Babbitt 12-Tone Rhythmic Structure and The Electronic Medium

Twelve-Tone Rhythmic Structure and the Electronic Medium
Author(s): Milton Babbitt

Source: Perspectives of New Music, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 49-79
Published by: Perspectives of New Music
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TWELVE-TONE RHYTHMIC STRUCTURE
AND THE ELECTRONIC MEDIUM
MILTON BABBITT
To PROCEED froman assertion ofwhatmusichas beento an asser-

tionofwhatmusic,therefore, mustbe, is to commita familiarfallacy;
toproceedfroman assertion oftheproperties oftheelectronic medium
to an assertionof what music producedby this mediumtherefore
mustbe, is notonlyto committhesamefallacy(and thusdo fallacies
make strangebedfellows),but to misconstrue that compositional
revolutionof whichthe electronicmediumhas been the enabling
instrument. For this revolution has effected, summarilyand almost
completely, a transfer of the limits of musical composition fromthe
limitsof thenonelectronic mediumand thehumanperformer, notto
the limitsof thismostextensiveand flexibleof media but to those
morerestrictive, moreintricate, far less well understood limits:the
and
perceptual conceptualcapacitiesofthehumanauditor.Therefore,
althougheverymusicalcomposition justifiablymaybe regardedas an
experiment, the embodiment of hypotheses as to certainspecificcon-
ditionsof musicalcoherence,any electronically realizedcomposition
whichemploysresourcessingularlyobtainableby electronic means,
in addition,will incorporate-inthatGedankenexperiment whichis
thementalactofcomposition--certain premisesthatareeitherseverely
circumscribed by the limited confirmed knowledgeof the natureof
thesecapacitiesor by isolatedfactsofmusicalperception, themselves
obtainedmainlywiththeassistanceofelectronic for
media, incorpora-
tionintothepremisesoftheparticular work.Even thecomposerwho
employsthe RCA Synthesizer, whichmostconveniently permitsthe
mergingand interaction of the "Gedanken"and the "Actual"experi-
mentsby allowingimmediateaural testof the prescribedeventsat
each stage of compositional realization,cannotemploythe medium
and
fluently efficiently so
by doingwithouta sacrificeof all but the
mostlocal pointsof continuity and interrelationship. If moresecurely
foundedand ambitiouslystructuredelectroniccompositionis not,
then,to haltto awaitthoseperhapslongdelayedinvestigations which
may,in turn,produceadequatelygeneralresultsonlyin an unfore-
0 49
?

PERSPECTIVES OF NEW MUSIC
seeablydistantfuture,it probablymusthypothesize in a moretradi-

tionalmanner,by incorporating intoits postulateswidelytestedand
confirmed statements regarding theperception ofmusic,derivedfrom
successfulpast experiments, thatis, frommusicalcompositions. In
this consequential respect,electronically producedcompositions can
differamongthemselves and fromnon-electronically producedcompo-
sitionsin termsof theextentto whichthehypotheses theyexemplify
alreadyhavebeenwidelytestedand confirmed, thatis, thedegreeto
whichtheyincorporate "traditional" laws intothe postulatesof the
work,and alsothedegreetowhichthese"traditional" laws areincorpo-
ratedintothescopeof theruleof substitution1 fordescriptive terms,
foundedeitheronvalidatedproperties ofsimilitude or on hypothesized
properties of similitude, so thatin thelattercase theseproperties are
themselves being tested by the composition, while in the former case
of validatedproperties it is ratherthe significance of the similitudes
withregardto a specificproperty thatis beingtested.At theextreme
of "nontraditionalism" is the selectionof an uninterpreted formal
no
system, interpreted instances of which have been musicallyvali-
dated,alongwithcoordinative rules which,likewise,have not been
validatedindependently. In such a case, theprobability thatsuch an
unrestricted choicefromsuch a largenumberof possibilities at both
stageswill yielda significant resultis extremely small,or the result
itselfis likelyto be virtuallytrivial,that is, hardlyto admitnon-
verification.
In constructing a musicalsystemfor an electronically produced
work,whetherthis systembe exemplified in but a singlework or
a body of works,thereis a particulartemptation to proceed in
this "nontraditional" fashion,since one can presumeas the values
associatedwith notationally separable components(the range of
discretevaluesthateachcomponent ofthemusicaleventmayassume)
thosewhichare obtainableas the resultof the medium'sproviding
measurableandregulablevaluesoffrequency, intensity, duration, and
spectrum to a degree of differentiationfar at
exceedingthe, least,
presentdiscriminative capacityof the auditoryapparatusunderthe
mostgeneroustemporal conditions, andfurther providing thosevalues
at time pointswhose precise specifications similarly can produce
measurably differentquantitieswhichsurpassthediscriminative and
memorative abilitiesof the most appropriately qualifiedobservers.
Surelyit is in the domainof temporalcontrolthat the electronic
1 The rule of substitutionmay be regarded informallyas providingthe transforma-
tion of a validated statementinto a statementwhich is less validated by virtue of the
incompleteknowledge of the object designated by the substitutedterms or of the
relations among the objects designated by the terms,for the purpose of testing the
second statement.
. 50
"

TWELVE-TONE RHYTHMIC STRUCTURE AND THE ELECTRONIC MEDIUM
mediumrepresents themoststriking advanceoverperformance instru-
ments, for such control has not
implications only for those events
whichare normally and primarily termed"rhythmic" butforall other
notationally apparentlyindependent areas: speed and flexibility of
frequency succession,timerateof changeof intensity, and important
components of what is perceivedin conjunction as tone-color, such
as envelope-whichis merelythe timerate of change of intensity
duringthe growthand decay stages-and deviationsof spectrum,
frequency, and intensity duringthe quasi or genuinelysteady-state.
Indeed,it is thisimposition oftimecontrolupontimbralcomponents
whichis, at least partially,responsibleforthe emphasis,the exag-
geratedemphasis,on the purelysonic possibilitiesof the electronic
medium;but whereasnot even the numberof relevantdimensions
of tonecolorare generallyknown(in the sense of reproducing the
dimensionality, not the identical characteristics,of non-electronic
timbre)thebasisofperceived homogeneity oftimbreoveran extended
or
registralspan-fixed, limitedly variable inputsignal subjectedto
the resonanceinfluenceof a fixedformant-isknown,and is syn-
theticallyverifiable and easilyobtainedelectronically. But theprecise
placement oftimepointsand theirassociateddurations, thougheasily
and exactlyspecifiable, takesoneintothearea ofrhythm, whichis not
only of centralconcern in contemporary compositionalthought, non-
electronicas wellas electronic, butthemostrefractory andmysterious
perceptually. There are veryfewusefulresultsavailableconcerning
thecorrelation betweenspecified andperceived duration;evenspecified
identityappears to be not necessarilyperceptuallyinvariantwith
regardto a contextual situation,and thosebases ofsimilitude ofdura-
tionalsuccessioninferred fromtraditional contexts-multiplication of
the constituent durationalvalues by a positiveconstant,usuallyan
integeror its reciprocal-arenot of generalapplicability when the
associatedpitchsuccessionor pitchcontouris altered,or the dura-
tionalsuccessionis not endowedwith obviouscues. With so little
information of thesetypesto providethe postulatesof a rhythmic
system,applicableto nonelectronic music and extrapolableto the
electronicrealm, it is more fruitful to examinea musicalpitch-class
system, one which by now can be regardedas "traditional," which
incorporates qualitative timeproperties intoitsveryruleofformation.
For, in the extensivediscussionswhichhave surrounded the twelve-
tone system,be theythosewhichhave concernedthemselveswith
inferring or imposingrhythmic schemata,"serial"or non-"serial,"
fromor upon twelve-tonecompositions,or those questioningthe asso-
ciative, articulativerole of rhythmas a functionof characteristicsof
S51

