About the Philippines

Bodies of Water
The Philippines boast of many different kinds of natural water forms, such as bays, rivers, lakes falls,
gulfs, straits, and swamps. Because it is made up of islands, the country's coastline, if laid end-to-end,
would measure around 17.5 thousand kilometers. The Philippines is blessed with excellent natural
harbors for ports like Manila Bay. Other excellent harbors with port potentials are found in Ilocos,
Pangasinan, Visayas, and Mindanao. The three largest rivers in the country are the Cagayan River in
Northern Luzon, the Rio Grande de Mindanao, and the Agusan River, also in Mindanao. Also noteworthy
in terms of size are the Agno, Pasig, Angat Pampanga, and Bicol rivers in Luzon. Most popular among
tourist is the famous underground river in Palawan. Aside from rivers, the country also abounds with
lakes. Easily the most famous is the heart-shaped Laguna de Bay. Other famous lakes are Taal in
Batangas, Sampaloc in Laguna, Buhi and Bulusan in Bicol, Naujan in Mindoro oriental, and Lanao and
Mainit in Mindanao. Generating power for the Nation’s growth are the magnificent waterfalls that serve
as tourist attractions, as well. The biggest is waterfalls is the Maria Cristina falls, it can be found in the
North Western part of Lanao province in Mindanao, while the most popular is Pagsanjan falls in
Laguna, where tourist came in droves.

Natural Resources
The Philippines is rich in natural resources. It has fertile, arable lands,
diverse flora and fauna, extensive coastlines, and rich mineral deposits.
About 30% of the land area of the country was determined be
geologically prospective by the Philippine Mines and Geo-Sciences
Bureau. But Only 1.5% of country's land area is covered with mining
permits. Despite the rich natural resources of the Philippines, the
government is restricting its exploitation. A logging ban is imposed on
many areas of the country and only in select areas are "sustainable
logging" allowed. However illegal logging and small-scale illegal mining
continues is many areas. In July 2012, President Benigno Aquino III
ordered a stop to all mining activities in all (78 areas) protected and eco-
tourism sites. A positive step in the right direction to protect the natural
resources of the Philippines.

Our Land
The Philippines’ primary source of livelihood is its fertile land. Rich, wide plains suitable for farming are
found in the Cagayan Valley, Central Luzon, South western Bicol, Panay, Negros, Davao, Cotabato,
Agusan and Bukidnon. The country ‘s six major crops
are rice, corn, sugarcane, coconut, abaca and tobacco. Except for rice and corn, all these products are
exported, along with bananas and pineapples.

Our Forests
The Philippines also boasts of wide tracts of lush, green forests. In fact, almost half of the country’s
total land area is forested. Sixty percent of these forests are found in Mindanao.
Mineral resources
Except for petroleum and a number of metals, mineral resources abound in Philippine soil. The
country’s mineral deposits can be classified into metals and non-metals. Our metal deposits are
estimated at 21.5 billion metric tons, while non-metal deposits are projected at 19.3 billion metric
tons. Nickel ranks first in terms of deposits and size, it is found in Surigao del Norte, Davao, Palawan,
Romblon and Samar. Iron is found in Ilocos Norte, Nueva Ecija, Camarines Norte and Cotabato.
While copper in Zambales, Batangas, Mindoro, Panay and Negros. Among non-metal deposits, the
most abundant are cement, lime, and marble. Other non-metals include asbestos, clay, guano,
asphalt, feldspar, sulfur, talc, silicon, phosphate, and marble.

Fishery Resources
With its territorial waters measuring as much as 1.67 million square kilometers and located in the
worlds fishing center, the Philippines is definitely rich in marine resources. Of the 2,400 fish species
found in the country. 65 have good commercial value. Other marine
products include corals, pearls, crabs and seaweeds. Some of the countries best salt water fishing
area’s are found in Sintangki Island in Sulu Estancia in Bohol, Malampaya in Palawan, Lingayen Gulf in
Pangasinan, San Miguel lake in Camarines Norte, Bantayan Channel in Cebu, and the seas of Quezon
and Sorsogon.

On the other hand, among our biggest fisher water fishing areas are Laguna de Bay, Bombon Lake in
Batangas, Bato Lake in Canmarines Sur, Naujan Lake in Mindoro and Mainit lake in Agusan del
Norte. Continue to Early Filipinos

The First “Filipinos”

Many historians and scientists believe that the first inhabitants of the Philippine islands emerged during
the Pleistocene period. There are two theories on where theinhabitants (first Filipinos) came from
namely: Beyer’s “Migration Theory” and Jocano’s “Evolution Theory”. Noted social scientist Henry Otley
Beyer believes that Filipinosdescended from different groups that came from Southeast Asia in
successive waves of migration. Each group had a distinct culture, with it’s own customs and traditions.
While Jocano believes that Asians, including Filipinos are the result of a lengthy process
of evolution and migration.

Migration Theory

The first migrants were what Beyer caked the “Dawnmen” (or “cavemen” because they lived in caves.).
The Dawnmen resembled Java Man, Peking Man, and other AsianHome sapiens who existed about
250,000 years ago. They did not have any knowledge of agriculture, and lived by hunting and fishing.
It was precisely in search of food that they came to the Philippines by way of the land bridges that
connected the Philippines and Indonesia. Owing perhaps to their migratory nature, they eventually left
thePhilippines for destinations unknown.

The second group of migrants was composed of dark-skinned pygmies called “Aetas’ or
“Negritoes”. About 30,000 years ago, they crossed the landbridged from Malaya,
Borneo, and Australia until they reached Palawan, Mindoro and Mindanao. They
were pygmies who went around practically naked and were good at hunting,
fishing and food gathering. They used spears and small flint stones weapons.

The Aetas were already in the Philippines when the land bridges disappeared due
to the thinning of the ice glaciers and the subsequent increase in seawater level.
This natural events “forced” them to remain in the country and become
its first permanent inhabitants.

Because of the disappearance of the land bridges, the third wave of migrants
was necessarily skilled in seafaring. These were the Indonesians, who came to
the islands in boats. They were more advanced than the Aetas in that: they had
tools made out of stone and steel, which enabled them to build sturdier houses:
they engaged in farming and mining, and used materials made of brass; they
wore clothing and other body ornaments.
Last to migrate to the Philippines, according to Beyer, were Malays. They were believed to have come
from Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula more than 2,000 years ago. Like the
Indonesians, they also traveled in boats.

The Malays were brown-skinned and of medium height, with straight black hair and flat noses. Their
technology was said to be more advanced than that of their predecessors. They engaged in pottery,
weaving, jewelry making and metal smelting, and introduced the irrigation system in rice planting.

Jocano’s Theory

Renowned Filipino anthropologist Felipe Landa Jocano disputes Beyer’s belief that Filipinos descended
from Negritoes and Malays who migrated to the Philippines thousands of years ago. According to
Jocano, it is difficult to prove that Negritoes were the first inhabitants of this country. The only thing
that can positively concluded from fossil evidence, he says is that the first men who came to
the Philippines also went to New Guinea, Java, Borneo, and Australia.

In 1962, a skullcap and a portion of a jaw-presumed to be a human origin-were found in the Tabon
Caves of Palawan by archaeologist Robert Fox and Manuel Santiago, who both worked for the National
Museum. Carbon dating placed their age at 21,000 to 22,000 years. This proves, Jocano argues, that
man came earlier to the Philippines than to the Malay Peninsula; therefore, the first inhabitants of our
islands could not have come from the region. The “Tabon Man” is said to resemble Java Man and
Peking Man. He gathered fruits, leaves and plants for his food. He hunted with weapons made of stone.
Although further research is still being done on his life and culture, evidence shows that he was already
capable of using his brain in order to survive and keep himself safe.

Instead of the Migration Theory, Jocano advances the Evolution Theory, as a better explanation of how
our country was first inhabited by human beings, Jocano believes that the first people of Southeast
Asia were products of a long process of evolution and migration. His research indicates that they
shared more or less the same culture, beliefs, practices an even similar tools and implements. These
people eventually went their separate ways; some migrated to the Philippines, the others to New
Guinea, Java and Borneo. Proof, Jocano says, can be found in the fossils discovered in different parts
of Southeast Asia, as well as the recorded migrations of other peoples from the Asian mainland when
history began to unfold. Continue to Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines. Also see "About the
Philippines".

Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines

The Magellan Expedition

Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of the Spanish crown, was

looking for a westward route to the to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. On
March 16, 1521, Magellan's expedition landed on Homonhon island in
the Philippines. He was the first European to reach the islands. Rajah
Humabon of Cebu was friendly with Magellan and embraced Christianity, but
their enemy, Lapu-Lapu was not. Humabon wanted Magellan to kill Lapu-
Lapu while Magellan wanted to convert Lapu-Lapu into Christianity. On April
17, 1521, Magellan sailed to Mactan and ensuing battle killed Magellan by
the natives lead by Lapu-Lapu. Out of the five ships and more than 300 men
who left on the Magellan expedition in 1519, only one ship (the Victoria) and
18 men returned to Seville, Spain on September 6, 1522. Nevertheless, the
said expedition was considered historic because it marked the first
circumnavigation of the globe and proved that the world was round.

Juan Sebastian de Elcano, the master of ship "Concepcion" took over the command of the expedition
after the death of Magellan and captained the ship "Victoria" back to Spain. He and his men earned
the distinction of being the first to circumnavigate the world in one full journey. After Magellan's death
in Cebu, it took 16 more months for Elcano to return to Spain. The Magellan expedition started off
through the westward route and returning to Spain by going east; Magellan and Elcano's entire voyage
took almost three years to complete.
Spain sends other expedition

After the Spain had celebrated Elcano’s return, King Charles I decided that Spain should conquer the
Philippines. Five subsequent expeditions were then sent to the Islands. These were led by Garcia Jofre
Loaisa (1525), Sebastian Cabot (1526), Alvaro de Saavedra (1527), Ruy Lopez de Villalobos (1542)
and Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1564). Only the last two actually reached the Philippines; and only
Legazpi succeeded in colonizing the Islands.

The Villalobos Expedition

Ruy Lopez de Villalobos set sail for the Philippines from Navidad, Mexico on November 1, 1542. He
followed the route taken by Magellan and reached Mindanao on February 2, 1543. He established
a colony in Sarangani but could not stay long because of insufficient food supply. His fleet left the
island and landed on Tidore in the Moluccas, where they were captured by the Portuguese.

Villalobos is remembered for naming our country “Islas Filipinas,” in honor of King Charles’ son, Prince
Philip, who later became king of Spain.

The Legazpi Expedition

Since none of the expedition after Magellan from Loaisa to Villalobos had
succeeded in taking over the Philippines, King Charles I stopped sending
colonizers to the Islands. However, when Philip II succeeded his father to the
throne in 1556, he instructed Luis de Velasco, the viceroy of Mexico, to
prepare a new expedition – to be headed by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who
would be accompanied by Andres de Urdaneta, a priest who had survived the
Loaisa mission.

On February 13, 1565, Legaspi's expedition landed in Cebu island. After a short struggle with the
natives, he proceeded to Leyte, then to Camiguin and to Bohol. There Legaspi made a blood compact
with the chieftain, Datu Sikatuna as a sign of friendship. Legaspi was able to obtain spices and gold in
Bohol due to his friendship with Sikatuna. On April 27, 1565, Legaspi returned to Cebu; destroyed the
town of Raja Tupas and establish a settlement. On orders of the King Philip II, 2,100 men arrived from
Mexico. They built the the port of Fuerza de San Pedro which became the Spanish trading outpost and
stronghold for the region.

Hearing of the riches of Manila, an expedition of 300 men headed by Martin de Goiti left Cebu for
Manila. They found the islands of Panay and Mindoro. Goiti arrived in Manila on May 8, 1570. At first
they were welcomed by the natives and formed an alliance with Rajah Suliman, their Muslim king but
as the locals sensed the true objectives of the Spaniards, a battle between the troops of Suliman and
the Spaniards erupted. Because the Spaniards are more heavily armed, the Spaniards were able to
conquer Manila. Soon after Miguel Lopez de Legazpi arrived to join Goiti in Manila. Legaspi built
alliances and made peace with Rajahs Suliman, Lakandula and Matanda. In 1571, Legaspi ordered the
construction of the walled city of Intramuros and proclaimed it as the seat of government of
the colony and the capital of the islands. In 1572, Legaspi died and was buried at the San Agustin
Church in Intramuros. In 1574, Manila was bestowed the title "Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad
de España" (Distinguished and ever loyal city of Spain) by King Philip II of Spain.

Why the Philippines was easily conquered

Through largely outnumbered, the Spaniards who came to colonize the Philippines easily took control
of our country. How did this happen?

The best possible explanation is that the natives lacked unity and a centralized form of government.
Although the barangays already functioned as units of governance, each one existed independently of
the other, and the powers that each Datu enjoyed were confined only to his own barangay. No higher
institution united the barangays, and the Spaniards took advantage of this situation. They used the
barangays that were friendly to them in order to subdue the barangays that were not. Continue
to Spain as Colonial Masters.
 The Spaniards as Colonial Masters

Spain reigned over the Philippines for 333 years, from 1565 to 1898. since Spain
was far from the country, the Spanish king ruled the Islands through the viceroy
of Mexico, which was then another Spanish colony. When Mexico regained its
freedom in 1821, the Spanish king ruled the Philippines through a governor
general. A special government body that oversaw matters, pertaining to the
colonies assisted the king in this respect. This body became known by many
names. Council of the Indies (1565-1837), Overseas Council (1837-1863), and
Ministry of the Colonies (1863–1898). It is implemented the decrees and legal
codes Spain promulgated although many of its provisions could not apply to
condition in the colonies. It also exercised legislative and judicial powers.

The Political Structure

Spain established a centralized colonial government in the Philippines that was
composed of a national government and the local governments that administered provinces, cities,
towns and municipalities. With the cooperation of the local governments the national government
maintained peace and order, collected taxes and built schools and other public works.

The Governor General

As the King's representative and the highest-ranking official in the Philippines, the governor general
saw to it that royal decrees and laws emanating from Spain were implemented in the Philippines. He
had the power to appoint and dismiss public officials, except those personally chosen by the King. He
also supervised all government offices and the collection of taxes.
The governor general exercised certain legislative powers, as well. He issued proclamations to facilitate
the implementation of laws.

The Residencia
This was a special judicial court that investigates the performance of a governor general who was
about to be replaced. The residencia, of which the incoming governor general was usually a member,
submitted a report of its findings to the King.

The Visita
The Council of the Indies in Spain sent a government official called the Vistador General to observe
conditions in the colony. The Visitador General reported his findings directly to the King.

The Royal Audiencia

Apart from its judicial functions, the Royal Audiencia served as an advisory body to the Governor
General and had the power to check and a report on his abuses. The Audiencia also audited the
expenditures of the colonial government and sent a yearly report to Spain. The Archbishop and other
government officials could also report the abuses of the colonial government to be Spanish king.
Despite all these checks, however, an abusive governor general often managed to escape stiff fines,
suspension, or dismissal by simply bribing the Visitador and other investigators.

The Provincial Government

The Spaniards created local government units to facilitate the country’s administration. There were two
types of local government units – the alcadia and the corregimiento. The alcadia, led by the alcalde
mayor, governed the provinces that had been fully subjugated: the corregimiento, headed by
corregidor, governed the provinces that were not yet entirely under Spanish control. The alcalde
mayors represented the Spanish king and the governor general in their respective provinces. They
managed the day-to-day operations of the provincial government, implemented laws and supervised
the collection of taxes. Through they were paid a small salary, they enjoyed privileges such as the
indulto de comercio, or the right to participate in the galleon trade.

The Municipal Government

Each province was divided into several towns or pueblos headed by Gobernadordcillos, whose main
concerns were efficient governance and tax collection. Four lieutenants aided the Governardorcillo: the
Teniente Mayor (chief lieutenant), the Teniente de Policia (police lieutenant), the Teniente de
Sementeras (lieutenant of the fields) and the Teniente de Ganados (lieutenant of the livestock).

