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MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

FOR NDT TECHNOLOGY

Continuing
Education
In Nond~structive

& <->*:,xi 5- 7 - 6-3


- . q . /- -
f.
'
--I

3>k

The American Society for ond destructive Testing


Materials and Ptvcessesfor NDT Technobgy was edited by:
Harry D. Moore

Publication and review of this text was under the direction of the-personnelTraining and CertZication Committee
of the American Society for Nondesmctive Testing:

George Wheeler, Chair (1976-80) Allen Whiting (1976- 1979)


Frank Sattler, V~ceChair (1976-79) Robert Brostrom (1978-81)
Robert Anderson, Secretary (1976-79) W d R~mmel(1978-81)
F.C.Berry (1976-78) John WeSer (1 978-81)
Chet Rob& (1976-79) Robert Balrer (untenured)
Carl Shaw (1976-82) F.N. Moschini (untenured)
Kermit Skeie (197679) Ed B&s (1979-82)
Robert Spinetti (1976-80) Jack Spanner (1979-82)

Contributors:
Donald R. Kibby
Dr. Robert C. McMaster
Dr. Vernon L.Stokes

ASNT Production Staff:


Robert Anderson, Technical Director
George Pherigo, Director of Education
Diana Nelson, Coordinator of Education Services

Published by
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711Arlingate Lane
PO Box 28518
Columbus, OH 43228-0518

Copyright 8 1981 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASMT is not responsible for the
authenticity or aumacy of information herein.Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the
opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recom-
mendation of ASNT.

IRRSP, Level 111 Sh.idy Guide, Matemis Evaluation, NDT Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Han&ook, The NDT
Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing,Inc. ACCP,
ASNT, Resemh in Non&shuctive Evaluation and W E are registered trademarks of The American Society for
Nondestructive Testmg, Inc.

ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testjng.

ISBN: 1-931403-065
Printed in the United States of America '

first printing 1981


second printing 12/87
third printing 05/88
fourth printing 10189
fifth printing 1U91
sixth printing 01/84
erenth printing 04/96
eighth printing 08/98
&rb printing 11/00
Table of Contents

CHAPTER

1 RELATION OF NDT TO
MANUFACTURING 1
NONDIESTRU~IVE!TESTING: NDT Defini-
tion. REQUIREMENTS FOR NDT SUPER-
VISORY PERSONNEL. QUALIFICATION
AND CERTIFICATION OF NDT LEVEL I11
TESTING PERSONNEL: Swrces of Technical
Information Available to NDT Personnel.
MANUFACTURING: MATERIALS AND
PROCESSES: Material Failures, Purpose for
Use of MDT. NDT IN FRACTURE CON-
TROL.
2 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACRJRING
TECHNOLOGY 9
History. INDUSTRIAL RELATIONSHIPS:
Competition in Industry. Personnet Nomencla-
ture. SUBJECT MATI'F,R: Materials. Re
cesses. Economics. Order.
3 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 15
INTRODUmION: Classes of Properties. Sig-
nificance of Properties of Design. LOADING
SYSTEMS AND MATERIAL FAILURE:
Loading Systems. TESTING: The Tensile Test.
True Stress-True Strain. Compression Testing.
Transverse Rupture Testing. Shear Testing. Fa-
tigue Testing. Creep Testing. Notched Bar
Testing. Bend Testing. Hardness Testing. Fac-
tor of Safety.
Relation of NDT to
Manufacturing

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Nondestructive testing is a fundamental and essen-


tial tool for control of quality of engineering materials,
manufacturing processes, reliability of products in ser-
vices, and maintenance of systems whose premature
failure could be costly or disastrous.

NDT DEFINITION
Like most complex procedures, NDT is not definable
by a few simple words. Nondestructive testing is nor-
mally interpreted to mean the use of physical methods
for testing materids and -products without harm to
those materials and products. Many inspection proce-
dures such as dimensional measurements, visual. exam-
ination for completeness, functional tests. and others,
although required in a manufacturing process, are not
normally considered part of a NDT program.
Nondestructive Tests Are Always Indirect. It is
frequently important b know a property or character-
istic of a material or product which, if tested directly,
would be destructive. Therefore it becomes necessary
to perform a nondestructive test on some property or
&aracteristic which can be related to that about which
knowledge is desired. The test may be very simple in
some cases, but in others may be complex and difficult.
However, in every case, reliable correlation must be es-
tablished between the desired property and the mea-
sured property (or properties),
Correlation M a y Be Costly And Difficult. Analysis
t o provide accurate knowlege of the relation between a
testable quality and one which cannot be tested direct-
ly without destruction is likely t o require a great
amount of knowledge, skill, and background experi-
ence together with g o d judgement which, in a broad
sense, can be described as an instinctive knowledge of
the laws of statistical probability.
Properties of 3
Materials

INTRODUCTION

Because manufactured items are made from materi-


als with various properties, responsible NDT person-
nel must be generally familiar with engineering materi-
als and their capabilities and limitations. Selection of
an engineering material to implement the design of a
usable part or assembly requires knowledge of the
material's chemical, physical, and mechanical proper-
ties. Most structural materials are loaded by external
forces which generate high levels of internal mechani-
cal stress within the materials. The reaction of the
component to a new stress distribution caused by the
development of discontinuities may be critical to its
continued functioning. In order to perform meaningful
inspections, the responsible nondestructive testing
personnel must be cognizant of both the normal mate-
rial properties and of the effects of discontinuities
upon the material serviceability in its intended applica-
tions.
As indicated in Chapter 2, the qualities of materials
that are of practical interest to manufacturing are
measured quantitites called properties, as distin-
guished from the physical makeup of materials called
atomic structure. Science in recent y,ears has made
great strides in determining the atomic structure of
materials. Figure 3-1 shows that an atom of iron con-
tains twenty-six electrons and an atom of aluminum
contains thirteen electrons, arranged in definite order.
The number and the arrangement of particles in each
atom actually determine all the properties of any
material, and it should be theoretically possible to
predict the properties of a material from the structure
of its atoms. Physicists and chemists can make some
predictions of properties, particularly chemical and
electrical, based on structure, but. the mechanical
properties of greatest interest to a study of manu-
o
16 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

facturing processes must still be defined and of manufacturing process. Neither iron nor aluminum
measured by empirical test for each material. in the pure state has many applications in manufac-
turing because their strengths are low, but their
alloys, particularly iron alloys, are the most common-
ly used of all metals. Both of these materials can be
strengthened over their weakest forms by factors of
almost ten by suitable alloying and treatment, with
alloys of iron being approximately five times as
strong as those of aluminum on a volume basis.
Processing Properties. As pointed out at the
beginning of the chapter, the properties that have
been discussed are actually dependent on the atomic
IRON ALUMINUM
structure of a material, but in practice these proper-
Figure 3-1
ties must be separately measured. In a simiJar way,
Atomic structure different properties that are related to hardness,
strength, ductility, and other physical and mechanical
CLASSES OF PROPERTIES properties and that are frequently of even greater
The application to which a material is put deter- importance to manufacturing must in practice be
mines which of its properties are most important. defined by separate tests. These include tests for
Chemical Properties. The chemical properties castability, weldability, machinability, and bending
(reaction with other materials) are of interest for all that describe the ability of the material to be proc-
material mainly because of the almost universal need essed in definite ways. Tests of this type may be
for resistance to corrosion. Although aluminum is developed at any time there is need for determining
chemically more active than iron, in most atmos- the ability of the material to meet critical needs of
pheres the corrosion by products of aluminum form a processing, and they are usually performed under
denser coating, which acts as a shield to further corro- conditions very similar to those under which the
sion, than do the corrosion byproducts of iron. process is performed.
While the atomic and crystalline structure of all
metals gives them high electrical and thermal conduc-
tivity compared to nonmetals, individual metals still SIGNIFICANCE OF PROPERTIES TO DESIGN
differ considerably. Aluminum is among the best A designer is necessarily interested in properties
electrical conductors, while iron, although much because he must know material strengths before he
more conductive than nonmetals, is a poor conductor can calculate sizes and shapes required to carry loads,
compared to aluminum. On the other hand, the chemical properties to meet corrosive conditions, and
magnetic properties of iron make it much more desir- other properties to satisfy other functional require-
able for some electrical uses than aluminum. ments. Knowledge of processing properties is likely to
Physical Properties. Physical properties for each be of more importance to manufacturing personnel
material are constants associated with the atomic than to the designer, although even he must be able
structure. These properties include density (weight to choose material that can be manufactured in a
per unit volume), crystalline type, atomic spacing, reasonably economical manner. Many manufacturing
specific heat, cohesive strength (theoretical), and problems arise from choice of materials based only
melting point. Iron has a much higher melting point on functional requirements without considering
and density than aluminum. Iron is allotropic, mean- which is the most suitable for the processing required.
ing it can exist in several different crystalline struc- Similar results can occur when inspectability has not
tures as opposed to aluminum, which always exists in been given proper consideration in design.
single crystalline pattern. This difference makes pos- Material Choice a Compromise. Most products
sible, for iron-based alloys, methods of property con- can be manufactured from a number of different pos-
trol by heat treatment that are not possible for alumi- sible materials that will satisfy the functional require-
num. Some aluminum-based alloys may be heat ments. However, some are more desirable from the
treated for property control, but the reaction is entire- product standpoint than others, and one particular
ly different. material may have the best possible combination of
Mechanical Properties. Of most interest to man- properties. Likewise, all materials can be manu-
ufacturing are the mechanical properties of hardness, factured by some means, although costs of manufac-
strength, and oth~rs that are of prime importance in turing will vary, and there will likely be one single
design considerations. for determining sizes and shapes material from which a usable product could be manu-
necessary for carrying loads. These qualities will also factured at lowest cost. Seldom can a material be
determine the work loads for any deformation type chosen that has optimum properties for both the
Properties of Materials 17

product and thp mamlfacturillg, so the majority of written as a formula, s = PIA. Because in this case the
material choices turn <)ut to be compromises. The applied force is a pulling force or tensile force, the
final choice may be a result of trial and error tests internal loads are tensile stresses CSt), and the formula
among several possible best materials and processes. may be written St = PIA.
New choices may be required with changes of design, Reversal of the external load P would cause the
material availability, processes, or market demand. internal stress to be compressive instead of tensile.
LOADING SYSTEMS AND MATERIAL FAILURE The unit stress on any plane x - x perpendicular to
the line of force would then be calculated from the
LOADING SYSTEMS
formula Sc = PI A.
Physical loading of material is a result of applying Shear Stresses. Tension and compression, forces
force under one or more simple, basic loading sys- and their resulting stresses are always considered to
tems. In nearly all cases, even when a piece is loaded act normally, or perpendicular, to a plane. A third
by only a single set of outside forces, the internal term, shear stress, is used to describe the effect of
loads developed are more complex than those ap- forces that act along, or parallel to, a plane. No provi-
plied. However, in many testing procedures this sion has been made for describing forces meeting a
complexity is disregarded, and the forces are treated plane at an angle. Because, however, an infinite num-
as though they are uniform thoughout the material. ber of planes may be of interest, it becomes necessary
Stresses. Internal forces, acting upon imaginary to resolve the stresses to various angle:; to determine
planes cutting the body being loaded, are called critical values and positions. Figure 3-3 illustrates a
stresses. For purposes of ease in understanding and bar, similar to that of Figure 3-2, with tensile load
comparison, stresses are usually reduced to unit stress being applied to the end. As already illustrated, ten-
by assuming that the force acts uniformly over the sile stresses, and tensile stresses only, are set up on
cross-sectional area under consideration. The load- any imaginary plane x - x perpendicular to the line
per-unit area can then be calculated by dividing the of force. If, however, a plane not perpendicular to the
total load or force by the area on which it acts. The line of force is examined, it can be seen that a differ-
common units used for measurement and description ent situation exists. The imaginary plane z -z is at any
in the United States are pounds for force and square angle</>.The area cut by the imaginary plane z-z is
inches for area, so unit stress becomes pounds per equal to the area of the plane x- x multiplied by the
square inch (psi) or when dealing with large figures, secant of the angle rp. Therefore, the unit shear stress
thousands of pounds per square inch (kips/in2 ). IS
With the changeover to the international metric
system of measurement, the units for stress become Ss - P sin 4> - P .
newtons per square meter (pascals) in which a newton
A sec </> - A SIn rp cos rp
_J!. .
is equal to approximately 0.2248 pounds of force - 2A SIn 2 rp
(poundals). Conversion of kips/in2 involves multipli-
cation by the factor 6.894757 to obtain megapas.cals
(MPa). Approximate conversion can be accomplished
by use of the multiplying factor 7.
Normal Stresses. Figure 3-2 represents a bar sub- ~ //

jected to a pulling force of P. If the load Pis uniform- : /// p ~p


p~
I \ ly distributed over the ends of the bar, it can be
I assumed that the internal loads are uniformly dis-
:--~~//~
*
I /
/ 'z

tributed. Examination at any plane x-x perpen- I


,,/
//

dicular to the line of applied force will show that the


crystals along one side of the plane are trying to sep-
arate from the adjacent crystals along the plane. This Figure 3-3
internal force tending to separate the material is Resolved loading
known as stress. If the surface area cut by the imagin-
ary plane x-xis A, then the unit stress (s) is PIA, or
I
Substitution of the values for rpin this formula shows
I
t
that for zero or 900, the shear stress is equal to zero.
The maximum shear stress occurs when </>is 450 and
"'"- ;;..p
p~ sine 2 </>is 1, in which case the shear stress, Ss, equals
..'" Pj2A. The maximum value is one-half the tensile
stress, St, established on a plane that is perpendicular
to the applied force.

[
Figure 3-2 If, in the preceding case, the external load were
Simple loading compression instead of tension, shear stress would
18 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

have been developed to the same magnitude and in cerned with a product, a process, or both. Direct test-
the same way but opposite in direction and combined ing is usually time-consuming, and, for the results to
with compressive stress instead of tensile stress. Shear have statistical significance, often requires compila-
stress exists alone only in a bar subjected to pure tion of data from many test samples. The procedure
torsion, that is, a bar being twisted with no tension, is necessary, however, for those cases in which simp-
compression, or bending present. Shear stresses are ler methods are not available and in which sufficient
important to our manufacturing processes because historical information has not been accumulated to
these are the forces that cause material to shift in permit correlation between the attribute about which
plastic flow and permit shape changing by deforma- information is desired and some other measurable
tion processes. factor.
Bending. Bending loads create a combination of Indirect Testing. Indirect testing involves the use
stresses. The concave side of a bent body will be in of such a correlation, such that accurate knowledge
compression and the convex side in tension with of the relationship between the two factors must
transverse shear occurring along the axis between exist. The ability of grinding wheels to resist the
them. The maximum unit stress will be in the outer
centrifugal forces imposed in use is directly tested by
fibers of the bent body and is represented by the rotating them at higher speeds than those of actual
formula Sb = Mc/I where. M equals bending moment, use. Such a test indicates that the wheel strength is
c equals distance from neutral axis, and I equals sufficient for normal use with some safety margin. An
moment of inertia of the body. indirect test that is sometimes used for the same
Effects of Stresses. The principal' point to be purpose can be performed by rapping a suspended
made in this discussion of forces and stresses is that wheel to cause mechanical vibrations in the sonic
structural designs must be of suitable size and shape range. A clear tone indicates no cracks. A danger of
and must be made of material with proper strength indirect testing is that the conclusions depend on the
values to withstand the loads imposed upon them. assumption that the correlation betweAn the meas-
When a structural member (almost any object) is ured factor and the critical factor exists under all
physically loaded by weight, by pressure from conditions. The rapping test for grinding wheels does
mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic sources, by not give any real indication of strength, unless knowl-
thermal expansion or contraction, or by other means, edge of the wheel's history permits the assumption
internal stresses are set up in the member. The size, that with no cracks it has sufficient strength for use.
direction, and kind of stresses are dependent upon
the loading system. The magnitude of the unit Destructive Testing. A large number of direct
stresses will be dependent not only upon the applied tests are destructive. These also are dangerous because
force but also upon the area of material resisting the the assumption must be made that those materials
stresses. As loads are increased, unit stresses will not tested are like the ones for which test informa-
increase to the point where, in some direction, one or tion has been obtained. A portion of weld bead may
more reach critical values in relation to the material. be examined for quality by sectioning it to look for
Failure by plastic flow or by fracture can then be voids, inclusions, penetration, bond, and metallurgical
expected, depending upon which critical values are structure by visual examination. By this 0peration,
reached first. In nearly all cases of fracture failure, this portion of the bead has been destroyed; regard-
the separation of material is preceded by at least a less of the quality that was found, the only knowl-
small amount of plastic flow. In those cases in which edge acquired about the remaining portion of the
plastic flow occurs to a large degree, fracture failure weld comes from an assumption that it is similar to
will finally result. that examined because it was made under the same
conditions.
TESTING
Testing of material is essential to gain practical Nondestructive Testing. In addition to the nondes-
knowledge of how materials react under various situa- tructive feature, these tests almost entirely are indi-
tions. The ultimate goal of any test is to enable the rect tests that require first, correlation with the de-
making of decisions that provide the best economic fects that are being sought, and second, expert evalua-
results. In practice, two general methods of testing tion or interpretation of the evidence that is gathered.
are used. Nondestructive tests may be for faults and discontin-
Direct Testing. The only test that supplies abso- unities located on either the surface or internally and
lute information about a workpiece or a material is a may be performed before, during, and after the
test of the particular property of interest conducted manufacturing process.
on that part itself. In this method of direct testing, an These tests are performed by (1) exposing the prod-
attempt is made to use the materials under the exact uct material to some kind of probing medium {radia-
conditions of practical use, and the test may be con- tion energy, sonic energy, magnetic and electrical
20 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

mations in the elastic range, nd as long as the load at closer and closer together until there is no detectable
B is not exceeded, the material will resume its original difference.
position and shape after removal of the load. B is the Yield Point and Yield Strength. Many materials
elastic limit for this particular material, and loads do not have a well-defined or reproducible yield
above that limit will cause permanent deformation point. Plotting of tensile stress-strain values produces
(plastic flow) that cannot be recovered by removal of a curve of the type shown in Figure 3-7. For these
the load. At the load represented by the point at C, materials, an artificial value similar to the yield point,
plastic flow is occurring at such a rate that stresses are called yield strength, may be calculated. The yield
being relieved faster than they are formed, and strain strength is defined as the amount of stress required to
increases with no additional, or even with a reduction produce a predetermined amount of permanent
of, stress. The unit stress at C is known as the yield strain. A commonly used strain or deformation is
point. 0.002 inch per inch, or 0.2% offset, which must be
necessarily indicated with the yield strength value.
The yield strength is the stress value indicated by the
E
intersection point between the stress-strain curve and
the offset line drawn parallel to the straight portion
F of the curve.
'"
c- c Modulus of Elasticity. In the stress range below
o the elastic limit, the ratio of unit stress to unit defor-
.~
a D
mation, or the slope of the curve, is referred to as the
e/)"
e/)
w
a:
l-
e/)
I-
Z
-'

A
'"
c-
UNIT DEFORMATION
2 I
I

Figure 3.6 .~ I
Stress-strain diagram e/)" i
e/) I
w
a:
Plastic flow occurring at normal temperature is l-
e/)
I
called cold working, regardless of the kind of loading I-
I
Z I
system under which it is accomplished. As plastic :J
flow takes place, the crystals and atoms of the materi-
al rearrange internally to take stronger positions
resisting further change. The material becomes
stronger and harder and is said to be work hardened.
At the point D in Figure 3-6, the curve suddenly turns .001 00200>
upward, indicating that the material has become UNIT DEFORMATION

stronger because of work hardening and that higher


Figure 3-7
loads are required to continue deformation. The
Yield strength
deformation rate, however, increases until at point E
the ultimate strength is indicated. modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus, and is
Ultimate and Breaking Strengths. The ultimate represented by E. E, therefore, equals s divided by o.
tensile strength of a material is defined as being the Following are listed the values of E for some of the
highest strength in pounds per square inch, based on more common structural materials:
the original cross-sectional area. By this definition, TABLE 3-1
ductile materials that elongate appreciably and neck
down with considerable reduction of cross-sectional Aluminumalloys .10millionpsi(6.9X 109 Pa)
Copper alloys .14to19millionpsi
area, rupture at a load lower than that passed through
Grayiron ..., .12to19millionpsi
previous to fracture. The breaking strength, or rup-
Steel and high-strength irons .28 to 30 million psi
ture strength, for this material is shown at F, consid-
Cemented carbides. .. ... . .approx 50 million psi
erably below the ultimate strength. This is typical of
ductile materials, but as materials become less ductile, The gross values of the modulus of elasticity are
the ultimate strength and the breaking strength get important to the design of members when deflection
Properties of Materials 21

or deformation in the elastic range must be given con- True stress would continue to increase throughout the
sideration, The relative stiffness or rigidity of differ- test, as shown in Figure 3-8, and maximum stress
ent materials can be ascertained merely by comparing would occur at the final break. The test of Figure 3-6 is
their moduli. By rearrangement of the formula for E, usually called an engineer's stress-strain diagram. This
the unit deformation becomes equal to the unit stress curve ~s shown as a dotted line in Figure 3-8. Not only
divided by E, If a bar of steel with a cross-sectional is it easier to prepare than a true stress-true strain
area of 1 square inch and with a modulus of elasticity diagram, but the value for ultimate strength obtained
of 30 million pounds per square inch is subjected to a from it is more useful for design than the maximum
tensile pull of 1,000 pounds, each inch of length of true stress that occurs when the specimen breaks. The
the bar will be stretched 1/30,000 of an inch, A true concern of a designer is the maximum load that
30-inch-long steel bar with this cross section would can be supported, not the maximum stress.
then be elongated 1/1,000 (0.001) of an inch overall
with a 1,000-pound tensile load.
Ductility. The tension test provides two measures
of ductility. One is called percent elongation, repre-
sented by the formula
co
0..
percent elongation = (Lf - Lo) X 100
Lo 2
where
'in
a. ---- / ENGINEER'S

Lf = final gage length


en
(I)
w ./
//// --, -,
a: ./ '
Lo = original gage length. I- ./ '
(I) - / '
I- '\ " /
For ductile material the major portion of the elonga-
2
tion will occur over a relatively small portion of the ::>
gage length after the specimen begins to neck as it
approaches the breaking point. Because much of the
elongation is localized, a variation of gage length
would cause a difference in calculated percent elon-
gation.
Another measure, percent reduction of area, is
calculated by comparing the original area of the speci-
men to the smallest area of the neck at rupture. DEFORMATION
Resilience and Toughness. The area under a curve
Figure 3-8
is influenced by both factors that are used to make
True stress-true strain diagram
that curve. In a stress-strain diagram the area under
any portion of the curve represents the energy re- COMPRESSION TESTING
quired to deform the material. Up to the elastic limit,
Up to the elastic limit, most metals are approxi-
this energy is recoverable and is called resilience.
mately equal in properties under either tensile or
Toughness is defined as the ability of a material to
compressive loading. Cast iron, however, has a tensile
absorb energy without fracture. For the tension test,
the total area under the curve is a measure of tough- strength of only about one-half its compressive
ness. strength and is therefore used mostly in applications
where the principal loads are of the compressive type.
TRUE STRESS-TRUE STRAIN Many nonmetals such as timber, concrete, and other
aggregates are also used almost entirely for supporting
In the tensile test just described, stresses were cal- compressive or compactive loads. This is due in part
culated as though the original specimen size did not to higher compressive strength, but als'o these materi-
change. More precisely, the vertical axis of the dia- als have a high incidence of flaws and faults that
gram should be labeled load/original area rather than might cause sudden failure in tension but produce
stress. If each time a load reading were made, the relatively small effect under compressive loading.
smallest diameter of the specimen were found and the The testing of materials in compression is con-
calculation for stress based on this actual diameter, ducted in much the same manner as in testing under
this axis could be labeled true stress. The definition tension. Specimens 'are placed between tables of a
of true strain is somewhat more complex, and, in any testing machine that are brought together to subject
case, true strain does not differ greatly from elonga- the specimen to compressive loads. Compression
tion normally plotted. The greatest difference be- specimens must be short compared to their diameter
-
tween the diagram of Figure 3-6 and a true stress-flow so that column effect will not cause bending with
" strain diagram would be in the plastic flow region. eccentric, unequal loading.
22 Materiala and Processes for NDT Technology

TRANSVERSE RUPTURE TESTING parison cannot be made with ultimate tensile strength
Limitations of Tensile Tests for Brittle Materials. values taken from a tension test, nor can the values of
In a number of cases a substitute for the standard modulu,s of rupture be used as design tensile strength
tensile test is necessary. With some materials that are d u e s . The values are useful for comparing materials,
difficult to shape or very brittle in nature, it is im- and they are useful in design when the material is to
practical to produce a specimen for tension testing. be used as a beam.
This condition occurs particularly with ceramics.
With most materials that are very brittle in character,
even though a tensile specimen might be produced,
the results from the s h d a x d tensile test would have
only limited significance. It is almost impossible to
insure in the tension test that the applied load will be
precisely centered in the specimen and will be exactly
parallel t o the axis of the specimen. If this is not the
case, bending moments are introduced in the speci-
men. With a ductile material, small amounts of plastic
flow take place in the specimen, particularly where
the load is applied; the specimen aligns itself properly
with the load; and the stresses are uniform across the
tested area. With a brittle material in which this align-
ment cannot take place, the bending moments result
in higher stresses on one side of the specimen than on
the other. The specimen fails when the highest stress
reaches some critical value, but the observed stress at
this time, based on the assumption of uniformity, is
somewhat lower. As a consequence, the results from
testing a number of similar brittle specimens exhibit
wide variations and are not representative of the true Flgure 3-9
strength of the material. Transverse rupture test
The Transverse Rupture Test. The transverse rup- SHEAR TESTING
ture test, while it gives less complete information
In the section dealing with material failure, it was
than the tension test, is a fast and simple test, making
use of more easily prepared specimens, and is especi- painted out that when a bar is subjected to a tension
ally well suited to brittle materials. In many instances load as in the tension test, the value of shear stress
the specimen can be an actual workpiece. The test is existing in the bar at failure can be calculated from
particularly well suited for those materials that are to the load and the dimensions of the bar (Figure 3-10).
be used in beam applications. It is really the only
meaningful type of strength test for reinforced con-
crete.
The test consists of loading a simple beam as illus-
trated in Figure 3-9. While some standards have been
set for particular materials, there are no univeral
standards for specimen sizes and shapes as there are
for the tension test.
The modulus of rupture, or beam strength, is cal-
culated by the formula

Limitations of Transverse Rupture Testing. While


this formula is the formula that is used to calculate
the maximum actual stress in the outer fibers in a
beam, it is based on the assumption that stress re- Figure 3-10
mains proportional to strain. This is not the case for Heads of a torsion testing machine. Torslon
most materials when highly loaded, with the result Is the simplest way of obtaining pure shear
that the calculated "stress" is higher than the actual stress. Results are useful for evaluating
stress in the outer fibres at rupture, and direct com- cold-working properties of metals
Properties of Materials 23

The term shear, however, has a broader meaning than boundaries, may be sources of fatigue failure. With
shear stress only and is used to describe loading sys- repeated stressing, a crack starts at one of these
tems that subject a material to a shearing action. fatigue nuclei and grows until insufficient solid metal
Actually, the stress distribution in such loading sys- remains to carry the load. Complete failure in a sud-
tem is quite complex, but a rather simple shear den, brittle manner results. As seen in Figure 3-11, the
strength test has been developed that simulates the exposed surface of a fatigue failure shows part of the
conditions of actual loading and provides information surface to be smooth and polished, while the rest
that may be used in deisgn where the loading situa- exhibits a well-defined grain structure. The crystal-
tion is similar to that of the test. Such loading occurs line-appearing portion was separated in the sudden,
in using bolts or rivets and in shearing operations in final break. The smooth part was polished and
which material is being separated. In the test indi- burnished by the movement of the material with
cated in Figure 3-11, the bar with cross-sectional area repeated deflection as the crack developed and grew.
A is made to fail simultaneously in two places so that Fatigue failure is more frequent than commonly
the area of failure is 2A, and shear strength is defined thought. There have been estimates that with equip-
as shear strength = P/2A. ment having moving parts or subject to vibration as
much as 90% failures include fatigue in some form. Be-
p
p cause any kind of discontinuity, particularly those at
(or near) the surface where tensile stresses are likely to
be highest, can be the nucleus for fatigue failure, loca-
j tion of these spots by NOT may prevent a later cata-
strophic failure.
Endurance Limits. Because a material may fail
under conditions of a great many repeated loads at a
stress level far below that determined by the standard
strength test, a designer must know how different
materials stand up under these conditions. Tests have
been developed with special machines that bend
plate-shaped test specimens or subject a rotating
beam to a bending load for large numbers of cycles.
From data collected from such tests, the endurance
limit of a material can be determined.
Figure 3-11
The endurance limit is the highest completely re-
Shear strength test versed stress whose repeated application can be
endured for an indefinitely large number of cycles
FATIGUE TESTING without failure. Figure 3-12 shows a typical SoN, or
endurance limit, curve. The material represented by
A metal may fail under sufficient cycles of re- this curve would have an endurance limit of 42,000
peated stress, even though the maximum stress pounds per square inch (290 MPa) because the curve
applied is considerably less than the strength of the
material determined by static test. Failure will occur 60
, at a lower stress level if the cyclic loading is reversed,
alternating tension and compression, than if the
cycles are repeated in the same direction time after N 50
time. The conclusion from one comprehensive study "C"'a.
of service failures was that in 90% of such failures in
~
which fracture occurred, fatigue was involved. Struc-
vi
en 40
tural members subject to vibration, repeated variation w
of load, or any cyclic disturbance causing deflection a:
I-
en
must be designed to have low enough stress levels that
fatigue phenomena will not cause failure. X 30
<{
Fatigue Failure Initiation and Development. ~
Fatigue failure normally starts at some spot where 20
stress concentration is high because of the shape of 104 IO~ 108 107 108 10" 1010
the member or some imperfection. Holes through the CYCLES
material, notches in the surface, internal flaws, such as
voids, cracks, or inclusions or even minor scratches Figure 3-12
'and faults caused by corrosive attack on the grain Typical S-N curve

L
24 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

has flattened out, and stressing at this level could be


continued indefinitely without failure. Endurance ,----- 1
limits correlate fairly closely with tensile strength and CONSTANT I
for most materials are from about one-third to one- TEMP. TEST SPECIMEN
half the stress required to break a tensile specimen. ,ZONE I
, ,
Fatigue Strength. For some materials the curve ,I I
I
does not flatten even after several hundred million I I
I I
cycles. When the endurance limit cannot be de- ,, Al I
termined, or it is impractical to carryon a test long I I
, I
enough for this determination, it is common practice , I
to use another value, fatigue strength, to evaluate the
L___- 1

ability of a material to resist fatigue failure. Fatigue


LOAD
strength is the stress that can be applied for some
arbitrary number of cycles without failure. The num-
ber of cycles for which a fatigue strength is valid must FRACTURE

always be specified because the operating stress


chosen may be at a level where the S-N curve still t
z
slopes, and indefinite cyclic operation could cause 2
fatigue failure. ~
<9
Z
0
-'
CREEP TESTING w
~
The term creep is used to describe the continuous
deformation of a material under constant load,
TIME --+
producing unit stresses below those of the elastic
limit. At normal temperature, the effect of creep is
Figure 3-13
very small and can be neglected. As operating temper- Creep test
atures increase, however, this deformation by slow
plastic flow becomes very important in the design and be used to give information that can be used
use of material. Recognition of this phenomenon is directly in design, but primarily provide data for com-
most important for the higher strength materials that parison of different materials. While such tests are
are to be used at elevated temperatures. frequently called impact tests, the energy required to
Creep tests are conducted by applying a constant cause failure does not differ greatly from that re-
load to a material specimen held at the desired temp- quired if the load were applied slowly. True impact
erature and measured periodically for deformation failure, in which the energy-absorbing capacity of a
over a long period of time. The results may be plotted material is greatly reduced, occurs only at much high-
. on a graph of elongation against time, as in Figure er speeds.
3-13, with an indication of the maintained tempera- Charpy Test. The most commonly conducted
ture and stress level under which the test was con-
tests are bending impact tests, using one of two kinds
ducted. Most creep tests are carried on for periods of of notched speciments (Figure 3-14). The Charpy
at least 1,000 hours, so this is a time-consuming test. specimen is supported at both ends by a standard
The creep strength of a material is the stress required
to produce some predetermined creep rate (the slope
-p
of the straight portion of a curve) for a prolonged IZOD
period of time. Commonly, the stress required to
produce a creep rate of 1% in 10,000 hours is used as
creep strength. Stress rupture strength is defined as
the stress required to produce failure at prescribed
values of time and temperature.
NOTCHED BAR TESTING
Materials are often used in situations in which
dynamic loads are suddenly applied to produce shock ~y
that increases the effective load far above that which
would be expected from gradual application of the
t
same load or a similar static load. Tests designed to
check the ability of a material to withstand this kind Figure 3-14
of loading are energy absorption tests that seldom can Impact specimens
Properties of Materials 25

impact testing machine and struck on the side oppo- variable that they are of little value and are not re-
site that of the notch. The testing machine is con- corded. Instead, the angle of bend at failure is com-
structed with a weighted pendulum, which is lifted to pared with results of other tests.
start the test. Upon its release, the pendulum swings Guided Bend Test. In guided bend tests, the test
past the specimen, and breaks it. As the pendulum specimen is bent about a fixed radius to 1800. The
swings past, the remaining energy can be measured by bend angle of a failure before 1800 bending usually
the height of the swing and the absorbed energy de- cannot be satisfactorily compared with other test
termined. results because of nonuniform plastic flow of material
Izod Test. The Izod specimen is supported in the in the specimen caused by pressures set up by the
testing machine by one end only and is loaded as a guided bend fixture. Multiple-radius guided bends
cantilever beam with a notch on the side of impact. may be used for rating specimens by determining the
Energy absorption is measured in the same way as smallest radius about which a standard specimen will
with the Charpy specimen. bend 180°.
Test Specimens. Two kinds of notches are used
on bending impact specimens. The Izod specimen is HARDNESS TESTING
usually made with a 45° angular notch with a
O.OlO-inch radius at the bottom. The specimen is The most frequently used tests for determining
extremely sensitive to variation of notch size or material properties are hardness tests. With sufficient
change of radius, and extreme care in manufacture of knowledge of material composition and previous
the test specimen is necessary for reproducibility of processing, hardness tests can be used as indirect
test results. The keyhole notch shown on the Charpy measures of properties entirely different from hard-
specimen can be duplicated more accurately but is ness. For example, hardness can sometimes be used to
limited in the smallness of the hole producing the separate raw materials of different composition, to
notch effect by the size of the smallest drill that will determine whether or not satisfactory heat treating or
not "drift" in making the hole. The notches in the other processing has been accomplished, or to mea-
test specimens act as points of stress concentration, sure the strength and wear-resistant properties of a
and the smaller the notch radius, the more severe is product. Hardness measurements, therefore, are fre-
the stressing at this point. These notched test speci- quently made on raw material, on parts in process,
mens actually provide only information regarding and on finished goods ready for use.
material that is to be used in a similar notched condi- With some metal alloys, electrical conductivity and
tion but are often practical because materials are fre- hardness are related within limited ranges. Eddy cur-
quently used with design shapes or structural imper- rent tests standardized to measure electrical conduc-
fections that cause a structural member to be, in tivity can therefore be used as an indirect measure of
effect, a notched beam. hardness. Such tests must be applied cautiously since
Tensile Impact Test. Greater reproducibility and the ranges are restricted over which the relationship
greater similarity between the test and some use con- between hardness and conductivity are reasonably lin-
ditions can be provided by tensile impact tests. The ear. Aluminum alloys and other non-ferrous metals are
specimens for these tests are not notched and are more reliably tested by this method than are ferrous
supported so that uniaxial tensile impact loads may alloys.
be applied. The standard impact testing machine with Most hardness tests result in some kind of measure
pendulum weight can be tooled for testing small of the ability of a material to resist penetration of the
\ specimens of this type. For larger specimens a special
machine with a variable-speed flywheel to store
near surface material. Penetration of material with
any kind of indentor requires the use of force and
energy can be obtained. involves plastic flow of the tested materi~1. The
work-hardening qualities of a material, therefore,
become part of most hardness measurements and
BEND TESTING
partially explain the difficulty of converting from one
Materials that are to be deformation processed by type of hardness measure to another, because dif-
being subjected to bending loads and materials that ferent methods of measuring hardness do not measure
may have been affected by localized heating, such as exactly the same thing. They are, however, well
in welding, are sometimes tested by bend tests to enough standardized to provide useful and practical
provide comparative data. information.
Free Bend Test. Free bends are accomplished by Mohs Test. One of the first standardized systems
pre bending a flat specimen slightly to produce eccen- of measuring hardness made use of the Mohs scale of
tricity and then loading the specimen in compression hardness, which specifies ten standard minerals ar-
Ii'- (column) until failure occurs or a 180° bend is pro- ranged in order of their increasing hardness and num-
, duced. Normally, the loads to accomplish this are so bered according to their position. Starting with
,It
26 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

number 1 as the softest, the standard Mohs scale is as numerical value of the Brinell hardness number is
follows: obtained by dividing the load in kilograms by the area
1 ... Talc 6 ... of the spherical impression in millimeters. In practice,
Orthoclase (Feldspar) the average diameter of the impression is usually read
2 ... Gypsum 7 ... Quartz
. .. with a measuring microscope and the Brinell hardness
3 Calcite 8 ... Topaz number determined directly from a table.
4 ... Fluorite 9 ... Corundum
5 ... Apatite 10 ... Diamond Advantage and Limitation of Brinell Tests. The
Brinell hardness method has the advantage, as com-
If a material can be noticeably scratched by the pared to most other measuring methods, of determin-
mineral topaz (number 8) but cannot be scratched by ing a hardness value over a relatively large area, thus
quartz (number 7), it would have a hardness value reducing the inconsistencies caused by flaws, imper-
between 7 and 8 on the Mohs scale. The Mohs scale fections, and nonhomogeneity in the material, likely
of hardness has little value for hardness testing of to be introduced with small area measurement that
metals but is still widely used in the field of minera- includes only a few metallic grains. With plain carbon
logy. and low alloy steels, the relation between tensile
File Test. Another abrasion or scratch method of strength and Brinell hardness is so consistent in the
measuring hardness that does have some practical use medium hardness range that the tensile strength of
in metal working is the file test. Standard test files the steel can be closely approximated by multiplying
can be used to gage quickly the approximate hardness the Brinell hardness number (BHN) by 500. The
of a material and, although not very accurate, can be principal disadvantages of the Brinell method are that
used in many shop situations with satisfactory results. the machine to supply the load for impressing the ball
Experience and comparison with standard test into the material is often cumbersome and cannot
blocks will permit a fair degree of accuracy to be always produce the impression where desired. The
attained. ball cannot be impressed in very thin materials and,
Brinell Test. In 1900 Johan August Brinell, a of course, cannot be used to examine extremely small
Swedish engineer, introduced a new universal system samples, and the impression is of such size that it may
for hardness measurement. The method involves harm the appearance or use of finished surfaces.
Rockwell Test. Because of its convenience and
impressing, with a definite load, a hardened steel ball
into the material to be tested and calculating a Brinell the fact that only small marks are left in the work
hardness number from the impression size (Figure tested, one of the most frequently used tests is the
3-15). A wide range of hardnesses can be tested by Rockwell hardness test (Figure 3-16). This also is an
varying the size of the ball and the loads imposed, but impression test, but the hardness number is deter-
in the hardness range most frequently tested, a ball mined by a differential depth measurement that can
10 millimeters in diameter is impressed into the ma- be read directly on a dial indicator of the machine
terial under a load of 3,000 kilograms for 10 seconds used to impose the load (Figure 3-17 shows the.
to check steel and under a load of 500 kilograms for Rockwell hardness tester.) To obtain a Rockwell
30 seconds to check nonferrous materials. The

7:
O~
~ ?