the pitchstructure,therehas appearedto be littleawarenessof or

concernwiththeimmanently temporalnatureofthetwelve-tone pitch-
class system.To theendofexamining thistemporal natureand deriv-
ing a quantitative ofthesystem,I proposeto
temporalinterpretation
considera fewstructuralpropertiesof the systemwhichincorporate
differentmodesof dependency upon temporalfactors.
A twelve-tone set can be characterized as a collectionof twelve
differentpitch-classes2 (or, more conveniently, as the integersfrom
0 to 11 inclusive,denotingtheseclasses) orderedby the relationof
temporalprecedence(designated<) or,equivalently, temporalante-
cedence(designated>). The collectionis strict simplyorderedwith
regardto thisrelation; that is, the relation is asymmetric, transitive,
and connected(and, of course,irreflexive)3 in the collection,and-
therefore-isindeeda relationwhichinducesa "serial"ordering.(It
should be emphasizedthat this is the total meaningof the term
"serial":it impliesnothingwithregardto the operationsupon such
an ordering,or the natureof the elementsordered.)This ordering
is the basis forthe assignment of ordernumbersto the pitchclass
numbers, fortheseintegersoforder(0-11 inclusive)arestrictsimply
orderedwithregardto the usual interpretation of < as less than,
and > as greaterthan.
At thispoint,as a means of informally evaluatingthe temporal
constraints imposedby the principle of formation of a twelve-tone
set,I shall assume on purelyempiricalgrounds that thereare eleven
qualitatively significanttemporalrelationships which can hold be-
tweentwo musical(say, pitch) events.Let x and y designatethese
events,and let a leftparenthesis signifythe timepointinitiation of
a
theeventand rightparenthesis signify the time point termination.
Then,theelevenrelationships are:
of x precedes
1. x) < (y. [thatis, the termination
ofy]
theinitiation
2. (x < (y; x) < y); but x) x (y.
3. (x < (y; x) < y); y) < x).
2 For terms and notationnot fullyexplained here and later in this article, see my
articles: "Twelve-Tone Invariants as Compositional Determinants," The Musical
Quarterly,April 1960, pp. 246-259 (henceforthabbreviated: TT); "Set Structure
as a CompositionalDeterminant,"Journal of Music Theory, April 1961, pp. 72-94
(henceforthabbreviated: SS).
3sA relation R is irreflexiveon a collection: if for any elementx of the collection,
xRx does not hold, i.e. x cannot have the relation (such as temporalprecedence) to
itself.
R is transitive:if for any elementsx, y, z: if xRy and yRz, then xRz.
R is connected: if between any two elementsof the collectionthe relation can be
said to hold or not hold.
R is asymmetric:if xRy, then yRx cannot hold.
. 52 -

4. (x < (y; y) < x).
5. 6. 7. 8. are derivedfrom1. 2. 3. 4. respectively
by
substituting x for y, and y for x.
9. (x Q (y; (y Q (x; x) < y); y) Q x).
10. (x Q (y; (y (x; x) < y).
11. (x Q (y; (y Q (x; y) < x).
Given any two pitchclasses of a twelve-tone set, onlyfourof the
elevenpossibilitiescan be madeto holdwithoutviolatingthemeaning
of theordernumbers.
The collectionof orderedpairs: ordernumber,pitch-class number,
each ofwhichuniquelydetermines an elementof a set,is a function,
in whichthe ordernumbersmay be consideredas definingthe do-
main,and thepitch-class numbersthevaluesof thedomains;in this
sense,pitch-class is, not inconsequentially, a "function" of a relative
timepoint,designated by the ordernumber. The function is biunique,4
possessing-therefore-a uniqueinverse, which defines a twelve-tone
set, and the ordered pairs associated with the elements are alterna-
tively to be considered as a
defining mapping5of the orderedchro-
maticscale ontoitselfin termsofeitherordernumbersor pitch-class
numbers(the two are equivalentin this,and onlythis,case). The
pitch-class numbersthemselves can be regardedas intervalnumbers,
numerically the
characterizing intervalclass by the unique integer
arrivedat by subtracting(mod. 12) the pitch-classnumberassoci-
atedwithordernumber0 fromthepitch-class numberoftheelement
in question.This definition of intervalis extendedto definethe
directedpitchclass distancebetweenany two elements,and when
appliedto successiveelements(thoseelementswhoseordernumbers
differby one) yieldsthe familiarintervalclass numbersuccession,
whichwhen associatedwiththe appropriateordernumbersis also
strictsimplyordered.Conventionally, the ordernumberassociated
withthe intervalclass numberdetermined by the largerof the two
ordernumbersassociatedwiththe pitchclass numbersinvolvedin
thedetermination oftheintervalwill be thatinterval's ordernumber.
This collectionof orderedpairs (ordernumber,intervalclass num-
a function,
ber) is, similarly butonlyin thecase of an all-interval set
is it a biuniquefunction;in all othercases, it is a mappingof the
integers1-11 into,ratherthanonto,themselves. It is thissuccession
whichis preservedundertransposition, but beforeconsideringthe
usualtwelve-tone operations uponthedefined relations, I shallexamine
4 In the sense of a one-to-onerelationshipbetween order number and pitch number.
5 A mapping is a law that associates with any element of a domain an element of
anotherdomain,which may be itself,as in this instance.
0 53-

further thestructure of theset in termsof temporalprecedenceand
antecedencerelations.In strictanalogywithpitch-classor interval
class intervalnumbers,one may speak of orderintervalnumbers,
definingthe directedtemporaldistancebetweenpitch-classes,or
intervalclasses,intermsofthenumberofintervening pitchorinterval
classes. Althoughthe successionof numbersso determined by suc-
cessiveset elementsis triviallya successionof l's for any formof
the set, the orderintervalnumberassociatedwitha particularpair
of pitch-classes or intervalclasses is significant fora large number
of used and usefulcompositional techniques.Considerfirsta given
set, presentedat least twice,on each occasionpartitioned(instru-
mentallyor registrally or dynamically or etc.) on the principleof
identicalextracted intervalsequences.Total pitchorderis preserved,
and thesuccessionin eachpartpreserves orderedintervalcontent, but
the durationalrhythm in each part is not,in general,preservedor
preservable. The veryfactand thenatureof thenumberof different
ways of such a presentation are entirely determined by the ordering
of theparticularset.
These are (32) (23) partitions of a set,6withtheconstituent parts
represented linearly. The case of such an orderingwhichpreserves
the orderintervalnumbersof each extractedpartis obtainableonly
whenthesethas beenconstructed originally through theidentification
of orderintervalswithpitch-class intervals, not merelythosedeter-
minedby successivepitch-class elements.The rhythmic implications
of such intervalassociativeproceduresare as obvious as is their
dependenceupon the ordernumberintervalfulfilling the role of a
metric.
Invariantsunder transposition similarlyinvolvetemporalorder
criteria.While pitchintervalsuccessionis preserved,and no order
number,pitchnumbercouplecan be, one of the mostgeneral,and
least obviousof such invariants is the equal numberof orderinver-
sions associatedwith transposedsets whose transposition numbers
are complementary. This measure of the derangement of the order
numbersofsetsin relationto a reference set also serves as a reminder
that,foranygivenset,a transposition of thatset can be represented
as a
equivalently permutation of pitch-class numbersor ordernum-
bers, for indeed a permutation, in this context, is an operationon
relativetemporalpositions.
The identification ofdifferent transpositional formsofa setthrough
identity of extracted pitchsequencescreates, in the relatedcase
as
6 Two S-elementand three 2-elementpartitions.
* 54 *

II f
S
/ I I/
\ r
Ex. la
of intervalsequences, a rhythmicsituation,with the temporal attri-

butes of the set determiningthe precise nature of such identities.
-/\I I I
',/
\ I i
I
\ \
\\
Ex.2a
Ex. 2a
is the same partitioningas Ex. la, with
9
55.