The Encomienda System

Spain owed the colonization of the Philippines to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who valiantly and loyally
served the Spanish crown. To hasten the subjugation of the country, King Philip II instructed Legazpi
to divide the Philippines into large territories called encomiendas, to be left to the management of
designated encomenderos.

To show his gratitude to his conquistadors, the King made them the first encomenderos in the colony.
As the King’s representatives in their respective encomiendas, the encomenderos had the right to
collect taxes. However, the encomiendas were not there to own. The encomenderos were only
territorial overseers who had the duty to: 1) protect the people in the encomienda; (2) maintain peace
and order; (3) promote education and health programs; and (4) help the missionaries propagate
Christianity.

The Galleon Trade

When the Spaniards came to the Philippines, our ancestors were already
trading with China, Japan, Siam, India, Cambodia, Borneo and the Moluccas.
The Spanish government continued trade relations with these countries, and
the Manila became the center of commerce in the East. The Spaniards closed
the ports of Manila to all countries except Mexico. Thus, the Manila–Acapulco
Trade, better known as the "Galleon Trade" was born. The Galleon Trade was a
government monopoly. Only two galleons were used: One sailed from Acapulco
to Manila with some 500,000 pesos worth of goods, spending 120 days at sea;
the other sailed from Manila to Acapulco with some 250,000 pesos worth of
goods spending 90 days at sea.

It also allowed modern, liberal ideas to enter the country, eventually inspiring
the movement for independence from Spain. And because the Spaniards were
so engrossed in making profits from the Galleon Trade, they hardly had any
time to further exploit our natural resources.

Basco’s Reforms
Filipino farmers and traders finally had a taste of prosperity when Governor General Jose Basco y
Vargas instituted reforms intended to free the economy from its dependence on Chinese and Mexican
trade. Basco implemented a “general economic plan” aimed at making the Philippines self sufficient. He
established the “Economic Society of Friends of the Country”, which gave incentives to farmers for
planting cotton, spices, and sugarcane; encouraged miners to extract gold, silver, tin, and copper; and
rewarded investors for scientific discoveries they made.

Tobacco Monopoly
The tobacco industry was placed under government control during the administration of Governor
General Basco. In 1781, a tobacco monopoly was implemented in the Cagayan Valley, Ilocos Norte,
Ilocos Sur, La Union, Isabela, Abra, Nueva Ecija, and Marinduque. Each of these provinces planted
nothing but tobacco and sold their harvest only to the government at a pre-designated price, leaving
little for the farmers. No other province was allowed to plant tobacco. The government exported the
tobacco to other countries and also part of it to the cigarette factories in Manila.

The tobacco monopoly successfully raised revenues for the colonial government and made Philippine
tobacco famous all over Asia.

The Secularization of Priests During Spanish Period

The Opening of the Suez Canal

The Suez Canal, which connected the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, was inaugurated in
1869. It was built by a French engineer named Ferdinand de Lesseps. By passing through the Canal,
vessels journeying between Barcelona and Manila no longer had to pass by the Cape of Good Hope, at
the southern tip of Africa. Thus, they were able to shorten their traveling time from three months to 32
days.

Thanks to the Suez Canal, trading in the Philippines became increasingly profitable. More and more
foreign merchants and businessmen came to the colony, bringing with them a lot of progressive ideas.
The Filipinos not only gained more knowledge and information about the world at large; they also
gained the desire for freedom and improvement in their lives.

The Secularization Controversy

Two kinds of priests served the Catholic Church in the Philippines. These were the regulars and the
seculars. Regular priests belonged to religious orders. Their main task was to spread
Christianity. Examples were the Franciscans, Recollects, Dominicans, and
Augustinians. Secular priests did not belong to any religious order. They
were trained specifically to run the parishes and were under the supervision
of the bishops.

Conflict began when the bishops insisted on visiting the parishes that were
being run by regular priests. It was their duty, they argued, to check on the
administration of these parishes. But the regular priests refused these visits,
saying that they were not under the bishop’s jurisdiction. They threatened to abandon their parishes if
the bishops persisted.

In 1774, Archbishop Basilio Santa Justa decided to uphold the diocese’s authority over the parishes
and accepted the resignations of the regular priests. He assigned secular priests to take their place.
Since there were not enough seculars to fill all the vacancies the Archbishop hastened the ordination of
Filipino seculars. A royal decree was also issued on November 9, 1774, which provided for the
secularization of all parishes or the transfer of parochial administration from the regular friars to the
secular priests.

The regulars resented the move because they considered the Filipinos unfit for the priesthood. Among
other reasons they cited the Filipinos’ brown skin, lack of education, and inadequate experience.

The controversy became more intense when the Jesuits returned to the Philippines. They had been
exiled from the country because of certain policies of the order that theSpanish authorities did not like.

The issue soon took on a racial slant. The Spaniards were clearly favouring their own
regular priest over Filipino priests.

Monsignor Pedro Pelaez, ecclesiastical governor of the Church, sided with the Filipinos. Unfortunately,
he died in an earthquake that destroyed the Manila Cathedral in 1863. After his death, other priests
took his place in fighting for the secularization movement. Among them were Fathers Mariano Gomez,
Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora.

The Death of Gomburza & The Propaganda Movement

In February 17, 1872, Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora
(Gomburza), all Filipino priest, was executed by the Spanish colonizers on
charges of subversion. The charges against Fathers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora
was their alleged complicity in the uprising of workers at the Cavite Naval Yard.
The death of Gomburza awakened strong feelings of anger and resentment
among the Filipinos. They questioned Spanish authorities and demanded
reforms. The martyrdom of the three priests apparently helped to inspire the
organization of the Propaganda Movement, which aimed to seek reforms and
inform Spain of the abuses of its colonial government.

The illustrados led the Filipinos’ quest for reforms. Because of their education
and newly acquired wealth, they felt more confident about voicing out popular
grievances. However, since the illustrados themselves were a result of the
changes that the Spanish government had been slowly implementing, the group could not really push
very hard for the reforms it wanted. The illustrados did not succeeded in easing the sufferings of the
Filipinos; but from this group arose another faction called the intelligentsia. The intelligentsia also
wanted reforms; but they were more systematic and used a peaceful means called the Propaganda
Movement.

Goals of the Propaganda Movement

Members of the Propaganda Movement were called propagandists or reformists. They worked inside
and outside the Philippines. Their objectives were to seek:

▪ Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain

▪ Equal status for both Filipinos and Spaniards
▪ Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes
▪ Secularization of Philippine parishes.
▪ Recognition of human rights

The Propaganda Movement never asked for Philippine independence because its members believed
that once Spain realized the pitiful state of the country, the Spaniards would implement the changes
the Filipinos were seeking.

The Propagandists

The Filipinos in Europe were much more active in seeking reforms than those in Manila. They could be
divided into three groups: The first included Filipinos who had been exiled to the Marianas Islands in
1872 after being implicated in the Cavite Mutiny. After two many years in the Marianas, they
proceeded to Madrid and Barcelona because they could no longer return to the
Philippines. The second group consisted of illustrados in the Philippines who had
been sent to Europe for their education. The third group was composed of
Filipinos who had fled their country to avoid punishment for a crime, or simply
because they could not stand Spanish atrocities any longer. Still, not all Filipinos
living in Spain were members of the Propaganda Movement. Jose
Rizal, Graciano Lopez Jaena and Marcelo H. del Pilar were it most prominent
members.

Lopez Jaena was a brilliant orator who wrote such pieces as "Fray Botod,"
"Esperanza," and "La Hija del Fraile," which all criticized the abuses of Spanish
friars in the Philippines. Del Pilar was an excellent writer and speaker who put
up the newspaper Diarion Tagalog in 1882. His favorite topic was the friars.
Some of his most popular writings included "Caiingat Cayo", "Dasalan at
Tocsohan," and "Ang Sampung Kautusan ng mga Prayle". "Caingat Cayo" was a
pamphlet answering the criticisms received by Jose Rizal’s novel Noli Me Tangere. "Dasalan…" was
parody of the prayer books used by the Church, while "Ang Sampung Kautusan…" was a satirical take
on the Ten Commandments, which highly ridiculed the Spanish friars.