8HN=P/1ID(D-~)
2

. Figure 3-15 Figure 3-16


Brinell hardness measurement Rockwell hardness measurement
Properties of Materials 27

hardness reading, the equipment is first used to place spherical tip of 0.200-millimeter radius. The diamond
a minor load of 10 kilograms on the penetrator. This penetrator, or indentor, is known as a brale.
reduces the effect of dirt, oil films, scale, and other The penetrator used and the size of load impressing
surface conditions that might affect the reading. A it into the test material are defined by a letter that
major load of 60, 100,or 150 kilograms, depending becomes part of the Rockwell reading. The accom-
upon the type of penetrator and scale being used, is panying Table 3-2 shows the relationship among the
then imposed to force the penetrator into the work scale designation, the loads, and the penetrators.
material. After the penetrator has seated to its full
depth - the time usually being controlled by a dash TABLE 3-2
pot built into the equipment - the major load is
removed. The permment differential depth between Load
the minor and major loads is then read directly as a Scale kilograms Penetrator
Rockwell hardness number. A ........................... 60 Brale
B ........................... 100 1/16'' ball
Standard Rockwell Scales. Although provision has C ........................... 150 Brale
been made for use of a 1/8-inchdiameter ball as a D ........................... 1WJ Brate
penetrator, almost all hardness testing with the ............................
f=
60 1116" ball
Rockwell equipment is done with two standard pene- G ........................... 50 1116" ball
kators. The one used for softer materials is a 1116-
inch-diameter hardened steel ball supported in a
The letter designating the test conditions is a very
important part of a hardness notation because the
number alone could represent several different hard-
ness conditions. For example, a Rockwell hardness
reading of B 60 would represent a relatively soft
material, such as a medium hard copper alloy. A
.Rockwell hardness reading of C 60,sometimes written
Rc 60, on the other hand would represent a hardness
such as might be used for a hardened tool steel to cut
metals.
Superficial Rockwell Test. Another machine, the
Rockwell superficial hardness tester, is contructed
and used in much the same manner as the standard
machine but is a special-purpose tester designed to be
used when only a very shallow impression is permis-
sible or when measurement of hardness of material
very close to the surface is the principal aim. The
superficial hardness tester makes use of the same
penetrators, except that the bxale is of higher pre-
cision and is designated as N brale. The loads used to
cause penetration are lighter: 15, 30, and 45 kilo-
grams. Table 3-3 shows the testing conditions for
Rockwell superficial hardness testing.

TABLE 3-3

A;.,: *
Scale
-

ISN
Load
kilograms
......................... 15
Penetrator
N brale
Figure 3 1 7
Rockwell hardness tester. The tester impresses a 30N ........................ 30 N brale
penetrator into the work to provide a 45N ...... ............. 45 N brale
direct surface hardness measurement 15T ........................ 15 1/16" ball
30T ........................ 30 1/16" ball
special chuck that permits easy replacement should 45T ........................ 45 1/16" ball
the ball become damaged. The testing of harder
materials that would cause excessive deformation of As in the previous case, the scde indication must
the hardened steel ball is performed with a diarnond- be used as a prefix to the hardness number read from
tipped penetrator with a 120" conical point and a the dial.
28 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Vickers Test. The Vickers hardness tester operates suIts. Also, because of the complexity of stress-
on the same principle as the Brinen instrument but analysis problems, it is almost essential that simpli-
makes use of a diamond penetrator shaped as a four- fying assumptions be made during design to prevent
sided pyramid. The impression made by the pene- design costs and time from becoming prohibitive. A
trator is accurately measured by swinging a micro- factor of safety is therefore used to prevent working
scope into position without moving the test piece in too close to maximum values. The factor of safety is
the machine. As in the Brinen method, the Vickers the ratio between the maximum value and the work-
hardness number is the ratio of the force imposed on ing value and is determined by competent judgment,
the indentor to the area of the pyramidal impression. taking into consideration all conditions of use. Fac-
In the lower range of hardness, under Brinen 300, tors of safety vary from as low as one to as high as
Vickers and Brinen hardness numbers are almost iden- five or more. They may be applied to any quality but
tical, but above this range they separate as hardness are most commonly used in connection with
increases, primarily because of distortion of the steel strengths.
ban used for Brinen testing when it is forced against As an example of its lise, if the ultimate tensile
the harder materials. strength of a certain grade of steel is 80,000 pounds
Microhardness. It is frequently important, partic- per square inch and its elastic limit, 60,000 pounds
ularly in research or development work, to test the per square inch, an allowable stress, or working stress,
hardness of material that is very thin or very small in of 20,000 pounds per square inch would provide a
area. A number of special machines have been devel- safety factor of four, based on the ultimate strength,
oped for determining "microhardness." One of the or of three, based on the elastic limit.
more commonly used pieces of equipment of this The closer the factor of safety approaches one, the
type is the Tukon micro hardness tester. Normally, more the danger that an unforeseen fault or condition
the machine is fitted with an elongated diamond- of use may cause failure. On the other hand, the
shaped penetrator. Microscopic measurement of the larger the factor of safety, the greater the volume and
impression provides information that can be con- weight of material needed, with a corresponding
verted to Knoop numbers. Knoop hardness measure- increase in cost and in space-need problems. Factors
ment often cannot be compared directly with Brinell of safety in the range of two to four are most com-
or Vickers hardness measurement because the elonga- mon, but a satisfactory value depends upon a great
ted impression is rather strongly affected by the number of conditions, some of which are described in
directional properties of the material being tested. the following paragraphs.
The use of a symmetrical, square-based, pyramid- Allowances must be made for unexpected loads or
shaped indentor will provide hardness data com- conditions. This is particularly true if the human ele-
parable with that of the other systems. ment is large in the use of the equipment, since the
It should be self-evident that the lighter the in- human mind is most unpredictable. It is common to
dentor loads and the smaller the impressions made, include a factor of at least two in the factor of safety
the greater the care that must be used to perform a when a design is based on static tensile strength values
hardness test, and the better must be the quality of but subjected in use to varying loads. This cor-
surface on which it is made. In Brinell testing, small responds approximately to the ratio of static tensile
surface imperfections tend to be averaged out because strength to endurance limit.
of the large area covered, but in microhardness Allowances must be made for environmental and
checks, in which the impression may be only a few time factors. Strengths of most materials are greatly
thousandths of an inch long, small scratches and sur- reduced by corrosion and other chemical effects.
face imperfections may contribute large errors. Micro- Other materials lose strength or become brittle with
hardness testing is usually performed on a highly age. The consistency of test data should influence the
polished surface, and in many cases, to obtain repro- factor of safety choice. Test information should be of
ducibility, it is necessary to etch the surface to reveal large enough volume to be statistically significant.
the constituent structure in order to locate the im- Larger safety factors are necessary with materials
pression properly. varying widely in quality than with those that are
quite uniform.
FACTOR OF SAFETY Whether or not the use of a material may affect
Na property, structural or otherwise, whether cal- human life has a large influence on the factor of safe-
culated from theoretical considerations or determined ty. In the designing of hoists, cranes, and other lifting
by test procedures, can be safely used at or very close equipment, factors of safety of five or more are com-
to its ultimate (maximum) value. Tests are neither monly used because failure could mean injury or loss
consistent enough nor accurate enough, particularly of life. The same consideration applies, of course, to
as they are not conducted under exact use conditions, aircraft design. Here, however, space and weight are
to permit strong confidence to be placed in their re- very important, and large factors of safety could easi-
ly prevent a usable design; consequently, the problem
is handled in a different way. Extreme care is used in
selecting and testing materials. Stresses are carefully
calculated and, as far as possible, the structures built
so that they cannot be overloaded in use. Thus, by
spending more care, time, and money preceding and
during manufacturing, it is possible to use a smaller
factor of safety because of greater certainty of not
exceeding the design condition. The smaller the safety
factor and the more important any' possible failure, the
more reliable must be any nondestructive testing pro-
cedure that is used.
The Nature of 4
Materials and Solid
State Changes in
Metals
The chemist ordinarily considers the smallest func-
tional portion of matter to be the atom. The atom
consists of a nucleus, made up of positively charged
protons and uncharged neutrons, surrounded by
electrons. The electrons carry negative charges and
move in orbit at different levels. Each level of orbit
can contain only a definite number of electrons, and
the number of levels or shells is determined by the
atomic number of the element. All the shells will
usually be full except the outer one, which is short
of the maximum possible number of electrons for
most materials. All of the electrons are in constant
motion, spinning about their own axes and traveling
through their orbits about the nucleus with speeds
dependent on their energy level, which in turn is
strongly affected by the pressure and the temperature
conditions. The physicist's picture of an atom depicts
it as a heavy nucleus containing most of the mass,
surrounded by a cloud of moving electrons.

THE EFFECT OF ENERGY ON THE ATOM


Forces on the Atom. A number of different
forces exist among the atoms making up a material,
some of them attractive, some repulsive. The nature
of any material depends primarily on the nature of
these forces, which themselves depend not only on
the type of atom, but also on the energy level of the
atom. At high energy levels, the repelling forces
predominate, and the atoms tend to move as far from
each other as possible. This condition is called the
gaseous state. If the energy of the material is lowered,
the forces change, and a condition of equilibrium is
reached in which the atoms assume fixed average dis-
tances from each other, although still free to move
32 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

and not tied closely together. In this liquid state, the from a liquid to a gas. The intersecting point of the
materials have fixed volume but assume the shape of curves at the temperature Tx and pressure Px is
the container in which they are placed. known as the triple point and occurs at the tempera-
As the energy level is further decreased, the mobili- ture and pressure conditions under which a material
ty of the atoms decreases. There are at least four may exist as a solid, a liquid, a gas, or partially all
different mechanisms by which the atoms can assume three at the same time. For most metals, this point
positions well fixed enough that for practical pur- occurs below normal temperatures and well below
poses the material could be called solid. Of the atmospheric pressure; consequently, most metals
materials of interest to manufacturing, all the metals upon being heated go through the changes from solid
occur as crystalline solids. to liquid to gas as the temperature increases.
Space Lattices. As the energy of a liquid metal is
METALLIC STRUCTURE reduced by taking away heat, the attraction between
Definition of a Metal. Metals are usually defined atoms increases until they arrange themselves in
as materials having some degree of plasticity, relatively definite three-dimensional geometric patterns that are
high hardness and strength, good electric and thermal characteristic of the metal. Thes~ structures are called
conductivity, crystalJinity when solids, and opacity. space lattices and consist of network groupings of
A definition based on atomic structure is more pre- identical Imit cells that are aligned in parallel planes.
cise. A metallic solid is one that has free electrons There are fourteen types of crystal lattices, but
available in the structure to carry a current and that most of the common and commercially - important
has a negative coefficient of conductivity with in- metals exist, in the solid state, in one of three struc-
creasing temperature. tures. These are, as shown in Figure 4-2, body-cen--
States of Matter. Figure 4-1 shows the relation- tereel cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal closed-
ship that exists among the three states of matter for a packed. In the illustrations of unit cells, the dots repre-
crystalJine material. At the intersection of tempera- senting atoms should be considered as centers of activ-
ture TJ and pressure PIon the curve, notice that an ity for the atoms and not as graphic illsutrations of the
increase of temperature of a material for which this atoms themselves.
curve is valid would cause the material to change
directly from a solid to a gas. Similarly, a reduction
I
of pressure (a shift toward the left) would also cause I I
the same change. Such a change of state from solid , I~
directly to gas is known as sublimation. Arsenic is the "- I /1/ /

only metallic material that sublimates at atmospheric /,#,/ I


BODY- CENTERED CUBIC LATTICE
/ I "- I
pressure. When the temperature is raised to T2 at / I I "- I
- ,__h. "-
pressure P2, the atoms of the material will become
I - "-"-
sufficiently active that a change is made from a solid
to a liquid. A further increase in temperature at this
same pressure to point TJ will cause a'Second change

T, ---

FACE- CENTERED CUBIC


LATTICE
GAS

r
W
II:: T2
:;:)
Tx> -- -- .-- - -- --
~
II::
W
a..
::t T, SOLID
w
I-
HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED LATTICE

PI Px Po.
<.
PRESSURE ~

Figure 4-1 Figure 4-2


States of matter Common metallic space lattice
Materials and Solid State Changes in Metals 33

A single unit cell does not exist alone. To attain referred to for metals, the grain, runs into interfer-
stability, it must grow past some critical size by being ence from other grains that are forming simultaneous-
joined with other cells that share the atoms on the ly about other nuclei.
outer adjacent surface. For purposes of illustration, it Although with some metals and with special treat-
has been assumed that a unit cell can exist by itself ments it is possible to grow single crystals several
and that all its atoms belong to it alone. inches in diameter, with most metals and at the usual
Body-centered Cubic Lattice. The body-centered cooling rates, great numbers of crystals are nucleated
cubic cell is made up of nine atoms. Eight are located and growing at one time with different orientations.
on the corners of the cube with the ninth positioned If two grains that have the same orientation meet,
central1y between them. The body-centered cubic is a they will join to form a larger grain, but if they are
strong stucture, and in general, the metals that are forming about different axes, the last atoms to solidi-
hard and strong are in this form at normal tempera- fy between the growing grains will be attracted to
tures. These metals include chromium, iron, molyb- each and must assume compromise positions in an
denum, tantalum, tungsten, and vanadium. attempt to satisfy a double desire to join with each.
Face-centered Cubic Lattice. Face-centered cubic These misplaced atoms are in layers about the grains
cells consist of fourteen atoms with eight at the cor- and are known as grain boundaries. They are inter-
ners and the other six centered in the cube faces. This ruptions in the orderly arrangement of the space lat-
structure is characteristic of ductile metals, which tices and offer resistance to deformation of the metal.
include aluminum, copper, gold, lead, nickel, plati- A fine-grained metal with large numbers of interrup-
num, and silver. Iron, which is body-centered cubic at tions, therefore, will be harder and stronger than a
room temperature, is also of the face-centered struc- coarse-grained metal of the same composition and
ture in the temperature range from about 910° C to condition.
1,400° C. This is a solid-state change that will be dis- Grain size, grain orientation, and the composition of
cussed more thoroughly in the following chapter. grain boundaries are factors that can influence some
Hexagonal Close-packed Lattice. Seventeen atoms nondestructive tests. In radiography, at certain x-ray
combine to make the hexagonal close-packed unit energies, diffraction effects can produce images that
cell. Seven atoms are located in each hexagonal face resemble flaws and, at best, make interpretation diffi-
with one at each comer and the seventh in the center. cult. Ultrasonic testing of large grained castings and
The three remaining atoms take up a triangular posi- welds also may be radical1y influenced by excessive
tion in the center of the cell equidistant from the two noise and attenuation, which may produce false indica-
faces. The metals with this structure are quite su&- tions or mark the presence of dangerous flaws.
ceptible to work-hardening, which will be discussed in
the following chapter. Some of the more commonly
GRAIN SIZE
used metals that crystallize with this structure are
cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, titanium, and zinc. The grain (crystal) sizes produced during solidifica-
Tin is an exception to the other commonly used tion are dependent both upon the rate of nucleation
metals in that the atomic configuration is body- and upon the rate of growth of grains. For most
centered tetragonal, which is similar to the body- materials the rate of growth is relatively slow, and the
centered cubic but has wider atomic spacing and an primary influence on grain size is the rate of nuclea-
elongated axis between two of the opposite faces. tion. Grain size can be used as an indication, or
\ measure, of properties. For this reason, visual stand-
I SOLIDIFICATION ards have been set up to aid accurate comparisons.
Growth of a Crystal. As the temperature of the While not in routine usage, ultrasonic methods have
liquid metal is reduced and the atoms become less been applied to grain size determination. If the grains
active, they are attracted to each other and take defi- are randomly oriented, at high ultrasonic frequencies,
nite positions to form unit cells. Because cooling can- reflection from grain boundaries that would usually be
not be exactly the same for every atom, certain ones considered noise can be related to grain size.
will assume their positions ahead of others and Importance of Grain Size. Grain size exerts an
become a nucleus for crystal formation. In the proc- important influence on the mechanical properties of
ess of assuming their positions, these first atoms will materials and, fortunately, can be controlled by
give up kinetic energy in the form of heat, which methods much more precise than manipulation of the
retards the slowing down of other atoms; but as heat factors that influence growth during solidification. In
t removal is continued, other atoms will take their some processes though, particularly casting, the soli-
places along the sides of the already solidified unit dification grain size is important, because with some
I '" cell, forming new cells that share atoms with the first materials and some shapes, grain size cannot be readi-
I and with others to come later. Orderly growth con- ly changed after the first formation. In those cases in
which changes can be effected, additional processing
jl1 tinues in all directions until the crystal, or as usually
34 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

costs will be added. The methods, other than solidifi- WORK HARDENING
cation, that can be used for grain-size control involve Effects of Deformation. The application of loads
solid-state changes. to a solid material in processing or in service can
As has already been indicated, coarse grains in the cause two kinds of deformation. If the load does not
harder materials have lower strength than fine grains. stress the material past its elastic limit, the deforma-
Coarse-grained materials machine more easily, requir- tion is "elastic," and the material returns to its
ing less power, although the quality of surface pro- original position upon removal of the load. If, how-
duced will not be as good as with a finer-grained ever, the elastic limit is exceeded, the material does
material. Coarse-grained ferrous material is easier to
not return completely to its original position when
harden by heat treatment than fine-grained material the load is removed and is permanently deformed by
of the same composition but has increased suscepti-
plastic flow within its crystalline structure. When the
bility to cracking under the thermal loads. Coarse-
elastic limit is passed, elastic properties are not lost,
grained material will caseharden on the surface more
but instead are enhanced, providing the deformation
readily than fine-grained. It is evident, then, that
is produced by cold work. The strength of metal is
coarse grains may sometimes be desirable during
increased by plastic flow and the elastic limit is
processing, but fine grains are usually necessary in the
raised. Some of the deformation processes produce
final product to provide the best mechanical proper-
improved properties at the same time the shaping is
ties. Some deformation processes of shaping materials
can be used so as to cause grain-size reduction auto-
being performed.
matically during the shaping process with little or no PLASTIC DEFORMATION
additional cost involved.
Permanent deformation of metallic crystals occurs
in three ways: slip, twinning, and rotational deforma-
tion. The degree of each is dependent largely on the
characteristics of the particular metal.
SOLID STATE CHANGES IN METALS .-... -cr -cr -cr-9
t I I I
-t - 'r -
In the previous section the process of metal solidifi- t t t
cation was briefly described. The properties of a mate-
rial are derived from the crystalline structure, includ-
ing the atomic arrangement and the crystal sizes, and
are affected by the boundary layers that join the grains
"
together. The atomic arrangement is primarily a func-
tion of the material composition, which may consist of
a single material or a combination of materials that are
completely soluble, partially soluble, or totally insolu- UNSTRAINED GRAIN

ble in each other in the solid state. The structure and


grain size also may be influenced by the operating tem-
SLIP DEFORMED GRAIN
perature changes and by mechanical loads that stress
the material sufficiently to cause plastic flow in com- Figure 4-3
bination with time and heat effects.
Slip
Some materials, particularly those that are cast to
shape, may be used with the structure in which they Slip Deformation. Slip deformation is illustrated
solidify, but some of the cast materials and nearly all in Figure 4-3 and occurs by translation or sliding be-
metals processed by other methods are treated in tween the atomic planes within a grain. If the defor-
some way in the solid state to obtain improved mation causes more than a very minor shift, a large
mechanical properties. number of atomic planes in each grain will slide over
These treatments include work hardening, recry- adjacent planes to occupy new locations with new
stalization, age hardening, and heat treating of allo- neighbors. The planes through the crystal that are
tropic materials to cause crystal transformations. In usually most subject to slip are those of the greatest
many cases, treatment may be inherent in the atomic population and greatest distance between
process. This may be beneficial, as in many cases of planes. The orientation of the planes along which slip
deformation shaping with associated work hardening, takes place most easily will, of course, be different
or may be detrimental, as in other cases in which cold for different types of crystal lattices. Because of the
working develops directional' properties in a material usual random orientation of the crystals, the slip
to make some kinds of further cold work difficult or planes of many will not be in line with the direction
impossible. of loading. When the best slip planes are completely
Materials and Solid State Changes in Metals 35

out of alignment, slip may occur along other less vibrations that travel at high velocity through the ma-
preferred planes. terial and can be detected by sensitive microphones or
Twinning Deformation. Figure 4-4 shows a type transducers coupled to the metal surface. Analysis of
of grain deformation referred to as twinning, which the intensity, duration, and rate of such acoustic emis-
seems to occur most easily under loads applied sud- sions can provide information about the formation and
denly, rather than gradually. With twinning, the grain growth of microcracks that result from continued load-
ing. Acoustic emission monitoring is a relatively new
means of nondestructive testing that has the capabil-
ity of signaling states of over-stress and producing ear-
ly warning of impending failure.

RECR YST ALLIZA TION


Metals that are cold worked are left with their
grains in a strained and unstable condition. The grains
TWIN DEfORMED GRAIN
have a teI}dency to return to the equilibrium of a
Figure 4-4 lower energy state by equalization of internal cry-
Twinning stalline stress or by changing to new, unstrained
grains. The greater the deformation strain, the greater
deforms by twisting or reorienting a band of adjacent the instability and the easier it is for the change to
lattice forms, with each unit cell remaining in contact take place. Time and temperature also have strong
with the same neighbors it had before deformation influence. Two kinds of change, recovery and recry-
took place. stallization, take place upon the heating of a cold-
Rotational Deformation. A third type of shift in a worked metal.
grain is a kind of rotational deformation of portions
of the crystal lattice. Stresses below the elastic limit RECOVERY
cause the crystals to be temporarily bent and de- First Effect. Recovery, sometimes referred to as
formed, but when the elastic limit has been exceeded stress relief, involves rearrangement of some of the
and slip has occurred on a number of different planes, more strenuous dislocations or imperfections with
sections of the lattice tend to bend and rotate to a little or no effect on the external form of the crystals
new, preferred orientation. After a large percentage or grains. Although the changes that take place during
of grains have been reoriented by action of consider- recovery are rather minor in respect to the crystal,
able deformation work, the metal is likely to take on they have a marked effect on some properties. Elec-
directional properties called fibering. Fibering may be trical properties and corrosion resistance are im-
beneficial or harmful, depending upon the use to proved and residual stresses are reduced.
which the material is put. Affected by Time, Temperature, Cold Work. Re-
covery occurs completely for some metals at room
COLD WORK
temperature. For some others it occurs partially over
According to dislocation theory, as plastic flow a long period of time without increase of temp-
\I erature. For most it is necessary to heat treat to a
: takes place, existing dislocations (atomic discontinui-
ties) are reinforced and new dislocations are created to specific temperature that will depend upon the degree
resist further plastic movement. Regardless of what of recovery desired. The temperature chosen will, of
the exact mechanisms may be by which plastic flow course, be dependent upon the metal and to some
takes place in the metal grains, it is a proven fact that extent on the amount of cold work that has been
when metals are cold worked to produce plastic defor- performed previously. The objective of recovery is
mation, they become harder and stronger. The word usually to regain electrical and chemical properties
cold in this instance refers to different temperatures without sacrifice of mechanical properties. If the
for different metals. Cold work is work accomplished temperature is raised too high or maintained for too
below the recrystallization temperatures for the partic- long a time, hardness and strength of the metal will
ular material. decrease appreciably, but high temperature treatment
The mechanical strain energy necessary to produce is sometimes necessary to remove residual stresses in
the plastic deformations described above is converted forgings and steel weldments.
to other forms of energy within the material. In most
RECR YST ALLIZA TION
metals, dislocation processes are accompanied by dis-
crete releases of mechanical energy, sometimes called Further Treatment for Maximum Ductility. Al-
.. stress waves. These stress waves produce acoustical though some of the major distortions are eliminated
r,
'"
36 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

by treatment for recovery, most of the distorted Theory of Recrystallization. It is believed that
crystalline lattice remains as it was produced by cold recrystallization takes place by the nucleation of new
work. The elastic limit for the material has been grains mainly about the high energy points of dislo-
raised close to the ultimate strength, and further cation in a work-hardened grain. They then appear to
deformation will cause fracture failure. Recovery of grow until they fill the old grain space and eliminate
ductility to permit further change of shape by defor- the existing strain by realignment of the atoms into a
mation can be obtained only by elimination of the new crystal lattice. Recrystallization can thus be a
deformed grains, and this can be accomplished by grain-refining process as well as a method for recovery
recrystallization. By this heat-treating process, new, of ductility, if it is discontinued as soon as complete
smaller, unstrained grains with fully recovered capac- recrystallization has taken place.
ity for plastic flow can be formed by solid-state The new grains formed during recrystallization are
change in the metal. It is important to note that in likely to take positions with preferred orientations.
the absence of allotropic changes, which will be dis- Directional properties caused by preferred orientation
cussed later, no grain-size changes by heating metal to are objectionable for most manufacturing operations.
any temperature below the melting point can be This tendency can be reduced and more random
accomplished unless the strained condition of cold- orientation obtained by the addition of small
worked metal is present. Recrystallization is the amounts of an alloying element or by recrystallizing
nucleation and growth of new, strain-free crystals before maximum work hardening has been per-
from the strained crystals of a cold-worked material. formed.
Recrystallization Temperatures. The phenomenon Recrystallization Seldom Terminal. In a few
occurs over a wide temperature range with the length cases, recrystallization may be used as an end process
of time required for complete recrystallization in- to leave a product in its most ductile condition or
versely related to the temperature and to the degree with its best electrical and chemical properties, but
of strain present. For practical purposes, recrystalli- more often it is an in-process treatment for ductility
zation temperatures, such as shown in Table 4-1, are improvement or for grain refinement. In many cold
temperatures which will permit complete recry- deformation processes, such as deep drawing, the
stallization in a time period of approximately 1 hour ductility of the material may be reduced by cold
for metals that have been fully hardened by previous working to the point where fracture failure is immi-
cold work. nent. Ductility may be returned to the material any
TABLE 4.1 number of times by repeated recrystallization be-
Recrystallization Temperatures for Some Common tween steps of the forming operation. In most cases
Metals and Alloys the last forming operation will not be followed by
Material °c OF recrystallization, in order that the higher hardness
175 and strength of the cold-worked material may be re-
Aluminum(pure) 80
600 tained in the product.
Aluminumalloys.. . 316
250 . Although heating for recovery is a stress-relieving
Copper (pure) 120
,... 600 process, recrystallization at a higher temperature is
Copperalloys. . . . . . . .. 316 sometimes also called stress relieving. The same proc-
Iron (pure) , 400 750
Lowcarbon steel. . . . . . 540 1000 ess may be referred to as process annealing, particular-
Magnesium(pure) . . . . . . 65 . .. . . . . . . . 150 ly when performed in conjunction with deformation
Magnesiumalloys. . . . .. 232 450 processes.
Zinc ... . 10 50 GRAIN GROWTH
Tin -4 .......... 25
Lead -4 " 25 If a metal is kept heated at or above its recry-
stallization temperature after the new, unstrained
The table shows that zinc, tin, and lead re- grains have formed, the tendency is for some of the
crystallize at temperatures below room temperature. new grains to absorb others and grow to larger size.
This means that these metals in the pure state cannot, Large grains are more stable than small grains because
at ordinary temperatures, maintain a work-hardened of the higher grain-to-boundary-area ratio, which is a
condition. The normal use of deformation processes lower energy state. If fine grain structure is desired
on these materials would be hot working rather than after the recrystallization process, it is necessary to
cold working since it would be performed above their reduce the temperature quickly to prevent sub-
recrystallization temperatures. Examination of the sequent grain growth. This is usually performed by
table also reveals that contamination of a pure metal some kind of quench.
with other elements makes it more difficult for re- Grain-Size Control. During processing, small grain
crystallization to occur, and the temperatures must size is not always wanted because large grains usually
be increased for completion to occur in a reasonable exhibit greater ductility, better machinability, and
length of time. require less pressure to be deformed. The final
Materials and Solid State Changes in Metals 37

product usually should be of relatively fine structure, saturation of the a phase, the metal is quenched to
though, in order that the material will exhibit its best create the supersaturated solid solution at room
properties. Grain size for materials that do not go temperature. High energy points in the crystal lattice
through allotropic phase changes is controlled pri- set up by the nonequlibrium situation of supersatura-
marily during the solidification process for cast tion causes the alloy to be harder than its annealed
metals and by recrystallization for wrought (defor- condition.
mation worked) metals. Allotropic metal (existing in Transition Stage by Precipitation. The full hard-
more than one crystalline form) grain size can be ness, however, is developed during the second stage of
controlled by a more effective and satisfactory treatment when the excess metallic component is
method discussed later in the chapter. partially precipitated from the solid solution. This
step is usually referred to as aging and may be natural
AGE HARDENING or artificial. If the surplus material goes into the
initial transition stage of precipitation of its own
Some metal alloys display a variable solid state solu- accord at room temperature, full hardness will
bility of one metal in another with change of tempera- develop naturally with the passage of time. If an
ture. If the solubility increases with increase of tem-
increase of temperature is necessary, as is true with
perature above room temperature and if return to the many alloys, to release the unnaturally held metal,
normal room temperature state can be prevented by
this heat-treating step is called artifical aging. Too
sudden cooling, the alloy may be susceptible to age
high an aging temperature or too much time with this
hardening.
stage, or both, causes the precipitant to reach its final
Theory of Age Hardening. Exact explanation of
equilibrium state in which the hardness and strength
this hardening phenomenon is not available with pre-
properties are low and similar to those of the an-
sent knowledge, but from close study it has been theor-
nealed alloy.
ized that the precipitant from a supersaturated solu-
tion first appears as a transition lattice widely dis- Process Valuable for Aluminum Alloys. One of
persed and closely associated with the solid solution the greatest uses for precipitation hardening is for
lattice. Close association causes lattice distortion with improvement of properties of some aluminum alloys.
accompanying increase of hardness, much as the dis- The system can be used for either cast or wrought
tortion by cold working increases hardness. With suffi- shapes and can be of particular value in some in-
cient time, which decreases with higher temperature, stances because of the time that is necessary for full
the transition particles combine to form a larger, more hardening to develop. For example, it has been
widely spaced, and more stable equilibrium precipi- common practice in the aircraft industry to solution
tant, as in the annealed structure. For hardening pur- treat aluminum rivets and hold them under refrigera-
poses, the intermediate phase must be present, and tion after their quench to retard precipitation. Before
when it disappears because of the complete formation precipitation starts, they are relatively ductile and
of the final phase, the material is considered to be over- easy to form plastically. In this condition they can be
aged with loss of the special properties present during headed to join riveted assemblies and develop their
the intermediate, or transition, stage. full strength by aging after being upset in place.
The need for hardness and strength is often not
present at the time of metal solidification. Com- ALLOTROPIC CHANGES
mercial practice handles age hardening, precipitation
hardening, or solution hardening (all names used to Phase Changes. A few metals change lattice struc-
describe the same process) as a treatment separate ture upon heating and cooling to exist in different
from solidification when there is a need for develop- forms through various temperature ranges. Such
ment of hardness properties or strength properties, or metals are classed as allotropic. Allotropic changes are
both. very similar to the phase changes from liquid to solid,
Solution Heat Treatment. The first step is solution although they occur completely in the solid state
treatment (heating) to dissolve a maximum amount of with a slower reaction. In addition to a significant
equilibrium precipitant in the solid solution and change of properties, heat is given up or absorbed as
freeze it in place by sudden cooling to eliminate the the metal phase change occurs in the solid state but
necessary time at temperature for precipitation to to a much lower degree than in freezing or melting.
reoccur. The solution temperature used should be low With some metals special methods are necessary to
enough to prevent excessive grain growth but high detect heat changes that accompany the solid-state
enough to insure maximum diffusion oX the preci- phase change.
pitant to saturate the a phase in a minimum amount Iron combined with carbon and sometimes small
of time. The time required depends upon the metal amounts of other elements is by far the most used
r. alloy and may vary from a few minutes to several metal for manufacturing. Iron is an allotropic ma-
rL hours of soaking at the increased temperature. After terial that changes upon heating to 912° C (1,674°F)
38 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

from a body-centered cubic (BCC) lattice to a face- changes in electrical conductivity. The heat treatment
centered cubic (FCC) lattice. A second phase change processes described in this chapter produce various
occurs with further heating to 1,394° C (2541° F), physical property changes including electrical con-
where the lattice structure returns to the body- ductivity. Both eddy current and thermo-electric meth-
centered cubic form. The reverse transformation ods are capable of indicating changes in electrical con-
occurs on cooling through the same temperatures. ductivity and to some extent can provide absolute
Iron in the temperature range up to 912v C is called measures of electrical conductivity. However, both
alpha iron; from 912° C to 1,394° C, gamma iron; methods only probe relatively small volumes of the
and above 1,394° C to 1,538° C (2,800° F), the melt- test material essentially at an exposed surface. During
ing point, delta iron. Little attention is given to delta heat treatment, exposed surfaces tend to heat and cool
iron because the changes that occur in this range have at a different rate from the interior. Thus, measure-
little or no effect in commercial practice of treatment ments of surface characteristics do not necessarily
for properties. The changes that take place between characterize the condition of the interior, but in many
alpha and gamma iron at 912° C, however, are ex- practical cases can provide adequate information for
tremely important. The most effective change is the process control purposes.
difference of carbon solubility in the two phases,
which serves as the basis for all heat-treat hardening
and most grain-size control for steel. APPROXIMATE EQUILIBRIUM HEAT-
TREATMENT PROCESSES
Several heat-treating processes place the material in
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL either a complete or an approximate equilibrium
Steel has been treated by heating and cooling energy condition. These processes include austenitiz-
methods to vary its properties ever since its discovery, ing, annealing, normalizing, and spheroidizing. Except
but even today the exact mechanism by which these for the first, all are finalized at room temperature,
variations take place cannot be completely explained but since austenitizing consists of diffusion of carbon
by fully accepted theories. Most of the treatments into face-centered cubic iron that exists at a mini-
have been developed empirically. Various theoretical mum temperature of 727° C (eutectoid composition
explanations have been used to describe the mechan- only, all others higher), stability, or equilibrium, in
ism, but it has been only in recent years that the this state can be maintained only at the higher temp-
theory has advanced to the point that it is a prime eratures. Austenitization is therefore not a final
source of new development of commercial heat-treat- process but only a step in one of several heat-treating
ing methods. procedures. For these approximate equilibrium
NDT and Other Control Methods. Change of pro- processes, it is possible to predict the material be-
perties of steel can be accomplished by cold working, havior from the equilibrium phase diagrams.
by precipitation hardening, and by allotropic changes. AUSTENITIZATION
Cold working changes are important in most of the
cold deformation processes and, in some cases, may When steel is heated to or above its critical temp-
be the only treatment received by the metal. Precipi- erature (transformation temperature range), the value
tation hardening is seldom used intentionally, except of which is dependent upon the alloy percentages,
for stainless steels, although it may be an accidental and held at temperature for some period of time,
occurrence with some of the processing treatments. carbon unites in solid solution with iron in the
Causing allotropic changes by heat treating proce- gamma or face-centered cubic lattice form. In this
dures is the most effective and most easily accom- phase, as much as 2% carbon can dissolve at the
plished method of varying mechanical properties of eutectic temperature of 1,148° C at which the widest
steel and therefore is the most frequently used way of range of gamma composition exists.
obtaining the desired properties. Grain-Size Control. It is important that the
Heat treating is often defined as intentional heating austenitization temperatures not be exceeded more
and cooling for control of properties. Such a defini- than necessary to accomplish the work in a reason-
tion is perfectly good, but it must be remembered able length of time because grain growth can occur
that the effects of temperature changes are no less rapidly as the temperature is increased. One of the
important when they are caused by unintentional important features of austenitization is grain refine-
heat transfer during a process such as fusion welding ment that occurs with the formation of the new face-
or during a service use in high environmental tempera- centered cubic lattice. These new small grains are
tures such as in a furnace or gas turbine. nucleated with the raising of the metal temperature
Assessment of thermal treatment, whether inten- through the austenite range and will remain small if
tional or not, is often amenable to nondestructive test- the temperature is not raised too high or maintained
ing techniques that are capable of measuring subtle too long. With lowering temperature and decompo-
Materials and Solid State Changes in Metals 39

sition of austenite into the room temperature phase, iron carbide to form in its more stable and lower
the grain size changes little. Grain sizes are affected energy state of small, rounded globules.
only by increasing temperature through this range The main need for the process is to improve the
and not by decreasing temperature. However, because machinability quality of high carbon steel and to pre-
metal grains must be of a certain critical size before treat hardened steel to help produce greater structural
they can maintain themselves alone, practically all the uniformity after quenching. Because of the lengthy
grain refinement that is possible can be acquired by treatment time and therefore rather high cost,
one or two austenitization treatments, providing grain spheroidizing is not performed nearly as much as
growth is not allowed at the higher. temperature. annealing or normalizing.