Ak I \I
wr II \\
\
I \ /
I I I
\ /
I \ I
Ex.
2b
Ex. 2b
the transposition at 11, identically withregardto pitch

partitioned
sequences.
Somewhatdifferent in nature,but familiarly
consequential, is the
temporalroleofthecombinational ofa collection
identification within
a set witha contentidenticalcollectionin anothertransposition of
the set. This property can be consideredeitherby observingthose
collectionswhose contentis held fixedby a transposition number
(that is, as a generalinvariant)or by considering the specificset
structure requiredto enablesuch collectionsto remainfixedin pre-
assigned order positions.For a simpleinstance,any collectionof
fourpitch-classes containing twotritones mustmap intoitselfunder
transposition by 6. Thus (Ex. 3a), the collectionsrepre-
pitch-class
Order0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
T=6 g 1
Order 11 8 6 4 6 1 1 4 6 8 6 11
Intervals: a b c d e f f d c b e a
Ex. 3a
sentedin each set formby ordernumbers0, 2, 8, 11, are identical
whilethetemporalpermutation of the fourelementswithinthe col-
lection-of0, 2, 8, 11 into 11, 8, 2, 0-can be represented cyclically:
(1 4) (2 3); similarly collections
the represented by ordernumbers
1, 3, 7, 9 and 4, 5, 6, 10. The similarity ofpermutationswithinthe
collectionscan be seen to be a result of set structure, is not
and
a generalinvariant.
The orderintervalnumberassociatedwithany givenpitchdyad
of a set undergoes, undertransposition, an alteration-ornon-altera-
9
56.

tion-of value dependinguponthe specificpitchorderingof the set.
Thus, in the set of Ex. la, the undirectedorderintervalnumber
associatedwiththe pitchdyad G-C#foreach transposition number
is: to = 11, tl = 6, t2 = 4, t3 = 8, t4 = 1, = 6, to = 11, t7 = 6,
ts
t8 = 4, etc.The temporal aspectsofsuchproperties of set structure,
particularly in theirmore complex,but easily inferred, extensions
are as manifoldas theyare inescapable,but sincethe desirehereis
to examineselected,representative manifestations of a rhythmic na-
tureratherthanto attempt to exhaustthesubject,I turnto those,in
somerespectsstrongly dissimilar,temporal factorsinvolvedin someof
theprimary invariants associatedwiththeoperation ofinversion.
The fundamental of
interdependence temporal order and inversion
can be inferred immediately from the of
possibility defining theinver-
sion of a lineardyadin termsof interchange of ordernumbers;any
pitchdyadcan be mappedintoitselfunderinversion and transposition
by theintervaldetermined by thedyadin its originalorder.Statedin
anotherway,theintervallic resultofreversing theorderofpitch-class
elementsis complementation, whichis ofcoursetheintervallic result
ofinversion.
The mostfamiliarinvariantunderinversion, made so by its con-
stantand variedapplicationby Webern,is thatwhichnecessarily
obtainsunder transposition by an even transposition number:the
retentionof those, and only those, order number,pitch number
couplesof the S whichare a tritoneapartand whosepitchnumbers
are equal to onehalfofthetransposition number(TT, p. 254). The
generalization ofthiscriterion providesa means ofdefining 12 equiva-
lenceclasses'of12 inversionally relatedsetpairseach,amongthe144
so relatedpairs;each pair withina so-determined class establishesa
successionofpitchdyadsconsisting ofpitch-classes ofthesameorder
number,whichis a permutation ofthesimilarly arrivedat succession
of each oftheotherpairsof theclass. Obviously,such a givenpitch
dyadappearsinoneandonlyoneequivalenceclass,so thatsucha class
is uniquelyidentified by a singleso-constructed pitchdyad. The 12
pairsofsetsofsucha class are closelyanalogousto those12 pairsof
transposed relatedsets whichproducea successionof dyadicallyde-
termined interval numbers, all ofwhichareequal; in thepresentcase,
thesumsofthepitchnumbers ofeachpairareequal. This unique(for
each equivalenceclass) numberis called the "index"of the equiva-
lenceclass.
7 An equivalence relation R is a relation that is reflexive,transitive,symmetric,
and connected.
. 57
"

In contradistinction is that partitioninginto equivalence classes of
the 144 pairs with regard to the 12 total transpositionsof a set pair
which preservethe succession of intervalsdeterminedby pitch-classes
of the same order number,or, perhaps more simply,the coupling of
a fixed,so computedintervalnumberwith a duplicatedordernumber.
Exactly two pairs from each of six such equivalence classes here
belong to the same equivalence class formed according to the
previous criterion.
All such 144 pairs reveal the same patternof intervallicrepetition,
that is, the order intervals determinedby repeated intervals are
invariant,since this propertyis determinedby the tritone related
pitch-classesin S. If we let the firstsix lettersof the alphabet denote
the six intervalswhich can occur (even, when the transpositioninter-
val betweenthe componentsof the pair is even; odd, when it is odd),
then the patternof repetitionof the set of Ex. Sa is: a, b, c, d, e, f,
f, d, c, b, e, a. The order interval11, for instance,is associated with
a differentpitch interval for each set pair in an equivalence class
determinedby the firstcriterionabove, that dependenton the sum of
the pitch-numbers, and--naturally--isassociated with the same pitch
intervalfor each set pair in an equivalence class determinedby the
second criterion,thatdependenton totaltransposition.But the pattern
of pitchdyad repetition,and, therefore,the associated orderintervals,
are determinednot by the structureof the set, but by the interval
between pitch numbers of the same order number. For the set of
Ex. 3, the patternof identicaldyad repetitionfortranspositioninter-
val 3 (as determinedby elementsof order number 0) is: a, a, b, b,
c, c, d, e, e, f, d, f; for interval 9 it is: a, b, c, d, e, f, e, c, d, a,
f, b (Ex. 3b and 3c). The patternis identicalfor pairs belonging to
the same equivalence class in the second sense (although the actual
pitch contentof these intervalsis different in each case); the pattern
is the same for exactly two pairs in each equivalence class in the
firstsense.
Closely related to these characteristicswhich impose rhythmic
patternsof repetitionwith associated qualitative values of duration
on pairs (and, by simple extension,to any number) of inversionally,
and-therefore-transpositionallyrelated sets, is a propertywhich is
difficultto characterize informallyin its most general application.
(See TT, pp. 256-257.) However, both for purposes of later dis-
cussion and forits significanceas a temporalaspect of the twelve-tone
systeman instanceof this propertymust be displayed.
* 58 *

T3I a a b b c c d e e f d f
Ex. 3a
TQI a b c d e f e c d a f b
Ex. Sb
Ex. 4b is a duplicationof the succession of three-partsimultaneities
of Ex. 4a, although the temporal relation of the transpositionally
related dyads and the inversionallyrelated single line has been
exactly interchanged;this is an instance of intervallicstructurein-
variance under a prescribed alterationof the temporal order and a
consequent alterationof the pitch content of the successive simul-
taneities. The propertygeneralizes to any number of inversionally
relatedcomponents,with any numberof transpositionally relatedlines
a
constituting component, and-of course-to any total transposition.
The identificationof inversionallyrelated sets through extracted
intervalor pitch sequences is again dependenton the temporalstruc-
ture of the set and the statementof conditionsfor such a representa-
tion in a pre-definednumber of parts with a specified number of
(S)
(T7S)
__
(T8I)
(5 5 5 5 5)
Interval
Content: 4 7 10 6 2
Content:
11 2 5 1 9
Ex. 4a
A(S)
(T7S)
(5
Interval (54 55 55 5
5 5
5)
Content: 7 10 6 2
Content:
11 2 5 1 9
Ex. 4b
.
59"

elementsin each part mustincorporate a conditionupon the order
relationsofS.
That the representative propertiesthat have been and shall be
discussedare not to be construedas compositional imperativesor
prescriptions to the end of securingtemporal characteristics
from
the properties of the twelve-tone system, but as temporalattributes
whichinherein thesystemand must,therefore, be manifestcomposi-
tionally,is mostapparentin thenextcase: theintervalsuccessionof
retrograde-inverted relatedsets is identicalto withincompleteorder
reversal.I shallforegofurther discussionofthisproperty beyondthe
indication that the successionof simultaneously formedintervals
determined by RI relatedsetssymmetrically orderedis intervallically
symmetrical aboutthe midinterval (or intervals).The followingis
a characteristic pair:
- S
Succession:
Interval 11 3 11 1 92 4 53 3 5 4 2 9 1 11 3 11
T7RI
Ex. 5
The meansofformation ofequivalenceclassesofpairsbytheapplica-
tionofthisprincipleis obvious.
As a finalobservation, in orderto indicatethe dependenceof a
concept which is not normally regardedas temporalin characterupon
temporal considerations, I shall use the of
concept combinatoriality.
(See SS, pp. 74ff.) Whateverthenumberof set formscontainedin
an aggregate,and whateverthenumberof pitchelementseach form
contributes to the aggregate,qualitativetemporalconstraintsare
necessarilyinvolved. In the simplecase of hexachordalinversional
combinatoriality, so often encounteredin Schanberg'smusic, the
formation of an aggregateby two inversionally relatedhexachords
requires the statement that the pitch-classwith order number6 in
onehexachord may not be stated untilafterthestatement ofthepitch-
classwithordernumber5 in theotherhexachord, and viceversa;this
is a necessarycondition forsucha hexachordal construction.
The licenseofsimultaneous statement ofpitch-classeswhoseorder
is
intervalnumber 1, which has been statedverbally and employed
compositionally is-most strikingly-atemporalcondition.Such a
statement ofa setcan be regardedas a strictpartialordering(a serial
orderingminustheproperty ofconnectivity) withregardto therela-
tionof <, or a simpleorderingwithregardto (the equals sign
0 60 - ?-