Jose Rizal was recognized as the great novelist of the Propaganda Movement. He was the first
Filipino become famous for his written works. He wrote a poem entitled “Sa Aking mga Kababata”
when he was only eight years old. His novels, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, clearly depicted
the sufferings of the Filipinos and the rampant abuses committed by the friars in the colony. Because
of his criticisms of the government and the friars, Rizal made a lot of enemies. He was executed at
Bagumbayan (later renamed Luneta Park and now called Rizal Park) on December 30, 1896.

The writings produced by the Propaganda Movement inspired Andres Bonifacio and other radicals to
establish the Katipunan and set the Philippine Revolution in place.

La Solidaridad & La Liga Filipina

La Liga Filipina
In 1892, Jose Rizal (full name: Jose Protacio Mercado Rizal y Alonzo) returned to the
Philippines and proposed the establishment of a civic organization called “La Liga
Filipina.” On July 3, 1892, the following were elected as its officers: Ambrosio
Salvador, president: Agustin dela Rosa, fiscal; Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and
Deodato Arellano, secretary. Rizal functioned as its adviser.

La Liga Filipina aimed to:

▪ Unite the whole country

▪ Protect and assist all members
▪ Fight violence and injustice
▪ Support education
▪ Study and implement reforms

La Liga Filipina had no intention of rising up in arms against the government; but the Spanish
officials still felt threatened. On July 6, 1892 only three days after La Liga Filipina’s establishment, Jose
Rizal was secretly arrested. The next day, Governor General Eulogio Despujol ordered Rizal’s
deportation to Dapitan, a small, secluded town in Zamboanga.

La Liga Filipina's membership was active in the beginning; but later, they began to drift apart. The rich
members wanted to continue supporting the Propaganda Movement; but the others seemed to have
lost all hope that reforms could still be granted. Andres Bonifacio was one of those who believed that
the only way to achieve meaningful change was through a bloody revolution.

La Solidaridad

In order to help achieve its goals, the Propaganda Movement put up its own newspaper, called La
Solidaridad. The Soli, as the reformists fondly called their official organ, came out once every two
weeks. The first issue saw print was published on November 15, 1895.

The Solidaridad’s first editor was Graciano Lopez Jaena. Marcelo H. del Pilar took over in October 1889.
Del Pilar managed the Soli until it stopped publication due to lack of funds.

Why the Propaganda Movement Failed

The propaganda movement did not succeed in its pursuit of reforms. The colonial government did not
agree to any of its demands. Spain itself was undergoing a lot of internal problems all that time, which
could explain why the mother country failed to heed the Filipino’s petitions. The friars, on the other
hand, were at the height of their power and displayed even more arrogance in flaunting their influence.
They had neither the time nor the desire to listen to the voice of the people.

Many of the reformists showed a deep love for their country, although they still failed to maintain a
united front. Because most of them belonged to the upper middle class, they had to exercise caution in
order to safeguard their wealth and other private interests. Personal differences and petty quarrels,
apart from the lack of funds, were also a hindrance to the movements success. Lastly, no other strong
and charismatic leader emerged from the group aside from Jose Rizal.

The Katipunan Finally Starts a Revolution

The Katipunan is born
Andres Bonifacio was also a member of La Liga Filipina, although he soon lost hope in gaining reforms
though peaceful means. This feeling was especially heightened when Jose Rizal was exiled to Dapitan.
Bonifacio became convinced that the only way thePhilippines could gain independence was through a
revolution.

Bonifacio then founded the “Katastaasang Kagalanggalangang Katipuanan ng mga Anak ng Bayan”
(KKK) on July 7, 1892 in a house on Azcarraga street (now Claro M. Recto), in Tondo Manila.
The Katipunan had colorful beginnings. As a symbol of the member’s loyalty, they performed the
solemn rite of sanduguan(blood compact), wherein each one signed his name with his own blood..

The members agreed to recruit more people using the “triangle system” of enlistment. Each original
member would recruit two new members who were not related to each other. Each new member would
do the same thing, and so on down the line. Members were also asked to contribute one Real (about
25 centavos) each month in order to raise funds for the association.

The KKK members agreed on the following objectives:

▪ The political goal was to completely separate the Philippines from Spain after declaring the country’s
independence.
▪ The moral goal was to teach the Filipinos good manners, cleanliness, hygiene, fine morals, and how to
guard themselves against religious fanaticism..
▪ The civic goal was to encourage Filipinos to help themselves and to defend the poor oppressed.

The “Kataastaasang Sanggunian” (supreme council) was the highest governing body of the Katipunan.
It was headed by a supremo, or president. Each province had a “Sangguaniang Bayan” (Provincial
Council) and each town had a “Sangguniang Balangay” (Popular Council).

The Leaders of the Katipunan:

▪ Deodato Arellano -Supremo

▪ Ladislao Diwa -Fiscal
▪ Teodora Plata -Secretary
▪ Valentine Diaz -treasurer
▪ Andres Bonifacio -controller

Jose Rizal and the Katipunan

Jose Rizal never became involved in the organization and activities of the Katipunan;
but the Katipuneros still looked up to him as a leader. In fact, Rizal’s name was used
as a password among the society’s highest-ranking members, who were called
bayani.

Andres Bonifacio had already known Rizal during his La Liga Filipina days, although
Rizal did not know Bonifacio personally Nevertheless, Bonifacio so respected Rizal’s
intelligence and talent that in June 1896, he sent Dr. Pio Valenzuela to Dapitan to
seek Rizal’s advice on the planned revolution.

Rizal told Valenzuela that the timing was not right for a revolution. The people were not yet ready and
they did not have enough weapons. He suggested that the Katipunan obtain the support of wealthy
and influential Filipinos first, in order to gain financial assistance. He also recommended Antonio Luna
as commander of its armed forces, since Luna had much knowledge and expertise in military tactics.

Valenzuela returned to Manila on June 26 and relayed Rizal’s advice to Bonifacio, who admitted that it
would indeed be fatal for the Filipinos to fight without enough weapons. However, there was no
stopping the Revolution. Bonifacio ordered his men to prepare for battle. He directed them to store
enough food and other supplies. Battle plans were made with the help of Emilio Jacinto. It was
suggested that the revolutionary headquarters be located near the seas or mountains to provide for an
easy retreat, if necessary.

The Katipunan is Discovered

Rumors about a secret revolutionary society had long been in circulation, although no solid evidence
could be found to support them. The big break as far as the Spanish authorities was concerned, came
on August 19, 1896 when a KKK member, Teodoro Patiño told his sister Honoria about the existence of
the Katipunan. Patiño was a worker in the printing press of Diario de Manila. Honoria was then living
with nuns in a Mandaluyong orphanage.

The information upset Honoria so much that she told the orphanage’s Mother Superior, Sor Teresa de
Jesus, what her brother had revealed. Sor Teresa suggested they seek the advice of Father Mariano
Gil, the parish priest of Tondo.

After hearing Patiño’s revelations, Father Mariano Gil-accompanied by several Guardias Civiles
immediately searched the premises of Diario de Manila and found evidence of the Katipunan’s
existence. The governor general was quickly informed. The printing press was padlocked and hundreds
of suspected KKK members were arrested.

The Cry of Pugadlawin

News about the discovery of the Katipunan spread to Manila and nearby
suburbs, and Andres Bonifacio immediately called for a general meeting. Various
wings of the Katipunan gathered at the house of Juan Ramos in Pugadlawin on
August 23, 1896. Ramos was the son of Melchora Aquino, also known as
“Tandang Sora” and was later acknowledged as the Mother of the Katipunan."