ANNEALING HARDENING OF STEEL


Objectives of Annealing. The word anneal has Austenitization - First Step. Most of the heat
been used before to describe heat-treating processes treatment hardening processes for steel are based on
for softening and regaining ductility in connection the production of high percentages of martensite. The
with cold working of material. It has a similar mean- first step, therefore, is that used for most of the other
ing when used in connection with the heat treating of heat treating processes - treatment to produce
allotropic materials. The purpose of full annealing is austenite.
to decrease hardness, increase ductility, and some- Fast Cooling - Second Step. The second step
times improve machinability of high carbon steels involves cooling rapidly in an attempt to avoid pearl-
that might otherwise be difficult to cut. The treat- ite transformation. The cooling rate is determined by
ment is also used to relieve stresses, refine grain size, the temperature and the ability of the quenching media
and promote uniformity of structure throughout the to carry heat away from the surface of the material be-
material. ing quenched and by the conduction of heat through
the material itself. Table 4-2 shows some of the com-
NORMALIZING monly used media and the method of application to
remove heat, arranged in order of decreasing cooling
The purpose of normalizing is somewhat similar to ability.
that of annealing with the exceptions that the steel is TABLE 4-2
not reduced to its softest condition and the pearlite is
Heat-Treating Quenching
left rather fine instead of coarse. Pearlite is a crystal-
line structure with layers of soft, ductile ferrite (iron Media Method
containing small amounts of dissolved carbon) and 1. Brine 1. Blast
hard, brittle cementite (iron carbide which is a mechan- 2. Water 2. Violent agitation
ical mixture of iron with greater amounts of carbon). 3. Light oil 3. Slow agitation
Refinement of grain size, relief of internal stresses, and 4. Heavy oil 4. Still
improvement of structural uniformity together with 5. Air
recovery of some ductility provide high toughness
qualities in normalized steel. The process is frequently Care Necessary in Heating and Cooling. High
used for improvement of machinability and for stress temperature gradients contribute to high stresses that
relief to reduce distortion that might occur with partial cause distortion and cracking, so the quench should
machining or aging. An attempt is made during nor- be only as extreme as is necessary to produce the
\ malizing to dissolve all the cementite to eliminate, as
far as possible, the settling of hard, brittle iron carbide
desired structure. Care must be exercised in quench-
ing that heat is removed uniformly to minimize
in the grain boundaires. The desired decomposition thermal stresses. For example, a long slender bar
products are small-grained, fine pearlite with a mini- should be end-quenched, that is, inserted into the
mum of free ferrite and free cementite. quenching medium vertically so that the entire sec-
tion is subjected to temperature change at one time.
SPHEROIDIZING If a shape of this kind were to be quenched in a way
Minimum hardness and maximum ductility of steel that caused one side to drop in temperature before
can be produced by a process called spheroidizing, the other, change of dimensions would likely cause
which causes the iron carbide to form in small spheres high stresses producing plastic flow and permanent
or nodules in a ferrite matrix. In order to start with distortion.
small grains that spheroidize more readily, the process Cracks created by either heating or quenching can be
is usually performed on normalized steel. Several detected by various NDT surface examinations includ-
variations of processing are used, but all require the ing eddy current, magnetic particle, and the penetrant
" holding of the steel near the Al temperature (usually methods. For parts subject to fatigure failure, such
slightly below) for a number of hours to allow the cracks can be serious.
~
40 Mahiah and for NDT Technology

Distortion and Ckacking Mhirnized by Martemper- grw, corrosion can influence all meeds, but its effect
hg. S e d special tym of quench are conduck! varies widely depending upon the combination of
to minimize quenching g t r e ~ md
s demease the ten- mew 4 corrosive agent.
dency for distortion and cracking. One of these, The tmm "corrosion"ia used to describ action that
is called naartempet.Ing and consists of quenching an is normally considered to be detrimenkd, but the prin-
austdtized s h l in a salt bath at a temperature about ciple is actually used for benefit in some cases. For ex-
that needed for the start of mmhnsite formation. The ample, acids and alkalies are used to corrode metal
st& being quenched is held in this bath until it is of away in the manufacturing prcmss of chemical milling.
uniform temperature but is removed befirre there is Also, aluminum alloys are frequently anodized to pro-
time for the formation of bainite to start. Completion duce an oxide coating thak resists further oxidation
of the mling in air then causes the e r n e hard martan- and, in addition, m y serve as an improved surface for
site that would have formed with quenching from the paint adhesion.
high temperature, but the high thermal or "quench Corrosion attacks metals by direct chemical action,
stresses that are the primary source of cracke and by electrolysis (electrochemical action), or commonly
warping will have been eliminated. . by a combination of the two. The subject is complex
-
Austempering a Terminal Step. A similar proc- and many persons have devoted their lives to its study.
This discussion will summarize some of the known
ess performed at a slightly higher temperature is
called alcstempering. In this case the steel is held at facts concerning the subject in order to develop some
the bath temperature for a longer period, and the understanding of corrosion,its detection, and preven-
result of the isothermal beatment is the formation of tion
-

M i t e . The bainite structure is not as hard the


martensite that could be formed from the same com- DIRECT CHEMICAL ACTION
position, but in addition ta reducing the thermal Theoretically, a l l corrosion phenomena are electm
shock to which the steel would be subjected under mechanical because a transfer of electrons takes place
normal hardening procedures, it is unnecessary to but the term direct chemical action is used to describe
perform any further treatment to develop g o d those reactions where coupled anodes and cathodes ex-
impact resistance in the high hardness range. isting in an electrolyte are not identifiable. The chemi-
TF,MPERING cal milling mentioned above is direct chemical action.
Another example is pickling of s t d , a process in
A thud step usually required to condition a hard- which -heated dilute sulpheric acid baths are used to
ened steel for senrice is tempering, or as it is some- dissolve surface scale withut leaving a residue and pro-
times referred to, drawing. With the exception of ducing only minor chemical attack on the steel proper.
austempered steel, which is frequently used in the Figure 4 5 illustrates another example of direct chemi-
as-hardened condition, most steels are not serviceable cal action.
"as quenched". The drastic cooling to produce mar-
tensite muses the steel to be very hard and to contain
both macroscopic and microscopic internal stresses
with the resuIt that the material has little ductility.
and extreme brittleness. Reduction of these faults is
accomplished by reheating the steel to some point
below the lower tramformation hmperature. The
8truchral changes caused by tempering of hardened
steel are functions of both time and temmture, with
hperature being the most important. It should be
emphasized that tempering is not a hardening process,
but is, instead, the reverse. A tempered a t d is one
that has been hardened by heat treatment and then
stress relieved, softened, and provided with increased
ductility by reheating in the tempring or drawing pre Figure 4-5
cedure. Direct chemical attack of nitric acid in which a
magnesium alloy product is immersed. Direct
chemical reaction is usually evident from bubbles
CORROSION formed by gas evolution.

&masion Definition. In general, corrosion is the Galvanic Series. Table 4-3 ehows a list of metals ar-
deterioration of metals by the chemical action of some ranged in order of their decreasing chemical activity in
surrounding or contracting medium which rnay be li- sea water. This is a special arrangement of the electm
quid, gas, or some combination of the two.To some de- mechanical and the electromotive force d e s . It
Mateeriala and Solid State Changes in Metah 41

TABLE 4-3 may be attached to the steel hull of a ship to provide


Galvanic series of some metals in sea water protection below the waterline, as shown in Figure 4-6.
Buried steel pipe also may be protected by attaching
Anodic (Most Corrodible) anodes as srhown in Figure 4-7.
Magnesium
Aluminum
Aluminum-Cu Alloy
Zinc
Iron
Steel
Tin
WATERLINE

S a m
KZINCANODES(+)
w
-
STEEL HULL(-)
Z

Lead
Nickel
Brass -CuZn Figure 4-6
Bronze-CuSn
A ship's steel hull may be protected by attachment
Copper
Stainless Steel
of sacrificial anodic plates to the sides
Silver under the water line
Gold
Platinum EARTH'S SURFACE

Cathodic (Least Corrodlble) CLAMP

should be noted that most of the Iist is made up of pure


metals and indicates their relative xesistance to sea
water corrosion. If the metals are alloyed or if the cor-
roding medium is different, the arrangement of such a
list might change somewhat. In general, a metal high
in the series will displace from solution a metal lower in
the series.
Figure 4-7
ELECTROLYTIC (ELECTROCHEMICAL) Preferential corrosion resulting in protection for
REACTION buried steel pipe by electrical attachment of
anodic material to the steel
The electrochemical type corrosion also involves
chemical change but involves the flow of an electric Except when sacrificial corrosion protection is
current between two electrodes, an a n d e (positive, planned, it is normally not good practice to design pro
where electrons leave and negative ions are discharged) ducts with contacting metals of radically different gal-
and a cathode (negative,where electrons enter and neg- vanic position if there is likelihood of exposure to any
ative ions are formed).An electrical mntact must exist corrosive medium. See Figures 4-8 and 4-9 which illus-
in addition to electron flow through the electrolyte to trate a possible lack of good design judgement.
complete the circuit. The system is analogous to a
plating system in which the anode supplies the metal
to be deposited. The anode eventually is depleted
thereby.
Sacrificial Met&. Although there are other factors
that influence corrodibility, at least theoretically the
metals high in a galvanic series, which are anodic to
any metal below them, when connected electrically
both by contact and through an electrolyte will dis-
solve while the cathode is protected. This is the basic
use of zinc coatings on steel. The zinc is attacked and
sacrificed in order to protect the steel. Protection will
continue as long as exposed areas of steel do not grow
large enough to develop their own galvanic cells to
cause corrosion. The larger the anode arm, the better is Figure 4-8
the protection. Electrochemical corrosion of an aluminum part that
The same principle is used when magnesium rods are was assembled against a steel washer in an
hung in hot water heaters to lower corrosion of the environment containing moisture. Being anodic to
tank. Large anodes of magnesium, duminum, or zinc steel, the alumlnum dissolved as shown.
42 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

.
\. ~ ~n:diCcorrosion
after
to exposure
moisture
~
SHARP BEND

MATERIAL: Deformed Carbon Steel


Figure 4-9 EXPOSURE: Humid Atmosphere
Corrosion likely when dissimilar metals are in
intimate contact

Galvanic Cells. The system described above causes


the flow of electrical current that in turn causes and ac- l,:<>:~.> ".\.~~~~.<.:, ,: ,>:,,:~:,:,:.,.:~ ;.-',', ;'::,.::;:~c.o~.~:l.~,R;:~-".,<,

celerates corrosion. A type of battery called a galvanic


cell can be made of electrodes of two different metals
ri'\'.<':""-'--:,:""" '-0:-0;.' '~:'.~-',~,..:-;.r':::,,=-;::,,<"-,:<, :; '_::.~..',.-:..,
immersed in an electrolyte. A similar result (current MATERIAL: Butt Welded Carbon Steel
flow) is produced when two similar metals are joined, EXPOSURE: Humid Atmosphere
or even a single metal, when contact is made with an Figure 4-11
electrolyte that is not chemically uniform. This type of Some common examples of corrosion in materials
cell is known as a concentration cell and is particularly that have localized high stresses
detrimental when the chemical variation of the electro-
lyte is in its oxygen concentration. Figure 4-10 illus- 2. Oxygen content-Oxygen particularly harmful in
trates the results from this type reaction. corrosion of iron.
3. Acidity-In general, the higher the acid content,
the higher the corrosion rate.
VARIATION OF 4. Motion-Velocity of a flowing electrolyte may
ION CONTENT move corrosion products exposing new metal to at-
tack. Movement of electrolyte also may prevent forma-
tion of concentration cells, thus reducing corrosion.
5. Temperature-Increase usually accelerates corro-
sion.
Figure 4-10 6. Stray electrical currents-Localized currents
Electrochemical corrosion can occur with contacting from leaks, grounds, or eddy currents usually acceler-
similar metals when the concentration of the ate corrosion.
electrolyte varies. Most likely under Atmospheric Corrosion. Moisture is usually
stagnant conditions. blamed for atmospheric corrosion and although mois-
ture may be present, pure water has relatively small ef-
CORROSION RATE DEPENDENT ON SEVERAL fect. The combination of moisture with impurities,
FACTORS especially salts of chlorine and sulphur, accelerates
atmospheric corrosion greatly,
Metal or Metals of a Corrosion System.
1. Position in the electrochemical series.-The
higher, the greater tendency for corrosion. In multi- TYPES OF CORROSION
metal systems-the farther apart, the greater the elec- General Corrosion. The most common type corrO-
trochemical action. sion is that appearing relatively uniformly over the en-
2. The presence of residual stresses such as shown in tire surface of the expos~d metal. The bluish green col-
Figure 4-11. or of a copper roof or the dulling of polished aluminum
Electrolyte Present. and brass are examples of general corrosion. Some of
1. Concentration-High concentration' usually in- this type corrosion is self-limiting because the pro-
creases corrosion. ducts of early corrosion inhibit further corrosion.
Materials and Solid State Changes in Metals 43

Pitting. Pitting is a localized corrosion by which Some variations of intercrystalline corrosion are
pits that extend deep into the metal develop. This is a known by the names of season cracking, stress corn-
more serious corrosion than the slower general type be and frettifig, all of which are cor-
swn (seeFigure 4-14),
cause the pita may decrease the material strength and roeion systems in which corrosion is accelerated by the
also be the nuclei for fatigue failure. With some materi- metal being under load at the same time corrosion is
als pitting rate may increase with time. Steel which occurring. Season cracking is associated with brass
normally rusts uniformly upon exposuxe to atmo- and some other copper-bearing alloys and occurs most
sphere may, with sufficient time, develop pits. Figure frequently when the materd has undergone cold work-
4-12 illustraks pitting. ings. Season cracking is much accelerated when the
corrosive atmosphere contains ammonia. Fretting is
corrosion-assisted w a r resulting from small osdlla-
tory movements between mating surfaces under load.
Stress corrosion cracking is of major concern because
of its effect, on a fairly large number of common alloys
of various metals used in chemically aggressive envir-
onments. In high strangth steels and martensitic stain-
less steels, stress corrosion cracking is usually inter-
gxanular; in austenitic stainless steel, usually trans-
granular. Control of stress corrosion cracking necessi-
tates controlling the four equitial requirements for
s t r ~ corrosion
s to occur: a susceptible alloy; an ag-
gressive, conrrosive environment; applied or residual
stress; and time. Acoustic emission monitoring tech-
niques have been used in-situ to detect and record the
Figure 4-12 progression of cracking due to stress corrosion.
Pit type corrosion can be observed in the
cylindricaL machined surface of this
alumjnum casting

Intercrystdine Corrosion. A serious type of corro-


sion is created when the attack is against the grain
boundariee. Following the grain boundaries from the
metal surface, a crack-like discontinuity develops.
Such cracks can muse material failure under static
loading by reduction of load supporting cross-section.
In the case of dynamic loading, they are likely to be the
beginning source of fatigue failure. Because those
cracks are seldom visually apparent on the surface,
NDT may be called upon for their detection. The
sketches of Figure 4-13 illustrate the three main types
of corrosion attack. Figure 4-14
Stress-corrosion resldue shows on the surface of this
UNIFORM DlSCOLORATtON or
LOSS OF POLISH magnesium part whlch has been under constant
statlc load In the presence of a
corroding atmosphere
GENERAL

RANDOM DEEP PITS *a /-


SOMETIMES ACCOMPANIED CORROSION PROTECTION
BY DlSCOLORATlON
There is no simple answer to preventing serious
problems from the attack of corrosion. There is no
CRACK-LIKE D1SCONTINUlTIES cure-all because of the variety of metals, possible envir-
ALONG GRAIN BOUNDARIES
onments, and corrosive media. The general combat
POLISHED, ETCHED, AND methods include; selection of the most suihbb metals,
MAGN l Fl ED CROSS-SECTION
treatment of or controlling the presenw of the corrod-
l MTERCRYSTALLINE ing media, coating the metal with a protective layer,
Flgure 4-13 and occasionally stresa relieving parts containing high
Principal types of corrosion stress areas.
44 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

The first is basically a design problem. The second is NDT for Corrosion Detection. As apparent from
usually a manufacturing or service problem such as the foregoing discussion of corrosion, its effects are
treating coolant water used in a machine tool with a almost always detrimental to the serviceability of criti.
chemical corrosion inhibiter or decerating boiler feed cal components, assemblies, and structures. The NDT
water to remove oxygen. The third is the most com- specialist must understand the effects of the various
mon approach and includes: coating with anodic mate- types of corrosion in order to properly select and direct
rials to promote preferential corrosion, developing a the nondestructive tests most effective in detecting
coating to retard corrosion, and application of a coat- and assessing the extent of corrosion.
ing to exclude the corrosion medium. The coatings For corroded surfaces that are accessible, penetrant,
used are metals, chemical compounds, and organic ma- magnetic particle, and eddy current tests are particu-
terials and plastics. lary useful in detecting the effects of corrosion that re-
Metal Coatings. Coating of metal with another sult in small surface cracks or pits. Very small corro.
metal can be accomplished by electroplating, dipping sion cracks have been detected and recorded by magne-
in molten metal, metal spraying, cladding by rolling tic rubber techniques. For corrosion on the inside of
thin layers over the base metal and by heating the pro- pipes, vessels, and assemblies, other tehcniques are ap-
duct in fine metallic powders. plied. Ultrasonic techniques are particularly effective
Chemical Compounds. Most coatings that consist in the detection and accurate measurement of overall
of chemical compounds are made by treating the base thinning that results from corrosion. Radiography is
metal to change the chemistry of its surface. Anodiz- commonly applied to detect corrosion and corrosion
ing of aluminum is the artificial formation of alumi- thinning in interior and otherwise inaccessible regions
num oxide to a controlled depth on the surface of an of assemblies, insulated components, and the like. Neu-
aluminum alloy. Steel can be given a protective coat- tron radiography has been used to detect interior cor-
ing of iron phos.phate by soaking the product in hot rosion by virtue of the corrosion products having large
solution of manganese phosphate. neutron cross-sections as well as actually imaging cor-
Non-metallic Coatings. Paint, enamel, varnishes, rosion in exceptionally dense materials like lead and
greases, plastics, and many other materials are used to uranium. Acousic emission monitoring has been used
coat objects for corrosion protection. Most of these to monitor the initiation and growth of stress corrosion
materials are used to exclude the corrosive environ- and hydrogen embrittIement cracks.
ment but some contain chemical inhibitors to exert Visual means are also important in the detection of
greater control. Some are for only temporary protec- corrosion. Both corrosion discontinuities and corrosion
tion such as for a few days or weeks, but others may products leave telltale signs by virtue of visible
have a useful life of several years. changes in texture, coloration, topography, and geo-
In all cases of corrosion protection regardless of the metry. Some corrosion products fluoresce when illu-
type, suitable preparation and cleaning of the original minated by ultraviolet light. Further study of corro-
metal surface is essential. Where control of coating sion sites and corrosion products by spectrographic
thickness is important, several methods of NDT are analyses can reveal otherwise elusive evidence as to
available. Eddy current lift-off techniques are most the cause of corrosion.
readily applied, but depending upon the type of coat-
ing and substrate, beta-backscatter, magnetic field
and radioisotopic tagging procedures have been used
effectively.
Ferrous Metals 5

CHOOSING METALS AND ALLOYS


In Chapter 4 metals were discussed primarily on
the basis of their atomic configurations. While it is
true that this basis gives a more precise definition in
the chemist's or physicist's terms, of greater practical
interest in manufacturing are the metallic properties
of relatively high hardness and strength, ability to
undergo considerable plastic flow, high density, dur-
ability, rigidity, luster. A distinction is sometimes
made between the word metal, meaning a pure chemi-
cal element, and the word alloy, meaning a combina-
tion of materials, the predominant one of which is
'a metal. The term metal in this text will be taken to
mean any metall-ic material, whether pure or alloyed.
Availability of Ores. Among all the possible rea-
sons for the choice and use of a material, one of very
prime importance is availability. Table 5-1 shows the
composition of the earth's crust. Of the first twelve
elements in occurrence, aluminum, iron, magnesium,
and titanium are used as the base metals of alloy
systems. For the other metals, although the total
tonnage in the earth's crust may be considerable, the
potential use is much more restricted. Some of them,
such as copper, are found in relatively pure deposits
but frequently in remote locations, and the total use
is dependent on relatively few of these rich deposits.
Most other metals are recovered only in relatively
small quantities, either as byproducts of the recovery
of the more predominant metals or as products of
low-yield ores after extensive mining and concen-
tration in which many tons of material must be
handled for each pound of metal recovered. The
United States has only marginal deposits of anti-
mony, chromium, cobalt, manganese, and nickel and
imports the major quantity of these metals. It is
almost totally dependent on imports for its supply of
46 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

mercury, tungsten, and tin. The location and the the choice usually becomes one based on costs. Frorn
availability of these materials have a marked influence the various materials that would produce a function-
on both the risk and cost of choosing these materials ally acceptable product with sufficient life and frorn
for large-use applications. the various processing methods that are available to a
manufacturer, the best combination must be found.
TABLE 5-1 Obviously, many combinations will be rather quickly
Elements in the Earth's Crust eliminated, but of those remaining, costs of some
may not be entirely predictable without actual exper-
Element Percent Element Percent ience in producing the product. Consequently, the
Oxygen 46.71 Magnesium. . . . . . . 2.08 first choice is not always the final choice, and for this
Silicon 27.69 Titanium ......... 0.62 reason, as well as for reasons of sales appeal and
Aluminum. . . . . .. 8.07 Hydrogen......... 0.14 product redesign, materials and processes frequently
Iron 5.05 Phosphorus. . . . . . . 0.13 are changed on a trial and error basis.
Calcium 3.65 Carbon............ 0.094 Importance of Ferrous Materials. The role that
Sodium 2.75 Others............ 0.436 ferrous materials play in the economy is evident from
Potassium. . . . . . .. 2.58 annual production figures. Approximately 100 mil-
lion tons of ferrous products are made each year in
the United States. For all nonferrous metals, the total
Base Metals. Approximately seventy of the ele- is about 10 million tons per year. Even though much
ments may be classed as metals, and of these, about of the steel tonnage goes into heavy products such as
forty are of commercial importance. Historically, rails and structural steel shapes that require little
copper, lead, tin, and iron are metals of antiquity secondary work, ferrous metals are still the predomi-
because they are either found free in nature or their nant materials of manufacturing. The wide variety of
ores are relatively easy to reduce. These four metals ferrous products is based largely on the economy of
together with aluminum, magnesium, zinc, nickel, producing them; an attempt will be made to discuss
and titanium are presently the most important metals ferrous metals in the economic order of their pro-
for use as base metals for structural alloy systems. duction in the section to follow. Generally, as better
Most other commercially important metals either are properties are required, more costly processes are
metals used primarily as alloying metals or noble necessary .
metals, such as gold, silver, or platinum, that are
important only for special uses or because of their FERROUS RAW MATERIALS
rarity. Ore Reduction. Both iron and steel have their
Material Choice Affected by Process. The method start in the blast furnace. Although other methods for
of manufacture will frequently affect the alloy type reduction have been proposed and will likely be
chosen even after the base metal has been chosen. developed, the tremendous investment in equipment
Although nearly all metals are cast at some time dur- and trained personnel that would be required for the
ing their manufacture, those that are cast to approxi- replacement of present facilities almost insures that
mate finished shape and finished without deforma- the blast furnace method will remain for some time.
tion are specifically referred to as casting alloys. This device is a tall, columnar structure into which
When the metal is fabricated by deformation is fed, through a top opening, a mixture of iron ore
processes, an alloy designed to have good ductility is (oxides of iron - Fe3 03, hematite, or Fe3 04, mag-
specified and referred to as a wrought alloy. Some netite), coke, and limestone. A blast of hot air is
alloys can be either wrought or cast, most wrought supplied through the mixture from near the bottom
alloys can be cast, but many casting alloys have to provide oxygen for combustion of the coke.
insufficient ductility for even simple deformation Temperatures in the neighborhood of 3000° F are
processing. developed in the melting zone. The iron ore is re-
Final Choice Dependent on Many Factors. The duced by chemical reactions with carbon monoxide
choice of a material is usually a stepwise process. gases and by high temperature contact directly with
Sales requirements, raw material costs, equipment the carbon in the coke as well as with other impurity
availability, or specific product requirements will elements in the mixture. Near the bottom of the fur-
frequently narrow the choice between the fields of nace, the iron and the slag, which is made up of other
metals and plastics. With the choice of either metals metallic oxides combined with limestone, melt and
or plastics, some may be eliminated on the basis of accumulate in a well; the lighter slag floats on top of
properties, although a considerable number of plastics the melted iron. The molten iron and slag are tapped
or metal alloys will still satisfy the functional require- off periodically through separate holes. The slag is
ments for the great majority of products. The life to disposed of, either as trash or for byproduct use, and
be expected from the product may also eliminate the iron is run into open molds to solidify as pigs,
some materials from consideration. Finally, however, unless it is to be further processed immediately. In
Ferrous Metals 47

large installations, the molten iron is frequently trans- STEEL


ported in large ladles to other equipment for carbon
reduction in the manufacture of steel. One of the largest and most influential manufactur-
Pig Iron. The product of the blast furnace, ing operations today is the steel industry, which
whether liquid or solid, is called pig iron. The dis- makes some finished products but is primarily con-
tinction between the terms pig and pig iron should be cerned with the making of raw material for further
noted. The term pig refers to a crude casting, conveni- processing. The annual production of more than 100
ent for transportation, storage, and remelting of any million tons exceeds by far the total production of all
metal: the term pig iron refers to the composition of other metals and plastics combined.
the metal tapped from the blast furnace, whether in Comparison of Steel with Cast Iron. Pound for
liquid or solid state. Although this composition varies pound, castings of cast iron are cheaper than those of
with ore, coke, blast furnace conditions, and other steel, and for those products that can be made with
factors, the blast furnace is controllable only within suitable shapes and strengths as castings, the cost of
broad limits. Pig iron as a natural result of the con- the finished product often will be lower in this form.
ditions within the furnace always contains 3% to 4% However, all cast irons, because of their high carbon
of carbon and smaller amounts of silicon, sulfur, content, are subject to the definite processing limita-
phosphorus, manganese, and other elements. tions of casting. Thin sections, good finishes, and
Pig Iron Requires Further Processing. In the solid dimensional control are obtained at reasonable cost
state, pig iron is weak, is too hard to be machined, only by deformation processing instead of casting.
and has practically no ductility to permit deforma- Deformation can be performed only on materials
tion work. It must therefore be treated to improve having relatively high ductility. For ferrous materials,
some of its properties by one of the methods shown this requires reduction of carbon from the cast iron
in Figure 5-1. The simplest of these treatments are range to the extent that a material with an entirely
those shown on the left of Figure 5-1; the treatments new set of properties is produced.
involve remelting with only moderate control of All cast irons are essentially pig iron with, at most,
composition, in particular with no attempt to remove only minor modifications of composition. The essen-
the carbon. tial component of pig iron in addition to the iron is
IIRON 3% to 4% carbon. When this carbon content is re-
I_ORE
"
] duced to less than 2%, the resulting new material is

[PIG IRON-H'9.".coo~low
l~-- . _n-
3 ; g
a;~_-
dUChli!1,low~
--I
called steel.

- --
I
-I. - . n
i
t n ,
WROUGHT IRON
SOlod,l,
AdJusl
and Re",e"
ComposHion on
C -Reduce
, AdJusl
Co,bon,
Compos,fion.
Rel,ne, Conl,ol
Bessemeo
and'
Open'
Prior to the introduction of currently used
i'I I Cupola
Poodu'" CoS!
0' Ladle
0'"
i'-' Heoolh,
Majonly
Eleelne,
01 Poaduel
and Oxygen
- Woaughl Pooeess
- -
methods for making steel, a method of reducing the
I I ,f/ ' . "IE '. 1 . - -1 '!
I - -. - carbon content of pig iron had been used since before
1
; I r""" 1
~;"
~
L
~
~I ;II~
~'O:
' I : I [ 1600. The product, although called wrought iron, was
~'i:_J~a_~ll ..

gl
.

ii ! I

~" 0." j ;
: :
I : actually the first low carbon steel to be manufactured
~t
'0;0 ;;; ' fWRoiiGHT]
a. ~ .'. ~ 1
~N -I ' . I
in quantity.
~ J '.0' Iw : ;I

rj
,,~
~ x.': -
...L '.aN~,
-- -I'NGOT 'I
.

~ u ""'E- . ,.. c ' !