here denoting simultaneity). The admission of this possibility in-
creases from four to seven the number of temporal relationships
which can obtain between two events, from the total of 11 listed
above, and allows a twelve-toneset to be statedtotallyin termsof any
number of ordernumbersranging integrallyfrom0 to 11 inclusive.
With relationto the serial orderingof the set, such a procedurecan
be regarded as a mapping of the order numbers into themselves,
subject to the condition that if order number m maps into order
numbern (with n < m) then ordernumberm + 1 maps into n or
n + 1. The absence of any constrainton spatial orderingmakes pos-
sible, as in the related case of the spatial distributionof a set or
aggregate in any time distribution,the representation-spatially-of
any set by any otherset; this overidentificationsuggests that a serious
study of this is
question cruciallynecessary. (David Lewin's article
elsewhere in this periodical does present a solution to one aspect of
this problem,and suggests paths forfutureinvestigation.--Ed.)
The constructionof a quantitativetemporalsystemby interpreting
pitch numbers as temporal values, since order numbers themselves
are "ordinal" temporal values, and thus constructinga "twelve-tone
rhythmicsystem"can be viewed eitheras a reinterpretation of pitch
numbersso as to assure isomorphismbetweenthe two systems,or as
assigning temporalinterpretations to the uninterpretedterms of the
finitenumerical equal differencestructureof which both the pitch
and rhythmicsystemswill be exemplifications. It seems reasonable to
require, in the light of the preceding discussion, that such an inter-
pretationsatisfya number of general conditions.It must not reduce
the possibilitiesor range of applicabilityof such qualitativetemporal
characteristicsas those discussed above; it should provide only a
substitutionfor the relation of precedence and antecedence of a
relation of measured precedence and antecedence. It must interpret
the entireextensionalmeaning of pitch-classnumbers and those con-
cepts which are formulatedin termsof pitch-classnumbers.It must
provide for such concepts being endowed with an interpretation
tenable in terms of musical perception,so that the system so con-
structedwill be autonomouslyclosed, not merelyby formal
analogy
with the pitch-classes,so that the totalityof, at most, 48
temporally
foundedsets which can be formedfroma given set will be
justifiably
separable fromthe 12! permutationsof the temporal equivalents of
pitch-classnumbers, and so that the invariants associated with the
transformations of the pitch systemwill have independentanalogs in
the temporalsystem.
S61

Manifestly, the interpretation of set numbersas multiplesof a

durationalunit does not satisfytheseminimalconditions, however
acceptable duration may appear as the primitive constituentof a
of
description temporalperception. There is no apparent basis for
constructing duration classes by designating as elementsof the same
durational equivalenceclassthosedurations whichdiffer by a multiple
of 12 or anyothernumber.The temporalanalogof pitchintervalis
translatable onlyas "thedifference betweendurations." Even without
arguing the dubious perceptual status of this notion,the ordered
successionof such differences remainsinvariantundertransposition
if and onlyif one assumesdifference classes as a resultof applying
transposition modularly, and therefore embracingthe assumptionof
durationclasses in itsmost unrealistic form,so thatthesuccessionof,
say, a quarter-note durationfollowedby a dottedquarter-note dura-
tioncreatesan "interval" equal to thatcreatedby a dotted half-note
followed bya sixteenth. Naturally, thesameresultis obtainedwhether
one ostensibly avoidsthisdilemmaby interpreting a giventransposi-
tionas a permutation ofordernumbers, or facesit fullyby modularly
addingto each durationa durationequal to theunitdurationmulti-
pliedby thetransposition number.(This is preciselywhathas been
done compositionally and statedverballyby thosewho most vehe-
mentlyand precipitously havesincerenounced thetwelve-tone system
as "old-fashioned serialism"and "exhausted."They have revealed
significantlytheirprofound comprehension ofthenatureofthesystem
by "inventing" the notion of "double series"to accomplishwhathas
just been described. The "two" series are totallyequivalentrepresenta-
tionsof a set, one in termsof pitchnumbers,the otherin termsof
ordernumbers.)
This unsatisfactory analog of interval,in all of the ramifications
derivable from the earlier discussionof invariants, shouldsuffice to
closethediscussion of this interpretation. But a few otherdeficiencies
perhapsshould be notedbriefly.The analogyof pitch properties
dependent uponcorrelation ofequal ordernumbersoftwo (or more)
set formscannot,in general,be fulfilled underthis interpretation.
Combinatorially relateddurational setformsmustdependuponequal-
ityofthesumofdurationsoftheconstituent set segments,and there-
forecombinatoriality, almostcontradictorily, does notholdin general
undertotaltransposition of the component set elements.
The apparentinsistence uponthenecessity ofthetemporal interpre-
tationtranslating completely the attributes of the pitchsysteminto
temporaltermsmustnotbe regardedas an insistence uponcomplete
analogy for analogy's sake or as an unawareness of the differences
? 62 ?

betweentemporaland pitch elements.On the contrary,it is to justify
the constructionof a systemwhich will impose constraintsupon the
temporalelementsof a compositionwith a comparableeffectupon the
nature and extentof the inter-event influencein the rhythmicdomain
to thatof thepitchsystemin its domain. As a system,it should possess
unique propertiesindependentof pitchassociation,as the pitchsystem
possesses propertiesindependentof quantitativetemporalvalues.
To this end, since durationis a measure of distance between time
points, as interval is a measure of distance between pitch points,
we begin by interpretinginterval as duration. Then, pitch num-
ber is interpretableas the point of initiationof a temporal event,
that is, as a time-pointnumber.If this number is to be furtherinter-
pretable as a representativeof an equivalence class of time points and
the durational interval with regard to the firstsuch element, it is
necessarymerelyto imbed it in a metricalunit,a measure in the usual
musical metrical sense, so that a recurrenceof succession of time
pointsis achieved,while the notionof meteris made an essentialpart
of the systematicstructure.The equivalence relation is statable as
"occurringat the same time point with relationto the measure." The
"ascending" ordered"chromaticscale" of twelve time points,then, is
a measure divided into twelve equally spaced time points, with the
metrical signature probably determinedby the internalstructureof
the time-pointset, and with the measure now correspondingin func-
tion to the octave in the pitch-classsystem. A time-pointset, then,
is a serial orderingof timepointswithregardto <. At the outset,I do
not wish to attemptto avoid the manifestdifferencesbetween the
elementsof the pitchsystemand thoseofthetime-pointsystem,thatis,
perceptual-not formal--differences. A pitchrepresentativeof a pitch-
class system is identifiablein isolation; a time-pointrepresentative
cannot conceivablybe, by its purely dispositionalcharacter. But an
examinationof a time-pointset will clarifythe systematicmeanings,
and the reasonable musical meanings associated with these new
concepts.
S: 0,0 1,3 2,11 3,4 4,1 5,2 6,8 7,10
8,5 9,9 10,7 11,6