Bonifacio asked his men whether they were willing to fight to the bitter end.
Everyone shouted their approval, except for Teodoro Plata, who though that it
was too soon for a revolution. Heartened by his men’s
response, Bonifacio then asked them to tear their cedulas (residence certificates)
to pieces, as a sign of their defiance and determination to rise against
the Spaniards. The men immediately tore up their cedulas, shouting, Mabuhay
ang Pilipinas (long live the Philippines) -known as the Cry of Pugadlawin.

The Katipunan in Cavite

Cavite soon became the center of the Revolution, and the Katipuneros there divided themselves into
the Magdalo and Magdiwang factions. Baldomero Aguinaldo, brother of Emilio Aguinaldo, headed the
Magdalo group, which was stationed in Kawit. General Mariano Alvarez led the Magdiwang group,
which was stationed in Noveleta.

The two groups fought in separate battles. Emilio Aguinaldo overran Kawit on
August 31, 1896, while Alvarez attacked Noveleta. In Bacoor, Aguinaldo tried to
intercept Spanish reinforcements coming from Manila; but he was repulsed and
forced to retreat to nearby Imus. Here, on the morning of September 5, he
defeated the Spanish troops under the command of General Aguirre. A hundred
Spaniards were killed and 60 weapons were confiscated. Aguinaldo was hailed as
a hero. The adoring Caviteños referred to him as “General Miong” and no longer
“Kapitan Miong.”

General Aguinaldo’s numerous victories in the battlefield made him the

acknowledged revolutionary leader in Cavite. He issued a proclamation on
October 31, 1896 enjoining the people to take courage and continue fighting
for Philippine independence.

Owing to the defeat of the Spaniards in Cavite, Camilo de Polavieja replaced Ramon Blanco as
governor general on December 13, 1896. Polavieja was more successful than his predecessor and
slowly regained one-third of the province.

Andres Bonifacio's Execution

While Aguinaldo was recognized as leader by the Magdalo faction, Bonifacio was recognized as the
leader of the Katipunan by the Magdiwang faction. An assembly was held in Imus, Cavite on December
31, 1897 to settle the leadership issue but was not successful. Then on March 22,
another assembly was held at Tejeros (known as the Tejeros Convention) to elect officers of the
revolutionary government. Aguinaldo won as president while Bonifacio was relegated as the Director of
the Interior. Bonifacio rejected the elections and declared it void. Bonifacio later formed the Naic
Military Agreement, essentially creating a government contending Aguinaldo's. Soon
after, Bonifacio was captured, stood trial, and was sentenced to death by a War Council of Aguinaldo's
government. Aguinaldo initially commuted the sentence to deportation but later reversed the
commutation upon pressure from Pio Del Pilar and other officers. On orders from General Mariano
Noriel, Andres Bonifacio was executed at the foothills of Mt. Buntis by Major Lazaro Makapagal on May
10, 1897.

The Revolution Continues

Bonifacio’s death did not deter the Filipinos from fighting for their freedom. The Spanish government,
for its part, doubled its efforts in trying to control Cavite, which was considered the seat of the
Revolution. When Governor General Primo de Rivera replaced Camilo Polavieja on April 27, 1897, he
immediately marched to Naic, Cavite to persuade the Filipinos to surrender. The rebels, however, stood
their ground.

Aguinaldo realized that Cavite was no longer safe for his men. They moved to Batangas, where they
temporarily set up camp in the town of Talisay. However, Spanish soldiers were able to pursue them
there. Thus, they retreated to Morong on June 10, 1897 and proceeded to Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan.

The Biak-na Bato Republic

Emilio Aguinaldo established his headquarters in Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan province. The news
immediately spread throughout the country, and the revolutionaries were once more in high spirits.
General llanera, who was in Nueva Ecija, declared his support for Aguinaldo. In July 1897, Aguinaldo
established the Biak-na-Bato Republic and issued a proclamation stating the following demands:

▪ Expulsion of the friars and the return of the friar lands to the Filipinos
▪ Representation of the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes
▪ Freedom of the press and of religion
▪ Abolition of the government’s power to banish Filipinos
▪ Equality for all before the law.

A charter based on the Cuban Constitution was also drafted by Felix Ferrer and Isabelo Artacho. It was
signed on November 1, 1897. The Biak-na-Bato Constitution provided for the establishment of a
Supreme council that would serve as the highest governing body of the Republic. It also outlined
certain basic human rights, such as freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and the right to
education. Emilio Aguinaldo and Mariano Trias were elected Supreme Council president and vice
president, respectively.

The Pact of Biak-na-Bato

Pedro Paterno, a Spaniard born in the Philippines volunteered to act as negotiator between Aguinaldo
and Gov. Primo de Rivera in order to end the clashes.
Paterno’s effort paid off when on, December 15,
1897, the Pact he sign the Pact as the representative
of the revolutionaries, and de Rivera as the
representative of the Spanish government. The
Leaders are: Emilio Aguinaldo-President, Mariano
Trias-Vice President, Antonio Montenegro-Secretary,
Baldomero Aguinaldo-Treasurer, and Emilio Riego de
Dios.

On December 23, 1897, Generals Celestino Tejero

and Ricardo Monet of the Spanish army arrived in
Biak-na-Bato and became hostages of the rebels. A ceasefire was declared by both camps and an
agreement between Aguinaldo and the Spanish forces was made -that the Spanish government will
grant self-rule to the Philippines in 3 years if Aguinaldo went to exile and surrender his arms. In
exchange, Aguinaldo will receive P800,000 (Mexican Pesos) as remuneration to the revolutionaries and
an amnesty. After receiving a partial payment of P400,000, Aguinaldo left for Hong Kong on December
27, 1897. Some Filipino generals, however, did not believe in the sincerity of the Spaniards. They
refused to surrender their arms. Nevertheless, the Te Deum was still sung on January 23, 1898.

The Biak-na-Bato Pact Fails

The Filipino’s and the Spaniards did not trust each other. As a result, periodic clashes between the two
groups still took place even after Aguinaldo’s departure from the country. The Spanish did not pay the
entire agreed amount.

The Spanish-American War

The US Helps Cuba

One year before the historic Cry of Pugad Lawin, a revolution broke out in Cuba -another Spanish
Colony that rose against the rampant abuses of the Spaniards. It became independent in 1898 after
three years of revolt, with the help of United States. The Americans were supportive of the Cubans for
various reasons:

▪ First- the US is a free country and Advocated democracy and freedom.

▪ 2nd- the US wants to protect its huge economic interest in Cuba, in the amount of $50,000,000.
▪ 3rd- a lot of stories reached the United States about Spanish maltreatment of Americans living in
Cuba and this greatly angered the US citizens.
▪ Finally, since Cuba was located very near the US it was deemed covered by the protective mantle of
the Monroe Doctrine.

The US interest in the Philippines

At that time, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, wanted a war to
erupt between the US and Spain so he could strengthen and expand the US Navy,
he immediately put his plan into place. On February 25, 1896, he
ordered Commodore George Dewey to make Hong Kong the headquarters of the
American Asiatic Squadron. He also directed Dewey to attack Manila Bay and
destroy the Spanish fleet, the moment hostilities between Spain and US break out.

The Spanish-American War

Spain did not relish American intervention in its affairs. However, with the Philippine
and Cuban revolutions going on, it could not afford to add the Americans to its
enemy list, especially since the United States had more advanced technology and weaponry. In the
face of Spain’s declining power, it tried to repair its rift with the US in order to avoid a disastrous war.
On February 15, 1898, how ever a fateful event accrued in Cuba. The American warship Maine
was blown up in Havana harbor, resulting in the death of its 260 officers and crewmembers. Although
it was not proven that the Spaniardshad sunk the Maine, the Americans called for war against Spain.
Roosevelt was one of many US officials who considered the destruction of the Maine as act of treason
and supported the declaration of war.

Spain declared war on the United States on April 23, 1898. The United Sates declared war against
Spain on April 25, 1898. On May 1, 1898, the United States Navy lead byCommodore George Dewey
crushed the Spanish squadron in Manila Bay and the Spanish naval base at Sangley Point in Cavite. By
June, 1898, the American had control of portions of the Philippine islands. The Spanish-American War
ended with the Treaty of Paris signed on December 10, 1898. The treaty conferred ownership of the
Spanish colonies of Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the United States. In turn, the U.S. paid
Spain US$ 20 million.

