story; he
announces he was guilty at the Uhuru celebration, which he originally thought he might
attend in a capacity as savior of the people. He is nervous, full of contradictory thoughts, and
frustrated that people think he is courageous and humble.
Warui
A wise elder of the village who was active in freedom movement in prior decades and is now
preparing for the Uhuru celebrations. He encourages Mugo to speak, and later serves on his
trial after he confesses.
The old woman
A strange and disturbed woman in the village whose deaf and dumb son is killed. She looks
at Mugo in ways that make him uncomfortable. At the end of the novel, he is drawn to her
hut; she thinks he is her son, and then she immediately dies.
Githua
A villager who boasts of being active in the Mau Mau and claims he was maimed in the
Emergency. He likes to tell stories and create his own narrative.
Gitogo
The deaf and dumb son of the old woman. He is nevertheless strong and has many lovers. He
is killed by policemen who assume he is a Mau Mau terrorist.
Waitherero
Mugo's cruel and drunken aunt with whom he lives; he wishes he could kill her, but she dies
of ill health.
Wambui
A woman in the village who looks older than she is. She carried secrets from villages during
the Emergency and became famous for staving off a police search of her person. After Uhuru,
though, she seems demoralized.
Gikonyo
A member of the Mau Mau and husband of Mumbi, he spends years in a detention camp
dreaming of returning to her. He is bitter and disillusioned when he comes back and finds she
has a child by another man. He throws himself into work and becomes wealthy; he is a model
for people in the village. He is injured in the Uhuru celebration, but this allows him to start
working on his attitude toward Mumbi.
Mumbi
The beautiful sister of Kihika who dreams of sacrifice and noble deeds, she falls in love with
Gikonyo when she is young and yearns for him while he is away in the detention camp.
When she hears from Karanja (who also loved her but whom she detests) that Gikonyo is
coming home, she yields to Karanja's advances and bears a child by him. She confides her
story to Mugo, and he in turn tells her he betrayed Kihika. She does not want him or anyone
else to suffer for her brother, though. At the end of the novel she is close to a reconciliation
with Kihika.
Kihika
The brother of Mumbi and a brave freedom fighter in the Mau Mau. He is responsible for
killing DO Robson and taking over Mahee prison, becoming a hero to the people. He is
betrayed by Mugo and is captured and hanged. His life and deeds are legendary, and part of
Uhuru is intended to celebrate him.
Harry Thuku
An early leader of the Movement who is jailed, sparking a processional to free him.
General R
A military man (he served in WWII) whose goals are to get Mugo to speak at Uhuru and to
punish Kihika's betrayer. He is stern and quiet and does not boast or get involved in politics.
When he was young he had a tyrannical father whom he wanted to kill, and was distressed
when his mother stood up for his father even though he beat her. He arrests Mugo and takes
him to trial after Mugo confesses.
Koina
A military man who serves with General R. As a young man he worked for Dr. Lynd but was
bitter against her; along with two other men, he attacked her and her dog. When he sees her
years later he refers to her a ghost.
Karanja
An old friend of Kihika's who unsuccessfully tried to woo Mumbi when they were young.
Karanja is prideful, spiteful, and happy to cooperate with the whites if it means he can lord
over others. While others are fighting or interned, he becomes a homeguard and eventually a
Chief. He also pursues Mumbi and gets her to sleep with him while Gikonyo is away; she
bears his child but refuses to be in a relationship with him. After he is told to step down from
being Chief, he works at Githima and tries to cultivate the good will of Thompson. He is
suspected of having betrayed Kihika; even after Mugo confesses to being the true betrayer,
Karanja remains unhappy and disillusioned.
Mr. Rogers
The European who has the idea to open a Forest Research Station in Githima; he is killed by
a train and does not live to see this happen.
Dr. Henry Van Dyke
A corpulent, drunken meteorologist at the Station who has an affair with Margery Thompson;
he dies after a train strikes his car.
Mwaura
A Kenyan who works at Githima and often annoys Karanja.
John Thompson
The DO at Githima, Thompson was once destined for an illustrious career, but the hunger
strike and violence led by Mugo at Rira ruined his fortunes. He now oversees Githima and
lives with his wife Margery, although their relationship is fraught. He is preparing to return to
Britain because he does not want to remain when in Githima blacks are in power.
Mrs. Dickinson
The librarian at Githima and girlfriend of Roger Mason. She orders Karanja around, which
Karanja resents.
Margery Thompson
The beautiful and buxom wife of Thompson, she carries on an affair with Van Dyke until he
dies. She is restless with Thompson but later feels closer to him once they are leaving.
Dr. Lynd
A plant pathologist who works at Githima, she is unmarried and likes living in Kenya even
though the time of white rule is passing. She is naive and self-centered, thinking she is good
to Africans although she is actually condescending towards them. Years ago, Koina, her
houseboy, and his compatriots assaulted her; they also killed her beloved dog, which looms
large in her psyche. Thompson finds her annoying.
Jomo Kenyatta
Although he does not appear in the text, Kenyatta is a force behind the actions of the text. He
is a leader of the Kenyan people and thrown into jail by the British. He does not approve of
the Mau Mau, and is inspiring to the people.
The MP
The representative of the village who rarely visits. He cares more about his own power and
position than his constituents. He is untruthful about buying Burton's land when Gikonyo
comes to see him about a loan.
Waruhui
Gikonyo's father, a hardworking squatter and lothario who got rid of Wangari and Gikonyo,
their son.
Wangari
Gikonyo's mother. She usually takes Mumbi's side in the martial conflict and criticizes her
son.
Mbugua
Mumbi, Kihika, and Kariuki's father; he is an elder, a warrior, and a farmer. He is well-
respected and favors his son Kihika.
Wanjiku
Mumbi, Kihika, and Kariuki's mother. She is critical of her daughter for leaving Gikonyo.
Kariuki
The brother of Kihika and Mumbi, and the son of Mbugua and Wanjiku. He is not a member
of the Mau Mau, and Karanja helps secure him a position in secondary school.
The Reverend Jackson Kigondu
A well-respected Christian who encourages Kihika to go to school. He was active in the
revivalist movement and considered himself a Christian soldier. He was killed by the Mau
Mau.
Teacher Muniu
A teacher at Kihika's school who does not like being corrected by the young. Plans to beat
Kihika publicly.
Wambuku
A friend of Mumbi and Njeri's who is initially involved with Kihika but becomes depressed
when he leaves for the forest. Later, Mugo saves him from a beating she received while
working on the trench. She is killed, and was possibly pregnant.
Njeri
A friend of Mumbi and Wambuku who follows Kihika to the forest because of her love for
him; she dies in battle.
Gatu
A man who is in Gikonyo's concentration camp. He seems unbreakable, maintaining his joy,
positivity, and strength even when he is beaten and tortured. He inspires the other men, but
Gikonyo becomes angry at him because Gikonyo thinks it is easy to be strong when one does
not have a woman like Mumbi. Gatu is murdered at the camp.
Roger Mason
Mrs. Dickinson's boyfriend.
Nyamu
The party Secretary who opens the Uhuru ceremony.
Reverend Morris Kingori
Leads the prayer at the Uhuru celebration.