Ex. 6
Ex. 6 is a time-pointset analog of the pitch set of Ex. 1, whose
numericalrepresentationas numbercouples is indicated.The metrical
. 63 -

signatureis chosen in the light of the hexachordalcombinatorial

structureof the set. Since durationis simplythe directeddistance
betweentimepoints,the notateddurationsare not obligatorily the
"actual"durationsof the event,be it represented in termsof pitch
or registeror timbreor dynamics, etc.,initiatedat a timepoint;the
notatedduration,underthisinterpretation, mayrepresentan actual
durationfollowedby a rest to completethe durationbetween
timepoints.
Ex. 6 is but one possiblerepresentation of this set, the unique
representation in the minimal total temporalduration.Obviously,
theminimalnumberofmeasuresrequiredforthestatement ofa given
time-pointset is determinedby the non-modular sum of the intervals
dividedby 12, and is equal to thenumberof octavesrequiredfora
statementoftheanalogouspitchsetstatedas an orderedsimultaneity.
(The minimalstatement the
of a pitchset as a successionis trivially
same forall sets,theintervalof 11.)
In strictconformity withthepresentinterpretation, theinitialthree
measuresofthesetarepresented intwodifferent in
ways thefollowing
examples:
Ex. 7a
Ex. 7b
Bothpreservetheorderoftimepointsof Ex. 6. The firstdurational
intervalofEx. 6 is 3 (intervalunits;theunitherebeingtheduration
of 1/2ofthemeasure);ofEx. 7a it is 15, whichequals 3 (mod. 12).
A durationalinterval, then,represents a class of intervalsequivalent
to withinan integralnumberof measuresdifference, and therecan
be no uniquemaximalstatement of a time-point set. In Ex. 7b the
firsttimepointis repeatedbeforethe statement of the secondtime
point,thuscreating a firstintervalequal to themeasure (thisresource
of"octave"statement can servecompositionally to presentthemeterof
referenceemployed).All threerepresentations mustbe regardedas
no
"all-interval"; durational class other than the 0 class is repeated.
The differencesbetweenExx. 7a and 7b suggestthenecessityfor
examining thenatureof repetition in a time-point set, and it maybe
easily-too easily-assumed that the repeated time pointsof Ex. 7b
derivetheir"justification" fromthe principleand practiceof per-
mittedrepetitionsof a singlepitchin the pitchsystem.However,it
shouldbe observedthatpitchrepetition is nota pitchprocedure, but
? 64 ?

a temporalprocedure,independentof considerationsof the pitch sys-
tem, and, if a time-pointsystemis assumed, the temporalplacements
of such pitch repetitionsare determinedby the time-pointstructure,
not by pitch considerations.Therefore,the repeated time points of
Ex. 7b mustnot be regarded as analogous with pitch repetitions;only
real time duplicationof time points (simultaneous statementsof the
same time point) is analogous, for the absolute intervalbetween the
firsttimepointof Ex. 7b and the thirdis 15, betweenthe second and
third, 3. Pitch repetitiondoes not alter the absolute pitch interval
between the pitches repeated and the eventual successive pitch. The
repetitionsofEx. 7b are analogous to therepresentation of a pitchclass
by different "registral"membersof the class. It should be recalledthat
the concept of registerin the twelve-tonepitch systemwith regard to
all available pitches, foundedmerelyon the assumptionthat no two
non-identicalelementsof the same pitch-classcan be regarded as in
the same register, and that transpositionwhich preserves absolute
intervalsmustbe regarded as preservingthe registralrelationsamong
all the constituentpitch elements, is characterizable as irreflexive,
symmetric,nontransitive,and not connected, with regard to the
relationof "is not a memberof the same registeras"; so, too, is time-
point "register"in the above sense.
The time-pointanalogs of Ex. la and lb (Exx. 8a and 8b)
indicate not only the results of interval (here, durational) sequence
extractionbut, necessarily,the meaning of "transposition"of time-
point sets. Each transpositionpreservesthe durationclass succession,
while effectinga particular permutationof the twelve time-point
classes, and may be thought of as a translationof each time point
a number of time-pointunits (sixteenthsin these examples) to the
right (i.e. as notated) equal to the transpositionnumber. The result
is metric reorientationof the set.
Ex. 9 is a transpositionof the set of Ex. 6 witht = 6; the properties
revealed in Ex. 3 are here evident.It followsthatthe numberof order
inversionsof time points for complementarytranspositionsis equal,
and that-indeed-all the propertiesof pitch transpositionare trans-
lated into equally apparentpropertiesof rhythmictransposition.
The inversionof a time-pointset maps durationsinto theircomple-
ments,mod. the measure. To verifythat a time-pointdyad maps into
itself with interchangeof order number, under inversion,the first
two time points of Ex. 6 are displayed with the set inverted,and
t = 3, in Ex. 10.
The preservationof order number, time-pointnumber couples
. 65 ?

Ex. 8a
" --"-------------------
Ex. 9
T'i 0,3 1,0
Ex. 10
0 66 *

underinversionand an eventransposition
number,in thiscase,t = 2,
is exhibited:
s
T2I
(4.1)
110,7)
Ex. 11
The duplicatedtime-point numbersare, again necessarily,1 and 7.
Ex. 12 displaystheresultant rhythm createdby thesetwoset forms.
It indicatesthat such a rhythmcreatedby set pairs belonging
to the same equivalenceclass of pairs,underthe criterion of equal
sums associatedwith the time-point numbersof the same order
number,will be permutations of the durationsformedby disjunct
timepointdyads (beginningwiththe first);the resultantrhythms
createdby set pairs which are membersof the equivalenceclass
determined bytotaltransposition are simplymetricaldisplacements of
one another.In Ex. 12 thesuccessionof durationsis to be regarded
as: 2, 8, 4, 6, 0, 10, 10, 6, 4, 8, 0, 2. If thefirsttime-point number
of the set were-say-4(T4S), and thus the associatedinversion's
firsttime-point numberwere 10 (T1oI), the successionwould be:
6, 0, 8, 10, 4, 2, 2, 10, 8, 0, 4, 6. This demonstrates also thatthe
distribution of equal durationsin theresultant rhythm dependsupon
the distribution of timepointsin the set whichare relatedby the
time-point interval(duration)6, whilethe specificdurationalvalues
associatedwiththeseequal pairsare determined bythetranspositional
relationship between the two sets; since the distributionof comple-
mentary durations bounded by the same time is
points determined by
the transposition number,thisdistribution is the same forpairs be-
longingto thesame equivalenceclass by totaltransposition.
The further exemplification in time-point and durationaltermsof
inversional invariants, andthequantification ofqualitativeorderprop-
ertiesso arrivedat mayseemsuperfluous in an introductory discussion
such as this.But thetemporalanalogofExx. 4a and 4b maynotbe
immediately obvious,since the propertyinvolvesinvarianceunder
temporalalteration; thatthe resultantdurationalsuccessionsassoci-
. 67-

in the
can be identicalis demonstrated
atedwithsuch presentations
following
example,
5 5
Ex. 13a Ex. 13b

wherethefirst two"interval"complexesofthesuccessionaredisplayed
in linear redistributions,with durationallyequivalentcomponents
statedside by side. The complementsoftheintervalsofExx. 4a and
4b are displayedhere,forthesake ofsimplicity.
The followingexampledisplaysa retrograde formof the set of
Ex. 6, with t = 2:
T2 R(ofEx.6): 0,8 1,9 2,11 3,7 4,0 5,10 6,4
7,3 8,6 9,1 10,5 11,2
Ex. 14
The lowerlineofthefollowing
example
ResultantRhythm
Ex.15
form,witht = 7. Bothformspresent
displaysa retrograde-inversional
thedurationsoftheirrespectiveRI relatedsetsin reverseorder.The
upperlineofEx. 15 is Ex. 6 repeated(mod. themeasure),and the
0 68 -