The Battle of Manila Bay

George Dewey, then a Commodore United States Navy’s Asiatic Squadron was
waiting in Hong Kong when He received a cable from the then secretary of
Navy, Theodore Roosevelt, stating that the war had begun between the US and
Spain. Dewey sailed from Hong Kong on board his flagship Olympia with six other
heavily armed ships. He brought with him a report on the location of the Spanish
ships in Corregidor and Manila at dawn of May 1, 1898. Dewey entered Manila
Bay almost undetected. When he saw the Spanish ships, which were under the
command of General Patricio Montoya, he ordered his men to fire. The battle began
at 5:41 in the morning and by 12:30 of the same day, the Spaniards were raising
the white flag in surrender. Although The Spanish ships outnumbered those of the
Americans; the weapons of the Americans were far more superior to those of
the Spaniards. The battle proved to be too costly for the Spaniards, who lost 167 men and had 214
others wounded. As for the Americans, no ships were destroyed, and no soldier was killed or injured.
The Battle of Manila Bay is considered one of the easiest encounters ever won in world history.

The Siege of Manila

By June 1898, General Emilio Aguinaldo had captured the whole of Luzon and was ready to storm
Manila with the help of Gregorio del Pilar, Artemio Recarte, Antonio Montenegro, Pantaleon Garcia, and
many other able generals. At that time, the term “Manila” referred to the walled city of Intramuros.
Aguinaldo’s men surrounded the walls of Intramuros. Nearby areas like Tondo, Sta. Cruz, San Juan,
and Caloocan were likewise secured. The Spaniards stubbornly hoped for the arrival of reinforcements
from the Spanish mainland, but none ever came. Aguinaldo on the other hand, was firmly convinced
that it just was a matter of days before the Spaniards surrendered. Therefore, he started planning for
the declaration of Philippine independence.

The Philippine Revolutionary Government

The Malolos Congress

Emilio Aguinaldo issued a decree on July 18, 1898 asking for the
election of delegates to the revolutionary congress, another
decree was promulgated five days later, which declared that
Aguinaldo would appoint representatives of congress because
holding elections is not practical at that time. He appointed 50
delegates in all (but this number fluctuated from time to time). In
accordance with these two decrees, Aguinaldo assembled the
Revolutionary Congress at the Barasoain Church in Malolos,
Bulacan on September 15, 1898.

The atmosphere was festive and the Pasig Band played the national anthem. After Aguinaldo had read
his speech congressional elections were held among the delegates present. The following were among
the most important achievements of the Malolos Congress:

1. In September 29, 1898, ratified the declaration of Philippine independence held at Kawit, Cavite on
June 12, 1898
2. Passage of a law that allowed the Philippines to borrow P 20 million from banks for government
expenses
3. Establishment of the Universidad Literatura de Filipinas and other schools
4. Drafting of the Philippine Constitution
5. Declaring war against the United States on June 12, 1899

Malolos Constitution

A committee headed by Felipe Calderon and aided by Cayetano Arellano, the constitution was drafted,
for the first time by representatives of the Filipino people and it is the first republican constitution in
Asia. The constitution was inspired by the constitutions of Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Brazil,
Belgium and France. After some minor revisions (mainly due to the objections of Apolinario Mabini),
the final draft of the constitution was presented to Aguinaldo. This paved the way to launching the first
Philippine Republic. It established a democratic, republication government with three branches - the
Executive, Legislative and the Judicial branches. It called for the separation of church and state. The
executive powers were to be exercise by the president of the republic with the help of his cabinet.
Judicial powers were given to the Supreme Court and other lower courts to be created by law. The
Chief justice of the Supreme Court was to be elected by the legislature with the concurrence of the
President and his Cabinet.

First Philippine Republic

The first Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolos, Bulacan on January 21,
1899. After being proclaimed president, Emilio Aguinaldo took his oath of office.
The constitution was read article by article and followed by a military parade.
Apolinario Mabini was elected as a prime minister. The other cabinet secretaries
were: Teodoro Sandico, interior; Baldomero Aguinaldo, war; Gen. Mariano Trias,
finance & war; Apolinario Mabini, foreign affairs; Gracio Gonzaga for welfare,
Aguedo Velarde, public instruction; Maximo Paterno, public works &
communication; and Leon María Guerrero for agriculture, trade & commerce.

The Philippine National Anthem

Aguinaldo commissioned Julian Felipe, a composer from Cavite province was asked to write an an
instrumental march for the proclamation of independence ceremony. The original title was "Marcha
Filipina Magdalo". This was later changed to "Marcha Nacional Filipina". The lyrics was added in August
1899 based on the poem titled "Filipinas" by Jose Palma. The original lyrics was written in Spanish,
then to English (when the Flag Law was abolished during the American period) then later, was
translated to Tagalog, which underwent another change of title to “Lupang Hinirang”, the Philippine
National Anthem.

Filipino-American Hostilities

Emilio Aguinaldo agreed to hold a peace conference between Filipino and American leaders. The
conference lasted from January 9 to 29 in 1899. It ended without definite results, because the
Americans were actually just biding time, waiting for more reinforcements to arrive from the US.
Hostilities finally exploded between the Filipinos and Americans on February 4, 1899 in San Juan.
An American soldier named Robert Grayson, saw 4 armed Filipino men on San Juan Del Mote Bridge
and ordered them to stop, but they ignored him. This prompted Grayson to fire at the men, who
immediately fired back. The following day MacArthur ordered his troops to openly engage the Filipinos
in battle. The Filipino American War was on. From San Juan, American soldiers marched on to Pasig
and nearby areas. In a matter of days, they were able to overrun Guadalupe, Pateros, Marikina, and
Caloocan.

General Antonio Luna and his men showed great heroism when they attacked Manila on the night of
February 24, 1899. They burned the living quarters of the Americans in Tondo and Binondo, and
reached as far as Azarraga Street (now Claro M. Recto Avenue), where they met by formidable
American troops. Luna was forced to retreat to Polo, Bulacan two days later. When American
reinforcements arrived in the Philippines, General Elwell Otis immediately attacked the northern part of
Manila, while General Henry Lawton went to the south. General Arthur MacArthu, Jr. marched to
Malolos, which was then the capital of the Philippine Republic. Malolos was taken on March 31, 1899.
By this time, however, Aguinaldo had already moved his headquarters to San Fernando, Pampanga.
General Fredrick Funston crossed the Pampanga River in April 1899 and entered San Fernando. On
May 5, the Americans had gained control of Pampanga. Fortunately, Aguinaldo was able to flee to San
Isidro, Nueva Ecija.
The death of Antonio Luna. A significant event that greatly weakened
Aguinaldo’s forces was the death of General Antonio Luna, acknowledged as
the best and most brilliant military strategist of the Philippine Revolution. He
was brave, intelligent, and well educated; but he also had a fiery temper, and
was a strict disciplinarian. His harsh and rough manner earned him a lot of
enemies, who latter plotted to kill him. In June 1899 Luna was at his
command post in Bayambang, Pangasinan when he received a telegram
allegedly sent by Aguinaldo. The telegram instructed him to proceed to
Aguinaldo’s headquarters in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija. On June 5, Luna
arrived at the headquarters, a convent on the town plaza in Cabanatuan, but
was told that Aguinaldo left for Tarlac. Angry, Luna went out of
the convent and was met and killed by Captain Pedro Janolino with Kawit,
Cavite troops. General Luna was buried at the nearby churchyard. Aguinaldo's role on his death is not
clear and his killers were never charged or investigated.