:
Early Furnace Limitations. In the early manu-
~~ ~"LE
§ I 'RON TILE
[.IRON I "ED I. . facture of wrought iron, molten pig iron was sub-
' -
I
I 1.----- DUC'! is~j~'tJ ST~EL '
Law 1

jected to oxidizing agents, normally air and iron


~ :1 ~ =-
I STEEL
.
.
!
---L-
oxide, and the silicon and carbon content of the melt
~
q H'O'
"'0'
STEEL
was reduced. The furnaces used were incapable of
maintaining the iron at temperatures greater than
about 1480° C (2700° F). Reference to the iron-
Figure 5.1
carbon equilibrium diagram will show that at this
General relationship of ferrous materials
temperature pig iron would be well above the liquidus
line. However, as the carbon content was reduced, at
constant temperature, the iron began to solidify;
CAST IRONS consequently, to keep the reaction proceeding within
the melt, it was necessary to stir or puddle the
These simplest ferrous materials are produced by material in the furnace. '

..;". causing the molten metal to solidify into approximate Wrought Iron Contains Slag. Because this material
final product form. The result is known as a casting. included slag, which floated on top as long as the
~, The processes of making castings is discussed in Chap- metal was liquid, the slag was mixed with the purified
"'ill: ter 8. Someof the relationships between common cast iron. The resulting product was withdrawn from the
irons are shown in Table 5-2. furnace as a pasty ball on the end of the stirring rod
48 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

TABLE 5-2
Common cast irons
Relative
Type Iron How Produced Characteristics Cost

White Rapid cooling Hard, brittle


low C +'Si Unmachinable

Malleable Heat treated T.S. 3.5-8 X 108 Pa 4


White iron (50-120 ksi)
Good malleability and ductility

Ductile ladle addition T.S.4-10X 108 Pa (60-150 ksi) 3


Similar to malleable

Gray Slow cooling T.S. 1.4-4.1 X 108 Pa (20-60 ksi) 2


High C + Si Good machinability
Brittle

Chilled Fast surface chill Hard surface (white iron) 3


Soft core (gray iron)

and, while low in carbon and silicon, contained from tation process. According to the iron-carbon equili-
3% to 4% slag, mostly Si02. These balls were then brium diagram, at 1148° C (2098° F) carbon is
deformation processed by repeated rolling, cutting, soluble in iron up to 2%. At this temperature the
stacking, and reroIling in the same direction. The carbon slowly diffused into the solid material; the
resulting product consisted of relatively pure iron process required a total cycle time, including heating,
with many very fine slag stringers running in the of about 2 weeks. Much of the slag in the wrought
direction of rolling. iron migrated to the surface and formed surface
Although cheaper methods have been developed blisters, which resulted in the term blister steel. Even
for reducing the carbon from pig iron without incor- after this lengthy treatment, the carbon was not
porating the slag in the product, a demand for uniformly dispersed throughout the material, and
wrought iron continues, based primarily on its reputa- multiple cutting and rerolling procedures were re-
tion for corrosion and fatigue resistance. It is quired to produce a high quality product.
presently manufactured by pouring molten refined
iron into separately manufactured slag with subse- Crucible Steel. Further reduction of the slag,
quent rolling. greater uniformity of the carbon, and closer control
Properties of Wrought Iron. Wrought iron has a were later achieved by a secondary operation known
tensile strength of about 350 MPa (50,000 psi) and as the crucible process. Bars made by the cementation
good ductility, although the material is quite aniso- process were remelted in a clay or graphite crucible in
tropic (properties vary with orientation or direction which the slag floated to the surface. This crucible
of testing) because of the slag stringers. Its principal process produced steel of very high quality, and
use is for the manufacture of welded pipe. modifications of the method are still used today, but
While wrought iron originally referred to this it was made possible only by furnace developments
product or to its composition, the term has fre- that permitted higher temperatures to be achieved
quently been extended to refer to any worked low than were needed in the manufacture of wrought
iron.
carbon steel product, particularly a product shaped or
worked by hand, such as ornamental iron railings and Open-Hearth Steel. Both the modem open-hearth
grillwork. furnace and the Bessemer converter were developed in
the 1850s. These two developments greatly increased
STEEL MAKING
the speed with which pig iron could be refined. The
Early Steel. The oldest known method of making modem era of industry can be tied to these develop-
higher carbon steel consisted of reheating wrought ments that led to the production of large quantities
iron and powdered charcoal together in the cemen- of high quality, low-cost steel.
Ferrous Metals 49