S: 0,0 1,3 2,11 3,4
Duration T2 2: 0,2 1,11 4 2,3 6 3,10

Numbers: 4,1 5,2 6,8 7,10 8,5
0 10 5,0
9,9
10 6,6 6 7,44 8,9
10,7 11,6
9,5 010,7 2 11,8
Ex. 12
T S: 4,0 5,1 6,7 7,9
9,3 10 5 11,6 6,10
T7R: 7,8 8,11
Ex. 19

two RI related lines display, in their resultantrhythm,a symmetry

of intervallicoccurrencessuch as that discussed with regard to Ex. 5.
It now should be apparentthatthe "twelvetime-pointclass system"is
structurallyisomorphic with the twelve-tonepitch-class system. It
can be regarded as an interpretationof that permutationgroup of
order 48 at most, where the group elementsare the permutationsof
the twelve time-pointclasses specifiedby the transformationof the
system,or by the associated permutationmatrices, with the group
operation,matrix multiplication.Therefore, such special character-
istics of set structureas those permitting,say, the "combinational"
concept of combinatoriality, in time-pointterms,simply involves the
constructionof time-pointaggregates by the componentsof appropri-
ately related set forms.The structuralcharacteristicsof the set that
assures such resourcesare directlytranslatablefromthe pitchdomain.
The firsthexachordof Ex. 6 and the firsthexachord of the combina-
toriallyrelated inversionare so translated:
0,0 1,3 2,11 3,4 4,1 5,2
0,9 1,6 2,10 3,5 4,8 5,7

Ex. 16
Each time point occurs once and only once; beyond this contrapuntal
condition,the time-pointaggregate-as the pitch aggregate-has no
unique representation.Indeed, even a minimal representationis not,
in general,unique. For example,in Ex. 16, the inversionalcomponent
requires four measures for its minimal representation,while the set
componentrequires onlythree;thereforethis lattercomponentcan be
presentedin a number of differentways withinthis totallyminimal
representation.As in the analogous pitch situation,the time point 0
can be re-presentedat the beginningof measure two withoutaltering
the orderstructureof the component;thenthe aggregate,if presented
linearly,as a resultant,contains a non-immediaterepetitionof time
points. This is but an instance of the extensivecompositionalissue
arising fromthe circumstancethat there are an unlimitednumber of
representationsof an aggregate, both in the time-pointand pitch
domains. If constituentpitchset segmentsare undifferentiated compo-
sitionally-presented,for example, as a single line in a single instru-
ment without registral differentiation-thenthe set origins of the
aggregate are made ambiguous to the point of virtualundetectability.
In compositionalpractice,the constituentsnormallyare differentiated
timbrallyand/orregistrallyand/ordynamicallyand/orrhythmically;
a 69 -

similar methods clearly are required in the case of time-point
aggregates.
The extensionof time-pointcombinatoriality to all typesand orders,
to partitionsof the aggregate into morethan two equal parts,unequal
parts, as well as to incompleteaggregates or weighted aggregates is
immediate (SS, pp. 80-83). The basis of compositionaldecisions as
to the lengthof a time-pointaggregate-which may itselffunctionas
a large scale rhythmicunit, the exact distributionof time-pointcom-
ponents within an aggregate, and the temporalprogressionof such
aggregates is beyondthe scope of this article,but I conclude this part
of the discussion with Ex. 17, in which each part consists of two
derived sets," creating secondary sets (SS, p. 86), the upper two
parts derived, throughthe operations of the system,from the first
threetime-pointclasses of Ex. 6, the bottomtwo fromthe succeeding
threeclasses. Each of thesepairs of lines is a rhythmiccanon by inver-
sion; the total rhythmicprogressionis in disjunct aggregates. Other
properties,clearly revealed in the resultant rhythmand familiarly
encounteredin the pitch domain, will be apparentto the experienced
observer.One property,however,should be mentioned,since it is a
particularlysignificanttemporalequivalentof a characteristicof inver-
sionallyrelatedsets (SS, p. 91). For each of the inversionallyrelated
lines,the set numbersof elementsof the same ordernumbersum to 3;
thereforeany elementsof the referenceset (Ex. 6) whose set numbers
sum to 3 will appear here as elementsofthe same ordernumber.Thus,
forexample, the time-pointsuccession associated with order numbers
5 and 6 in Ex. 6 appears here as a resultantrhythmformedby the
upper two voices in measure eight,followedby the timepoints associ-
ated with order numbers4 and 3, followedby those associated with
ordernumbers1 and 2. Many of the techniquesof delinearizationof a
linear rhythm(the distributionof timepoints associated with a single
set formamong two or more linear representationsof that form), and
linearizationof a resultantrhythmreside in this property,which-in
turn-is but anotherfacetof the inversionalequivalence class property
of the firstkind mentionedabove (p. 67); the modes of applicability
for a given compositiondepend wholly on the structureof the com-
positionalset.
It must not be inferredthat this time-pointsystemmerelybecause
it is equivalent to the twelve-tonepitch system,and for purposes of
explanatorysimplicityhas been described by analogical referenceto
s For an explanation of derived sets in the pitch sense, see my article: "Some
Aspects of Twelve-Tone Composition."The Score and I.M.A. Magazine, June 1955,
p. 59.
a 70-

_.._..........................
3
V
1 9
.
1 9 4
.
-- r
Ex. 17
* 71 *

the pitch system, implies a one-to-onecompositionalapplication of
the two systems.The rhythmicsystemis closed, and as its structure
is independentof pitchclarification, it can be applied as independently
as the pitchsystem.Thus, a timepointof a set can representthe point
of initiationof a single pitch, the repetitionof a pitch, or a pitch
simultaneity, but it can fulfillalso this functionwith regard to timbre,
register,dynamic level, etc. Indeed, it is the polyphonic structure,
not the simple coordination,between the pitch systemand the time-
point systemthat the formulationof this lattermakes most valuable,
and the structuredrhythmiccounterpointof these dimensions is a
question of compositionalapplications,and is a subject for, at least,
anotherarticle.The brief,incompleteexpositionof the systemas here
presentedis merelyto suggest a traditionalpremise for a temporal
approach to the electronicdomain.
It mightbe assertedthat,althoughthe principlesof formationand
transformationof the time-pointsystem could have been suggested
entirelyby the appropriateformalsystem and adopted by virtue of
the propertieswhich maintainunder this interpretation, the assump-
tion of "twelve" time points is an arbitraryderivativeof the pitch
system.Obviously,the time-pointsystemis applicable to any number
of set elements,and has been applied compositionallyto a smaller
number;the pitchsystemdid suggest the numbertwelve. But having
suggested it, it is a suggestion well worth adopting independently,
for many of the resources of the system (the time point, as well as
the pitch) arise fromthe propertiesof the number 12, particularly
the propertyof integralfactorizationby so large a numberof integers,
representedby the totientof 12 being equal to 4 (1, 5, 7, 11). Nor
is it surprisingor irrelevantthat the compositionswhich apply this
temporal system employ, as the time-pointset, the exact analog of
the pitch set of the composition;one might say, with equal justice,
thatthepitchset is the analog of thetime-point set. So, such a composi-
tion is the point of conjunction and presentationof the two inde-
pendentlycoherentyet deeply related structures.
The temporal constraintsimposed by the rhythmicsystem, the
degree and extentof the inter-eventinfluenceso determined,depend
upon-at least-two contextualconsiderations:theparticulartemporal
phenomenondesired, and the structureof the specifictime-pointset.
With regardto the paradigm of the precedingexamples,the composer
mightdesire, and could achieve, any one of the 211possible composi-
tional representationsof the twelve time-pointmeasure as a resultant
rhythm,but the means of arrivingat and departingfroma predefined
S72

measure depend upon set structure.Consider that simplest of meas-
ure representations:
Ex. 18
which, nevertheless,was not arrivedat by any of the combinationsof
Ex. 17. If the set of the work were the time-point"ascending chro-
matic scale," this measure would be easily available, and would
impose no conditions on approach and departure by virtue of set
structure.But if this measure were to be arrived at fromthe set of
Ex. 6, then the simultaneous statementof a number of set forms
is required.
Ex. 19 is one such presentation;the linear components,reading
fromtop to bottom,are the fifth,sixth,seventh,and eighthelementsof
T,,S, the tenth,eleventh,and twelfthelementsof I, the fifth,sixth,
and seventhelementsof RI, and the-say-eighth and ninthelements
of T7R. This presentationthen imposes specific conditions on the
time points preceding and following this aggregate. (The further
implicationsfor the total rhythmicstructureof this conjunction of
sets are well worthconsidering,for all that they cannot be discussed
here.) In short, any rhythmicconfigurationis "possible," but any
such state of the compositionmust influence,to a greater or lesser
extent, other states of the composition.The unavoidable inference
that not everythingis possible independentlyat every state of the
compositionis merelyto observethat the systemis not constructedto
induce, in a relativelystrict sense of the word, "randomness": the
absence of inter-event influence.
it
But, may be asked, how can "any" possible rhythmicevent be
made to occur in a system which assumes a minimum duration
between successive time points, and admits no durations other than
those which are integralmultiplesof this unit duration?I shall com-
bine the answer to this question with the answer to another: what
does this rhythmicsystem have to do with the electronicmedium,
particularlysince it has been employedin, and
is--therefore--applica-
ble to, nonelectronicworks? Clearly, the system crucially depends
upon the maintenance of an isochronous durational unit and its
multiple,the measure, the modular unit. To secure this, with non-
electronicmedia, is not only to court the terrifyingand cumulative
hazards associated with the presentationof ensemble rhythmsof any
complexity,but to be obliged to assume a quite coarse quantization
of the temporal continuum. But, with the electronic medium, the
. 73 *