Aguinaldo Flees. Philippine military strategies began to fail with the death of Antonio Luna. The
generals started to disagree among themselves, and the Filipinos began losing battles. On November
13, 1899, General Emilio Aguinaldo fled to Calasiao, Pangasinan with his wife, son, mother sister, and
some Cabinet members. The Americans followed in hot pursuit; but Aguinaldo still managed to elude
them. However, he soon realized that being constantly on the run put the women in his group at great
disadvantage. So, on December 25, 1899, he surrendered them to the American Aguinaldo then
continued his march from Pangasinan to Palanan, Isabela. There he stayed for some time, since the
place was mountainous and difficult to approach. Aguinaldo’s loyal men guarded all roads leading to
the area.

End of the Philippine Revolution

Aguinaldo is Captured

Gen. Funston plotted the capture of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo. On the night of March 6, 1901, He boarded
the American warship Vicksburg and docked at Casiguran Bay on March 14. From Palanan Funston
group reached Aguinaldo’s headquarters in Palanan on March 23, 1901. The
Macabebe Scouts pretended to have been sent by Lacuna, with the American officials as their
prisoners. Thus Aguinaldo have no idea of his impending capture until Tal Placido of the
Macabebe Scouts embraced him. The Americans then declared the arrest of Aguinaldo and his men in
the name of the United States government. Aguinaldo was brought to Manila and presented to then
military Governor-General Arthur MacArthur, Jr. (father of General Douglas MacArthur) at Malacanang
Palace. On April 19, 1901 he finally pledged allegiance to the United States.

The Philippine Revolution Ends

The first to yield to the Americans was by General Simion Ola. He surrendered to Colonel Harry
Bandoltz in Guinobatan Albay on September 25.1903. Other revolutionariessoon followed.

Military Government

General Wesley Merritt was the highest-ranking American official in the Philippines
after Spaniards surrendered Manila on August 13, 1898. He established a military
government and became the first American Military governor of the Philippines.
The objectives of the Military government are: 1) to establish peace and order to
the Philippines, and 2) to prepare Philippines for civil governance. The government
in the Philippines can be classified into opposition and collaboration. The
Americans used propaganda and other means to win the Filipinos to their side.

The Schurman

The first commission was chaired by Dr. Jacob G. Schurman, president of Cornell University. Thus it
became known as the Schurman Commission. Their group arrived on the Philippines on February 4,
1899. The commission proposed the following:

1. Establish civil governments in areas were peace and order had been restored
2. Set up a bicameral legislature with members of the lower house to be all elective
3. Appoint American and Filipino member of the Upper house to head the cabinet
4. Preserve Philippine natural resources
5. Create a civil service system
6. Assign highly qualified Filipinos to important government positions

The US Congress adopted all the recommendation of the Schurman commission.

The Taft Commission

On March 16, 1900, United States President William McKinley appointed the then Judge William
Howard Taft to head the second Philippine Commission, which would also be known as the Taft
Commission. Taft would become Governor-General of the Philippines and later,
the president of the U.S.

McKinley wanted to hasten the transition of the Philippine military government

into a civil one. The Taft Commissions was given executive and legislative powers
it could use to achieve the President’s objective.

The Commission arrives in the Philippines on June 3, 1900. It began legislative

work on September 1, the first law it passed set aside P2 million for the
construction of treads and bridges. From September 1900 to August 1902, the
Commission was able to enact 440 pieces of legislation for the Philippines. Some
of these laws included the Municipal and Provincial codes, which established municipal and provincial
governments all over the country, and laws organizing the Philippine Constabulary and the countries
judicial system. Aside from enacting laws the commissions also visited various provinces and help it in
the government peace efforts.

The Spooner Amendment

The modification sponsored by Senator John C. Spooner, allowed the US president to fully administer
the Philippines. Thus, the military government of the Philippines was replaced with a civil one albeit
temporary pending the legislation of permanent colonial government by the United States.

Civil Government under Taft

The Philippine civil government was inaugurated on July 4, 1901, with William Howard Taft as its first
governor, the powers and duties of a governor were passed on to Taft. The Taft Commission continuing
functioning as legislative body. Cayetano Arellano was the first Filipino to hold a high position of
government he was named Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on May 28, 1899. Gregorio Araneta was
appointed as Secretary of Justice and finance. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda, and Jose
Luzuriaga were selected as members of the Philippine Commissions.

The Philippine Commonwealth Era

The Commonwealth era is the 10 year transitional period in Philippine history from 1935 to 1945 in
preparation for independence from the United States as provided for under the Philippine
Independence Act or more popularly known as the Tydings-McDuffie Law. The
Commonwealth era was interrupted when the Japanese occupied the Philippines in
January 2, 1942. The Commonwealth government, lead by Manuel L.
Quezon and Sergio S. Osmeña went into exile in the U.S., Quezon died of
tuberculosis while in exile and Osmeña took over as president. At the same time,
the Japanese forces installed a puppet government in Manila headed by Jose P.
Laurel as president. This government is known as the Second Philippine Republic.
On October 20, 1944, the Allied forces led by Gen. Douglas MacArthur landed on
the island of Leyte to liberate the Philippines from the Japanese. Japan formally
surrendered in September 2, 1945.

After liberation, the Commonwealth government was restored. Congress convened

in its first regular session on July 9, 1945. It was the first time the people’s
representatives have assembled since their election on November 11, 1941. Manuel Roxas was
elected Senate President, and Elpidio Quirino was chosen President Pro Tempore. Jose Zulueta was
speaker of the house, while Prospero Sanidad became speaker pro Tempore. The first law of this
congress, enacted as commonwealth act 672, organized the central bank of the Philippines. The
commonwealth deal also tackled the issue of collaboration. In September 1945 the counter intelligence
corps presented the people who were accused of having collaborated with, or given aid to, the
Japanese. Included were prominent Filipinos who had been active in the puppet government that the
Japanese had been established. ”A Peoples Court" was created to investigate and decide on the issue.

Amidst this sad state of affairs, the third commonwealth elections were held on April 23, 1946. Sergio
Osmeña and Manuel Roxas vied for the Presidency. Roxas won thus becoming the last president of the
Philippine Commonwealth. The Commonwealth era formally ended when the United States granted
independence to the Philippines, as scheduled on July 4, 1946.

Important legislations and events during the American period that made the Philippines a
commonwealth of the United States:

The Philippine Bill of 1902 - Cooper Act

United States Congressman Henry Allen Cooper sponsored the Philippine Bill of 1902, also known as
the Cooper Act. The bill proposed the creation and administration of a civil government in the
Philippines. President Theodore Roosevelt signed it into law in July 2, 1902.

Here are some of the more important provisions of the Cooper Act:

▪ Ratification of all changes introduced in the Philippine government by the president of the U.S., such
as the establishment of the Philippine Commission, the office of the civil governor and the Supreme
court
▪ Extension of the American Bill of Rights to the Filipinos except the right of trial by jury
▪ Creation of bicameral legislative body, with the Philippine Commission as the upper house and a still-
to-be-elected Philippine Assembly as the Lower House
▪ Retention of the executive powers of the civil governor, who was also president of the Philippine
Commission
▪ Designation of the Philippine Commission as the legislating authority for non-Christian tribes
▪ Retention of the Judicial powers of the Supreme court and other lower courts
▪ Appointment of two Filipino resident commissioners who would represent the Philippines in the US
Congress but would not enjoy voting rights
▪ Conservation of Philippine natural resources

The bill contained 3 provisions that had to be fulfilled first before the Philippine Assembly could be
establishing these were the:

▪ Complete restoration of peace and order in the Philippines

▪ Accomplishment of a Nationwide census
▪ Two years of peace and order after the publication of the census
The Philippine Assembly

The assembly was inaugurated on October 16, 1907 at the Manila Grand Opera
House, with US secretary of War William Howard Taft as guest of honor. Sergio
Osmeña was elected Speaker while Manuel Quezon was elected Majority Floor
leader. The Recognition of the Philippine Assembly paved the way for the
establishment of the bicameral Philippine Legislature. The Assembly functioned as
the lower House, while the Philippine Commission served as the upper house.

Resident Commissioners

Benito Legarda and Pablo Ocampo were the first commissioners. Other Filipinos who occupied this
position included Manuel Quezon, Jaime de Veyra, Teodoro Yangco, Isaro Gabaldon, and Camilo Osias.