~gt:LY
FUEL

~~~INSI';I ~ -fu
~///I/II/IIII//II//I////I/Ill/I/II/III/IIIIIIIIII/IIIIIIIIII~

~
(~~~~ I
1'11[-
WASTEusn
HUTED
AIR
cz0
BLOWING CHARGING POURING

Figure 5-2 Figure 5-3


Bessemer converter
Cross-section of open-hearth furnace

Figure 5-2 shows the construction of an open- Electric Furnace Steel. Electric furnace steel is
hearth furnace as was used for the majority of steel produced in a variation of the older crucible process
produced until recently in the United States. Various with the furnace heated by electric arc or induction.
proportions of pig iron (either solid or molten), steel The atmosphere can be well controlled in the electric
scrap, limestone for flux, and iron ore are charged on furnace, and careful control of composition can be
the hearth of the furnace. The principal reducing maintained. Steel of the highest quality is produced
action takes place between the iron ore and the by this method.
carbon of the pig iron, the final carbon content of the Basic Oxygen Steel. A steel making process
steel being controllable by the proper proportions of known as the basic oxygen process was developed in
the charged materials. The principal difference be- Switzerland and Austria after World War II and first
tween this furnace and that used previously in the used in 1952. By 1957 the method was producing 1%
manufacture of wrought iron lies in the preheating of of the world production. In 1966 the growth of use
the entering combustion air. In the open-hearth fur- was to 25% and currently more than 50% of the
nace for steel making, the air enters through a brick world's steel is made by the basic oxygen process.
checkerwork that has been previously heated by the The Basic Oxygen Process. There are a number of
exhausting flue gases. Two similar checkerworks are variations in the equipment and methods for making
used, one for the exhaust side and one for the enter- basic oxygen steel. Fundamentally they all operate
ing air side of the furnace. After a relatively short much as follows:
period of operation in this manner, the airflow a. Scrap as great as 30% of the heat is charged into
through the checkerworks is reversed. Preheating of the refining vessel, as shown schematically in
the air permits higher temperatures to be developed Figure 5-4.
in the furnace, and the bath of metal may be kept
molten as the carbon content is reduced. b. Molten pig iron is charged on top of the scrap.
c. The lance is positioned, and a high velocity jet
of oxygen is blown on top of the molten mix-
Bessemer Steel. The Bessemer converter is shown ture for about 20 minutes. During this period,
in Figure 5-3. The charge consists of molten pig iron. lime and various fluxes are added as aids for
Steel scrap may be added to help control the temp- control of the final composition.
erature. After charging in the horizontal position, the d. The metal is then sampled, and, if it meets speci-
air blast is turned on through the tuyeres and the
fications, poured through the tap hole into a
converter turned upright so that the air bubbles ladle by tilting the vessel.
through the melt, oxidizing and burning out first sili-
con, then carbon. The process can be used to reduce e. Finally, the vessel is inverted to empty the slag
the carbon content to about 0.05%. Although less and then is ready for reuse. With careful use, the
vessel lining may last for as many as 400 heats.
expensive to operate than the basic-lined open-hearth
furnace, the inability of the acid-lined Bessemer The total time for producing a heat by this method
converter to reduce the phosphorus content of the is 30 to 45 minutes. This compares very favorably
metal has restricted its use to the production of only with the 4 to 6 hours necessary for the open-hearth
about 5% of the steel made in the United States. methods using oxygen.
Some steel is produced by initial refining in the Basic Oxygen Process Provides a Number of Advan-
i
..

U
.
Bessemer converter followed by further refining in tages. Steel made by this method can start from any
grade of pig iron. The finish quality is similar to that
... the open-hearth furnace.
50 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

-OXYGEN LANCE amount of carbon, the properties approach those of


pure iron with maximum ductility and minimum
TAP HOLE
strength. Maximum ductility is desirable from the
/
/ standpoint of ease in deformation processing and
service use. Minimum strength is desirable for defor-
mation processing. However, higher strengths than
that obtainable with this low carbon are desirable
from the standpoint of product design. The most
practical means of increasing the strength is by the
addition or retention of some carbon. However, it
should be fully understood that any increase of
". ,\
.//~ '.,,- strength over that of pure iron can be obtained only
-'-- at the expense of some loss of ductility, and the final
MOLTEN STEEL
choice is always a compromise of some degree. Figure
5-5 shows typical ferrous material applications in
relation to carbon content. Because of the difficulty
of composition control or the additional operation of
FURNACE TILTS FOR LOADING AND POURING increasing carbon content, the cost of higher carbon,
STEEL POURS THROUGH TAP HOLE FROM higher strength steel is greater than that of low
UNDER A SLAG COVERING carbon.
Plain Carbon Steels Most Used. Because of their
Figure 5-4
low cost, the majority of steels used are plain carbon
Basic oxygen furnace steels. These consist of iron combined with carbon
made in open-hearth furnaces. Scrap is usable in large
quantities so that the process becomes the cheapest HEATTREATED NOT HEATTREATED
current method for remelting and reusing scrap.
The largest size unit presently available is slightly T4 GRAY IRON

greater than 300 tons. A 300-ton unit can produce 3 z


0
million tons of steel per year. 3
V>
Basic Oxygen Process Limited by Huge Investment <t
V
Needs. The growth of the basic oxygen process has ;!i.
been extremely fast as industrial processes go but MALLEABLE IRON £ NODULAR IRON
would probably have been even faster except for the 0 WHITE IRON

large investments required. The immense quantities of !:: 2


en
oxygen and its use demand much special equipment. 0
Q.
:;;
In such a conversion to a facility induding a rolling TOOL STEEL 0
u
mill, one steel manufacturer invested over $600 mil-
lion. -'
w 1
SPRING STEEL w
Practically All Steel Made Today by Use of Oxy- V> RAIL STEEL
gen. The development of oxygen-making facilities MACHINERY STEEL
and the reduction of cost of the gas has changed fORGING STEEL
CAST STEEL STRUCTURAL STEEL
nearly all steel making. Even when the complete basic CARBURIZING STEEL ROLLED STEEL
J_-
oxygen process is not used, oxygen is used to speed 0 WROUGHT IRON

steel making. Both open-hearth and Bessemer con- Figure 5.5


verters are likely to be supplied with oxygen to speed Ferrous materials
combustion and refining. An open-hearth furnace fit-
ted with oxygen lances can approximately double concentrated in three ranges classed as low carbon,
production with less than one-half the fuel of earlier medium carbon, and high carbon. With the exception
methods, without use of pure oxygen. The making of of manganese used to control sulphur, other elements
Bessemer steel is speeded by use of oxygen combined are present only in small enough quantities to be
with air but also is improved in composition, mainly considered as impurities, though in some cases they
by reduction of nitrogen impurities left in the steel. may have minor effect on properties of the material.
Little Bessemer steel is made in the United States, Low Carbon. Steels with approximately 6 to 25
however. points of carbon (0.06% to 0.25%) are rated as low
carbon steels and are rarely hardened by heat treat-
PLAIN CARBON STEEL
ment because the low carbon content permits so little
Any steel-making process is capable of producing a formation of hard martensite that the process is rela-
product that has 0.05% or less carbon. With this small tively ineffective. Enormous tonnages of these low
Ferrous Metals 51

carbon steels are processed in such structural shapes has on the action of carbon. The hardness and the
as sheet, strip, rod, plate, pipe, and wire. A large strength of any steel, alloy or otherwise, depend
portion of the material is cold worked in its final primarily on the amount and the form of the iron
processing to improve its hardness, strength, and carbide or other metal carbides present. Even in
surface-finish qualities. The grades containing 20 unhardened steel, carbon produces an increase in
points or less of carbon are susceptible to consider- hardness and strength with a consequent loss of
able plastic flow and are frequently used as deep- ductility. The improvement in machinability and the
drawn products or may be used as a ductile core for loss in weldability are based on this loss of ductility.
casehardened material. The low plain carbon steels Alloys Affect Hardenability. Interest in harden-
are readily brazed, welded, and forged. ability is indirect. Hardenability itself has been dis-
Medium Carbon. The medium carbon steels cussed earlier and is usually thought of most in con-
(0.25% to 0.5%) contain sufficient carbon that they nection with depth-hardening ability in a full harden-
may be heat treated for desirable strength, hardness, ing operation. However, with the isothermal trans-
machinability, or other properties. The hardness of formation curves shifted to the right, the properties
plain carbon steel~ in this range cannot be increased of a material can be materially changed even when
sufficiently for the material to serve satisfactorily as not fully hardened. After hot-rolling or forging opera-
cutting tools, but the load-carrying capacity of the tions, the material usually air cools. Any alloy gen-
steels can be raised considerably, while still retaining erally shifts the transformation curves to the right,
sufficient ductility for good toughness. The majority which with air cooling results in finer pearlite than
of the steel is furnished in the hot-rolled condition would be formed in a plain carbon steel. This finer
and is often machined for final finishing. It can be pearlite has higher hardness and strength, which has
welded, but is more difficult to join by this method an effect on machinability and may lower ductility.
than the low carbon steel because of structural
Weldability. The generally bad influence of alloys
changes caused by welding heat in localized areas. on weldability is a further reflection of the influence
High Carbon. High carbon steel contains from 50 on hardenability. With alloys present during the rapid
to 160 points of carbon (0.5% to 1.6%). This group cooling taking place in the welding area, hard, non-
of steels is classed as tool and die steel, in which ductile structures are formed in the steel and fre-
hardness is the.principal property desired. Because of quently lead to cracking and distortion.
the fast reaction time and resulting low hardenability, Grain Size and Toughness. Nickel in particular has
plain carbon steels nearly always must be water-
a very beneficial effect by retarding grain growth in
quenched. Even with this drastic treatment and its
the austenite range. As with harden ability , it is the
associated danger of distortion or cracking, it is secondary effects of grain refinement that are noted
seldom possible to develop fully hardened structure in properties. A finer grain structure may actually
in material more than about 1 inch in thickness. In
have less harden ability , but it has its most pro-
practice the ductility of heat-treat-hardened plain nounced effect on toughness; for two steels with
carbon steel is low compared to that of alloy steels equivalent hardness and strength, the one with finer
with the same strength, but, even so, carbon steel is grain will have better ductility, which is reflected in
frequently used because of its lower cost. the chart as improved toughness. This improved
toughness, however, may be detrimental to machin-
ALLOY STEELS ability.

\ Although plain carbon steels work well for many


uses and are the cheapest steels and therefore the
Corrosion Resistance. Most pure metals have rela-
tively good corrosion resistance, which is generally
lowered by impurities or small amounts of intentional
most used, they cannot completely fulfill the require- alloys. In steel, carbon in particular lowers the corro-
ments for some work, Individual or groups of proper- sion resistance very seriously. In small percentages,
ties can be improved by addition of various elements copper and phosphorus are beneficial in reducing
in the form of alloys. Even plain carbon steels are corrosion. Nickel becomes effective in percentages of
alloys of at least iron, carbon, and manganese, but the about 5%, and chromium is extremely effective in
term alloy steel refers to steels containing elements percentages greater than 10%, which leads to a sepa-
other than these in controlled quantities greater than rate class of alloy steels called stainless steels. Many
impurity concentration or, in the case of manganese, tool steels, while not designed for the purpose, are in
greater than 1.5%. effect stainless steels because of the high percentage
Composition and Structure Affect Properties. of chromium present.
Table 5-3 shows the general effects of the more
r
,
commonly used elements on some properties of
steels. Some effects noted in the chart are independ-
LOW ALLOY STRUCTURAL STEELS
Certain low alloy steels sold under various trade
names have been developed to provide a low cost
nt, but most are based on the influence the element
TABLE 5-3
Effect of Some Alloying Elements on Properties of Steel

Low Med Man- Phos- Chro- Molyb- Alu-


Carbon Carbon ganese phorus Sulfur Silicon mium Nickel denum Vanadium Copper minum Boron
0.1%-0.2%0.2%-0.6% 2.0% 0.15% 0.3% 2.0% 1.1% 5.0% 0.75% 0.25% 1.1% 0.1% 0.003%

N G VG G B G VG VG VG G N N VG
Hardenability
G VG G G B VG G G G N N G G
Strength
B VB G VB VB B VB VG G G N G ?
Tough ness
Wear resistance N VG VG N N G VG G VG G N N G
Machinability
annealed G G B G VG B B VB B N B N ?
B VB VB VB B B VB VB VB G B N VB
Weldability
Corrosion
resistance B VB N VG VB G N VG G N VG G ?

Very good VG
Good G
Little or none N
Bad B
Very bad VB
Ferrous Metals 53

structural material with higher yield strength than responds to heat treatment much as any low alloy
plain carbon steel. The addition of small amounts of steel. The gamma-to-alpha transformation in iron
some alloying elements can raise the yield strength of occurs normally, and the steel may be hardened by
hot-rolled sections without heat treatment to 30% to heat treatment similar to that used on plain carbon
40% greater than that of plain carbon steels. Design- or low alloy steels. Steels of this class are called
ing to higher working stresses may reduce the re- martensitic, and the most used ones have 4% to 6%
quired section size, by 25% to 30% at an increased chromium.
cost of 15% to 50%, depending upon the amount and Ferritic Stainless Steel. With larger amounts of
the kind of alloy. chromium, as great as 30% or more, the austenite
The low alloy structural steels are sold almost is suppressed, and the steel loses its ability to be
entirely in the form of hot-rolled structural shapes. hardened by normal steel heat-treating procedures.
These materials have good weld ability, ductility, Steels of this type are called ferritic and are particu-
better impact strength than that of plain carbon larly useful when high corrosion resistance is neces-
steel, and good corrosion resistance, particularly to sary in cold-worked products.
atmospheric exposure. Many building codes are Austenitic Stainless Steel. With high chromium
based on the more conservative use of plain carbon and the addition of 8% or more of nickel or
steels, and the use of alloy structural steel often has combinations of nickel and manganese, the ferrite
no economic advantage in these cases. is suppressed. These steels, the most typical of which
contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel, are referred to
LOW ALLOY AISI STEELS as austenitic stainless steels. They are not hardenable
Improved Properties at Higher Cost. The low by normal steel heat-treating procedures, but the addi-
alloy American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) steels tion of small amounts of other elements makes some of
are alloyed primarily for improved hardenability. them hardenable by a solution precipiation reaction.
They are more costly than plain carbon steels, and Composition and Structure Critical for Corrosion
their use can generally be justified only when
Resistance. In any stainless steel, serious loss of
needed in the heat-treat-hardened and tempered
corrosion resistance can occur if large amounts of
condition. Compared to plain carbon steels, they chromium carbide form. Consequently, the ferritic
can have 30% to 40% higher yield strength and 10%
and austenitic grades are generally made with low
to 20% higher tensile strength. At equivalent tensile
amounts of carbon and even then may need special
strengths and hardnesses, they can have 30% to 40% heat treatments or the addition of stabilizing ele-
higher reduction of area and approximately twice
ments such as molybdenum or titanium to prevent
the impact strength. chromium carbide formation. With the martensitic
Usually Heat Treated. The low alloy AISI steels
grades in which the hardness and strength depend
are those containing less than approximately 8%
on the carbon, the steels must be fully hardened
total alloying elements, although most commercially with the carbon in a martenistic structure for maxi-
important steels contain less than 5%. The carbon mum corrosion resistance.
content may vary from very low to very high, but The austenitic steels are the most expensive but
for most steels it is in the medium range that
possess the best impact properties at low tempera-
effective heat treatment may be employed for
tures, the highest strength and corrosion resistance
property improvement at minimum costs. The steels at elevated temperature, and generally have the best
are used widely in automobile, machine tool, and
appearance. They are used for heat exchangers,
aircraft construction, especially for the manufacture
refining and chemical processing equipment, gas
of moving parts that are subject to high stress and turbines, and other equipment exposed to severe
wear.
corrosive conditions. The austenitic steels are para-
STAINLESS STEELS magnetic (practically unaffected by magnetic flux).
Tonnage-wise, the most important of the higher This fact precludes the use of magnetic particle
alloy steels are a group of high chromium steels testing. In the as-cast state, and in welds, austenitic
with extremely high corrosion and chemical resis- stainless steel is quite coarse-grained. In ultrasonic
tance. Most of these steels have much better testing of this material, high levels of noise and atten-
mechanical properties at high temperatures. This uation serve to limit the effectiveness of the test.
group was first called stainless steel. With the Both the ferritic and martensitic stainless steels
emphasis on high temperature use, they are fre- are magnetic. Most are not as corrosion resistant at
quently referred to as heat and corrosion-resistant high temperatures as the austenitic type but offer
~ steels. good resistance at normal temperatures. They are
t.! Martensitic Stainless Steel. With lower amounts used for such products as cutlery, surgical instru-
ments, automobile trim, ball bearings, and kitchen
..~f chromium or with silicon or aluminum added to equipment.
~ome of the higher chromium steels, the material
54 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Fabrication Difficult. The stainless steels are otropic. At the same time, they become weaker and
more difficult to machine and weld than most other more brittle in the perpendicular directions. Steel
ferrous materials. In no case can stainless steels be that is cast to shape loses the opportunity for gain
classed as the easiest to work, but they can be in properties by plastic work but, by the same
processed by all of the normal procedures, including token, is not adversely affected by weakness in
casting, rolling, forging, and pressworking. some directions.
Wide Variety of Composition. As far as composi-
TOOL AND DIE STEELS
tion is concerned, no real differences exists between
The greatest tonnage of tools (other than cutting wrought and cast steel. It was pointed out earlier
tools, which are discussed in Chapter 18) and dies that steel is a combination of mostly iron with
are made from plain carbon or low alloy steels. This carbon in amounts from just above that soluble at
is true only because of the low cost of these materi- room temperature (0.008%) to as high as 2%, the
als as their use has a number of disadvantages. They maximum soluble in austenite at the eutectic temp-
have low hardenability, low ductility associated with erature. Other elements may also be part of the com-
high hardness, and do not hold their hardness well position in quantities small enough to be negligi-
at elevated temperature. ble or sufficiently large to influence the heat treat-
Manganese Steels. Manganese tool and die steels ing of the alloy or even exert effects. of their own,
are oil hardening and have a reduced tendency to as in wrought alloy steels. The carbon content can
deform or crack during heat treatment. They con- be in any of the three ranges, low, medium, or high,
tain from 85 to 100 points of carbon, 1.5% to but the majority of steel castings are produced in
1.75% of manganese to improve hardenability, and the medium carbon range because nearly all are heat
small amounts of chromium, vanadium, and molyb- treated to develop good mechanical properties.
denum to improve hardness and toughness quali-
ties. MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS
Chromium Steels. High chromium tool and die
steels are usually quenched in oil for hardening, but Variety of Metallic Materials Necessitates Specifi-
some have sufficient harden ability to develop hard- cation Codes. During earlier times in our industrial
development, there was less need for material identi-
ness with an air quench. One group of the high
chromium steels, called high speed steel, has sub- fication systems. A manufacturer generally had
stantial additions of tungsten, vanadium, and some- complete charge of the entire operation from raw
times cobalt to improve the hardness in the red heat material to finished product. In any event, there
range. were relatively few materials from which to choose.
More recently, specialization has led to more divi-
CAST STEELS sion of the manufacturing procedure. Fabricators
seldom produce their own raw materials, and the
Quantity Relatively SmaIl. Compared to the ton- number of material choices has grown tremendously
nage of cast iron and wrought steel produced, the and continues to grow yearly. Reliable and univer-
quantity of cast steel is small. The high tempera- sally accepted systems of material specification are
tures necessary make melting and handling more essential to permit designers to specify and fabrica-
difficult than for cast iron and also create problems tors to purchase materials and be assured of compo-
in producing sound, high quality castings. The sition and properties.
mechanical properties of cast steel tend to be The first group of materials for which standardi-
poorer than those of the same material in wrought zation was needed was ferrous materials. The
form, but certain shape and size relationships, to- automotive industry set up the first recognized
gether with property requirements that can be sup- standards, but with broader use and more classes of
plied only by steel, may favor the manufacture of a steels, the present most universally recognized stand-
product as a steel casting. Steel castings may be ards are those of the AISI.
produced with greater ductility than even malleable AISI Numbers for Plain and Low Alloy Steels.
iron. The number of possible combinations of iron, car-
Cast Steel Is Isotropic. The principal advantages bon, and alloying elements is without limit. Some
of steel as a structural material, mainly the ability of these, for example, the low alloy high strength
to control properties by composition and heat treat- structural steels, are riot covered by any standard
ment, apply for both the wrought and the cast specification system, or designation. However, the
material. One advantage of cast steel over its majority of commonly used steels in the plain
wrought counterpart is its lack of directional prop- carbon and low alloy categories can be described by
erties. Wrought steel and other materials tend to a standardized code system consisting of a letter
develop strength in the direction of working when denoting the process by which the steel was manu-
deformed by plastic flow, that is, become anis- factured, followed by four, or in a few cases, five
F-

Ferrous Metals 55

digits. The first two digits refer to the quantity and TABLE 5-4
kind of principal alloying element or elements. The AISI Basic Classification Numbers
last two digits, or three in the case of some high
carbon steels, refer to the carbon content in hun- AISI No. Average Percent Alloy Content
dredths of a percent. At one time, the process used 10XX None
in steel making affected the properties of the fin- llXX 0.08-0.33 S
ished product enough that it was important to 13XX 1.8-2.0 Mn
know how it was made. Letter prefixes as follows 23XX 3.5 Ni
were used for this purpose. 31XX 0.7-0.8 Cr 1.3 Ni
B - Acid Bessemer carbon steel 41XX 0.5-1.0 Cr, 0.2-0.3 Mo
C - Basic open-hearth steel a3XX 0.5-0.8 Cr , 1.8 Ni, 0.3 Mo
D - Acid open-hearth steel 51XX 0.8-1.1 Cr
E - Electric furnace alloy steel 61XX 0.8-1.0 Cr, 0.1-0.2 V
86XX 0.6 Ni, 0.5-0.7 Cr, 1.2 Mo
With the advent of basic oxygen steel, however, the
87XX 0.6 Ni, 0.5 Cr, 0.3 Mo
letter prefix is falling into disuse. The control
exhibited in the basic oxygen process produces steel
of similar quality to that from the open-hearth
method. with exactly the same number throughout will vary
Table 5-4 shows the average alloy content associa- slightly from heat to heat because of necessary
ted with some of the most frequently used classes manufacturing tolerances. Exact composition can
of steels. The exact specified quantity varies with therefore be determined only from chemical analysis
the carbon content of each steel, and even steels of individual heats.

TABLE 5-5
Some Stainless Steels and Properties

Ten St 1000 Percent


Composition psi Elong
Material Ni Cr Other (6.9 X 106 Pal (2 in.) Characteristics and Uses

302 9 18 Austenitic - Work harden only. Excellent corrosion


Annealed 85 60 resistance to atmosphere and foods. Machinability
fair. Welding not recommended. General purpose.
Kitchen and chemical applications.

430 16 CO.12 Ferritic - Work harden only. Excellent corrosion


Annealed 75 30 resistance to weather and water exposure and most
Cold worked 90 15 chemicals. Machinability fair. General purpose.
Kitchen and chemical equipment. Automobile trim.

420 13 CO.15 Martensitic - Heat treatable. Good corrosion


Annealed 95 25 resistance to weather and water exposure.
Hardened and 230 8 Machinability fair. Cutlery, surgical instruments,
tempered ball bearings.

17-4PH 4 17 Cu 4 Age hardening - Good corrosion resistance. Main-


Room temp 195 13 tains strength at elevated temperature. Machinability
12000 F 59 15 poor. Air frame skin and structure.
Nonferrous Metals 6
and Plastics

The ferrous metals, particularly steel and gray


iron, hold such a predominant place in the economy
that, for discussion, metals are usually divided into
ferrous and nonferrous groups. On either a weight
or a volume basis, pig iron is the cheapest refined
metal form available today. Consequently, the use
of nonferrous metals can generally be justified only
on the basis of some special property that ferrous
metals do not have or some processing advantage
that a nonferrous metal offers.
Many Nonferrous Metals Exhibit Property
Values. Nonferrous metals have a number of prop-
erty advantages over steel and cast iron, although
not all nonferrous metals have all the advantages.
Aluminum, magnesium, and beryllium (one of the
more rare metals) have densities of from one-fourth
to one-third that of steel. Although strength rather
than weight is more frequently the basis of design,
in many cases, particularly in casting, the process
limits the minimum section thickness, and products
made of ferrous metals are made much stronger
than required by the design. The same product
made from even a weaker but less dense nonferrous
metal may still have adequate strength and weigh
much less. Even though the per pound cost of the
nonferrous metal may be greater, the final costs of
the products may be comparable. On a strength-to-
weight basis, hardened steel is still superior to all
but a few very high cost nonferrous metals, but
some nonferrous alloys of only slightly less strength
per unit weight may offer much greater ductility
than the hardened steel and may be processed more
economically. For the alloys shown in Figure 6-1,
those classed as light alloys have one-fourth to one-
third the density of iron or steel. Those called
heavy alloys have densities approximately one to
one and one-half times that of steel.
58 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Carrasio.n Resistance Usually High. The carra- faurths af all the capper praduced is used far elec-
sian resistance af mast nanferraus metals is gener- trical canductars, so. aluminum is left as the mast
ally superiar to. all ferraus metals except stainless impartant structural no.nferraus metal. Aluminum is
steel, and stainless steel daes nat affer the cast patentially very available. Large are depasits are
advantage af plain carban and law allay steels. This faund at many places, but the mast ecanamical
increased carra sian resistance is the mast frequent reductian pracess yet develaped still requires 8 kila-
reasan far the chaice af nanferraus metals. watt haurs af electrical energy per paund af m~tal
Carra sian resistance is impartant far a number af refined. Even so, the only cheaper metals an a
reasans. Nat anly may the mechanical praperties af weight basis are lead, zinc, and iron. Lead is seldam
the material be affected by co.rrasian but also. the used as a structural metal, and zinc is limited
appearance af a metal is dependent an its carrasian mastly to. law strength applicatians, so. aluminum is
resistance. Where appearance is impartant, the a principal campetitar with iron and steel. On a
cammanly used ferraus metals nearly always require valume basis, anly iran is cheaper.
same kind af finishing and pratective surface treat- GENERAL PROPERTIES
ment. With many nanferraus metals, pratective
finishes are nat needed, even under canditians that Strength af Aluminum Allays. Aluminum allays
wauld be severely carrasive to. steel. The distinctive have tensile strengths that range fram 83 to. 550
appearance af many nanferraus metals is highly MPa (12,000 to. 80,000 psi). These values campare
desirable in many praducts. favarably with ather nanferraus allays and with
many steels, althaugh same steels may have strengths
NONFERROUS
METALS as great as 2,070 MPa (300,000 psi). Nevertheless,
the law density af aluminum, abaut ane-third that
I LIGHT ALLOYS I HEAVY ALLO'( af iran, steel, and brass, is mare impartant than
ALUMINUM BASE COPPERBASE space cansideratians.
MAGNESIUMBASE ZINC BASE Aluminum Has Excellent Ductility and Carro.sian
TITANIUM BASE NICKEL BASE Resistance. The excellent ductility af aluminum
BERYLLIUMBASE TIN BASE
permits it to. be readily farmed into. camplicated
shapes and allaws plastic flaw instead af fracture
LEAD BASE failure under shack and ather averlaad canditians.
Figure 6-1
Pure aluminum has excellent carrasian resistance.
Nanferraus metals but is limited in use to. thase applicatians in which
strength requirements are law. The carrasian resis-
Nanferraus Metals Used far Allaying with Iran as tance af the high strength aluminum allays is gener-
Well as Themselves. Althaugh iran is the most ally gaad except when expased to. same alkaline
frequently used magnet material, having high enviranments. Additianal pratectio.n may be pro.-
permeability and law magnetic hysteresis, pure iran vided far these canditians by cladding the allays
is a paar permanent magnet material. The best with a thin layer af the pure metal ar ather aluminum
permanent magnets are allays high in nickel, alumi- allays.
num, and cabalt. Silver, capper, and aluminum have When called up an to. perfarm canductivity checks on
much greater electrical and thermal canductivities aluminum plates and sheets, NDT personnel should be
than any ferraus materials and are usually used alert far clad materials. Since the electrical conductivi-
instead af steel when these properties are impartant. ties of the base metal and the cladding are invariably
Zinc Used in Large Quantities. Zinc is a typical different, the eddy current canductivity measurement
example af a metal whase use in relatively large may include same combinatian of the two. conductivi-
tannages depends nat so. much an mechanical prap- ties and result in misleading readings.
erties, ar even an superiar carrasian resistance, but Same Po.o.r Pro.perties Restrict Use. The endur-
an a special pracessing advantage. Zinc is weak, ance limit even far hardened allays is in the range
casts aver twice as much per paund as pig iran ar af 5,000 to. 20,000 psi. This weakness prahibits the
law carban steel, and even with gaad carra sian use af aluminum in same applicatians in which
resistance usually needs plating far gaad appearance, vibratian is cambined with high stress levels, and it
but its law melting paint permits its use in die cast- is aften necessary to. abserve special precautians to.
ing with langer die life than any ather cammanly eliminate the occurrence af stress risers, such as
cast metal. natches, scratches, and sudden sectian changes.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS Ano.ther deficiency is the lass af strength that ac-
curs wi th increased temperature. Bath wark-
Aluminum and capper are the mast impo.rtant af hardened and heat-treat-hardened allays lase
the nanferraus metals, being pro.duced in appro.xi- strength rapidly at temperatures greater than abaut
mately equal tannages. Ho.wever, abaut three- 1500 C. This lass af strength at elevated tempera-
Nonferrous Metals and Plastics 59

tures not only restricts the design of parts made of of this type offer advantages over pure aluminum
aluminum but also, because it is combined with a by compromising with a reduction of forming prop-
loss of ductility near the melting point (a condition erties to gain in mechanical properties. The addi-
called hot shortness), makes the processes of casting tional strength is obtained only by the presence of
and welding more difficult. the alloy in solid solution and not because of heat
Aluminum Alloys Provide Valuable Combined treatment. However, the alloys are subject to work
Properties. All of the metals and alloys, both fer- hardening and recrystallization treatments as are all
rous and nonferrous, have some combination of metals. The term annealing, when used with refer-
properties that make them preferred for some appli- ence to pure aluminum or one of the solid solution
cations. While aluminum is exceeded in any indivi- alloys, can only be interpreted to mean recrystalliza-
dual property by some other metal and while it has tion.
deficiencies that limit its use, the combination of
properties it possesses (particularly good corrosion
resistance, conductivity, lightness, good strength-to- PROPERTY CHANGES
weight ratio, and good ductility), when combined
with easy fabrication and moderately low cost, Hardening and Strengthening by Heat Treat-
account for its importance as a structural metal ment. As was discussed in Chapter 4, the possibili-
second only to iron and steel. ty of heat-treat hardening exists even in metals that
undergo no allotropic changes when an alloying
element is more soluble at elevated temperature
WROUGHT ALUMINUM ALLOYS
than at room temperature. Varying amounts of copper,
Uses for All Pure Metals Limited. Aluminum less than about 5.5%, can be alloyed with aluminum.
alloys designed to be used with some deformation Depending on the heat treatment, three different
process, in which ductility and strain-hardening structures may be actually obtained. With slow cool-
properties are of greatest importance, are referred to ing, equilibrium conditions are approximated, and the
as wrought alloys. Any pure metal, including alumi- alloy is placed in its softest, or annealed, condition.
num, generally has greater ductility, higher conduct- With rapid cooling, the fully saturated structure of in-
ivity, and better corrosion resistance than any termediate hardness and ductility is obtained. Follow-
alloyed form of the metal. The purest readily avail- ing the establishment of this supersaturated structure,
able form of aluminum has especially high con- the alloy is subject to aging, either natural with time at
ductivity and is designated as electrical grade (EC). room temperature or artificial at slightly elevated
Compared to copper, its conductivity is 68% on a temperature. The hardest structure is obtained only by
volume basis but 200% on a weight basis. heating to the solution temperature to allow the copper
Pure Aluminum - Soft and Weak but Corrosion to form a solid solution, followed by quenching and ag-
Resistant. Highest purity is necessary only for ing.
electrical use. Commercially pure aluminum has Reaction with Magnesium or Magnesium-Silicon
sufficient impurities present to impair its electrical Similar to Copper. Besides copper-aluminum, two
conductivity significantly but retains excellent cor- other reactions of this type are used in commercial
rosion resistance and ductility. In the fully softened aluminum alloys. Above 4%, magnesium forms heat
condition the tensile strength is about 83 MPa treatable alloys with aluminum, and the combina-
\ (12,000 psi). When fully work hardened, the tion of magnesium and silicon forms the compound
MgSi, which acts in the same way as copper or pure
\ strength is approximately doubled. The combination
of high ductility and low strength generally results magnesium. Strengths of these alloys range from 90
in poor machinability, particularly from the stand- to 241 MPa (13,000 to 35,000 psi) in the annealed
point of surface finish. condition and from 241 to 550 MPa (35,000 to
Pure Aluminum and Most Alloys Not Hardenable 80,000 psi) in the fully hardened condition.
by Heat Treatment. Neither electrical grade nor The fabricator of aluminum products may obtain
commercially pure aluminum is susceptible to hard- the alloys in a number of different heat-treated and
ening by heat treatment. Likewise, a number of work-hardened conditions. Table 6-1 shows the
aluminum alloys containing alloying elements that standard symbols that are used to denote these
remain in solid solution at all temperatures do not conditions. The terms solution treated, aged, an-
respond to heat-treat-hardening procedures. The nealed, and cold worked have been discussed in
effect of the alloys is to increase the strength at the connection with heat treatments.
expense of some ductility. Tensile strengths in the Slight averaging Used for Stabilization. Stabiliz-
tIi> range of 110 to 275 MPa (16,000 to 40,000 psi) ing is an additional treatment used with aluminum
when annealed and 50% to 70% greater when fully alloys to control growth and distortion. In an alloy
~ work hardened may be obtained by additions of naturally or artificially aged to the maximum hard-
ness level, a period of time follows during which the
C manganese, chromium, magnesium, and iron. Alloys
60 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

natural relieving of stresses will result in uncon- alloys have been developed specifically for castings.
trolled, though small, dimensional changes. If the As a cast metal, pure aluminum is subject to the
aging process is carried slightly past that required same drawbacks that are characteristic of the
for maximum hardness, the structure is dimension- wrought alloys. In addition, the relatively high melt-
ally stabilized and no further significant changes will ing temperature leads to excessive oxidation and the
occur. entrapment of gases in the molten metal. The fluidi-
TABLE 6-1 ty of some liquid alloys is too poor for flow into
thin sections, and some are subject to high shrink-
Aluminum temper and heat-treat symbols
age and cracking while solidifying and cooling in the
-F As fabricated.
mold. By proper alloying, all these conditions may
-0 Annealed (recrystallized) temper of wrought materials. be improved.
-H 1 Strain hardened only. Degree of hardening
As with the wrought alloys, some casting alloys
designated by second digit 1 through 8. Second may be heat-treat hardened and some may not.
digit 9 used to designate extra hard temper. Principal among the casting alloys that are not heat
-H 2 Strain hardened and partially annealed. Second treatable are those containing silicon only. Used in
digit 2 through 8 used in same manner as for amounts up to 11%, silicon improves fluidity and
Hl series.
decreases shrinkage. Tensile strengths of 130 MPa
-H 3 Strain hardened and stabilized. Second digit to (18,000 psi) for sand castings and 210 MPa (30,000
designate degree of residual strain. psi) for die castings are typical. Added magnesium
- T 2 Annealed temper of cast material. improves not only the casting characteristics but
- T 3 Solution treat and strain harden.
also the machinability of the cast metal.
- T 4 Solution treat and natural age.
Heat-Treat-Hardenable Alloys More Difficult to
- T 5 Artificial age only after cooling from elevated
Cast. Alloys subject to hardening by heat treat-
processing temperature.
ment are produced when copper only, magnesium
- T 6 Solution treat and artificial age.
plus silicon, or copper plus magnesium plus silicon
- T 7 Solution treat and stabilize.
are used as alloying elements. When subjected to a
- T 8 Solution treat, strain harden, and artificial age.
complete solution, quenching, and aging heat treat-
- T 9 Solution treat, artificial age, and strain harden.
ment, alloys of these types may have strength as
Note: The above symbols follow the number designating the great as 330 MPa (48,000 psi). Many aluminum
aluminum alloy type and become part of the material identi- castings are made of heat-treatable alloys and are
fication. used as cast, without heat treatment. The casting
process itself generally provides rapid enough cool-
NDT Used for Conductivity Testing, Eddy current ing to constitute a degree of quenching sufficient to
conductivity testing methods are in routine use for give some supersaturation, and natural aging will
heat treatment control and alloy sorting. As shown in
provide some hardening. The use. of the heat-treat-
Table 6-2, the electrical conductivities of some com- able casting alloys is restricted to applications
mon aluminum alloys vary, in some cases substan- req uiring high strength-to-weight ratios because
tially, depending upon the variaions in alloying ele- these alloys are somewhat more difficult to cast.
ments and heat treatment. However, examination of Shrinkage is generally higher than with the nonhard-
the % lACS values shown in Table 6-2 shows that in
enable types, and the metal is more subject to
some cases the values are the same or nearly the same
cracking and tearing during the cooling period in
for different alloys. When sorting alloys by eddy cur- the mold. (Table 6-2 shows some typical wrought
rent methods, it may be necessary to conduct a second and cast alloys.)
test to positively identify the alloy or heat treatment
condition. Frequently used for this purpose are chemi- COPPER ALLOYS
cal spot tests. While more difficult to use and not
While the total tonnage of copper has not de-
strictly nondestructive, chemical spot tests will con-
clusively identify the difference between, say 5052-0 creased, the importance of this metal relative to
ferrous metals and to other nonferrous metals has
and 2017-T4, which have electrical conductivities of 35
and 34% lACS respectively, a difference not conclu- decreased throughout recent history. However,
sively separable by eddy current tests. copper is the metal that has been of greatest impor-
tance during the longest period of man's history.
The Bronze Age refers to the period of history
during which man fashioned tools from copper and
CAST ALUMINUM ALLOYS copper alloys as they were found to occur naturally
Special Alloys Needed for Casting. Aluminum in the free state. The copper used today is reduced
castings could be made from any of the alloys from ores as are other metals, and the continued
intended for plastic deformation. These alloys do in use depends on the properties that make it useful as
fact have their beginning as cast ingots, but certain either a pure or an alloyed metal.
Nonferrous Metals and Plastics 61

TABLE 6-2
Some Aluminum Alloys and Properties

Electrical
Ten St. Percent Conductivity
Composition 1000 psi Elong Hardness at 28° Characteristics
Type Cu Si Mn Mg Other (6.9 x 10. Pal (2 in.) Brinell (% lACS) and Uses

Wrought

EC .055 12 (0) 23 (0) 62 Good electrical conductor. Work


27 (H19) 1.5 (H19) 62 harden only. Electrical conductors.
1100 1.0 13 (0) 35 (0) 23 (0) 59 Good formability. High corrosion
24 (H18) 5 (H18) 44 (H18) 57 resistance. Work harden only. Cook-
Ing utensils, chemical equipment,
reflectors.

3003 1.2 16 (0) 30 (0) 28(0) 50 Good corrosion resistance. Slightly


29 (H18) 4 (H18) 55 (H18) 40 less ductility. Work harden only. Ex.
trusions, forgings, hardware.
5052 2.5 Cr 0.25 28 (0) 25 (0) 47 (0) 35 Good corrosion resistance. Good
42 (H38) 7 (H38) 77 (H38) 35 machinability. Work harden only.
Good weldability. Truck bodies,
kitchen cabinets.

2017 4.0 0.7 0.5 26 (0) 22 (0) 45(0) 50 Corrosion resistance to rural atmo-
62 (T4) 22 (T4) 105 (T4) 34 sphere; poor corrosion resistance to
marine atmosphere. Machinability
good when hard. Screw machine
products.
6061 0.28 0.6 1.0 Cr 0.25 18 (0) 25(0) 30(0) 47 Excellent corrosion resistance to
45 (T6) 12 (T6) 95 (T6) 43 rural atmosphere; good resistance
to industrial and marine atmo-
sphere. Good weldability. Struc-
tures, marine use, pipes.
7075 1.6 2.5 Zn 5.6 33 (0) 17 (0) 60(0) 57 Good corrosion resistance to rural
Cr 0.29 83 (T6) 11 (T6) 150 (T6) 33 atmosphere but poor for others. Fre.
quently clad. Good machinability.
Poor weldability. Aircraft structure.
43 5.25 19 as cast 8 40 Good corrosion resistance. Only fair
machinability. Sand and permanent
mold castings, marine fittings, thin
sections.
214 4.0 25 as cast 9 50 Good corrosion resistance. Excel.
lent machinability. Sand castings,
dairy and food-handling hardware.
355 1.25 5.0 0.5 42 Sol
Treat Age 4 90 Good corrosion resistance. Good
machinability. Sand and permanent
mold castings.

I:
I
I
GENERAL PROPERTIES
t" Copper is one of the heavier structural metals (30,000 to 125,000 psi), depending on alloy con-
r with a density about 10% greater than that of steel.
f Tensile strengths range from 210 to 880 MPa
tent, degree of work hardening, and heat treatment.
The ductility is excellent and most alloys are easy
t.
62 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

to work by deformation processes, either hot or aluminum. However, the high cost has confined
cold. The machinability ranges from only fair for their use to applications in which the combinations
some of the cast materials to excellent for some of of high strength with high corrosion resistance or t
the wrought materials. The most machinable are high strength with high conductivity are necessary.
those containing lead or tin additives for the pur- Most interesting of these alloys is one containing
pose of improving machinability. 98% copper and 2% beryllium. After proper heat
Copper Has Excellent Thermal and Electrical treatment, this alloy has a tensil strength of 1,280
Properties. If the preceding properties were the MPa (185,000 psi) and a Rockwell C hardness of
only properties of note that copper had, it would 40. It is useful not only for applications such as
probably be little used. However, copper has out- electrical relay springs in which high endurance limit
standing electrical and thermal conductivity and must be combined with high conductivity but also
excellent corrosion resistance, particularly when for chisels, hammers, and other tools for use in
compared to ferrous metals. As noted before, three- mines and other hazardous locations where sparks
fourths of the copper produced is used in pure form must be avoided.
because of its conductivity. While aluminum has Tin and Lead Improve Machinability and Casta-
higher conductivity than copper on a weight basis bility. Copper alloys intended for casting usually
and is displacing copper .for some electrical applica- contain some tin and lead to improve machinability
tions, copper continues to be the principal metal for and to reduce void formation in the castings. The
electrical use. This is particularly due to the higher properties that make the wrought alloys useful
strength-to-weight ratio of copper in pure-drawn apply also to the cast alloys so that a large number
form as is generally used for electrical conductors. of small castings are used in plumbing fixtures,
Corrosion Resistance to Some Environments marine hardware, pump impellers and bodies, elec-
Good. For other than electrical use, copper and its trical connectors, and statuary. Table 6-3 gives the
alloys compete with steel primarily because of bet- compositions and properties of some typical brasses
ter corrosion resistance. Copper alloys have excel- and bronzes.
lent resistance to atmospheric corrosion, particularly NICKEL ALLOYS
under marine conditions. The combination of cor- Considerable Nickel Used as an Alloy in Steel.
rosion resistance and high thermal conductivity Nickel and manganese are metals that have mechani-
makes them useful for radiators and other heat cal characteristics similar to those of iron. However,
exchangers. neither is subject to alloying with carbon and con-
trol of hardness by heat treatment as is steel. Also,
BRASSES AND BRONZES the ores of both metals are much less plentiful than
Definitions. For many years copper alloys were iron ore, and the price is therefore higher. While
rather simply divided into two groups. Those con- manganese is little used except as an alloying element,
taining zinc as the principal alloying element were nickel has sufficiently better corrosion and heat
known as brass and those containing tin as the resistance than iron or steel to justify its use when
principal alloying element were known as bronze. these qualities are of enough importance. Nearly
More recently the names have become confusing. three-quarters of all the nickel produced is used either
Brasses generally contain from 5% to 40% zinc, but as a plating material for corrosion resistance or as an
even one of these alloys is known as "commercial alloying element in steel. However, its use in steel has
bronze." Bronzes contain a principal alloying ele- decreased in recent years with the discovery that
ment other than zinc. Tin is still the most common. other elements in lower percentages may have the
Properties Inverse to Cost. While the conductivity same effects as nickel.
and ductility of any alloy is less than that of pure Most Important Property Is Corrosion Resis-
copper, strength, corrosion resistance to some media, tance. As a structural metal by itself, or as the
machinability, appearance or color, and casting prop- basis of alloys, the properties of nickel and its
erties may be improved by alloying. Pure zinc is alloys are indicated in Table 6-4. Nickel and copper
cheaper than pure copper, and the cost of their alloys are completely soluble in the solid state, and many
becomes lower as the amount of zinc is increased. different compositions are available. Those rich in
Bronzes generally have better properties than brasses, copper compete with brass but have higher cost,
but the high cost of tin has limited their use. The low corrosion resistance, and temperature resistance.
friction and excellent antiwear properties of bronze Those richer in nickel have superior heat and corro.
makes it preferred for many journal-bearing applica- sion resistance at even higher cost and are used in
tions. many applications in which stainless steel is used.
Some Alloys Heat-Treat Hardenable. A few of The 'composition of Monel metal is. determined
the copper alloys are hardenable by a solution- largely by the composition of the ores found in the
precipitation treatment similar to that used for Sudbury district of Canada.
Nonferrous Metals and Plastics 63

TABLE 6-3
Properties of some brasses and bronzes

Ten. St
Composition 1000 psi Percent
Name Zn Sn Other (6.9Xl06Pa) Elong Characterisitics and Uses
Electrolytic 99.9 pure 32-50 6-45 Excellent workability. Good electrical
copper properties and corrosion resistance.
Electrical conductors, contacts,
switches, automobile radiators,
chemical equipment.
Commercial 10.0 37 5-45 Good corrosion resistance. Excellent
bronze workability. Marine hardware,
costume jewelry.
Red brass 15.0 39-70 5-48 Good corrosion resistance to atmosphere.
Good workability. Fair machinability.
Weatherstrips, heat exchangers,
plumbing.
Yellow 35.0 46-74 8-65 Good corrosion resistance to atmosphere.
brass Poor hot workability. Fair machina-
bility- Grillwork, lamp fixtures, springs.
Naval brass 39.0 1.0 25.53 20-47 Corrosion resistance generally good. Seldom
used full hard. Aircraft and marine
hardware, valve stems, condenser plates.
Phosphor 10.0 66-128 3-68 Good atmospheric corrosion resistance.
bronze Poor machinability. Good wear qualities.
Bearing plates, springs.
Aluminum
bronze 7.0 AI 85-90 20.40 Excellent atmospheric corrosion resistance.
Excellent hot workability. Good machina-
bility. Gears, nuts, bolts.
Beryllium 0.3 Co 185 3.50 Good atmospheric corrosion resistance.
copper 2.0 Be
Poor machinability. Good workability.
Springs, valves, diaphragms, bellows-

TABLE 6-4
Properties of some nickel alloys
Ten. St
Composition Balance Nickel 1000 psi Percent
Name Mn Fe Cu Other (6.9 X 106 Pal Elong Characteristics and Uses
A Nickel 0.25 0.15 0.05 55-130 55-2 Corrosion.resistant at high temperature.
Vacuum tube parts, springs, chemical
. equipment.
Monel 0.90 1.35 31.5 70-140 50-2 Good corrosion resistance combined with
high strength at normal and medium
temperatures. Pump shafts, valves,
springs, food-handling equipment.
Inconel 0.20 7.20 0.10 Cr 15 80-170 55-2 Similar to Monel but better high temperature
strength.
Nickel 36 64.0 70-90 36-20 Corrosion-resistant to atmospheres and to
salt water. Low thermal expansion.
Length standards, thermostatic bimetals.
.. Cast 0.75 1.5 32.0 Si 1.6 65-90 50-20 Good corrosion resistance to salt water and
." Monel most acids. Valve seats, turbine blades,
,
exhaust manifolds.
'"
64 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology t
=
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS subject to ignition from sparks, flames, or high ~
temperatures. ~
Although beryllium is the lightest metal available, ;;:
its extremely high cost restricts its use to very ZINC ALLOYS ~t

special applications. Magnesium is therefore the Low Cost but also Low Strength. Zinc has the
lightest metal commercially available, with a density lowest cost per pound of any nonferrous metal.
two-thirds that of aluminum. Magnesium alloys have However, its use has been restricted by a combina-
good strength, ranging up to 350 MPa (50,000 psi) tion of factors. The best alloy has a tensile strength
for wrought alloys and up to 280 MPa (40,000 psi) of 325 MPa (47,000 psi) and an endurance limit of
for cast alloys. Corrosion resistance is good in ordi- 55 MPa (8,000 psi). When combined with the densi-
nary atmosphere but for more severe conditions, ty, which is about the same as that of iron, the
including marine atmospheres, some surface protec- result is a fairly low strength-to-weight ratio. The
tion is necessary. recrystallization temperature of about 200 C for
Wrought and cast alloys have similar composi- pure zinc simplifies tooling and drawing operations
tions. Aluminum, zinc, and manganese improve but results in a very low creep strength. Precipita-
strength and forming properties. With 8% or more tion reactions with even small amounts of iron,
aluminum, a solution-precipitation hardening treat- lead, cadmium, or tin present as impurities can
ment is possible. Thorium, zirconium, and certain result in gradual dimensional change and loss of
rare earth elements produce alloys useful at temper- shock resistance with time. With artificial aging, the
atures up to 4800 C (9000 F). precipitation reaction that takes place with copper
Magnesium Alloys Work Harden Easily. The can be used to improve the mechanical properties of
principal drawbacks of magnesium, other than the some alloys. Because of these limitations, zinc alloys
relatively high cost of recovery from sea water, are are seldom used in a critical application that would
related to its crystalline structure. Magnesium is one warrant NDT.
of the few important metals having a close-packed Preferential Corrosion Feature Valuable. In addi-
hexagonal structure. Characteristic of these metals is tion to the relatively low cost, zinc has a number of
a high rate of strain hardening. This property has two other properties that make it desirable. It has good
practical consequences. The amount of cold working corrosion resistance when used as a coating on
that can be done without recrystallization is quite ferrous materials. The zinc is attacked in preference
limited so that most forming operations must be to the base metal, even though there are interrup-
done hot. This causes no great difficulty in rolling, tions in the coating. Plating or coating with zinc is
forging, and extrusion operations that are normally called galvanizing and accounts for the use of more
performed hot with any metal, but secondary press than 50% of all the zinc produced.
operations on flat sheet may require heating of the Pure or slightly alloyed wrought zinc has high
dies and magnesium sheet. Most pressworking equip- formability. It is an excellent roofing material and is
ment is not designed for this type of operation. frequently used for flashing on roofs of other ma-
Stress Levels High at Notches and Imperfections. terials. Its chemical properties make it useful for
The high rate of strain hardening also results in the dry cell battery cases and for photoengraving plates.
fault called notch sensitivity. At a stress concentra- Low Melting Temperature of Benefit for Die
tion point, such as the base of the notch in an Casting. As a structural material, zinc is used
impact test specimen, the load-carrying ability of a almost exclusively because of its excellent casting
material depends on its ability to permit some plas- properties in metal molds. With pour:ng tempera-
tic flow to enlarge the radius and relieve the stress tures ranging from 7400 to 8000 C, zinc alloys used
concentration. The high rate of strain hardening in in die casting give much greater die life than mag-
magnesium lessens its ability to do this and thus nesium, aluminum, or copper alloys. The higher
lowers its impact test values, and makes it subject density of zinc than of aluminum or magnesium is
to failure at such imperfections as grinding marks, offset to some extent in die casting by the fact that
small shrinkage cracks from welding or casting, or zinc can be die cast in thinner sections than other
sharp internal comers permitted as part of a design. metals. Although zinc has good natural corrosion
For this reason, magnesium components used in air- resistance, this property can be improved along with
craft and similar applications are inspected nondes- appearance by appropriate platings, which are easy
tructively usually by radiography for internal defects to apply.
and by penetrant testing for surface defects.
Fine or Thin Magnesium Can Burn Readily in SPECIAL GROUPS OF NONFERROUS ALLOYS
Air. Some problems are introduced in the process- HEAT. AND CORROSION.RESISTANT ALLOYS
ing of magnesium because of its inflammability.