maintenanceof the isochronousunit is assured mechanically,and the

accuracy of the ensemble rhythmis obtainable to any degree of
exactness; in addition,the finenessof quantizationavailable answers
the firstquestion above. To be sure, the examples so far presented
do not contain,and could not have contained,triplet,quintuplet,and
similar subdivisionsin the usual sense; but such notationalmeans are
required onlywhen the practical exigencies of rhythmicnotationand
tempo indicationpreventthe rhythmicstructurefrombeing notated
in terms of a least common multiple durational unit. But, if it be
assumed that each 16th note duration in the above examples repre-
sents a timedurationof 1/32of a second, a commonunit in Synthesizer
programming,then the tempo of the examples would be: J. = 320.
If the resultantof the combinationof Ex. 16 is notated in terms of
the reasonabletempo,J. = 80, the resultwould be:
( = so) Ex
Ex. 20
More extendedanswers to the two questionsscarcely seem demanded
if one requires merelythe assurance that satisfactoryanswers exist.
Nevertheless,it is possible to answer the firstquestion by showing
anothertechniquewithinthe system.One ofthefundamentalempirical
differencesbetween the pitch and time-pointsystems is that the
"octave" of the time-pointsystemis determinedonly contextually,by
metric signature and tempo indication; therefore,without altering
the meaning of "octave" in this systematicsense, the two set com-
ponentsof Ex. 16 can be representedin their unique minimal form
by equating, as total durations,three measures of the S component
and fourmeasures of the T9I component:
0, 0 1,.3 2,11 3,4 4,1 5,2
0,9 1,6. 2,10 3,5 4,8 5,7
Time-points
Exx. 21a and 21b
Here, however,there is no aggregate construction;if the concept of
aggregate is applicable at all, it must be in terms of the twenty
? 74,"

differenttime-pointvalues available in the resultantmeasure (Ex.
21b). Also, differenttime-pointvalues in the componentsbecome
identical values in the resultant.Although this technique does over-
come some of thedifficulties associatedwiththe quantizationminimum
of nonelectronicmusic, its most fruitfulapplication is the achieving
of differentmodular units in associationwith differentinterpretations
of the rhythmicstructure,and where--therefore--aggregate structure
has no particularrelevance.
The use of the aggregate as the unit of temporalprogression(in a
sense similar to that in which Schanberg employedthe pitch aggre-
gate) makes the single, total set representationa constituentof a
multiple of such aggregate units as in Ex. 17, with the multiple
dependent upon the number of parts in the partitioningof the
aggregate complex. This suggests that the compositionaltime-point
set need not (in this case cannot) appear as the explicit,foreground
rhythm.The determinationof still another level of foreground,de-
rived directly from the unique characteristicsof the set, by the
imbedding of new time points through the subdivision of the set-
determineddurations,is demonstrated:
I20= - 14= 1
8=L) F3= 3-1
Durations: 9 4 7 3 11 6 10 5 8 2 1
S:
----------
------
Ex. 22
The firsttemporalhexachordof Ex. 6 (now displayedin a 3/4 meter)
is here subdivided into eleven durations,which representthe dura-
tional succession of the inversion.The firstthree of these durations
are placed betweenthe firsttwo time points of S, and each successive
pair of durationsoccurs betweenthe successive time-pointpairs of S.
The effectis that of changing the modular unit with each successive
time point of S, with the critical requirementbeing that no new, so
arrived at time point occupy a temporal position correspondingto
that of the fundamentaldivision of the measure, here, 16th-note
durations.It is this avoidance of ambiguitythatcreatesthe appearance
of complexityin conventionalnotation,but for all this forbidding
appearance it is easily recognizedthat any such imbedded succession
is merelya "diminution"or "augmentation"of a segment of S, and
should be readily perceptibleas such when associated with identities
or similaritiesin other dimensions. The avoidance of auditorycon-
fusionof such derivedtime pointswith time pointsof formsof S is a
0
75"

matterof compositional clarification, solvableusuallyby the availa-
of
bility superposedcomparison of the twolevelsoftimepoints(like
a lengthcomparisonby superposition),accomplished by assigning
different timbralor registral linesto thedifferent levelsoftimepoints;
thelimitsof such differentiation are thenat thelimitsof discrimina-
tionbetweenattacks(or, in general,initiations), makingthemthere-
fore dependentupon such phenomenaas envelopecharacteristics,
absoluteandrelativefrequencies, spectra,anddynamics. These limits,
then, need not be determined byessentially memorative considerations.
If evenso cursory a discussionoftemporal levelssuggestsunavoida-
blytheneedforelectronic realization, and a hostofquestionsregard-
ing temporalperception, it also suggests--perhaps less obviously-a
brief excursioninto the domain of frequency.This excursionis
promptedby (and it shall not be allowedto exceedthe immediate
implicationsof this prompting)the fact that the examinationof
temporalsystematization began withand originatedfromthe tradi-
tionalprinciplesof the twelve-tone pitch-class system;the resultsof
thisexamination returnus to thearea ofpitchby a comparablemode
of reasoningby analogy.Certainly, the electronic availabilityof the
frequency continuum does not entail the imperative that this con-
tinuumbe totallyemployed, anymorethandoesthefactofthesimilar
availability on the violin.But, likewise,it does not entailthe conse-
quence that it notbe employed, particularly sincenewselectionsfrom
thiscontinuum need notbe derivedfromindependent premises,but
fromthe attributesof traditionalsystems,or extensionsof these
systems.A combinational system(such as the traditional tonalsys-
tem), foundedon the selectionof an unordered sub-collection from
thetotalpitch-class collection,butwitha primenumberofequal parts
to an octave,possessesthepossibility of generating thecompletecol-
lectionof pitchclassesby anynon-zerointerval, whereasthiscollec-
tion,in the familiartwelve-part division,can be generatedonlyby
intervals1, 11, 5, and 7: numbersprimeto twelve.Every such
interval, then,will generatea maximalsub-collection (the numberof
pitch-classesin this sub-collection will be n/2+ 1/2, for primes
greaterthan2, wheren is thetotalnumberofpitchclasses) in which
each non-complementary intervaloccurs with unique multiplicity;
thus, a "circle" generatedby each intervalis obtainable,defininga
uniquehierarchy amongthe transpositions of the so generatedsub-
collections(transposedby the generatinginterval), a hierarchy
foundedon thetraditional criterion of intersection of pitchclass con-
tentbetweensuch sub-collections. In the usual systemof tempera-
ment, only the contentcorrespondingto the major or minor scales,
S76