The Jones Law

To further train the Filipinos in the art of government, the U.S. Congress enacted the Jones Law on
August 29, 1916. It was the first official document that clearly promised the Philippine independence,
as stated in its preamble, as soon as a stable government was established. The Jones Law or the
Philippine Autonomy act, Replace the Philippine bill of 1902 as the framework of the Philippine
government. It provide for the creation of the executive powers. The vice governor general, assisted
by his Cabinet, would exercise executive powers. The vice governor would act concurrently as the
Secretary of Education.

Creation of the Council of State

Upon the recommendation of Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, Governor General Francis Burton
Harrison issued an executive order on October 16, 1981, creating the first Council of State in the
Philippines. It was the Council’s duty to advise the governor general on matters such as the creation of
policies for administering government offices.

The Council held meetings once a week and whenever the governor general called for one. It was
composed of the governor general, the department secretaries, the speaker of the Lower House, and
the Senate president. During Harrison’s term, the executive and legislative branches of government
worked harmoniously with each other.

The Os-Rox Mission

One delegation, however, that met with partial success was the Os-Rox Mission, so called because it
was headed by Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas. The Os-Rox group went to the United States in 1931
and was able to influence the U.S. Congress to pass a pro-independence bill by Representative Butter
Hare, Senator Henry Hawes, and Senator Bronso Cutting. The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law provided for a
10-year transition period before the United States would recognize Philippine independence.
U.S.President Herbert Hoover did not sign the bill; but both Houses of Congress ratified it. When the
Os-Rox Mission presented the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law to the Philippine Legislature, it was rejected by
a the American High Commissioner representing the US president in the country and the Philippine
Senate, specifically the provision that gave the U.S. president the right to maintain land and other
properties reserved for military use. Manuel Quezon was tasked to head another independence mission
to the united States.

The Tydings-McDuffie Law

In December 1933, Manuel L. Quezon returned to the Philippines from the United States with a slightly
amended version of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting bill authored by Senator Milliard Tydings and
representative McDuffie. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the new U.S. president, signed it into
law on March 24, 1934. The Tydings-McDuffie Act (officially the Philippine Independence Act of the
United States Congress; Public Law 73-127) or more popularly known as the The Tydings-McDuffie Law
provided for the establishment of the Commonwealth government for a period of ten years preparatory
to the granting of Independence. See the full text of the Tydings-McDuffie Law or Continue to Japanese
Occupation, Allied Liberation.
 Japanese Occupation of the Philippines
During Word War II

On December 8, 1941, Japan invaded the Philippines. Clark Air Base in Pampanga
was first attacked and also Nichols Field outside Manila was attacked, then on
December 22, The Japanese forces landed at the Lingayen Gulf and continued on to
Manila. General Douglas MacArthur declared Manila an open city on the advice of
commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon to avoid its destruction. Manila was
occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. MacArthur retreated with his troops
to Bataan while the commonwealth government withdrew to Corregidor island
before proceeding to the United States. The joint American and Filipino soldiers in
Bataan finally surrendered on April 9, 1942. MacArthur escaped to Corregidor then
proceeded to Australia. The 76,000 captured soldiers were forced to embark on the
infamous "Death March" to a prison camp more than 100 kilometers north. An
estimated 10,000 prisoners died due to thirst, hunger and exhaustion.

The Huks

In the midst of fear and chaos, some farmers of Pampanga banded together and
created local brigades for their protection. Luis Taruc, Juan Feleo, Castro
Alejandrino, and other leaders of organized farmers held a meeting in February
1942 in Cabiao, Nueva Ecija. In that meeting, they agreed to fight the Japanese as a unified guerrilla
army. Another meeting was held the following month, where in representatives from Tarlac, Pampanga
and Nueva Ecija threshed out various details regarding their organization, which they agreed to call
"Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon" or HUKBALAHAP. Taruc was chosen to be the Leader of the
group, with Alejandrino as his right hand man. The members were simply known as Huks!

The Philippine Executive Commission

In accordance the instructions of President Manuel Quezon to Jorge Vargas, the

Filipino officials in Manila were told to enter into agreements and compromises
with the Japanese to mitigate the sufferings of the people under the iron-clad rule
of the Japanese. On January 23, 1942 the Philippine Executive Commission was
established, with Vargas as chairman. the following was appointed as department
heads: Benigno Aquino, Sr., interior; Antonio de las Alas, finance; Jose P. Laurel,
justice; Claro M. Recto, education, health, and public welfare; and Quintin
Paredes, public works and communication; Jose Yulo was named Chief Justice of
the Supreme court.

The following month, an election was held for members of The Preparatory
Commission for Philippine Independence (PCPI). The purpose of PCPI is to draw
up a constitution for a free Philippines. Jose Laurel became its head. Against the
will of the PCPI delegates the new Constitution was finalized on July 10, 1943. Two months later it was
ratified by the KALIBAPI, which was the only political party allowed to exist at that time. KALIBAPI is
the acronym for "Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas".

The new constitution, which noticeably lacked a bill of rights contained 12 articles lifted from the 1935
constitution that fitted the wishes of the Japanese. It was meant to be in effect only temporarily, while
the Philippines still in chaos. After the war, a new constitution would again be drafted for the new
Philippine Republic.

The Second Republic

On September 20 1943, the KALIBAPI- under the leadership of its director general, Benigno Aquino Sr.
held a party convention to elect 54 members of the National Assembly. The Assembly was actually
made up of 108 members; but half of this number was composed of incumbent governors and city
mayors. Jose P. Laurel was elected as president of the second republic (the first republic was
Aguinldo's Malolos Republic) and both Benigno Aquino Sr. & Ramon Avancena as a vice-presidents. The
new republic was inaugurated on October 14 1943 on the front steps of the legislative building in
Manila. The Philippine flag was hoisted as the national anthem was played. Meanwhile, the Japanese
started using propaganda to gain the trust and confidence of Filipinos who refused to cooperate with
them. They hung giant posters and distribute their materials that contains such slogans as "the
Philippines belong to the Filipinos." they also used newspapers, movies, and others to publicize the
same idea. Promoting Japanese propaganda was one of the main objectives of the KALIBAPI, but still
Japanese failed to gain the trust of the Filipinos.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur Returns

From Australia, Allied forces slowly advanced toward the Philippines, bombing several Japanese
strongholds until they regained control of areas previously occupied by the enemy. The bombings
began on September 21 1944, and barely a month later, on October 20, 1944, the Americans landed
triumphantly in Leyte. Once a shore, General Douglas MacArthur said; "I have Returned."

Sergio Osmeña was Part of MacArthur’s group. He had taken over Manuel L.
Quezon as president after the latter past way at Saranac Lake, New York on
August 1944. From October 23 to October 26, 1944 the Americans engaged
Japanese forces in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Consider as the biggest naval battle in
World History, this historic encounter almost destroyed the entire Japanese fleet
and rendered in incapable of further attack. The US victory in the battle of Leyte
Gulf is said to have signaled the beginning of Philippine liberation from the
Japanese.

By mid-December, the American soldiers had reached Mindoro. The Japanese,

meanwhile, secured other area where their thought other American units would
land. Nevertheless, US liberation forces successfully docked at Lingayen Gulf on January 9, 1945. The
news alarmed the Japanese. Lt. Gen.Tomoyuki Yamashita, supreme commander of the Japanese
troops in Manila, mobilize his kamikazes (Japanese suicide pilots); but they failed to stop Americans.
The Japanese also deployed MAKAPILI units to defend Manila but neither succeeds.

On December 8, 1944, President Laurel and his cabinet moved to Baguio upon orders of Yamashita,
who is also known as the tiger of Malaya. The Japanese forces retreated to Yamashita line a jungle
battlefront stretching along the Sierra Madre Mountains from Antipolo, Rizal to Appari Cagayan.

The Japanese in Manila would not give up easily. In fact, it took 3 weeks of intense fighting before they
finally surrendered on February 23. Gen. MacArthur continued to liberate other parts of the country.
And finally proclaim general freedom from the Japanese on July 4, 1945.

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