Reasonable care is necessary to prevent the accumu- Several different groups of materials, some in-
lation of dust or fine chips where they might be cluding certain ferrous alloys, have traditionally
Nonferrous Metals and Plastics 65

been grouped on the basis of property requirements chromium, tungsten, columbium, manganese, molyb-
rather than base metal or alloy content. Of special denum, and carbon. Alloys of this type are useful
importance and increasing interest recently have structurally at temperatures as high as 1,000° C, at
been alloys designed for use under high stress condi- which they have good corrosion resistance and ten-
tions at elevated temperatures in such applications sile strengths as great as 90 MPa (13,000 psi).
as jet turbine engines, high temperature steam
piping and boilers, and rocket combustion cham-
bers and nozzles. The efficiency of many such OTHER NONFERROUS METALS
devices depends on the maximum temperature at Of the many other potential base metals, most
which they can be operated, and they frequently are used under special conditions. Many of these
involve highly oxidizing, corrosive, or erosive metals have properties that are equal to or better
conditions. than those of iron and the more common non-
Manufacturing Cost High. Most special materials ferrous metals, but their use is restricted by econo-
that have been developed for these uses are difficult mic consideration. Gold, platinum, and other noble
to process into usable products by some or all of metals have high chemical inertness, but their rarity
the standard procedures. The high cost of such and high cost restrict their use. Beryllium has the
products is due both to the generally high cost of highest strength-to-weight ratio of any known metal,
the materials themselves (rarity and cost of refining) but the difficulty of obtaining the pure metal and
and the cost of special processing. Hot working the rarity of the ore make the cost almost as high
involves extra high temperatures with high forces, as that of gold. Titanium ores are abundant and
which results in short equipment life; casting fre- titanium has extremely useful properties, but the
quently must be done by investment or other high cost of reduction is approximately one hundred
cost techniques; cold working is difficult or impos- times that of iron. Titanium could easily be the
sible; welding involves elaborate procedures to avoid most important nonferrous metal if low cost pro-
contamination and nondestructive testing to insure duction methods could be developed. Table 6-5
reliability; and machining requires low cutting gives the principal characteristics and uses for most
speeds with short tool life even under the best nonferrous metals that are available commercially.
conditions.
Stainless Steels. These alloys may be divided
into three rather roughly defined groups. Stainless NON-METALS
steels, which were discussed earlier, have better
strength and corrosion resistance than plain carbon PLASTICS
or low alloy steels at temperatures higher than For some time, the fastest growing field of ma-
1,200° F. A number of alloys of the same general terials has been the group called plastics. Any
composition as standard stainless steels have been thorough treatment of plastics, especially concerning
developed with larger amounts of nickel and gener- the chemistry of the materials, would require a
ally larger amounts of the stabilizing elements such number of volumes. On the other hand, plastics
as titanium or molybdenum for better high tempera- cannot properly be ignored in any treatment of
ture properties. Aluminum or copper may be used materials and manufacturing processes because they
to provide a precipitation reaction that makes the are in direct competition with most metals. Since 1958,
1 alloys hardenable by heat treatment. Such heat a greater tonnage of plastics has been produced an-
treatment usually involves solution temperatures nually than of all nonferrous metals combined.
1,
higher than 1,000° C and artificial aging at tempera- Many Materials - Wide Range of Properties. A
f..
tures higher than 700° C. study of plastics is complicated by the tremendous
. Nickel Alloys. Nickel-based alloys form a second number of material variations possible. There are
group of high temperature materials. They normally roughly as many important families of plastics as
contain chromium or cobalt as the principal alloying there are commercially important metals. While it is
element and smaller amounts of aluminum, titan- true that many of the metals are alloyed to different
ium, molybdenum, and iron. These alloys have combinations, the number is relatively small when
better properties at high temperatures than the compared with the number of distinct plastics possi-
stainless steel types but cost more and are even ble in each family. Furthermore, while for metals the
more difficult to process. hardness and strength seldom exceeds a ratio of
Cobalt Alloys. Alloys having cobalt as the prin- perhaps 10:1 for any particular alloy group, many
cipal element form a third group. They are generally plastics that are under a single name are produced
_referred to as cobalt-based alloys, although they with properties ranging from liquids that are used as
may not contain as much as 50% of any single adhesives or finishes to rigid solids whose hardness
-element. Other elements are generally nickel, and strength compare favorably with metals.
f.
66 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

TABLE 6-5
Characteristics of most nonferrous metals

Applications I
Metal Principal Characteristics Pure or as Base Metal As Alloying Constituent

Antimony Hard, brittle None 1%-12% hardens lead fusible alloys,


Beryllium Lightest structural metal Aircraft and rocket 2% hardens copper
High strength/weight ratio, structure, X-ray
Brittle, transparent to tube windows
X-rays
Bismuth Soft, brittle, high negative Use restricted by cost Fusible alloys
coefficient of resistivity Special resistance elements
Cadmium Higher temperature strength Plating, especially on steel; Bearing alloys, solders
than tin- or lead-based bearing alloys; solders
alloy, corrosion-resistant
Cerium Soft, malleable, ductile Rare Lighter flints, nodular iron
Raises creep strength of AI
Mg, Ni, Cr
Cobalt Weak, brittle, high Rare High temperature alloys,
.corrosion-resistant permanent magnets, hard facing
tool steels
Columbium' High melting point, corrosion- Nuclear reactors, missiles, High temperature alloys, stainless
(Niobium) resistant rockets, electron tubes steels, nitriding steels
Germanium Brittle, corrosion.resistant, Diodes, transistors Rare
semiconductor
Gold Ductile, malleable, weak, Monetary standard, plating, Rare
corrosion-resistant jewelry, dental work, electrical
contacts
Indium Soft, low melting point None Hardener for silver and lead. Corrosion
resistance in bearings.
Iridium Most corrosion-resistant metal None Hardener for platinum
jewelry, contact alloys
Lead Weak, soft, malleable, corro- Chemical equipment, storage Improvesmachinabilityof
sion-resistant batteries, roof steel and most nonferrous alloys,
flashing, plumbing solders, bearing alloys
Manganese Moderate strength, ductile Rare To 2% low alloy steels,
12% abrasion-resistant steel,
stainless steels
Mercury Liquid at room temperature Thermometers, switches Low melting point alloys
Amalgam with silver for dental use
Molybdenum High melting point, high High temperature wire, structural Low alloy steels, high temperature
strength at elevated use with surface protection, alloys, stainless steel, tool steels
temperature, oxidizes rapidly mercury switch contacts
at high temperature
Palladium Ductile, corrosion-resistant Chemical catalyst, electrical contacts Jewelry, dental alloys
Rhodium High reflectivity, free from Mirrors, plating With platinum and palladium
oxidation films, chemical- ,
Iy inert
Selenium Special electrical and Rectifiers, photocells Machinability of stainless steel
optical properties
Silver Highest electrical conductivity, Coinage, jewelry, tableware, Brazing and soldering alloys, bearing alloys
corrosion resistance electrical contacts, plating,
to nonsulphur atmospheres catalyst, reflectors
Silicon Semiconductor, special Rectifiers, transistors, photocells Electrical steel, cast iron, cast
electrical and optical nonferrous
orooerties
Nonferrous Metals and Plastics 67

TABLE 6.5-Continued

Applications
Metal Principal Characteristics Pure or as Base Metal As Alloying Constituent

Tantalum High melting point, ductile, Surgical implants, capacitors, Tantalum carbide cutting
corrosion-resistant chemical hardware, electronic tools
tubes
Tin Soft, weak, malleable, Plating, collapsible Bronzes, solders, bearing alloys
corrosion resistant tubes
Titanium Density between steel and Marine, chemical, food-processing High temperature alloys, stainless
light alloys, high strength, equipment steel, aluminum alloys, titanium
corrosion-resistant Aircraft, rockets, orthopedic and carbide tools
orthodontic equipment
Tungsten Highest melting point of Lamp filaments, contacts, X-ray Alloy steels, tool steels, high temperature
metals; strong, high targets, nuclear reactors alloys, tungsten carbide tools
modulus of elasticity;
corrosion-resistant
Vanadium Moderate strength, ductile Rare Alloy steel, tool steel, nonferrous
deoxidizer
Zirconium Moderate strength, ductile, Structural parts in nuclear Stainless steels
corrosion-resista nt reactors

Definition Difficult. The word plastic is derived and grow into much larger molecules by the process
from the Greek word plastikos, which meant "fit for of polymerization. In general, the first polymeri-
molding." Many of the materials called plastics today, zation involves the connecting of the monomers into
such as finishes and adhesives, are not molded at all; long cnains, usually with a progressive degree of
moreover, many materials are molded that are not solidification or an increase in viscosity as the poly-
called plastics. Many metals and most ceramics are merization proceeds. For most plastics, the properties
molded at times. Plastics might best be defined as a depend on the degree of polymerization, which ex-
group of large-molecule organic compounds, pri- plains to a large degree the wide range of properties
marily produced as a chemical product and suscepti- available. For the group of plastics known as thermo-
ble to shaping under combinations of pressure and setting, a second type of polymerization takes place
heat. To include all the plastics, the term organic in which cross-linking occurs between adjacent
must be expanded to include silicone-based as well as chains. This thermosetting reaction frequently results
carbon-based, materials. in greatly increased rigidity.
Major Development Recent. Historically, the
development of plastics has occurred in two general TYPES OF PLASTICS
periods. Chemists in France, Germany, and England,
Long Chain Polymers. There are two broad
- during the period from 1830 to 1900, isolated and
named many materials that are called plastics today. groups of plastics, based originally on their reaction
to heat but more properly on the type of polymeriza-
The actual commercial production of most of these
tion involved. Plastics that are called thermoplastic
materials was delayed until production methods and
have the degree of polymerization controlled in the
facilities became available that permitted them to
initial manufacture of the plastic raw material, or
- compete with the more traditional materials. The
resin. These materials soften with increasing tempera-
second period of even more rapid developments has
ture and regain rigidity as the temperature is de-
been in the United States, particularly since 1940.
creased. The process is essentially reversible, but in
Many new methods of manufacture and treatment as
some cases, chemical changes that may cause some
well as new plastic materials have been developed.
deterioration of properties are produced by heating.
I Thermosetting Plastics - Cross-Linked Poly-
PLASTIC MATERIALS mers. As noted before, the thermosetting plastics
Plastic Structure. Chemically, plastics are all undergo a further cross-linking type of polymeriza-
I polymers. The smallest unit structure, or molecule, tion, which for the early plastics was initiated by the
m.that identifies the chemical involved is called a mono- application of heat, but which for many modem
~ mer. By various means, including heat, light, pressure, thermosetting plastics may be initiated by other

l and agitation, these monomers may be made to join


means. In the fabrication by molding of thermoset-
68 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

ting plastics, an initial thermoplastic stage is followed thermoplastics. The terms high and low, when used
by the thermosetting reaction at higher temperatures for strengths, service temperatures, and other charac-
or with prolonged heating. Thermoplastics may be teristics, are only relative and apply to plastics as a
resoftened by reheating, but the thermosetting reac- total group.
tion is chemical in nature and irreversible so that once None of the plastics have useful service tempera-
it has taken place, further heating results only in tures that are as high as those of most metals, and the
gradual charring and deterioration. modulus of elasticity of all plastics is low compared
The origin of the resin distinguishes a number of to most metals. While the ultimate strengths of many
different types of plastics. Some true plastics are metals are greater than that available with plastics,
found in nature and used essentially as found. These some specific plastics offer favorable comparisons.
include shellac, used most frequently as a finish for Nylon, for example, is one of a few plastics that,
wood and as an adhesive constituent, and asphalt, being truly crystalline, may be hardened by working.
used as a binder in road materials, as a constituent in Drawn nylon filaments may have ~ tensile strength of
some finishes, and, with fibrous filling materials, as a 50,000 psi, which is actually greater than some low
molding compound. strength steels. Plastics excel in some applications as
Some Plastics - Natural Materials. A number of insulators or where chemical resistance is important.
plastics are natural materials that have undergone The greatest tonnage, however, is used in direct
some chemical modification but retain the general competition with other materials where plastics may
chemical characteristics of the natural material. be favored because of their low fabrication costs in
Cellulose may be produced as paper with slight large quantities, light weight, and easy colorability.
modification, as vulcanized fiber with a slightly great-
er modification, and as cellulose acetate with even
more modification. Wood in its natural state has
thermoplastic properties that are used in some manu-
facturing processes. Rubber latex, as found in nature,
is a thermoplastic material but is generally modified
by chemical additions to act as a thermosetting
material.
Most Plastics - Synthetic. The greatest number
of plastics presently used are most properly called
synthetic plastics. While many of them make use of
some particular natural material, such as petroleum,
as the principal constituent, the chemistry of the raw
material and the chemistry of the finished plastic
have no direct connection. The raw material may be
thought of simply as the source of elements and
compounds for the manufacture of the plastic.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTICS
Tables 6-6 and 6-7 give the principal character-
istics and typical uses for most of the plastics in
common use. No such list can be complete because
new plastics are constantly being introduced, and the
time span from discovery of a useful plastic to
commercial use is decreasing. The cellulose plastics
among the thermoplastics and phenol formaldehyde
(a phenolic) among thermosetting plastics were the
first plastics to be developed and are still in wide use
today.

General Property Comparisons. Some comments


may be made about the chart, keeping in mind that
most general rules have exceptions. As a group,
thermoplastics are somewhat lower in strength and
hardness but higher in toughness than thermosetting
materials. The thermosetting plastics generally have
better moisture and chemical resistance than the
It.. "" ---'"

TABLE 6-6
A summary of principal characteristics and
uses of thermoplastic plastics
Resin Type Principal Characteristics Forms Produced Typical Uses Relative Cost
ABS High strength, toughness, Injection moldings, Pipe, appliance 50-60
colorability extrusions, formable cabinets, football
sheet helmets, handles
Acetal High strength, colorability, Injection moldings, Gears, impellers, 80
high fatigue life, low extrusions plumbing hardware
friction, solvent resistance
Acrylic High strength, colorability, Injection moldings, Transparent canopies, 45-55
optical clarity, extrusions, castings, windows, lenses,
low service temperature formable sheet, fiber edge-lighted signs,
mirrors, high quality
molded parts
Cellulose Moderate strength, toughness Injection moldings, Toys, shoe heels 36-58
acetate colorability, optical clarity, extrusions, formable buttons, packaging,
wide hardness range, low sheet, film, fiber tape
service temperature
Cellulose Moderate strength, high Injection moldings, Telephone handsets, 40-62
acetate toughness, good extrusions, formable steering wheels,
butyrate weatherability, color- sheet, film appliance housings,
ability, optical clarity, outdoor signs, pipe
low service temperature
Cellulose Moderate strength, high Injection moldings, Radio cabinets, pen 40-62
propionate toughness, good extrusions, formable and pencil barrels,
weatherability, color- sheet, film automobile parts
abi lity, optical clarity,
low service temperature
Ethyl Moderate strength, high Injection moldings, Refrigerator parts, 65-75
cellulose toughness, flexibility, extrusions, film aircraft parts, flash-
colorability, moisture light housings, door
resistance, better electric rollers
properties than other
cellulostics, low service
temperature
Cellulose Toughest of all Extrusions, formable Ping-Pong balls, 70-200
nitrate thermoplastics, good sheet hollow articles
formability, poor aging, high
flammabi lity, low service
temperature
TABLE 6-6-Continued

Chlorinated High chemcial resistance, Injection moldings, Valves, pump parts in 250
polyether moderate strength extrusions, sheet corrosive environments
TFE Chemical inertness, high Sintered shapes, extrusions, Pipe, pump parts, 350-550
(te~rafluoro- service temperature, low formable sheet, film: fiber electronic parts,
ethylene) friction, low creep strength, non lubricated bearings,
high weatherability gaskets, antiadhesive
coatings
CFE Higher strength than 'TFE, Injection moldings, Coil forms, pipe, tank 700-800
(chlorotri- lower chemical resistance extrusions, lining, valve diaphragms
fluoroethylene) than TFE, high service formable sheet, film
temperature, high
weatherabi Iity
Nylon High strength, toughness, Injection moldings, Gears, cams, bearings, 100-200
(polyamide) work hardenability, low extrusions, formable pump parts, coil
friction, good dielectric sheet, film, fiber forms, slide fasteners,
properties gaskets, high pressure
tubing
High strength, toughness, Injection moldings, Gears, hydraulic fittings, 150
Polycarbonate
chemical resistance, extrusions coil forms, appliance
weatherability, high service parts, electronic
temperature components
Moderate strength, high Injection moldings, Housewares, pipe, pipe 32-38
Polyethylene
toughness, good dielectric extrusions, formable fittings, squeeze bottles,
properties, low friction, sheet, film, fiber, sports goods, electrical
chemical resistance, rigid foam insulation
flexibility
Polystyrene High strength, low impact Injection moldings, Toys, electrical parts, 22-43
resistance, high dielectric extrusions, formable battery cases, light
strength, colorability, sheet, film, foam fixtures, rigid condu its
optical clarity, low service
temperature
Vinyl Wide range of properties, Compression moldings, Electrical insulation, 24.43
strength, toughness, extrusions, casti ngs, floor tile, water
abrasion resistance, formable sheet, film, hose, raincoats
colorability, low service fiber, foam
temperature
TABLE 6-7
A summary of principal characteristics and
uses of thermosetting plastics
Resin Type Principal Characteristics Forms Produced Typical Uses Relative Cost
Epoxy Moderate strength, high Casting, reinforced Chemical tanks, pipe, 45-80
dielectric strength, moldings, laminates, printed circuit bases
chemical resistance, rigid foam, filament bases, short-run dies,
weatherability, colorability, wound structures randomes, pressure vessels
high service temperature,
strong adhesive qualities
Melamine Hardest plastic, high Compression and transfer Dinnerware, electrical 42-45
dielectric strength, moldings, reinforced components, table and
moderate service moldings, laminates counter tops
temperature, colorability,
dimensional stability
Phenolics Moderately high strength, Compression and transfer Electricalhardware, 20-45
high service temperature, moldings, castings, poker chips, toys,
dimensional stability, color reinforced moldings, buttons, appliance
restrictions laminates,cold moldings cabinets, thermal
rigid foam insulation, table and
counter tops, ablative
structural shapes
Polyester Moderately high strength, Castings, reinforced Electrical parts, automobile 31-60
(including dimensional stability, moldings, laminates, ignition parts, heater
alkyds) fast cure, easy handling, film, fiber, compression ducts, trays, tote boxes,
good electrical properties, and transfer moldings laundry tubs, boats,automobile
high service temperatures, bodies, buttons
chemical resistance
Silicon Highest service temperatures, Compression and transfer High temperature electrical 275-540
low friction, high moldings, reinforced insulation, high temperature
dielectric strength, moldings, li3minates, laminates, gaskets, bushings,
flexible, moderate strength, rigid foam seals, spacers
high moisture resistance
Urea Moderately high strength, Compression and Colored electrical parts, 19-34
colorability, high transfer moldings buttons, dinnerware
dielectric strength, water
resistance, low service
temperature
Urethane Moderate strength, high Injection moldings Gears, bearings, a-rings, 50-100
toughness, very flexible, extrusions, blow footwear, upholstery
colorable, good weatherability moldings, foam foam
excellent wear resistance, low
service temperatures
The Nature of 7
Manufacturing

The height reached and the progress made by


any past civilization is judged by many factors. In
some cases a civilization is most remembered for cul-
tural advances in the areas of art and literature. More
commonly, however, the degree of advancement is
measured by the quality and quantity of durable
goods produced. The use of the terms Stone Age,
Bronze Age, and Iron Age is based on the extent of
man's knowledge and ability in the areas of materials
and processing during these periods of history. A
similar situation continues today. The United States
is envied throughout the world for its ability to pro-
duce and distribute durable goods in large quantities.
Regardless of whether or not it is justified,
present-day evaluations of individuals, organizations,
and countries are most frequently based on the goods
used by them. Even the production of food is de-
pendent on the manufacture of modem farm ma-
chinery and chemicals.
Specialization - a Basis for Progress. Early man
must have been faced with many problems. Even as in
some areas of the world today, he must have spent
the major portion of his time in satisfying basic needs
for food and shelter. All he had for tools and raw
materials were those that were immediately at hand.
It is reasonable to assume, however, that even at a
bare subsistence level, some men were better food
gatherers than others, some were better weapon
makers, and some were better cave diggers. While the
transition from an individual existence to one of
specialization undoubtedly occurred only after long
periods of time, it is the idea of specialization that
has been basic to man's progress throughout history.
System Control Essential. Obviously, if each
worker performs where he is best qualified, the over-
all work efficiency will be high and the product out-
put maximum for any given technology. Such spec-
ialization, however, can be accomplished only under
some organizational control. For individuals to be
willing to become specialists, it is essential that a
system of exchange and distribution be established. A
control system of some type is necessary to balance
the various specialty outputs and to set the values of
service and product output.
74 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

The control organization may be based on to a large extent on the better communications that ..
undelegated authority (master and slave), on dele- exist today.
gated authority (elected officials), or on natural con- The greatest increase in markets, particularly in
trols as the result of supply and demand in a free the last 50 years, is due to new inventions and to new
enterprise system. Our system today is based on the applications of older products and materials. In many
latter two in which elected officials and supply and cases the new products have been made economically
demand are the principal controls. possible primarily by improved processing machinery
and techniques. Many of the currently used plastics
MODERN MANUFACTURING have been known to chemists for over a hundred
MARKETS "years, but the development of the plastics industry to
its current state depended on the development of
Manufacturing in any period of history has been economical methods of raw material production and
characterized by certain essential features. One fabrication as well as on the development of a pro-
requirement is that a market exist for any goods duct demand.
produced. A natural market exists for those things Market Forecasting Difficult but Essential.
that are deemed essential to life, such as food, but for Other new products are based on basic concepts or
most manufactured goods, a market must be created discoveries that did not exist 50 years ago. The whole
by a requirement that is sometimes based on an electronics industry, especially that depending on the
expected standard of living rather than on any basic transistor and solid-state physics, falls in this cate-
biological need of man. gory. The increased complexity, cost, and specializa-
Product Life Usually Limited. Few durable tion of modem industry have led to an increased need
goods have truly unlimited life. Because of the econo- for knowledge of expected demand prior to the time
mics of manufacturing or the requirements of a sales are actually made. In the production of goods
design, the life of most products is limited. For all sold seasonally, it is necessary that the proper inven.
practical purposes, an automobile body made of t0ries be built up with a relatively constant level of
titanium would have unlimited life so far as corrosion production or that the work be balanced with other
is concerned, but the cost would be prohibitive for a products in order that plant investment may be kept
reasonable. Accurate forecasts of future demand are
mass market, and the life of the body would be
limited by design changes and wearout of other parts essential when increases in plant capacity or new
of the automobile. The blades in a jet turbine have plants for the production of new goods are anti-
limited life, not because it is desirable, but because of cipated, for the investment in a single new plant may
be over $100 million.
design considerations of weight and the limited prop-
erties of the available materials.
In addition to wearout, a market for replace- DESIGN
ment exists because of obsolescence. New designs,
new materials, or new features may make replace- Appearance in Addition to Function Usually
ment desirable either for convenience, as with many Important. In the case of every product, the manu-
new automobiles, or for economic reasons. Machine facturing process must be preceded by the design.
tools are generally replaced while they are still in The relationships that exist between design and
working condition, but their replacement is justified processing are of extreme importance. The designer
on the basis of lower maintenance, higher pro- normally starts with some definite functional require-
ment that must be satisfied. The environmental con-
ductivity, and higher accuracies of newer designs.
ditions of use, expected life, and loading conditions
Product Markets Grow for Several Reasons. will dictate certain minimum shapes and sizes and
For nearly all durable goods, growth has created an limit the possible choice of materials. The designer's
expanding market in the world and especially in the problems arise mainly from the fact that a single
United States. This growth has occurred in two solution is seldom indicated. Of the many possible
forms. Not only has the population been continually materials and shapes that may satisfy the functional
increasing but also the rising standard of living has requirements, some may have better appearance than
made a greater percentage of the population able to others. For many consumer goods, the appearance
9uy most durable consumer goods. More leisure time may actually govern the final choice. Even in the de-
and increased purchasing power have caused large signing of parts that may be completely hidden in a
increases in the sale of many products. This has been final assembly, the designer seldom disregards appear-
particularly noticeable in automobiles, housing, ance completely.
household appliances, and recreational equipment. A Quality and Costs Must Balance. Even the origi-
part of the increase in per capita consumption must nal desig'n will be influenced by the method of
be attributed to the improved sales and advertising processing that is anticipated and, to give proper con-
techniques that have developed in this country based sideration to all the alternatives, it is essential that the
The Nature of Manufacturing 75

designer have knowledge about the costs and capabili- PROCESSING


ties of various production methods. It is generally Manufacturing Usually a Complex System. While
true that costs will be different for different material the problems of design and processing are interre-
and processing choices, and considerable screening of lated, once the design decisions have been made, the
the alternatives can be done purely on a cost basis. problems of processing are more clearly defined. A
However, the quality obtained with more expensive design may indicate certain processing steps, but
materials or methods may be superior to that of the basically the problem in processing is to make a
cheaper choices, and decisions must often be made product whose material, properties, shapes, tol-
regarding some combination of quality and cost. A erances; size, and finish meet specifications laid down
rational decision as to the quality to be produced can by the designer. Manufacturing is a term usually used
only be made with adequate information as to how to describe that section of processing starting with
the market will be affected by the quality. the raw material in a refined bulk form, and is con-
Availability of Facilities Affects Choices. cerned mainly with shape changing. While the single
Obviously, the decisions made by the designer are far operation of sawmg to length might produce a
reaching and of extreme importance. The materials product useful as fireplace wood, for most manu-
and shapes that he specifies usually determine the factured products of metals, plastics, and other
basic processes that must be used. Tolerances that he materials, a complex series of shape- or property-
specifies may even dictate specific types of machines changing steps is required.
and will have a large influence on costs. In many cases The Usual Processing Steps for Metals. Figure 7-1
his choices are limited by the equipment and the shows the basic processes that are used in shaping
trained personnel that are available. Economical metals. The reduction of ores is essential to any fur-
manufacture of small quantities can frequently be ther processing, and the choices in processing come
best accomplished by use of equipment and processes later. All but a very small percentage of the metal
that under other circumstances would be inefficient. that is refined is first cast as a pig or ingot, which is
Certainly a designer for a plant producing castings itself always the raw material for further processing.
would not design a part as a weldment if the con-
tinued operation of the plant depends on the pro-
duction of castings.
In many cases, the decisions that govern the choice l;ne w;dth, ;nd;cate
of materials and processes must be made in an arbi- approx;mate ,elaHve
dolla, value of nn-
trary manner. The gathering of enough information ;,hed pmduct

may not be economically feasible, or time may not be


available. Particularly when only small quantities are
being produced, the cost of finding the most eco-
nomical method of production may be more than any
possible gain over some arbitrary method that is
reasonably certain of producing an acceptable
. product. In some cases, custom governs the choice
I simply because some set of choices was known to give
! acceptable results for similar production in the
~ past.
Designers cannot be expected to be experts in all Blank - In P",ce"
the phases of production that influence the final Shaded - Reve"e Flow
Black - F;n;,hed Pwduct
quality and cost of a product. Production personnel
= must be relied on to furnish details of process capa-
bilities and requirements.
~~ NDT in Design. Similarly. the design engineering
function must receive technical guidance from key
NDT personnel in order to assure that the design re-
quirements can be met. It is essential that the design
f*- requirements contain the proper balance between the
I contribution from NDT to safety and reliability of the
product and the economic realities. Both the capabili-
Ir ties and limitations of the various methods of NDT
1.1!"Inust be considered in the design phases of the product
Figure 7-1
Flife cycle in order to achieve optimum product effec-
Metals process flow
I:iveness.
76 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology ~

It can be noted, however, that from this point on, material loss and those in which material is added or "
any process may either produce a finished product or taken away.
furnish the raw material for some further processing. No Volume Change. In those processes in which
2
The reverse flow shown in the lower part of the dia- no volume change occurs, property changes are usual-
gram refers particularly to parts that have been heat ly large and distributed throughout the material. In
treated or welded and must then be machined. This casting, the shape change occurs by melting and
step generally would occur only once for any pro- subsequent solidification to a prescribed shape. This
duct. process can be used with practically all metals and
It is the rule rather than the exception, however, most plastics. The material properties depend on
that many reversals may occur within some of the composition and the conditions of the particular
blocks on the diagram. Steel is commonly subjected casting process, but not on the condition of the
to several different rolling operations in a steel mill. material prior to melting. Casting is often the most
Pressworking operations most often involve several economical method for producing complex shapes,
separate steps to produce a product. The greatest particularly where reentrant angles exist.
amount of repetition occurs in machining. It is not Wrought materials are produced by plastic
unusual for a complex part, such as an automobile deformation that can be accomplished by hot work-
engine block, to be subjected to as many as eighty ing (above the recrystalization temperature) or cold
separate machining operations. working. Property changes also occur throughout the
The majority of manufacturing organizations material with these processes; the greatest changes are
specialize in one type of manufacturing operation, usually caused by cold work.
and even the extremely large companies that may Additions or Combinations. New shapes can be
operate in several fields of manufacturing generally prod uced either by joining preformed shapes
have specialized plants for the separate manufacturing mechanically or by any of various bonding means. In
areas. welding, soldering, and brazing, metallurgical bonds
are established by heat, pressure, or sometimes by
chemical action with plastics. Mechanical fastening by
STATES OF MATTER use of bolts, rivets, or pins is primarily an assembly
Material may exist in one of three states of matter, procedure and is often an alternative and competitive
gas, liquid, or solid, but except for some special proc- joining procedure to welding or adhesive fastening.
esses with relatively small use, such as vapor deposi- Shaping from powders by pressing and heating
tion, or for zinc refining, the gaseous state is of small involves the flow of granular materials, which differs
importance in manufacturing. considerably from deformation processing, although
Most Manufacturing Processes Are to Change Ma- some plastic flow undoubtedly occurs in individual
terial Shapes. For manufacturing purposes in which particles. Powder processing is a somewhat specialized
shape changing is the objective, the solid state may be process, but, as in casting or the deformation proc-
thought of as existing in two forms. Below the elastic esses, the material is shaped by confinement to some
limit, materials are dealt with as rigid materials. geometric pattern in two or three dimensions. Be-
Processing involving this form causes no significant cause the total volume of work material is affected by
relative movemel)t of atoms or molecules of the these processes, large sources of energy, pressure, or
material with respect to each other. Above the elastic heat are required.
limit, solid materials may flow plastically, and shape Subtraction or Removal. Shape changing may.also
changing may be accomplished by application of be accomplished by taking material away in chip or
external loads to cause permanent relocations within bulk form or by material destruction. The property
the structure of the material. The end results of deal- changes in these processes are more localized, and
ing with materials in the liquid form are similar to energy requirements are generally smaller.
those with materials above the elastic limit. No appre- Mechanical separation can be performed by re-
ciable density or volume change occurs, and the shape moval of chips or by controlled separation along
may be changed without loss of material. predetermined surfaces. Chip removal by machining
can be used with some success for all materials,
shapes, and accuracies and is probably the most ver-
satile of all manufacturing processes. Separation by
SHAPE-CHANGING PROCESSES
shearing, with localized failure caused by externally
Shapes Changed by No Volume Change, by Addi- applied loads, is limited primarily to sheet materials
tions, and by Subtractions. Shape changing is but frequently turns out to be the cheapest method
possible in any of these states, but most manu- for producing many shapes in large quantities.
facturing processes by definition or nature deal with Special Shape-Changing Methods. Particularly in
materials in only one of these possible forms. Figure recent years, with the advent of new materials diffi-
7-2 shows the processes for shape changing without cult to fabricate by conventional means and of many
MATERIAL VOLUME CHANGE
Solid Stote Only

SAND
PERMANENT
DIE OXYACETYLENE
PLASTER ELECTRICAL
ARC RESISTANCE
INDUCTION ETC.

Figure 7-2
Shape-changing processes
78 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

designs requiring shapes and tolerances and material frequently arbitrarily makes decisions that usually, at
combinations difficult to achieve with conventional least broadly, determine the processes which must be
processes, a number of electrical and chemical used to produce the product. Within this broad
processes have been developed for removing or adding framework, however, exist many other choices of
material. Many of these are restricted in use to a few specific materials, processes, and machines. Materials,
materials, and most are specialized to the point that properties, qualities, quantities, and processes are
they have only a few applications. Included is metal strongly interrelated. The prime effort, from original
plating by electrical or chemical means, used pri- concept to the completion of manufacture, is aimed
marily as a finishing process. Other developments are at finding the optimum combination of these vari-
electrical discharge "machining," chemical milling, ables to provide the best economic situation.
ultrasonic grinding, and electron beam machining, Since NDT is an inseparable part of the manufactur-
which are specialized metal removal processes thai ing system, it is imperative that NDT personnel in re-
compete with conventional machining or press- sponsible positions must have general knowledge of
working operations and involve hard materials, special the elements of manufacturing technology. The NDT
shapes, or low quantities. specialist will devote many hours in analysis and inter-
pretation of the flaws and faults resulting from manu-
SUMMARY facturing operations. In order to provide input to cor-
rective action, he will be called upon many times to fur-
Manufacturing is a complex system. A product
nish technical guidance to the design, materials, manu-
always originates as a design concept required to serve
facturing and quality assurance functions. Without
some purpose. A multiplicity of choices and decisions
some knowledge of the total manufacturing process,
nearly always comes between the establishment of
the NDT specialist cannot adequately fulfill these re-
the need and the manufacturing of the product. The
sponsibilities.
designer, because no logical means are available,
The Casting 8
Process

Casting is the process of causing liquid metal to fill


a cavity and solidify into a useful shape. It is' a basic
method of producing shapes. With the exception of a
very small volume of a few metals produced by elec-
trolytic or pure chemical methods, all material used
in metal manufacturing is cast at some stage in its
processing. Castings of all kinds of metals, in sizes
from a fraction of an ounce up to many tons, are
used directly with or without further shape process-
ing for many items of manufacture. Even those ma-
terials considered to be wrought start out as cast
ingots before deformation work in the solid state puts
them in their final condition.
A vast majority of castings, from a tonnage stand-
point, are made from cast iron. A relatively small num-
ber of these are subjected to NDT. In most cases they
are designed for non-critical applications with princi-
pally compressive loading and oversize dimensions to
eliminate the problem effect of the innumerable discon-
tinuities inherent in the material. However, some of
these castings and many others made of different ma-
terial may be used in such a way that careful inspec-
tion is essential for satisfactory service. Penetrant
testing may be in order for surface examination. Radio-
graphy or ultrasonic testing may be needed to detect
internal defects regardless of the material or type of
casting. Ultrasonic methods are difficult to use with
some castings because of noise created by grain struc-
ture. The rough surfaces of many castings also can pro-
duce problems in transducer coupling, but ultrasonic
testing is used extensively in the examination of criti-
cal coolant passages in turbine engine blades to meas-
ure thickness. Eddy current and penetrant methods
are also used to detect leading and trailing edge cracks
before and during service of turbine blades.
80 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

THE PROCESS Mold Cavity Filled with Molten Material. Liquid


The Process Starts with a Pattern. The casting, or metal is poured through the channels to fill the cavity
founding, process consists of a series of sequential completely. After time has been allowed for solidifi.
steps performed in a definite order, as shown in cation to occur, the mold is opened. The product is
Figure 8-1. First, a pattern to represent the finished then ready for removing the excess metal that has
product must be chosen or constructed. Patterns can solidified in the runners, cleaning for removal of any
be of a number of different sytles, but are always the remaining mold material, and inspecting to determine
shape of the finished part and roughly the same size if defects have been permitted by the process. The
as the finished part with slightly oversized dimensions casting thus produced is a finished product of the
to allow for shrinkage and additional allowances on foundry. This product occasionally may be used in
surfaces that are to be machined. In some casting this form, but more often than not needs further
processes, mainly those performed with metal molds, processing, such as machining, to improve surface
the actual pattern may be only a design consiperation qualities and dimensions and, therefore, becomes raw
with the mold fulfilling the function of a negative of material for another processing area.
the pattern as all molds do. Examples would be molds Casting Is a Large Industry. The tonnage output
for ingots, die casting, and permanent mold castings. of foundries throughout the United States is very
Most plastic parts are made in molds of this type, but large, consisting of close to 20 million tons (18 mil-
lion tonnes) per year. Foundries are scattered allover
with plastics, the process is often called molding
the United States but are concentrated primarily in
rather than casting.
A Mold Is Constructed from the Pattern. In some the eastern part of the nation with a secondary con-
centration on the west coast in the two areas where
casting processes, the second step is to build a mold
of material that can be made to flow into close con- the main manufacturing work is carried on.
Foundries Tend to Specialize. Because of differ-
tact with the pattern and that has sufficient strength
ences in the problems and equipment connected with
to maintain that position. The mold is designed in
casting different materials, most foundries specialize
such a way that it can be opened for removal of the
in producing either ferrous or nonferrous castings.
pattern. The pattern may have attachments that make
Relatively few cast both kinds of materials in appre-
grooves in the mold to serve as channels for flow of
ciable quantities in the same foundry.
material into the cavity. If not, these channels, or
A few foundries are large in size, employing several
runners, must be cut in the mold material. In either
thousand men, but the majority are small with from
case, an opening to the outside of the mold, called a
one to one hundred employees. Most large foundaries
sprue, must be cut or formed.
are captive foundries, owned by parent manufactur-
ing companies that use all, or nearly all, of the
foundry's output. More of the small foundaries are
independently owned and contract with a number of
different manufacturers for the sale of their castings.
Some foundries, more often the larger ones, may
produce a product in sufficient demand that their
entire facility will be devoted to the making of that
product with a continuous production-type opera-
tion. Most, however, operate as job shops that

~~
., '. ",:-:>\'::",::" > produce a number of different things at one time and
:' :',':' """,:',':-:>: :",', are continually changing from one product to
another, although the duplication for some parts may
PATTERN PATTERN IN SAND MOLD
run into the thousands.

SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
The casting process involves a change of state of
..
l,~,: -- \
COMPLETE CASTING WITH
I
material from liquid to solid with control of shape
being established during the change of state. The
problems associated with the process, then, are
-
ATTACHED GATING SYSTEM primarily those connected with changes of physical
state and changes of properties as they may be influ-
MOLD CAVITY WITH GATING SYSTEM
enced by temperature variation. The solution to
many casting problems can only be attained with an
Figure 8-1 understanding of the solidification process and the
Casting steps for a pulley blank effects of temperature on materials.
The Casting Process 81

SOLIDIFICATION Second Phase Slower. After formation of the


Energy in the form of heat added to a metal changes solid skin, grain growth is likely to be more orderly,
the force system that ties the atoms together. Eventu- providing the section thickness and mass are large
ally, as heat is added, the ties that bind the atoms are enough to cause a significant difference in freezing
time between the outside shell and the interior metal.
broken, and the atoms are free to move about as a li-
Points of nucleation will continue to form around the
quid. Solidification is a reverse procedure, as shown in
Figure 8-2, and heat given up by the molten material outside of the liquid as the temperature is decreased.
must be dissipated. If consideration is being given The rate of decrease, however, continues to get lower
for a number of reasons. The heat of fusion is added.
only to a pure metal, the freezing point occurs at a
single temperature for the entire liquid. As the temper- The heat must flow through the already formed solid
ature goes down, the atoms become less and less metal. The mold mass has been heated and has less
mobile and finally assume their position with other temperature differential with the metal. The mold
atoms in the space lattice of the unit cell, which grows may have become dried out to the point that it acts
into a crystal. as an insulating blanket around the casting.
Crystal Growth Starts at the Surface. In the case Second Phase Also Directional. Crystal growth
of a casting, the heat is being given up to the mold will have the least interference from other growing
material in contact with the outside of the molten crystals in a direction toward the hot zone. The
mass. The first portion of the material to cool to the crystals, therefore, grow in a columnar shape toward
freezing temperature will be the outside of the liquid, the center of the heavy sections of the casting. With
and a large number of these unit cells may form the temperature gradient being small, growth may
simultaneously around the interface surface. Each occur on the sides of these columns, producing struc-
unit cell becomes a point of nucleation for the tures known as dendrites (Figure 8-3). This pine-tree-
growth of a metal crystal, and, as the other atoms shaped first solidification seals off small pockets of
cool, they will assume their proper position in the liquid to freeze later. Evidence of this kind of crystal
space lattice and add to the unit cell. As the crystals growth is often difficult to find when dealing with
form, the heat of fusion is released and thereby in- pure metals but, as will be discussed later, can readily
creases the amount of heat that must be dissipated be detected with most alloy metals.
Third Phase. As the wall thickness of frozen metal
before further freezing can occur. Temperature
gradients are reduced and the freezing process re- increases, the cooling rate of the remaining liquid
tarded. The size of crystal growth will be limited by decreases even further, and the temperature of the
interference with other crystals because of the large remaining material tends to equalize. Relatively
number of unit cell nuclei produced at one time with uniform temperature distribution and slow cooling
random orientation. The first grains to form in the will permit random nucleation at fewer points than
skin of a solidifying casting are likely to be of a fine occurs with rapid cooling, and the grains grow to
equiaxed type with random orientation and shapes. large sizes.

HEAT ADDED HEA T REMOVED


I
AT CONSTANT RATE
:
I
AT CONSTANT RATE

I
I
""

- U - n -r ~U~:HEA T
~

::: 1- ~E .:.TI.:-'-,?!.E~~~A!..URE - -[ S.5'~'~FICATION TEMPERATURE


::J

i~
¥~
"" ~ ~

;/
~

If
,
ft,
J
TIME

". Figure 8-2


Heating and cooling curves for temperature increase Figure 8.3
" above the melting point for a metal Schematic sketch of dendritic growth
82 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology ",
t
f
Grain Characteristics Influenced by Cooling alloys, the noneutectic alloys freeze over a tempera-
Rates. As shown in Figures 8-4 and 8-5, it would be ture range. As the temperature of the molten material
expected in castings of heavy sections that the first is decreased, solidification starts at the surface and
grains to form around the outside would be fine progresses toward the interior where the metal is
equiaxed. Columnar and dendritic structure would be cooling more slowly. Partial solidification may pro-
present in directions toward the last portions to cool gress for some distance before the temperature at the
for distances depending upon the material and the surface is reduced low enough for full solidification
cooling rate under which it is solidified. Finally, the to take place. The material at temperatures between
center of the heavy sections would be the weakest those at which solidification begins and ends is parti-
structure made up of large equiaxed grains. Changes ally frozen with pockets of liquid remaining to
in this grain-growth pattern can be caused by a num- produce a mixture that is of mushy consistency and
ber of factors affecting the cooling rate. Thin sections relatively low strength. Figure 8-6 is a graphic repre-
that cool very quickly will develop neither the colum- sentation of - this
nar nor the coarse structure. Variable section sizes kind of freezing. The
and changes of size and shape may cause interference duration of this
and variations of the grain-structure pattern. Dif- condition and the
ferent casting procedures and the use of different dim ensions of the
mold materials space between the
can affect grain start and finish of
size and shape freezing are func-
through their tions of the solidifi-
FINE EQUIAXED influence on the cation temperature
cooling rate. Figure 8.5 range of the alloy
Results of NDT Grain formation in a heavy material and the
for internal de- sand casting thermal gradient.
fects may be diffi- The greater the solidification temperature range (in

r
cult to analyze be- most cases meaning the greater the variation away
CTA' ' OF F,
' ","NCJ
cause of effects from the eutectic composition)
from variable and the smaller the temperature . . .. "
. .

grain size in mas-


sive
Large
castings.
grains
cause diffraction
gradient,
and
stage.
the greater
duration of this
the size
mushy"
f ..""
..' . .

""C~
.
.

,
;,,"
...

efects with radio- Segregation. Dendritic grain


graphic methods growth is much more evident in
and reflection the noneutectic alloy metals than
from grain boun- in pure metal. When more than Figure 8.6
daries causes one element is present, segrega- Process of freezing
. Fi~ure 8-4 problems with ul- tion of two types occurs during in a noneutectic alloy
TYPicalgram structure from trasonic testing. solidification. The first solids to freeze will be richer
solidification of a heavy section Special tech- in one component than the average composition. The
niques which minimize these effects may be necessary change caused by this ingot-type segregation is small,
to test large grained castings. but as the first solids rob the remaining material, a
Eutectics Similar to Pure Metals. Eutectic alloys gradual change of composition is caused as freezing
freeze in much the same manner as a pure metal. Solidi- progresses to the center. The other type of segre.
gation is more localized and makes the dendritic
fication takes place at a single temperature that is
structure easy to detect in alloy materials. The small
lower than that for the individual components of the
liquid pockets, enclosed by the first dendritic solids,
alloy. The grain size produced with an eutectic alloy is
have supplied more than their share of one com-
smaller than the grain size of a pure metal under the
same conditions. It is believed that this is due to a ponent to the already frozen material. This differ-
ence in composition shows up readily by difference in
smaller temperature gradient and the formation of a
chemical reaction if the material is polished and
greater number of points of nucleation for the start of
etched for grain examination.
grains.
Noneutectics Freeze through a Temperature SHRI1':KAGE
Range. The majority of products are made from
noneutectic alloys. Instead of freezing at a single Shrinkage Occurs in Three Stages. Some of the
temperature as does the pure metal and the eutectic most important problems connected with the casting
The Casting Process 83

process are those of shrinkage. The amount of shrink- TABLE 8-1


age that occurs will, of course, vary with the material Approximate solidification shrinkage of some
being cast, but it is also influenced by the casting common metals
procedure and techniques. The three stages of con- Percent
traction that occur as the temperature decreases from
Metal Volumetric Shrinkage
the temperature of the molten metal to room
temperature are illustrated in Figure 8-7. Grayiron 0-2
First Stage Shrinkage in the Liquid. In the melt- Steel " 2.5-4
ing procedure, preparatory to pouring castings, the Aluminum 6.6
metal is always heated well above the melting temp- Copper 4.9
erature. The additional heat above that necessary for
melting is called superheat. It is necessary to provide porosity causes a reduction in density and tends to re-
duce the apparent shrinkage that can be seen on the
fluidity of the liquid to permit cold additives to be
surface of a casting.
mixed with the metal before pouring. Superheat
allows the metal to be transferred and to contact cold The shrinkage that occurs during solidification and
equipment without starting to freeze, and insures that the micro porosity that often accompanies it are
sufficient time will elapse before freezing occurs to minimized in materials that are near eutectic compo-
sition. This seems to be due to more uniform freezing
allow disposal of the material. Some superheat is lost
with lower temperature gradients and more random
during transfer of the liquid metal from the melting
nucleation producing finer grain structure. Micro-
equipment to the mold. However, as the metal is
shrinkage is often a problem in aluminum or magne-
poured into the mold, some superheat must remain to
sium castings.
insure that the mold will fill. Loss of superheat results
Macroporosity. The porosity of a casting may be
in contraction and increased density but is not likely
amplified by the evolution of gas before and during
to cause serious problems in casting. The volume
solidification. Gas may form pockets or bubbles of its
change can be compensated for by pouring additional
own or may enter the voids of microporosity to en-
material into the mold cavity as the superheat is lost.
large them. The evolved gas is usually hydrogen,
An exception exists when the cavity is of such design
which may combine with dissolved oxygen to form
that part of it may freeze off and prevent the flow of
water vapor. These randomly dispersed openings of
the liquid metal for shrinkage replacement. large size in the solid metal are referred to as
Solidification Shrinkage. The second stage of
macroporosity.
shrinkage occurs during the transformation from MACRO POROSITY
liquid to solid. Water is an exception to the rule, but
most materials are more dense as solids than as
liq u ids. Metals contract as they change from liquid
to solid. The approximate volumetric solidification
- shrinkage for some common metals is shown in Table
8-1. Contraction at this stage can be partially replaced
LIQUID SOLIDIFICATION SOLID
CONTRACTION CONTRACTION CONTRACTION

g~~
~~~~ SHRINKAGE'
CAVITY
MICROPOROSITY
RANDOMLY DISTRIBUTED VOIDS
OF SMAll SIZE
SHRINKPERCENTAGES
APPROXIMATE
ONLY FOR CASTIRON
Figure 8-8
Figure 8-7 Porosity
Three stages of metal contraction