and to the halfchromatic scale, can be so generated.A divisionof
theoctaveinto,forexample,11 equal partswouldyieldfivesuchnon-
complementary sub-collections of six pitchclasses each.
The means of providingthe physicalbasis of a permutational
systembytheextension ofoctavedivisionto multiples oftwelveequal
parts will not be discussed; on the one hand, the propertiesof the
twelve-tone system are extendable immediately to this new collection,
while-on theotherhand-theregarding ofthetraditional twelve-tone
system as a permutational sub-system within such a totalcollection
is too largeand complexa subjectto be discussedhere.
A contextually determined divisionof the octave,thus varying
fromworkto work and withina work,is suggestedby the pitch
analog of the finalrhythmic procedurediscussed(Ex. 22). Within
the fixed,twelvepartequal temperament, the intervalbetweenany
two such pitchelementsis divisibleintoan intervalsuccessionofthe
pitchset, withthe similarrestriction thattherebe no ambiguityof
identification of a frequencyso derivedwith a frequencyof the
fixedtemperament.
The mostelaborateextrapolation fromthe principleof construc-
tionof the twelve-tone pitchset is to a twelve-tone frequency scale,
in whichthe frequencies chosenforan individualcomposition make
availablean exactreflection of the intervalstructure of the composi-
tionalset. For example,corresponding to the set of Ex. 1, such a
"frequency set" would be (say, in the fifthoctave): 262.6 (cps);
273.5; 302.6; 320.8; 353.5; 357.1; 378.8; 386.1; 411.5; 426.0;
462.3; 502.3; (525.2). If a twelve-tone setis nowformed by serially
ordering the classesofwhich these frequencies are representatives, an
examination ofthesimplestinvariants underthenormalrulesoftrans-
formation will revealsurprisingly new consequences; I shall mention
merely that is
transposition not, in general, interval-preserving,
assumingthat"interval" has itsusual designation. Underthissystem,
the propertiesassociatedwiththe normalsystematic operationsare
dependent on thefrequency materialsof theparticularwork.
If therecan be littlequestionthatsuch pitchand rhythmic exten-
sions of the twelve-tone systemcarrymusicto the pointof purely
electronicfeasibility, therestill remainlarge questionsthat return
this discussionto its beginning.Do such extensionsmaintainthose
characteristics of differentiationand identification whichendowthe
principles offormation andtransformation withtheirempiricaljustifi-
cationin the traditionalsystem?And, on the otherhand, do such
constraints,however extendedtheir domain of application,not
eliminate,unnecessarilyand undesirably,certainelectronicallyavaila-
ble resources?
S77

The answer to the firstquestion is, obviously,that such extensions
well might not, in a significantsense. Even though one is not pre-
pared to state general laws with regard to those complex, multiple
correlationsbetween the acoustic and auditorydomains, so that the
precise auditoryeffectof a particularacoustical specificationmay be
difficultof usefulprediction,electronicinstrumentshave made certain
specific kinds of consequences predictable.Even with regard to only
the normal frequencymaterials of conventionaltemperament,the
identification of intervalsuccession appears impossible beyond, elec-
tronically,quite modest speeds, to the point where even the mere
number of differentintervalscannot be identified;two, specifiedas
equal, frequencieswill be heard as different pitchesbeyond a certain
durationalminimum,with the minimumdeterminedby the associated
spectra, among other things. Here, then, the bases of traditional
musical hearingdisappear, forboth the tonal and twelve-tonesystems
rest upon the assumptionsof pitch invariance with regard to time,
timbre, loudness, and duration, and of intervallicinvariance with
regard to transpositionunder similar conditionsof alterationof other
dimensions.The orderingprincipleof the twelve-tonesystem,which
embodies the "new" memorativedemands of the system (although
the veryconceptionof "theme"or "motive"in any music assumes the
significanceof order, but not as a primitiveof the system), is also
made inapplicable when a pitch succession, whose internal pitch
ordering is clearly identifiablein a certain contour presentation,is
alteredin contourand registralrange, so that the order becomes not
completely identifiable.Similarly, a succession of pitches, clearly
identifiableat a particularspeed, cannot be perceived as containing
even the same number of pitches at a criticallygreater speed, this
critical point being dependentupon not only the acoustical charac-
teristicsof the components,both individuallyand in relationto one
another,but the compositionalcontextof the event.
But all of this is merelyto say that the necessarycharacteristicsof
the systemmust be preservedin the auditorydomain, and not merely
in the domain of notationalspecification.Indeed, it is the fact of sys-
tematic presuppositionsthat makes it possible for the composer to
determinethe acceptabilityof a presentedevent, independentof its
electronic specification.To say that, for example, a specified fre-
quency lasting 18 of a second does not representthe same pitch as
the same specifiedfrequencylasting 1l2 of a second is merelyto assert
that the two different pitcheshave different notationswith regard to
duration.Any electronicallyspecifiedeventwill have its aural corre-
late, even if this correlate be silence or a click; the compositional
S78

question is simplywhethersilence, or a click, is what is required at

that moment. The relation between notation and aural event has
never been one-to-onetraditionally,and the increase of the values of
the "many"in the many-to-onerelationshipdoes not alter the funda-
mental situation. If the propertiescrucial to a composition'sbeing
perceived as an instance of a particularsystemare embodied only in
the input specificationsof the composition,these propertiesmay be
destroyed by perceptual "limitations,"for-indeed-one can speak
of such "limitations,"as opposed to "characteristics,"onlywith regard
to systematicpresuppositions;that a perceived alternationof pitches
30 timesa second in the eighthoctave becomes a perceivedrepetition
of a single pitch in the third octave cannot be termed a perceptual
"limitation"without an initial assumption of intervallic invariance
under transposition.Systematicallydeterminedsimilarityrelations,
particularlywhen reinforcedby identityof othercomponents,are in
fact powerfulperceptualaids; two isolated events,specifiedas similar
but (for a reason such as those stated above) perceivedas dissimilar,
may be perceivedas similarwhen made componentsof larger contexts
whose relationshipas totalitiesis inferrableunder the presentedcon-
straintsof the system.
As forthe second question as to whethersystematicconstraintsdo
not eliminatethe use of available resources,it should be clear from
the preceding that the twelve-toneextensionsinto the electronicdo-
main do not necessarilyeliminate any auditoryevent or complex of
events. In any case, a collection of available physical materials-in
this case, the area of materials made available electronically--does
not entail a particularsystem.If musical structurecan be presumed
to address itselfto the "ear," and to be foundedon criteriaof related-
ness, purely "contextual"electronicmusic must either deny all past
experience and criteriaof similitude,or disallow it as irrelevanton
the groundsthat each eventis unique by virtueof its (non-modular)
time-pointvalue; but even uniqueness is a relational property,for it
assumes criteriaof differentness, and-thus-relatedness. A musical
system can provide only the possibilityof musical coherence in its
own terms;the question of the perceptualand conceptualsignificance
of these terms is the issue with which we began. Perhaps a system
founded on the unique resources of the electronicmedium, and on
premiseshithertounknownand not as yeteven foreseeable,will be dis-
covered and vindicated.Meanwhile, if it is only meanwhile,there is
stillan unforeseeablyextensivedomain in whichthe electronicmedium
uniquely can enrich and extend the musical systemswhose premises
have been tested,and whose resourcesbarely have been tapped.
*
79"


Babbitt 12-Tone Rhythmic Structure and The Electronic Medium

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Babbitt 12-Tone Rhythmic Structure and The Electronic Medium

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Twelve-Tone Rhythmic Structure and the Electronic Medium

Author(s): Milton Babbitt

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To PROCEED froman assertion ofwhatmusichas beento an asser-

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seeablydistantfuture,it probablymusthypothesize in a moretradi-

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the pitchstructure,therehas appearedto be littleawarenessof or

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of intervalsequences, a rhythmicsituation,with the temporal attri-

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the transposition at 11, identically withregardto pitch

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Manifestly, the interpretation of set numbersas multiplesof a

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S: 0,0 1,3 2,11 3,4 4,1 5,2 6,8 7,10

8,5 9,9 10,7 11,6

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signatureis chosen in the light of the hexachordalcombinatorial

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T'i 0,3 1,0

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Ex. 13a Ex. 13b

T2 R(ofEx.6): 0,8 1,9 2,11 3,7 4,0 5,10 6,4

7,3 8,6 9,1 10,5 11,2

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Duration T2 2: 0,2 1,11 4 2,3 6 3,10

9,5 010,7 2 11,8

T S: 4,0 5,1 6,7 7,9

9,3 10 5 11,6 6,10

T7R: 7,8 8,11

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two RI related lines display, in their resultantrhythm,a symmetry

0,9 1,6 2,10 3,5 4,8 5,7

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maintenanceof the isochronousunit is assured mechanically,and the

0,9 1,6. 2,10 3,5 4,8 5,7

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This content downloaded from 132.177.228.65 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 02:55:53 AM

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question is simplywhethersilence, or a click, is what is required at

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