because the entire metal is not yet frozen. If a suit-


able path can be kept open, liquid metal can flow
from the hot zones to rE:place most of the shrinkage.
It will be remembered, however, that in the forma-
tion of a dendritic grain structure, small pockets have
been left completely enclosed with solid material.
Depending upon the characteristics of the material PATTERNMAKER'S
AllOWANCE

and the size of the liquid enclosures, localized shrink-


~ ing will develop minute random voids referred to as Figure 8-9
nricroporosity or microshrinkage (Figure 8-8). Micro- Pattern shrinkage allowance
...

84 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology


HOT SPOTS cause the metal farthest
Contraction in the Solid State. The third stage of

~~
shrinkage is that occurring after solidification takes from the point of entry
to freeze first with solidi-
place and is the primary cause of dimensional change
fication moving toward a
to a size different form that of the pattern used to
make the cavity in the mold. Although contraction of feed head, which may be
at the point where metal
solidification may contribute in some cases, the Inte"e,';n9 Rib, Heovy Be",
solid metal contraction is the main element POOR DESIGN
is poured into the mold
or can be located at other

~
of pattern maker's shrinkage, which must be allowed
points where liquid can
for by making the pattern oversize.
be stored to feed into the
casting proper.
Coced Hole
IMPROVED DESIGN
Hot Spots Are Focal
POURING AND FEEDING CASTINGS Figure 8-11 Points for Solidifica-
Hot spot elimination
tion. The highest temp-
CASTING DESIGN
erature areas immediately after pouring are called hot
The first consideration that must be given to spots and should be located as near as possible to
obtain good castings is to casting design. It should be sources of feed metal. If isolated by sections that
remembered that although volumetric shrinkage of freeze early, they may disturb good directional solidi-
the liquid is thought of as being replaced by extra fication with the result that shrinks, porosity, cracks,
metal poured in the mold and by hydraulic pressure ruptures, or warping will harm the casting quality. It
from elevated parts of the casting system, this can be is not always necessary to completely inspect some
true only if no parts of the casting freeze off before castings when the vulnerable spots can be determined
replacement takes place. Except for the small pockets by visual inspection. Defects are most likely at hot
completely enclosed by solid metal in the develop- spots created by section changes or geometry of the
ment of dendritic structures, the shrinkage of solidifi- part and where gates and risers have been connected to
cation can be compensated for if liquid metal can be the casting.
progressively supplied to the freezing face as it ad- Control of Hot Spots Usually by Proper Design.
vances.
Hot spots are usually located at points of greatest
Progressive versus Directional Solidification. The sectional dimensions. Bosses, raised letters, non-
uniform section thicknesses, and intersecting members
are often troublemakers in the production of high
quality castings. Solution to the problem involves
changing the design, as shown in Figure 8-11, or pour-
ing the casting in such a way that these spots cease to
be sources of trouble. Changing the design might
include coring a boss to make it a thin-walled cylin-
der, relieving raised letters or pads on the backside,
proportioning section thicknesses to uniform changes
of dimensions, using thin-ribbed design instead of
heavy sections, spreading and alternating intersecting
members, and making other changes that will not
DIRECTIONAL SOLIDifiCATION
affect the function of the part but will decrease the
degree of section change.
Figure 8-10
Uniform Section Thicknesses Desirable. As a
Progressive and directional solidification
general rule, section changes should be minimized as
term progressive solidification, the freezing of a liquid much as possible in order to approach uniform cool-
from the outside toward the center, is different from ing rates and reduce defects. When pouring iron, heavy
directional solidification. Rather than from the sur- sections tend to solidify as gray iron with precipitated
face to the center of the mass, directional solidifica- graphite. Thin sections of the same material cooling at
tion is used to describe the freezing from one part of higher rates tend to hold the carbon in the combined
a casting to another, such as from one end to the state as iron carbide with the result that these sections
other end, as shown in Figure 8-10. The direction of turn out to be hard, brittle white iron. Since it is clearly
freezing is extremely important to the quality of a impossible to design practical shapes without section
casting because of the need for liquid metal to com- changes, the usual procedure calls for gradual section-
pensate for the contraction of the liquid and that dur- size changes and the use of liberal fillets and rounds.
ing solidification. Casting design and procedure should Some section changes are compared in Figure 8-12.
The Casting Process 85

Sudden Sect;on Chonge Lo'ge Rod;; Gwduol Tope< No Sect;on Chonge


will be completely filled with a uniform flow of
~~~~~
POOR DESIGN GOOD BETTER BEST
metal.
Superheat Mfects Casting Quality. As mentioned
Figure 8-12 earlier, metals are superheated from 1000 to 5000
Section changes in casting design above their melting temperature to increase their
fluidity and to allow for heat losses before they are in
their final position in the mold. For good castings,
POURING the metal must be at the correct superheat at the time
Most Pouring Done from Ladles. Pouring is usu- it is poured into the mold. If the temperature is too
ally performed by using ladles to transport the hot low, misruns and cold shuts will show up as defects in
metal from the melting equipment to the molds. Most the casting, or the metal may even freeze in the ladle.
molds are heavy and could be easily damaged by jolts If the temperature at pouring is too high, the metal
and jars received in moving them from one place to may penetrate the sand and cause very rough finishes
another. Exceptions exist with small molds or with on the casting. Too high pouring temperatures may
heavier molds, with which special equipment is used, cause excessive porosity or increased gas development
that can be conveyorized and moved to a central leading to voids and increased shrinkage from thermal
pouring station. Even with these, the hot metal is gradients that disrupt proper directional solidifi-
usually poured from a ladle, though some high pro- cation. High pouring temperature increases the mold
duction setups make use of an automatic pouring temperature, decreases the temperature differential,
station where spouts are positioned over the mold and reduces the rate at which the casting cools. More
and release the correct amount of metal to fill the time at high temperature allows greater gain growth
cavity. so that the casting will cool with a weaker, coarse
Turbulent Flow Harmful. Casting quality can be grain structure.
significantly influenced by pouring procedure. Tur-
bulent flow, which is caused by pouring from too
great a height or by excessive rates of flow into the
mold, should be avoided. Turbulence will cause gas to THE GATING SYSTEM
be picked up that may appear as cavities or pockets in Metal is fed into the cavity that shapes the casting
the finished casting and may also oxidize the hot through a gating system consisting of a pouring basin,
metal to form metallic oxide inclusions. Rough, fast a down sprue, runners, and ingates. Some typical
flow of liquid metal may erode the mold and result in
systems are shown in Figure 8-13. There are many
loss of shape or detail in the cavity and inclusion of special designs and terminology connected with these
sand particles in the metal. Cold shots are also a result channels and openings whose purpose is that of
of turbulent flow. Drops of splashing metal lose heat, improving casting quality. Special features of a gating
freeze, and are then entrapped as globules that do not system are often necessary to reduce turbulence and
join completely with the metal which freezes later air entrapment, reduce velocity and erosion of sand,
and are held partly by mechanical bond. and remove foreign matter or dross. Unfortunately,
0 Pouring Rate. The pouring rate used in filling a no universal design is satisfactory for all castings or
,I mold is critical. If metal enters the cavity too slowly, materials. There are no rules that can be universaily
I it may freeze before the mold is filled. Thin sections

l that cool too rapidly in contact with the mold walls


may freeze off before the metal travels its complete
path, or metal flowing in one direction may solidify ~ ,- ~~'NG "M~
and then be met by metal flowing through another
path to form a defect known as a cold shut. Even
though the mold is completely filled, the cold shut
shows the seam on the surface of the casting, and the
~ '"'" OM' """"" ~
if'""
HORSESHOE GATE
(

MULTIPLE INGATE WITH


metal is not solidly joined and is therefore subject to TAPERED RUNNER

J easy breakage.
I If the pouring rate is too high, it will cause erosion Figure 8-13
of the mold walls with the resulting sand inclusions
: and loss of detail in the casting. High thermal shock
~ to the mold may result in cracks and buckling. The
Typical gating systems

depended upon, and experimentation is commonly a


rate of pouring is controlled by the mold design and requirement for good casting production.
,." ..the pouring basin, sprue, runner, and gate dimension s. The location of the connection for the gate, or gates,
, IThe gating system should be designed so that when
.
can usually be determined visually. These spots are

t the pouring basin is kept full, the rest of the system


"

..,.
.
possible concentration points for defects.
86 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

RISERS before the chills have time to collect moisture from


condensation. In addition to helping with directional
Risers Are Multipurpose. Risers, feeders, or feed
heads serve as wells of material attached outside the solidification, chills may also improve physical
properties. Fast cooling during and after solidification
casting proper to supply liquid metal as needed to
retards grain growth and thus produces a harder,
compensate for shrinkage before solidification is
stronger structure.
complete. Although most liquid contraction is taken
care of during pouring, a riser may supply replace- Choice of Internal Chills Critical. Internal chills
ment for some of this contraction after parts of the that become an integral part of the casting are occa-
casting have frozen solid, as shown in Figure 8-14. sionally used to speed solidification in areas where
However, the principal purposes of risers are to re- external chills cannot be applied. The design and use
place the contraction of solidification and to promote of internal chills is critical. Usually this type of chill is
good directional solidification. The need for risers made of the same material as the casting. The chill
varies with the casting shape and the metal being must be of such size that it functions as a cooling
poured. device, but at the same time it must be heated enough
that it fuses with the poured material to become an
l'qu'd metal ,upply to compen'ote fa, liquid
and ",Iidifi/ot'on ,h,inkoge integral and equally strong part of the casting.
Nondestructive testing is often used to detect un-
. . fused internal chills and adjacent defects that may be
caused by the change in cooling rate created by the pre-
.,,',
sence of the chill.

FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
Although the casting process can be used to shape
, ..'
almost any metal, it has been necessary to develop a
. ',: :.~, . ,: number of different methods to accommodate differ-
ent materials and satisfy different requirements. Each
method has certain advantages over the others, but all
Figure 8-14
have limitations. Some are restricted to a few special
Risers for shrinkage control
applications.

SAND MOLDING
CHILLS
Sand is the most commonly used material for
Chills Initiate Solidification. Help in directional construction of molds. A variety of sand grain sizes,
solidification can also be obtained in a reverse manner combined and mixed with a number of other mater-
by the use of chills, which are heat-absorbing devices ials and processed in different ways, causes sand to
inserted in the mold near the cavity (Figure 8-15). To exhibit characteristics that make it suitable for several
absorb heat rapidly, chills are usually made of steel, applications in mold making. A greater tonnage of
cast iron, or copper and designed to conform to the castings is produced by sand molding than by all
casting size and shape. Because chills must be dry to other methods combined.
avoid blowhole formation from gases, it is sometimes Procedure for Sand Molding. The following
necessary to pour a mold soon after it has been made, requirements are basic to sand molding, and most of
them also apply for the construction of other types
of molds.
1. Sand - To serve as the main structural material for
the mold
2. A pattern - To form a properly ooaped and sized
cavity in the sand
INTERNAL 3. A flask - To contain the sand around the pattern
CHill
and to provide.a means of removing the pattern
after the mold is made
4. A ramming method - To compact the sand around
EXTERNAL CHill the pattern for accurate transfer of size and shape
5. A core - To form internal surfaces on the part
Figure 8-15 (usually not required for castings without cavities
Chills as an aid to directional solidification or holes)
The Casting Process 87

6. A mold grating system - To provide a means of ture and the types of sand and clay may be'varied to
filling the mold cavity with metal at the proper rate change the properties of the molds to suit the ma-
and to supply liquid metal to the mold cavity as the terial being poured. To produce good work consis-
casting contracts during cooling and solidification tently, it is important that advantage be taken of the
The usual procedure for making a simple green properties that can be controlled by varying the con-
sand casting starts with placing the pattern to be stituents of the sand mixture.
copied on a pattern, or follower, board inside one- Sand Grains Held Together by Oay. In a mold,
half of the flask, as shown in Figure 8-16.Sand is then the sand particles are bound together by clay that is
packed around the pattern and between the walls of combined with a suitable quantity of water. The most
the flask. After striking off excess sand, a bottom commonly accepted theory of bonding is that as pres-
board is held against the flask and sand and the sure is applied to the molding sand, clay, coating each
assembly turned over. Removal of the pattern board sand particle, deforms and flows to wedge and lock
exposes the other side of the pattern. A thin layer of the particles in place. The clay content can be varied
parting compound (dry nonabsorbent particles) is from as little as 2% or 3% to as high as 50%, but the
dusted on the pattern and sand to prevent adhesion. best results seem to be obtained when the amount of
Addition of the upper half of the flask allows sand to clay is just sufficient to coat completely each of the
be packed against the pattern. sand grains.
TT
Water Conditions the Oay. Water is the third

~
FLASK (Drag)
requisite for green sand molding. The optimum quan-

~
PARTING COMPOUND
S TE P I

FLASK
~ , ,

SAND
O~,B~~~D
,

STEP

SPRUE
2
"
",,:

----..
,
O:

,
' tity will vary from about 2% to 8% by weight, de-
pending largely upon the type and quantity of clay
present. Thin films of water, several molecules in
thickness, are absorbed around the clay crystals. This
water is held in fixed relationship to the clay by
atomic attraction and is described as rigid water, or
tempering water. The clays that have the greatest
ability to hold this water film provide the greatest

~ ooo'"

'0'

:;:,':":,
'0 '"
',:
,
'0 :.-c'
, 0,,',:
'..,'0",'0";
0< :0 ',:

STEP
000:':'

3
,0,',

:':>'

':0"
:'

GG,m
~'~~~2IJ STEP 4
bonding strength. Water in excess of that needed to
temper the molding sand does not contribute to
strength but will improve the flowability that permits
the sand to be compacted around the pattern.

a
RUNNER

9 "",,0,
,~) /::,'.O.::':'~:',:';:':",\:,,:.
0 ' '0'
:.

":'" 0, '.. ,0 .;,


..;..,' , ',' ',' 0,'

):':-':,,':::":'::'+:~// :::"",;:'-:0':':,-,:'0::\,:,,:,
,', '" '0 ,..:~

S TEP 5 STEP6

) Principal
Figure 8-16
steps for making a sand mold

After the sprue is cut to the parting line depth, the


II.-Upper half of the mold can be removed, the pattern
'"' withdrawn, and the gating system completed. Reas-
sembly of the mold halves completes the task, and
~ the mold is ready for pouring. SPLIT
7

~o

.1 is
GREEN SAND
The Word Green Refers to Moisture. The majority
of castings are poured in molds of green sand, which
a mixture of sand, clay, and moisture. The ma-
~ IRREGULAR PARTING

~~erials ar: available in large quantities, are relatively


Figure 8.17
l~nexpenslVe, and except for some losses that must be
: a~placed, are reusable. The proportions of the mix- Common loose pattern types
J
88 Materials and Processes for NDT Technol°ID'. It

PATTERNS into place in a mold is one of the greater labor and f;


".
time-consuming phases of making castings. It also has ~
By most procedures, patterns are essential for pro-
considerable influence on the quality of finished cast-
ducing castings. In occasional emergency situations an
ings produced. Sand that is packed too lightly will be
original part, even a broken or worn part, may be used
weak and may fall out of the mold, buckle, or crack,
as a pattern for making a replacement, but consider-
which will cause casting defects. Loosely packed
able care and skill is necessary when this is done.
Patterns are made of various materials: principally grains at the surface of the cavity may wash with the
metal flow or may permit metal penetration with a
wood, metal, plastic, or plaster, depending on the
resulting rough finish on the casting. Sand that is too
shape, size, intricacy, and amount of expected use.
They are constructed slightly larger than the expected tightly compacted will lack permeability, restrict gas
flow, and be a source of blowholes, or may even pre-
resulting part to allow for shrinkage of the liquid
vent the cavity from completely filling. Too tightly
metal, during and after solidification, to room tempera-
ture size. Extra matrial is also left on surfaces to be packed sand may also lack collapsability so that as
solidification occurs, cracks and tears in the casting
machined or finished to provide removal material on
the casting. Patterns also must be contructed with may be caused by the inability of the sand to get out
of the way of the shrinking metal. Each of the several
suitable draft angles to facilitate their removal from
available methods for compacting sand has advantages
the mold medium. Patterns may be designated as flat-
over the others and limitations that restrict its use.
back where the largest two dimensions are in a single
Butt Ramming Involves Human Effort. Peen and
plane, split which effectively separates to form flat-
butt rammel'S may be used on a bench or on the floor
back patterns, or irregular parting which requires sep-
aration along two or more planes for removal of the by manual operation, or, in the case of large molds,
the work may be done with pneumatic rammers simi-
pattern to produce the casting cavity. Any of these
lar to an air hammer. Peen ramming involves the use
pattern types can be mounted on a matchplate for im-
of a rib-shaped edge to develop high impact pressures
proved accuracy and faster production if justified by
the needed quantity of castings. Some pattern types of and is used principally to pack sand between narrow
vertical walls and around the edges of the flask. Butt
the loose variety are shown in Figure 8-17.
ramming is done with a broader-faced tool for more
FLASKS uniform compaction of the sand throughout the
mold.
Flasks are open faced containers that hold the mol- Jolting and Squeezing Use Mechanical Energy.
ten medium as it is packed around the pattern. They Most production work and a large part of work done
are usually contructed in two parts: the upper half cope in small quantities is performed by use of molding
and the lower half drag (see Figure 8-16) which are machines whose principal duty is that of sand com-
aligned by guide pins to insure accurate positioning. paction. They are designed to compact sand by either
The separation between the cope and drag establishes jolting or squeezing, or both methods may be com-
the parting line and when open permits removal of the bined in a single machine.
pattern to leave the cavity whose walls form the cast- Jolt compaction involves the lifting of the table
ing when liquified material solidifies against it. carrying the mold and dropping it against a solid
Some flasks, used most for small quantity casting, obstruction. With the sudden stop, inertia forces
are permanent and remain around the sand until after cause the sand particles to compress together. Jolt
pouring has been completed. Others used for higher compaction tends to pack the sand more tightly near
production quantities are removable and can be used the parting surface. For this reason, it is usually not
over and over for construction of a number of molds be-
too satisfactory when used alone with patterns that
fore pouring is required. The removable flasks are of are high and project close to the mold surface.
three styles: snap flasks, having hinged corners, that On the other hand, squeeze compaction, applied
can be unwrapped from the mold; pop-off flasks that by pushing a squeeze plate against the outside of the
can be expanded on two diagonal corners to increase sand, tends to pack the sand more tightly at the sur-
the length and width to allow removal; and slip flasks face. The combination of jolting and squeezing is
that are made with movable sand strips that project in- frequently used to take advantages of each method,
side to obstruct sliding of the mold medium until they although when both the cope and drag are being
are withdrawn to permit removal of the flask from the made on the same machine, it may be impossible to
mold. When molds are constructed with removable
jolt the cope half (the second half constructed) with-
flasks, jackets are placed over them to maintain align- out damage to the drag.
ment during pouring.
Sand Slinging Limited to Large Molds. Foundries
SAND CaMP ACTION that manufacture quantities of large castings often
Casting Quality Dependent on Proper Com- use sand slingers to fill and compact the sand in large
paction. Compaction, packing, or ramming of sand floor molds. The sand is thrown with high velocity in
The Casting Process 89

a steady stream by a rotating impeller and is com- relatively free passage is essential for the gases to
pacted by impact as it fills up in the mold. Figure escape through core prints or other small areas.
8-18 illustrates the common compaction methods. Collapsability is likewise important because of this
metal enclosure. Ideally, a core should collapse
immediately after metal solidification takes place. In
~ addition to not interfering with shrinkage of the cast-
ing, it is important in many cases that cores collapse

-
completely before final cooling so that they can be
removed from inside castings in which they are al-
most totally enclosed. For example, cores used to
form the channels in a hot-water radiator or the water
openings in an internal combustion engine would be
HAND RAMMING
r~
TABLE STOP
almost impossible to remove unless they lost their
JOLT RAMMING strength and became free sand grains. The casting
metal must supply the heat for the final burning out

>1';'1' Q,!.,::'i\ 6('


/
" /~

X
"'l/

,<:",:.,..,\','\',
~
of the additives and the binding material.
When a substantial portion of a core is enclosed in a
casting, radiography is frequently used to determine
I
whether or not the core shifted during casting, or to be
certain that all the core material has been successfully
removed after casting.

J SQUEEZE
..
RAMMING
l t~~;0~
SAND SLINGING
~
Chaplets. Very large or long slender cores that
might give way under pressure of the flowing metal
are sometimes given additional support by the use of
chaplets. Chaplets are small metal supports with
Figure 8-18
broad surfaced ends, usually made of the same metal
Common sand-compaction methods
as that to be poured, that can be set between the
mold cavity and the core. Chaplets become part of
CORES the casting after they have served their function of
Cores are bodies of mold material, usually in the supporting cores while the metal is liquid.
form of inserts that exclude metal flow to form in- NDT may be necessary for castings requiring the use
ternal surfaces in a casting. The body is considered to of chaplets. Not ony must the chaplets be chosen of
be a core when made of green sand only if it extends suitable material to fuse with the base metal, but
through the cavity to form a hole in the casting. shrink cavities may form during the cooling, porosity
Green sand cores are formed in the pattern with the may form from moisture condensation, and non-fusing
regular molding procedure. may occur from too Iowa pouring temperature to melt
Cores Need Strength for Handling. The vast the surface of the chaplet. Radiography of the finished
majority of cores are made of dry sand and contain casting can reveal discontinuities surrounding chaplet
little or no clay. A nearly pure sand is combined with . regions and can indicate whether the chaplets com-
additives that bum out after pouring to promote co 1- pletely fused with the base metal.
lapsability and with binders to hold the particles
together until after solidification takes place.
SE'RUE
Final Core Properties Very Important. The prop-
erties needed in core sand are similar to those re-
: quired for molding sand, with some taking on greater
CORE

CHAPLETS CORE PRINT


CASTING CAVITY
importance because of differences in the cores' posi-
i!' tion and use. Most cores are baked for drying and
~ development of dry strength, but they must also have
Figure 8-19
.. sufficient green strength to be handled before baking.
Slender core supported by chaplets to aid core location
~, The dry strength of a finished core must be suf-
" ficient that it can withstand its own weight without and prevent sagging of its own weight or springing,
possibly floating, during pouring
~, sagging in the mold, and it must be strong enough
!£ that its own buoyancy, as liquid metal rises around it,
1\\ will not cause it to break or shift. GREEN SAND ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
Permeability is important with all molding sands Green Sand Process Extremely Flexible. For most
"
'" "

metals and most sizes and shapes of castings, green

i ,
". '"

. -;ofte.n almost,
j
but is especially so with core sand because cores are
completely surrounded by metal, and a sand molding is the most economical of all the mold-
.
90 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology- !
.~
ing processes. Green sand can be worked manually or FLOOR AND PIT MOLDS
mechanically and, because very little special equip- Large Molds Difficult to Handle. Although he
ment is necessary, can be easily and cheaply used for number of extremely large castings is relatively small,
a great variety of products. The sand is reusable with molds must be constructed for one, five, ten, and
only slight additions necessary to correct its com- occasionally, even as much as several hundred ton
position. In terms of cost, the green sand process can castings. Such molds cannot be moved about, and the
be bested only when the quantity of like castings is high hydrostatic pressures established by high
large enough that reduced operational costs for some columns of liquid metal require special mold 'con-
other processes will more than cover higher original struction stronger than that used for small castings.
investment or when the limitations of the green sand Floor molds made in the pouring position are built in
process prevent consistent meeting of required quali- large flasks. The mold can be opened by lifting the
ties. cope with an overhead crane, but the cope flask
Green Sand Not Universally Applicable. One of usually must be constructed with special support bars
the limitations of green sand is its low strength in to prevent the mold material from dropping free
thin sections. It cannot be used satisfactorily for cast- when it is lifted.
ing thin fins or long, thin projections. Green sand also Drag of Pit Molds Below Floor Level. Pit molds
tends to crush and shift under the weight of very use the four walls of a pit as a flask for the drag
heavy sections. This same weakness makes the casting section. The cope may be an assembly of core sand or
of intricate shapes difficult also. The moisture present may be made in a large flask similar to that used for a
in green sand produces steam when contacted by hot floor mold. The mold material for these large sizes is
metal. Inability of the steam and other gases to usually loam, 50% sand and 50% clay, plus water. The
escape causes problems with some casting designs, mold structure is often strengthened by inserting
and blowhole damage results. The dimensional ac- bricks or other ceramic material as a large part of its
curacy of green sand castings is limited. Even with substance.
small castings, it is seldom that dimensions can be
held closer together than :t 0.5 millimeter (0.02 inch); SHELL MOLDS
with large castings, :t 3 millimeters (1/8 inch) or
greater tolerances are necessary. Shell molding is a fairly recent development that,
as far as casting is concerned, can be considered a
precision process. Dimensions can be held within a
few thousandths of an inch in many cases to elimi-
nate or reduce machining that might be necessary
DRY SAND MOLDS otherwise and to decrease the overall cost of manufac-
Elimination of Moisture Reduces Casting Defects. turing. The cost of the process itself, however, is
relatively high, and large quantities are necessary for
Improvement in casting qualities can sometimes be
economical operation.
obtained by use of dry sand molds. The molds are Sand Bonded with Thermosetting Plastic. The
made of green sand modified to favor the dry prop-
erties and then dried in an oven. The absence of mold is made by covering a heated metal pattern with
moisture eliminates the formation of water vapor and sand that is mixed with small particles of a thermoset-
reduces the type of casting defects that are due to gas ting plastic. The heat of the pattern causes the
mixture to adhere and semicures the plastic for a
formation. The cost of heat, the time required for
short depth. The thin shell thus made is baked in
drying the mold, and the difficulty of handling heavy
molds without damage make the process expensive place or stripped from the pattern, further cured by
baking at 3000 C and then cemented to its mating
compared to green sand molding, and it is used
half to complete the mold proper. Because the shell is
mostly when steam formation from the moisture
thin, approximately 3 millimeters, its resistance to
present would be a serious problem.
springing apart is low; it may be necessary to back it
Skin Drying - Substitute for Oven Drying. Most up with loose sand or shot to take the pressures set
of the benefits of dry sand molds can be obtained by up by filling with liquid metal. The sand particles are
skin drying molds to depths from a fraction of an tightly held in the plastic bond. As erosion and metal
inch to an inch. With the mold open, the inside sur- penetration are minor problems, high quality surface
faces are subjected to heat from torches, radiant finishes, in addition to good dimensional control, are
lamps, hot dry air, or electric heating elements to obtained from shell molding.
form a dry insulating skin around the mold cavity.
Skin-dried molds can be stored only for short periods METAL MOLD AND SPECIAL PROCESSES
of time before pouring, since the water in the main
body of the mold will redistribute itself and remois- Metal patterns and metal core boxes are used in
turize the inside skin. connections with molding whenever the quantities
The Casting Process 91

manufactured justify the additional expense of the permanent molding. It is made of metal, again usually
longer wearing patterns. The metal mold process cast iron or steel; has parting lines along which it can
refers not to the pattern equipment but to a reusable be opened for extraction of the casting; and is con-
metal mold that is in itself a reverse pattern in which structed with small draft angles on the walls to reduce
the casting is made directly. the work of extraction and extend the life of the die.
Special Processes Receive Limited Use. In addi- Vents, in the form of grooves or small holes, also are
tion to the metal mold processes, there are special present to permit the escape of air as metal fills the
processes involving either single-use or reusable die.
molds. Their use is limited to a comparatively small Hot Chamber Die Casting. The machines in which
number of applications in which the processes, even the dies are used, however, are quite different be-
though more costly, show distinct advantages over cause, in addition to closing and opening the die
the more commonly used methods. parts, they must supply liquid metal under pressure
to fill the cavity. The hot chamber die-casting
PERMANENT MOLD CASTING machine, as shown in Figure 8-20, keeps metal melted
Metal Molds Used Mostly for Low Melting Point in a chamber through which a piston moves into a cy-
Alloys. Permanent molds may be reused many linder to build up pressure forcing the metal into the
times. The life will depend, to a large extent, upon die.
the intricacy of the casting design and the temp-
erature of the metal that is poured into the mold.
Cast iron and steel are the most common materials
with which the mold is made. Permanent mold cast-
ing is used most for the shaping of aluminum, copper,
magnesium, and zinc alloys. Cast iron is occasionally
poured in permanent molds that have much lower
mold life because of the higher operating tempera-
ture. Satisfactory results require operation of the
process with a uniform cycle time to maintain the
operating temperature
of new molds often demands
determine
within a small range. Initial use
experimentation
the most suitable pouring and operating
to
- FURNACE

temperatures as well as to correct the position and


size of the small vent grooves cut at the mold parting
line to allow the escape of gases.
High Accuracies and Good Finishes. The cost of Figure 8-20
the molds, sometimes referred to as dies, and the Hot chamber die casting

operating mechanism by which they are opened and


closed is high, but permanent mold casting has several Machines Limited to Low Pressures. Because the
advantages over sand casting for high quantity pro- piston and the portions subjected to pressure are
duction. Dimensional tolerances are more consistent heated to the melting terrperature of the casting
and can be held to approximately:!: 0.25 millimeter metal, hot chamber machines are restricted to lower
(0.1 inch). The higher conductance of heat through pressures than those with lower operating tempera-
the metal mold causes a chilling action, producing tures. Although it is a high speed, low cost process,
finer grain structure and harder, stronger castings. the low pressures do not produce the high density,
Th e minimum practical section thickness for high quality castings often desired. In addition, iron
: permanent molding is about 3 millimeters (1/8 inch). absorbed by aluminum in a hot chamber machine
~ The majority of castings are less than 30 centimeters would be detrimental to its properties. Pressures as
, (12 inches) in diameter and 10 kilograms (22 pounds) high as 14 MPa (2,000 psi) are used in the hot cham-
~ in weight. The process is used in the manufacture of ber process to force fill the mold.
~ automobile cylinder heads, automobile pistons, low Cold Chamber Die Casting. With cold chamber
horsepower engine connecting rods, and many other equipment, as shown in Figure 8-21, molten metal is
~ nonferrous alloy castings needed in large quantity. poured into the shot chamber, and the piston ad-
~ vances to force the metal into the die. Aluminum,
( DIE CASTING copper, and magnesium alloys are die cast by this
.. Die casting differs from permanent mold casting in method with liquid pressures as high as 210 MPa
that pressure is applied to the liquid metal to cause it (30,000 psi).
..

to flow rapidly and uniformly into the cavity of the Casting Quality High. Sections as thin as 0.4
t .

~old,
.
or die. The die is similar to that used for
millimeter (1/64 inch) with tolerances as small as
~

"
92 Materials and Processes for NDT Technolog?' i)
I,
DIE CAVITY

WAX PATTERN COAT WITH REfRACTORY


REINFORCE WITH
-- SLURRY
PLASTER BACKING
(INVESTMENT)

4
Figure
8-21
Cold chamber die casting
_'.05 millimeter (0.002 inch) can be cast with very OWN DRY TO l!OUlfY OR
VAPORIZE PATTERN ALSO
good surface finish by this pressure process. The DRY MOLD
POUR (ANY METAl! REMOVE INVESTMENT
material properties are likely to be high because the MATERIAL

pressure improves the metal density (fewer voids), Figure 8-22


and fast cooling by the metal molds produces good Steps for investment casting
strength properties. Other than high initial cost, the
heated to suitable temperatures for pouring, usually
principal limiting feature of die casting is that it can-
not be used for the very high strength materials. between 600° C and 1,100° C, depending upon the
metal that is to fill the mold. After pouring and
However, low temperature alloys are continually
being developed, and with their improvement, die solidification, the investment is broken away to free
casting is being used more and more. the casting for removal of the gating system and final
cleaning.
INVESTMENT CASTING Process Limited to Small Castings. Investment
The Working Pattern Destroyed During Investment casting is limited to small castings, usually not over 2
Casting. Investment casting (Figure 8-22) is also kilograms (4.4 pounds) in weight. The principal ad-
known as precision casting and as the lost wax vantage of the process is its ability to produce intri-
process. The process has been used in dentistry for cate castings with close dimensional tolerances. High
many years. A new wax pattern is needed for every melting temperature materials that are difficult to
piece cast. For single-piece casting, the wax pattern cast by other methods can be cast this way because
may be made directly by impressions as in dentistry, the investment material of the mold can be chosen
by molding or sculpturing as in the making of for refractory properties that can withstand these
statuary, or by any method that will shape the wax to higher temperatures. In many cases, pressure is
the form desired in the casting. Shrinkage allowances applied to the molten metal to improve flow and
must be made for the wax, if it is done hot, and for densities so that very thin sections can be poured by
the contraction of the metal that will be poured in this method.
the cavity formed by the wax. Reentrant angles in the High Quality at High Cost. It can easily be rea-
casting are possible because the wax will not be lized, by examination of the procedures that must be
removed from the cavity in solid form. Variations of followed for investment molding and casting, that the
this process involve the use of frozen mercury or low costs of this process are high. Accuracy of the fin-
melting point thermoplastics for the pattern. ished product, which may eliminate or reduce ma-
Duplicate Parts Start with a Master Pattern. Mul- chining problems, can more than compensate for the
tiple production requires starting with a master pat- high casting cost with some materials and for some
tern about which a metal die is made. The metal die applications.
can be used for making any number of wax patterns. A number of important parts, some of new or exotic
A gating system must be part of the wax pattern and materials, are presently manufactured by investment
may be produced in the metal die or attached after casting. Many of these, such as high strength alloy tur-
removal from the die. When complete, the wax pat- bine buckets for gas turbines, require NDT inspection
tern is dipped in a slurry of fine refractory material by radiographic and penetrant methods to insure that
and then encased in the investment material (plaster only parts of high quality get into service.
of paris or mixtures of ceramic materials with high
PLASTER MOLD CASTING
refractory properties). The wax is then removed from
the mold by heating to liquify the wax and cause it to Molds made of plaster of paris with additives, such
run out to be reclaimed. Investment molds are pre- as talc, asbestos, silica flour, sand, and other materials
The Casting Process 93

to vary the mold properties, are used only for casting time the principal product was cast iron sewer pipe,
nonferrous metals. Plaster molds will produce good but present day uses of centrifugal castings include
quality finish and good dimensional accuracy as well shafts for large turbines, propeller shafts for ships, and
as intricate detail. The procedure is similar to that high pressure piping. Because of the critical nature of
used in dry sand molding. The plaster material must some applications NDT may be necessary to check the
be given time to solidify after being coated over the wall thickness and quality of the product material. The
pattern and is completely oven dried after removal columnar grain structure may produce problems in ap-
before it is poured. plying nondestructive tests.
Casting Cools Slowly. The dry mold is a good Semicentrifugal Casting - Solid Product. A simi-
insulator, which serves both as an advantage and as a lar process, which may be termed semicentrifugal
disadvantage. The insulating property permits lower casting, consists of revolving a symmetric mold about
pouring rates with less superheat in the liquid metal. the axis of the mold's cavity and pouring that cavity
These contribute to less shrinkage, less gas entrap- full. The density of a casting made in this way will
ment from turbulence, and greater opportunity for vary, with dense, strong metal around the outside and
evolved gases to escape from the metal before solidifi- more porous, weaker metal at the center. The varia-
cation. On the other hand, because of slow cooling, tion in density is not great, but the fast filling of the
plaster molds should not be used for applications in external portion of the mold cavity produces particu-
which large grain growth is a serious problem. larly sound metal. Wheels, pulleys, gear blanks, and
other shapes of this kind may be made in this way to
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING obtain maximum metal properties near the outside
Several procedures (Figure 8-23) are classed as cen. periphery.
trifugal casting. All of the procedures make use of Centrifuge Casting - Multiple Product. A third
a rotating mold to develop centrifugal force acting on type of casting using centrifugal force can be termed
the metal to improve its density toward the outside centrifuge casting. In this process, a number of
of the mold. equally spaced mold cavities are arranged in a circle
SAND OR OTHER REFRACTORY LINING about a central pouring sprue. The mold may be sin-
gle or stacked with a number of layers arranged ver-
.C'v , CASTTUBING
tically about a common sprue. The mold is revolved
with the sprue as an axis and when poured, centrifu-
gal force helps the normal hydrostatic pressure force
metal into the spinning mold cavities. Gases tend to
>~
- -f=- -= ~- - -- ~- - -Jr
~ 7f
MACHINE DRIVEROLLERS
MEASUREDCHARGE
be forced out of the metal, which improves metal
quality.
CENTRIFUGAL CONTINUOUS CASTING
Although only a small tonnage of castings are pro-
duced by continuous casting, it is possible to produce
two-dimensional shapes in an elongated bar by draw-
ing solidified metal from a water-cooled mold.
Special Equipment and Skills Required. As shown
schematically in Figure 8-24, molten metal enters one
end of the mold, and solid metal is drawn from the
other. Control of the mold temperature and the speed
of drawing is essential for satisfactory results.

1m 18
SEMICENTRIFUGAl CENTRIFUGE

Figure 8-23 ,/SHUTOFF VALVE


,j WATER-COOLED
Centrifugal casting MOLD
True Centrifugal Casting-Hollow Product. The 9.=
SOLID
true centrifugal casting process shapes the outside of /. ',. /Q<>OOC>~ ;-
the product with a mold but depends upon centrifugal CONTROLLED DRAW
OF SOLID BAR
force developed by spinning the mold to form the in-
side surface by forcing the liquid metal to assume a cy- Figure 8-24
. lindrical shape symmetric about the mold axis. At one Schematic diagram of continuous casting process
94 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Good Quality Castings Possible. Exclusion of formed in lift out crucibles constructed of graphite, sil-
contact with oxygen, while molten and during solidi- icon carbide, or other refractory material. Gas or oil is
fication produces high quality metal. Gears and other combined with an air blast around the crucible to pro-
shapes in small sizes can be cast in bar form and later duce the melting heat. Unless a cover is placed on the
sliced into multiple parts. crucible, the melt is exposed to products of combustion
An automotive manufacturer makes use of the con- and is susceptible to contamination that may reduce
cept as a salvage procedure for saving bar ends of alloy the quality of the final castings. This is true of all the
steel. The waste material is melted and drawn through natural fuel fired furnaces.
the mold in bar form. Subsequently, the bars are cut in-
to billets that are suitable for processing into various POT FURNACES
automotive parts. Quantities of non-ferrous materials to several hun-
dred pounds may be melted in pot furnaces that con-
MELTING EQUIPMENT tain a permanently placed crucible. Metal is ladled di-
rectly from the crucible, or in the larger size equip-
The volume of metal needed at anyone time for cast- ment, the entire furnace is tilted to pour the molten
ing varies from a few pounds for simple castings to metal into a transporting ladle.
several tons in a batch type operation with a continu-
ous supply, usually of iron, being required by some REVERBERATORY FURNACES
large production foundries. The quantity of available Some of the largest foundries melt non-ferrous
metal can be varied by the size and type of melting metals in reverberatory furnaces that playa gas-air or
equipment as well as the number of units in operation. oil-air flame through nozzles in the side walls of a brick
The required melting temperature which varies from structure, directly on the surface of the charged mate-
about 200°C (390°F) for lead and bismuth to as high as rial. Gas absorption from products of combustion is
1540°C (2400°F) for some steels also influences the high but the large capacity available and high melting
type of melting equipment that will serve best. rate provide economics that help compensate for this
fault. Smaller tilting type reverberating furnaces are
CUPOLA also available for fast melting of smaller quantities of
A considerable amount of cast iron is melted in a spe- metal.
cial chimney-like furnace called a cupola. It is similar ELECTRIC ARC FURNACES
to a blast furnace (described in Chapter 5) used for re-
fining iron ore. The cupola (Figure 8-25) is charged The electric arc provides a high intensity heat source
through a door above the melting zone with layers of that can be used to melt any metal that is commonly
coke, iron, and limestone and may be operated continu- cast. Since there are no products of combustion and
ously by taking off melted iron as it accumulates in the oxygen can be largely excluded from contact with the
well at the bottom. melt, quality of the resulting cast metal is usually
high.
CRUCIBLE FURNACES The arc may be direct (between an electrode and the
Melting of small quantities (1 to 100 pounds) of non- charged metal) or indirect (between two electrodes
ferrous materials for small volume work is often per- above the charge).
REfRACTORY
LINING
INDUCTION FURNACES
Induction furnaces melt materials with the heat dis-
CHARGING
ST EEL ----..
SHELL DOOR sipated from eddy currents. Coils built into the furnace
walls set up a high frequency alternating magnetic
CHARGES field which in turn causes internal eddy currents that
(Coke, iron, heat the charge to its melting point. Rapid heating and
limestone)
high quality resulting from the absence of combustion
products help offset the high cost of the equipment and
TUYERE
power consumed.
FOUNDRY MECHANIZATION
SlAG
HOLE
TAP HOLE
The preceding pages briefly describe the most com-
mon foundry techniques for producing castings. Most
SAND are performed largely by manual effort, resulting in
relatively slow production. However, at any time the
production quantities justify the needed expenditure
for equipment, these same techniques are subject to al-
Figure 8-25 most complete mechanization resulting in higher pro-
Cupola duction rates and improved consistency.
The Welding Process 9

Welding is a joining procedure in which shape changes


are only minor in character and local in effect. Welding
may be defined as "the permanent union of metallic
surfaces by establishing atom to atom bonds between
the surfaces." In practice, some distinction is usually
made betwee:p true welding and brazing and soldering.
In true welding, the filler material has a composition
similar to that of the base metal(s). In brazing and sol-
dering, however, the filler is a metal with a lower melt-
ing point than the base metal(s). Adhesive joining,
which is sometimes performed as a true welding pro-
cess with certain plastics, usually makes use of organic
adhesives, often containing plastic filters and inor-
ganic solvents that fuse the surfaces of the plastic and
adhesive together. With some plastics, a sound plas-
tic/plastic joint can be formed by only introducing a
volatile solvent into the joint which "melts" the plas-
tic/plastic interface, essentially welding the parts
together. Adhesive joining will be discussed in Chapter
15, Miscellaneous Processes.
Development of Welding Relatively Recent. Weld-
ing is both an ancient and a new art. Evidence indi-
cates that prehistoric man, finding native metals in
small pieces and being unable to melt them, built up
larger pieces by heating and welding by hammering or
forging. On the other hand, arc welding was first used
in 1880 and oxyacetylene in 1895. Even after these
developments, welding remained a minor process,
used primarily as a last resort in maintenance and
repair, until about 1930. After this date, the in-
creased knowledge of metallurgy and testing and the
development of improved techniques led to increased
confidence and use, so that today welding may be
considered a basic shape-producing method in direct
competition with forging, casting, machining, and the
other important processes.
Versatility Provides Many Applications. While it is
true that welding itself does not change the shape of
the individual components, the finished weldment, or
96 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

assembly of parts, constitutes a unified structure that Melting Common but Not Essential. Various
functionally has the properties of a solid part. In means may be used to establish these two essential
some cases, particularly with spot welding, welding is conditions of atomic cleanliness and closeness. Clean-
purely an assembly procedure and competes with liness may be established by chemical cleaning (flux-
mechanical fastening, such as riveting or bolting. In ing), providing the products of the cleaning operation
other cases, the goal in welding is to provide a joint may be removed from the surface; by melting the
that has the same structure, strength, and other prop- surface area so that the surface films float to the
erties as the base metal so that the weld area itself surface of the molten material; or by fragmentation
would be undetectable. This goal is approached in as a result of plastic deformation of the base metal.
producing some pipe and high pressure vessels but Atomic closeness may be established by filling with a
usually requires elaborate precautions to prevent con- liquid metal, as in brazing and soldering, without
tamination, heat treatment of the entire weldment actually melting the joined metals; by elastically or
after welding, and thorough testing, usually by radio- plastically deforming the surfaces until contact is
graphy. In most cases, these procedures would not be established; or by actually destroying the surfaces by
practical or economical; consequently, some rein- melting and allowing molten base metal or melted
forcement of the welded area is provided by designing filler material to resolidify in contact with the
with reinforcing plates or gussets. unmelted base metal.
Often Replaces Bolting and Riveting. With the Welding may be accomplished as a result of any
exception of some of the special purpose techniques combination of conditions that establishes the two
in other areas, welding is in a greater period of growth essential elements of atomic cleanliness and atomic
than any of the other manufacturing procedures. closeness.
Welding has largely replaced riveting and bolting in FUSION BONDING
structural steel work for bridges and buildings. In the
manufacture of automobiles and home appliances Most important welding processes, particularly
from sheet metal, most of the joining of large shapes those in which high strengths are a principal goal,
is by welding, and in many cases these welds are not make use of fusion bonds in which the surfaces of the
even apparent in the finished product. A typical auto- pieces to be joined (parent or base metal) are com-
mobile, for example, has over 4,500 spot welds in pletely melted, as shown in Figure 9-1. Liquid metal
addition to other welding. then flows together to form the union, and cleanli-
ness is established as the impurities float to the sur-
BONDS face. No pressure is necessary, and the parts to be
joined need only be located and held in proper rela-
NATURE OF BONDING
tionship to each other.
Atomic Bonding Essential. Most welding defini-
tions include some reference to heat and pressure,
and in practice most welding processes do make use
of heat or pressure or both. However, neither of these
is theoretically necessary. If two perfectly matched
clean surfaces are brought together within suitable
atomic spacing, atomic bonds will automatically be es-
tablished between the surfaces, and the surfaces will,
in fact, be welded. The essential features are not so
easy to realize, however.
Atomic Cleanliness and Closeness. Atomic clean-
liness requires that atoms exposed on the surfaces
actually be the atoms of the materials to be joined.
CONCENTRATED HEAT PROVIDED TO MELT BOTH BASE
Even if this condition is set up on a surface, exposure AND fiLLER MATERIAL
to the atmosphere results in almost immediate forma-
tion of oxide or sulfide films on most metals. Figure 9-1
Atomic closeness requires that the distances between Fusion bond
atoms brought into contact be that at which atoms
are normally spaced in the crystalline structure of a Metallurgical Effects Like Casting. The resolidifi-
metal. Normally, when two surfaces are brought into cation of the metal results in a localized casting for
contact, this condition will occur only at a number of which the unmelted base metal serves as a mold. It
points because surfaces of even the best quality have can then be expected that the same metallurgical
a finite roughness of a much larger order than atomic changes and effects, such as grain-size variation and
distances. shrinkage, that occur in casting will occur in fusion
The Welding Process 97

welding. It is also implied that simply heating an dispersed before bonding can be effective. First, the
entire structure that is to be fusion bonded would not fragments tend to assume spherical shapes as their
be satisfactory because the entire structure would total energy is raised. With spherical shapes, they
reach the melting temperature at the same time. The disrupt a lower percentage of the surface areas to be
heat must be supplied locally to the area to be joined, allowing greater contact between exposed
melted, and the rate of heat input must be great base materials. This same type of spheroidization
enough to prevent overheating of the adjacent areas. accounts for the malleabilizing of cast iron and for
This requirement leads to some difficulties in welding the effect on the cementite particles in the prolonged
aluminum, copper, and other metals having very high heating of high carbon steels. The second heat effect
thermal conductivities. Hence, NDT for weldments is is that the solubility of oxygen in the base metals is
similar to that for castings. The same kinds of defects raised with increased temperature, and some dissocia-
are likely to be found and similar NDT methods may tion of the oxides occurs with the oxygen being
be effective. In most cases there is no advantage in in- diffused into the base metal.
specting the entire weldment because the weld defects
will be concentrated in the weld itself or in the heat af-
fected zone of the weld.
Filler Sometimes Added. In fusion welding, at
least the surface of the parts being welded is always
Q)Q)
melted, and this amount of molten metal may be
sufficient to form the weld. In the more used fusion-
P,e"",e pmvided 10 Ol"el
welding processes, however, additional molten metal ~Ie,;al and ;n«ea,"
canlact a'ea
(filler) is supplied, usually by continuously melting a
rod or wire. The use of filler is nearly always neces-
sary in welding sheet and structural shapes more than Heal p,"v;ded to weaken
male,;af and ;n«ea,"
3 millimeters (1/8 inch) in thickness and, in many chem;cal aclov;ly

cases, permits more freedom in joint design by mak-


ing possible the filling and buildup of gaps and cavi- Oxides D;,pened by
F,agmenla'ion,
ties. Defo<mal;an Flow,
and D;ffo,ion
Welded Joint Strength. The strength of fusion-
welded joints will depend on the composition and
metallurgical structure of the filler material and base SECTION THROUGH UPSET JOINT

metal, on any structural changes that take place in Figure 9.2


heated areas of the base metal adjacent to the weld, Pressure bond
on the perfection with which the desired geometry of
the weld is established, on residual stresses built up Overall Joint Efficiency High. While a small
! as a result of the differential heating and cooling, and amount of fusion of the base metal may occur in
on the presence or absence of impurities in the weld. some pressure bonds, it is incidental. No pronounced
It is at least theoretically possible to produce 100% solidification shrinkage occurs as it does with fusion
efficiency in a fusion weld as compared to unwelded welds. Consequently, distortion after welding is usual-
base metal. ly very slight. The efficiency of pressure bonds, based
on the original area, may be as high as 95%. Even
PRESSURE BONDING
though there are some inclusions in the weld area that
Heat Aids Cleanliness and Closeness. The term lower unit strength, pressure-welded joints may
pressure bonding is somewhat misleading in that some actually be stronger than the original cross section as
heating is involved in the processes called pressure a result of the enlargement that occurs with plastic
bonding, or pressure welding. As will be discussed flow. This is especially true in butt-welding pro-
later, pressure alone may be sufficient to form a cedures as used in the manufacture of some chain
~ bond, but heat is used for two principal reasons. The links and fittings.
~ close union required is established by plastic flow, as
FLOW BONDING
indicated in Figure 9-2, and, in general, metals be-
come more plastic, and strengths are lower as the Base Material Not Melted. When a filler material
temperature is raised. Pressure and flow cause some of different composition and lower melting tempera-
,~fragmentation of the oxides on the surface because ture than the base metal is used, the mechanism is
'. tnost are quite brittle and cannot maintain a con- described as flow bonding (Figure 9-3). While some
tinUOUSfilm as the metal flows plastically. fusion of the base metal may occur, it is not essential
.' Of even greater importance are the two effects heat to the process and is usually undesirable. The close-
L...has on this oxide layer, which must be removed or ness necessary for bonding is established by the
98 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology .
molten filler metal conforming to the surface of the Brazing quality depends upon the proper combina-
base metal. The required cleanliness is produced by tion of base metal properties and joint preparation,
use of fluxes, ordinarily metal halides or borax, which filler metal properties, brazing temperature, and time
dissolve the surface oxides and float them out of the at temperature. All factors in this combination are sig- "-
joint. nificant to provide for melting the braze filler metal,
causing it to flow, fill, wet the joint, and diffuse into
FILLER MATERIAL (Rod or shim) the surface layers of the atomic structure of the base
(Low melting temperature) metal.

FLUX FOR
(Granular
~
CLEANING
or liquid)
Joint Thickness Critical, to Strength. Figure 9-14
shows the importance of thickness to the strength of
a brazed joint. The low strength of very thin joints is
due to the formation of "capillary dams" caused by
uneven surfaces that prevent complete filling. This
fault can be overcome to some extent by use of
! / .
special techniques, such as application of ultrasonic
..~ vibration while brazing. The fact that the strength of
the joint can be higher than that of cast filler is due
to the differences in modulus of elasticity between
the filler and the base material. The filler metal is
FiLLER
prevented from yielding by the more rigid base metal;
the result is high shear stresses normal to the direc-
tion of the load in the filler material. These shear
BASE MATERIAL stresses generate tensile stresses in such direction that
when they are combined vectorially with the direct
Hoot pmv;ded to melt fill.,
tensile stresses caused by the load, a lower stress value
met.,;el end flux only ond
;ncreo>e chemicel oct;v;ty
is produced on the plane normal to the load than
would occur in a homogeneous material. When the
Figure 9-3 joint becomes thicker, there is less restraint in the
Flow bond center of the filler layer, the shear stresses are lower,
and their effect in compensating for direct load
Joint Defined by Temperature and Spacing. Three stresses is reduced.
different operations using flow bonds have been Brazing is frequently used to join parts together,
named: braze welding, brazing, and soldering. In particularly when one or more of those parts would be
braze welding, the filler material is a metal or alloy subject to changes from exposure to high temperature
having a melting point above 425° C (800° F) and a (above that needed for brazing). If the joint strength is
composition significantly different from the base critical or if leakage is a factor, NDT might well be
metal. In practice, the commonest alloys used as filler used to establish that the necessary joint quality ex-
are copper or silver based. Occasionally, pure copper ists. The worst possible fault (assuming the braze itself
is used for braze welding steel. The filler is usually in is complete) would be wide spacing, either total or par-
rod form, and the procedures are similar to those tial, due to poor preparation, angular geometry, or
employed in some fusion welding except that only wide positioning. Sloppy fit-up of joints can also cause
the filler material is melted. Fluxes are heated on the the molten braze filler to fail to completely fill the
joint surfaces for cleaning. Braze welding is used joint. Obviously, such conditions also produce joints of
mainly for joining and repairing cast iron and is being very low strength. Porosity and inclusions are other
replaced by fusion welding in many cases. The joint possible defects. In critical applications, either ultra-
strength is limited to that of the filler material in cast sonic or radiographic tests may be used to check the
form. joint quality. Radiography readily reveals unfilled
Brazing. The word brazing, when used alone, joints and porosity. However, unwetted and undif.
designates the use of filler materials similar to those fused joints can seldom be revealed by radiography. If
used in braze welding but applied to a close-fitting such conditions are suggested, ultrasonic techniques
joint by preplacement or by capillary action. Filler should be used; ultrasonic transmission characteristics
material may be rod, wire, foil, slug, or powder, and through a properly wetted and diffused joint are signi-
fluxes similar to those used in braze welding are ficantly different from those through an inadequate
necessary. Heat may be furnished by torch, furnace, joint.
or induction, and, in production quantities, by dip- Soldering. The third type of flow bonding, solder-
ping in molten salts, which may also provide the ing, actually includes application similar to both
fluxing action. braze welding and brazing. The essential difference is
The Welding Process 99

I
I
I PIECES BEING
,~ Fille, Melol Oi",ib,t;on --..
V5. , By Copillo,y Att,octlon JOINED
BASE
METAL

;::
G

Copillo,y Oem' Hinde,


~ Oi..,ib,tIonofFille, Metol
~
g
I.S. OXIDES DISPERSEDBY
FillER FRAGMENTATION,
METAL DEFORMATION FlO~
.030 AND DIFFUSION

APPROXIMATE JOINT THICKNESS (inche,1 PRESSURE PROVIDED BY DIES


TO CAUSE METAL FLOW AND
INTIMATE CONTACT
Figure 9-4
Strength of brazed joints Figure 9-5
Cold bond

in the melting temperature of the filler metal, which


for soldering is below 4250 C (8000 F). The most
important materials in this class are lead-tin alloys by many factors. Some of the metal is actually
with melting points from 1850 C (3610 F) to slightly melted in most cases, and welded parts are subject to
above 3150 C (6000 F). The mechanical strengths of deformation and high shrinkage on cooling. The
soldered joints, particularly built-up joints of the metallurgical changes in a weldment may include all
braze-weld type, are low, and the greatest use for that take place under any kind of processing, includ-
soldering is for providing fluid tightness, for electrical ing melting, alloying, solidification, casting, hot and
connections, and for sheet metal joint filling in auto- cold working, recrystallization, and heat treating. In
motive assembly work. the case of welding, most changes are intensified
because of the high thermal gradients developed and
COLD BONDING the fast rates of heating and cooling encountered.
Heat Not Essential to Bonding. In fusion, pres- These side effects are often overlooked or neglected
sure, and flow bonding, heat is used to help establish because the principal objective of the welding proce-
the closeness and cleanliness necessary, but heat, as dure is the joining of material.
such, is not essential for proper bonding between The conditions under which most welding is per-
metallic surfaces. With greater loads than used in formed are far from ideal. Tremendous energy inputs,
pressure bonding, plastic flow of the required order especially in fusion welding, may lead to localized
for fragmentation of surface impurities can be estab- overheating to the point of vaporization. Exposure of
lished in ductile materials at room temperature. If high temperature and chemically active materials to
two fresh surfaces of lead are twisted together, a weld atmospheres difficult to control leads to the forma-
is made with a strength approaching that of the base tion of undesirable compounds. Most gases are highly
metal, and any metal may be made to weld to some soluble in molten metals but have decreasing ability
degree by wiping two surfaces together at sufficiently to stay in solution as temperatures lower, leading to
high normal pressure. However, the results would be problems of gas entrapment.
inconsistent. The practical application of cold bond-
COMPOSITION EFFECTS
ing depends on inducing deformation parallel to the
interface while it is subjected to high normal pressure. Dissolved and Entrapped Gases. The conditions
. Contact Area Increased. In practice, welds are existing in the weld area are frequently conducive to
made by squeezing the metal between two punch significant changes in the composition of either the
faces that cause metal flow normal to the direction of base or the filler metal. The rapid solidification rates
load (Figure 9-5). As the area of contact is increased, may lead to segregation of some elements, parti-
the brittle surface oxides fragment and cover a smaller cularly coring-type segregation as may occur in cast-
~. percentage of the area, exposing clean metal to metal ing some brasses. Gas may enter the molten metal not
I contacts. The greatest success so far has been with only by solution but also as a result of agitation that
copper and aluminum base metals. occurs with many fusion-welding processes. These
entrapped gases can form voids or brittle compounds
,~l WELDING METALLURGY within the structure of the metal. One of the most
. Welding Introduces Complex Problems. The final serious conditions is the embrittlement resulting from
""""properties of a welded or brazed joint are influenced hydrogen trapped in steel. With the rapid solidifica-
100 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology..

tion, slag and oxides may not have time to float and cooled rapidly by the high thermal conductivity of the
may be trapped beneath the surface to appear as solid surrounding metal, and small grain size results.
inclusions in the completed weld. fUSED AND RESOLIDifiED fiLLER
Uniform Structure Possible. Ideally, it is possible MELTED AND RESOLIDifiED
AND BASE METAL (Ca"iog)

to produce a fully homogeneous material without


defects in which it would be difficult if not impos-
METAL (Co,';09)
,
,~ ~t t f II
sible to detect the welded metal. In practical applica-
tions, this situation can be approached but often
requires post treatment to produce completely uni-
form structure and properties. Because the theoretical-
fUSION LIMIT
ly perfect joint is almost impossible to accomplish, in-
spection by NDT is frequently necessary to determine
the degree of quality. It should be pointed out also that MOLD MATERIAL
CONDUCTS HEAT fROM
in those cases where the quality of a process is depen- CASTING
dent to a large extent on the skill and care of an opera-
tor, quality of the work is likely to be higher if inspec- Figure 9-6
tion is to be performed or even if the chance of inspec- Comparison of fusion weld with casting
tion exists.

c:J
~
Filler May Reduce Problems. Fillers of com-
position different from that of the base metal are
often used to compensate for welding faults that
might otherwise be expected. The attempt is not SOLIDIFICATION BY SLIGHT SHRINKAGE
WELD METAL LIQUID
usually to use a filler that will exactly compensate for THE FORMATION OF AT THE WELD
COLUMNAR GRAINS SURFACE
the losses of the welding process but rather over-
compensate for improvement of certain properties. Figure 9-7
Thus, high nickel filler may be used in welding cast Solidification of a bead weld
iron to control grain growth and give ductility to the
weld area, and stainless steel filler may be used with
higher alloy content than the base material to insure
adequate corrosion resistance. Brazing and soldering
alloys are used principally to avoid high temperature
effects in the base metal.
The amount of alloying that occurs between base
metals and filler metals of different composition
depends on several factors, but chiefly on the actual
metals involved. Alloying is not essential to true
bonding, but at the high temperatures reached, diffu-
sion proceeds at a high rate, and for some metals
alloying will occur for some distance in both direc-
tions away from the original interface. Soft solders in BASE METAL - HOT ROLLeD AISI,O20
particular may produce brittle intermetallic com-
pounds that reduce ductility and lower strength. Figure 9-8
EFFECTS ON GRAIN SIZE AND STRUCTURE Grain structure in a fusion weld

Cooling Rates Higher Than in Casting. Grain


formation in fusion welds can best be understood by Heat Affects Base Material. The zones indicated
remembering that a fusion weld is a casting, and all in the drawin~ do not have sharp dividing lines and
the effects present in casting will be duplicated. represent only typical results. The results can vary
However, the mold wall is not fixed, and the solidifi- from those shown, depending on the shape and size
cation and cooling rates are faster than normally of the parts, the initial temperature of the base ma-
occur in casting (Figure 9-6). Fusion welds are subject terial, the rate of heat input, and the alloy content. In
to solidification and cooling shrinkage, as shown in any case, for steels, an area immediately surrounding
Figure 9-7. The grain-size effects are not confined to the molten metal will be heated above the trans-
the molten metal, because temperature high enough to formation temperature, and some degree of austeniti-
result in annealing, allotropic transformation, and re- zation can occur. Final results will depend on the time
crystallization extends for some distance into the base at temperature and the cooling rates, which cannot al-
metal, as shown in Figure 9-8. The fused material is ways be accurately predicted. Grain growth can pro-
The Welding Process 101

ceed, and, for the metal heated near its melting temper- structures will be softer because of the reduced cooling
ature, the final grain size can be large. The metal rates.
heated only slightly above the transformation temper- Effects in Pressure Welding Reduced. Effects simi-
ature is effectively normalized and will have a small lar to those of fusion welding will be observed in
final grain size, which can be smaller than that of the pressure welding. With lower temperatures, and fre-
unheated base metal. Any heat-treat or cold-work quently higher thermal gradient, the heat-affected
hardening that existed in the area heated below the zone will be smaller. Shrinkage problems are reduced
transformation temperature will be subject to temper- because of little or no fusion and more uniformly
ing or recrystallization, depending on the actual tem- welded cross sections.
perature reached and the preweld condition. EFFECTS OF WELDING ON PROPERTIES
When ultrasonic inspection is being performed on a
weldment, it is important to recognize that the abrupt Post treatment Sometimes Is Valuable. In an ideal
change in grain size can often be detected. The ultra- weld, the composition of the weld zone could be
sonic signal reflected from this heat-affected zone may made like that of the base metal and, with proper
be misinterpreted in some cases as being lack of fusion heat treatment, the strength of the final weldment
or a variety of other discontinuities, depending on loca- would be unaffected in any way by the presence of
tion. the weld. In most practical situations; compositions
Multiple Cooling Rates. Again, depending on cannot be kept exactly the same, and heat treatment
cooling rates induced and compositions involved; for sufficient to establish completely uniform structures
the metal heated above the transformation temp- would be uneconomical, if not impossible. The result
erature, the cooling may be equivalent to that re- is that the strength of most welds is different from
quired for annealing, normalizing, or actually quench- that of the base metal. With no heat treatment of
ing to martensite, provided enough carbon is present. welded steel, the strength and hardness will vary from
Some of the latter nearly always occurs in unpre- that of annealed to that of quenched material. Ductil-
heated carbon steel weldments and, when combined ity will vary inversely with the strength. Many weld-
with the uneven shrinkage that may be present, can ments are at least normalized to obtain more uniform
result in brittle structures subject to cracking. Alloy properties and to relieve stresses.
rods or rods of different carbon content may be used Design Consideration Essential. The possible
for controlling some of the possible defects. Low presence of discontinuities and inclusions in a weld
carbon filler material is often used in welding higher may lead to reduced strengths for which considera-
carbon steels to avoid the formation of excessive tion must be given in weld design. The designer must
amounts of martensite. In the fusion zone where cool- either gamble on weld quality, require special inspec-
ing rates are high, the composition would be near the tion procedures to determine weld quality with possi-
I;. composition of the filler material. Even with rapid ble rewelding of some structures, or overdesign
r cooling, the structure would consist mainly of ferrite welded joints on the basis of lowest expected
. with sufficient ductility to shrink without cracking. strengths.
Structure Varies with Cooling Rate. In the base Changes May Adversely Mfect Corrosion Resis-
! material adjacent to the liquid metal, the cooling rate tance. Corrosion resistance of many welded metals is
would be somewhat less but still sufficiently rapid to likely to be affected adversely. As already pointed
form fine pearlite and some martensite. It must be out, composition and structural changes accompany
remembered that grain size and structure are two the usual conditions required to produce a weld. High
different considerations; in this region, grain size will temperatures lead to diffusion and precipitation
~ be large because of the long time at high temperature, effects that change the chemical characteristics of the
~ but structure will be fine because of the rapid cool- metal. Some stainless steels are subject to the forma-
tion of chromium carbide during welding and may
,
ring. At a greater distance from the molten zone but
still within the area raised above the transformation
.~ temperature, the cooling rate will be nearer that usual
lose much of their corrosion-resistant qualities with-
out proper subsequent heat treatment. Even with
:
.. with normalizing, and the resulting structure will be
protective procedures, such as inert gas shielding or
slag coverings, discoloration and surface oxidation
i." medium to coarse pearlite.
1

occur in the heat-affected zone. Materials under high


il(. Preheating Lowers Cooling Rate. The cooling rate stress are subject to increased corrosion, and welds
it of the weld and the entire weld area is changed by pre- are prone to highly stressed areas unless special treat-
I,i heating the base metal surrounding the area to be ment is used for their removal.
;~welded. At any given point in the weld area, the cool-
~ing rate will be reduced because of the reduced thermal DISTORTIONS AND STRESSES
gradient established. Average grain size will be larger A homogeneous unrestricted body may be heated
because of the longer times at high temperature, but to any temperature below its melting point without
102 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

shape change. A volumetric expansion will occur with


heating, but if this expansion occurs uniformly, no
- ------1
stresses will be introduced. As the body is cooled, the
process reverses, and the final result will be the origi-
nal unstrained state. b- -------------------:
--' I l'N TOUT
(((I
Restraints Create Stresses and Distortion. With
restraint either on heating or cooling or with heating --------------- ] tL
or cooling of localized areas at a more rapid rate than
others (self-restraint), the picture will be changed.
Many welds have a vee cross section, and the molten J
and heated areas will have a related shape. Further-
more, the heat input and higher temperatures occur Figure 9-10
on the open side of the vee. Figure 9-9 illustrates Lateral distortion
the result of cooling on this cross section for various
weldments joined with vee welds. The greater shrink- ture difference cannot always be predicted or
age occurring on the wide side of the vee leads to measured. However, some degree of restraint always
angular distortion as shown. The effect is amplified exists, at least in the parent metal adjacent to the
by multipass welds in which a number of weld de- weld zone, even for members that as a whole are free.
posits are made along the length of a single vee. Each It can be safely stated that any fusion weld will
pass contributes to the distortion with the deposits contain some residual stresses when completed and
from previous passes serving as a fulcrum for in- cooled to room temperature. These stresses will be
creased angular movement. both tensile and compressive because a balance must
While a vee weld will always tend to distort angu- exist for the member to be in equilibrium.
larly in the manner shown, the lateral distortion Stresses and Distortion Are Associated. Some
between members of a weldment may vary in direc- results are indicated in Figure 9-11. For a weld along
tion and amount, depending on the size of the mem- the edge of a plate, the longitudinal shrinkage will
bers compared to the weld, the number of passes cause curvature as indicated. Although the plate has
made, the rate of heat input, and the speed of weld- no external restraint, it will be subject to stresses
ing (Figure 9-10). As the weld proceeds along the similar to those resulting from external loading that
groove, the heating of base metal along the edge of would cause equivalent curvature. In the case of the
the groove but ahead of the acutal weld leads to a weldment, however, there will be two neutral axes
spreading of the plates. On the other hand, the with both edges in tension and the center under
compression.
~L L_J ~
~
~
SINGLE PASS

- _IT..J--- n_-;~e~l-
~
'(~

MULTIPLE
---
; -------
PASS
EDGE WELD

BUTT WELDS

e- -r~~jlE-~ ~)-
I BUTT PIPE WELD

Jb~ Figure 9-11


Longitudinal distortion
FILLET WELD

For a circular weld around a pipe, similar self-


Figure 9-9
restraint exists. The shrinkage along the length of the
Angular distortion
weld results in a reduction in diameter that is resisted
shrinkage accompanying the solidification and cool- by the solid pipe adjacent to the weld. The result
ing of the completed weld tends to pull the plates to- would be high tensile stresses in the weld and high
gether. compressive stresses in the pipe on both sides of the
All Welds Create Residual Stresses. Practical weld- weld.
ments never have absolute restraint or absolute free- Even when th~ welded members have no external
dom, and the actual degree of restraint and tempera- restraint or apparent gross distortion, high residual
The Welding Process 103

COMPRESSION
stresses can exist. Figure 9-12 indicates the kind of
stress distribution to be expected from a longitudinal
butt weld between two plates.
T 0
0
Vi

Stresses Reduced by Postheating. The most - ZL-- ~-


n
~ m
widely accepted method of reducing residual stresses
in the weldments is based on two facts: (1) no
stresses higher than the yield stress can exist in a
~
material at any given temperature, and (2) if an entire
unrestrained body is cooled uniformly from any given Figure 9-12
temperature, no increase in stress will occur. If a Longitudinal stress in a butt weld
weldment is heated to an elevated temperature, yield-
ing will occur and the stresses reduced. As the temper- that final inspection be delayed hours, or longer, to be
ature is reduced, the entire weldment will shrink, but certain that post-cracking will not occur shortly after
no new stresses will be introduced. Residual stresses an inspection has been made.
cannot be completely eliminated by this method but, Grain Uniformity Requires Transforma-
as the figure shows, the yield strength at elevated tem- tion. Normalizing provides stress relief and in addi-
peratures is quite low. tion increases the uniformity of the grain structure.
The stabilization of stresses in a weldment requires Stress relieving of weldments is frequently performed
that the entire weldment reaches a uniform tempera- by heating to about 6500 C (1,200° F). While grain
ture and that all distortions permitted by its restraints refinement is not obtained at this temperature, the
take place. Time is required for each to happen and chances foJ:' distortion are less than those that might
even after stabilization some residual stresses may be be introduced by the allotropic transformation,
very near critical levels. It is sometimes important which occurs at higher temperatures.

(
Welding Processes 10
and Design
In the preceding chapter, the essential welding
requirements of atomic closeness and atomic cleanli-
ness were pointed out. It was noted, in the discussion
of bond types, that while not always essential for
welding, heat is an important part of most practical
processes. Heat is necessary for fusion, heat makes
metals become more plastic, and heat assists in ob-
taining cleanliness in many processes. The more im-
portant welding processes differ primarily in, and, in
fact, are usually named for the heat source.
An integral part of practical welding processes is
the method of obtaining and, of equal importance, of
maintaining cleanliness in the weld area. Not only is it
necessary to obtain atomic cleanliness for proper fu-
sion but also the heated metal, particularly during
fusion welding, must be protected from excessive
contamination from the atmosphere.

HEAT FOR WELDING

Furnace Heat Not Localized. Energy sources used


for welding are characterized by two important fea-
tures: the degree of localization permissible and the
rate of heat input possible. Heating in a furnace by rad-
iation and conduction may permit a large total heat in-
put but results in thorough heating of the entire part
or assembly. This method would be unacceptable for
fusion welding because melting of the entire weldment
would occur but may be the preferred method for bra-
zing and soldering. The base metal temperature being
uniform, stresses caused by temperature changes are
minimized. The ease of control makes furnace brazing
adaptable to production quantities. Furnace heating is
the usual method of preheating weldments to permit
stress equalization and lessen the probability of crack-
ing.
106 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology.

Forge Welding-a Pressure Bond. The process high production processes, the electric arc is used
called forge welding is named for the initial method more than oxyacetylene because of the greater heat
of heating in which the parts to be heated are placed input that may be obtained and the lower cost of
directly in the fire of a forge, a special type of electrical energy.
furnace. The parts, heated either locally or through- Other Gases Less Used. Other gases burning with
out, are then subjected to pressure (manual ham- oxygen are also used but to a much more limited
mering in the case of blacksmith in g) to produce the degree. Oxyhydrogen can provide a strongly reducing
weld. The blacksmithing art is still important, but flame without the soot associated with oxyacetylene
forge welding has been largely replaced by other and is used for welding aluminum and lead. Natural
methods. gas, propane, or butane, burned with oxygen, are
Localized Heat Most Common. The most impor- used for preheating and for brazing and soldering but
tant welding processes make use of localized heating. have limited temperatures, making them less useful
For fusion welding, this is a necessity to prevent than oxyacetylene for fusion welding.
excessive melting and to restrict the heat-affected
zone in the base metal. The temperature differential
in the weld area will depend not only on the rate of THE ELECTRIC ARC
heat input and the degree of localization but also on
the thermal properties of the base metal and the Practically all production welding today makes
geometry of the weldment. Heat sources differ in the use of electricity as an energy source. The first appli-
maximum temperature possibilities, the degree of cation was the electric arc, developed about 1880
concentration, and in the maximum practical amount (Figure 10-1) but restricted in use until the develop-
of energy that may be transferred. ment of coated electrodes. The electric arc is one of
Heat Source Influences Cleanliness. The choice
of a heat source may be governed by the contamin- CORE
WIRE
ating influence on the base metal. With some heat
sources, especially those of chemical nature, the at-
mosphere to which the weld is subjected is deter- MOLTEN GLOBULE

mined by the heat source. With most types of electric


heating, the atmosphere may be controlled exclusive
of the heat source.
Economic considerations always playa large part
in the final determination of a heat source. The actual
energy costs, based on fuel or electricity, differ to
Figure 10-1
some extent, but the choice is most frequently made
The welding arc
on the basis of initial equipment cost, availability,
portability, and the suitability of the process and
the hottest source:; of energy available except for
equipment for the amount of welding and kind of
material to be welded. nuclear reactions. Arc column temperatures are near
6,090° C (11,000° F), which is well above the melt-
CHEMICAL REACTIONS ing points of common metals and alloys. With typical
Oxyacetylene. The oldest and still most used arc-welding conditions of 25 volts at 300 amperes,
source of heat based on a chemical reaction is the burn- the total energy suppplied would be 6,550 kilocal-
ing of acetylene (C2H2)and pure oxygen. A reducing or ories per hour (26,000 BTU per hour).
carburizing flame prevents or reduces decarburization Ionization Establishes Current Path. Most gases,
and causes less oxidation of steeL An excess of oxygen including the atmosphere, are very poor conductors
produces a strongly oxiding flame that has only lim- at room temperature, and the voltage necessary to
ited use but yields maximum temperatures. With three maintain an arc over any practical distance would be
parts oxygen to one part acetylene, the temperature is very high. However, gas molecules at arc temperatures
3,482°C (6,300°F). Other temperatures range from have such high velocities that they ionize (lose some
815°C (1,500°F) at the tip of the inner cone of a neutral electrons by collision) in numbers sufficient to make
flame (one to one proportions of oxygen and acetylene) the gas highly conducting for electric current. When
to about 3,300°C (5,972°F) in the hottest portions of the arc is extinguished, it cools and loses its ioniza-
the outer envelope. tion in the order of one thousandth of a second, and
Portability an Important Advantage. Oxyacety- reionization must occur before the arc can be reestab-
lene has advantages of portability, low first cost, and lished.
flexibility. With relatively simple equipment, opera- The temperature of the arc is essentially constant
tions ranging from brazing and soldering to flame throughout the length and diameter of the arc col-
cutting may be performed. For fixed installations and umn. The electrical characteristics, including the volt-
Welding Processes and Design 107

age drop in the arc and at the surfaces at which the high spring or air pressure. Before contact can take
arc terminates, are determined by the composition place, arcs with current on the order of 50,000 to
and length of the arc. With long arcs and highly 100,000 amperes are established. These high currents
conductive gases such as hydrogen, higher inputs are quickly heat the surfaces of the work to vaporization
required to maintain the arc. temperatures. The vapor holds the workpieces apart
The Work Frequently Serves as One Electrode. until the capacitor is nearly discharged, at which time
The arc usually exists between the work and a metal the pressure completes the contact against a thin film
rod, which may progressively melt and serve as filler of clean molten metal. Equipment costs are high and
material or may be nonconsumable. applications are limited, but percussive welding may
Some Metal Lost during Transfer. Welding arcs be used for joining widely dissimilar materials. Heat
with consumable electrodes transfer this metal in effects in the base material are limited in extent.
molten form to the weld pool on the work. Transfer Stud Welding. A further variation in the use of an
may be by fine metal spray or by relatively large arc for welding is in the process called stud welding,
globules and rivulets that may even short-circuit the developed in the shipbuilding industry for attaching
arc temporarily. The rate of electrode burn-off is steel studs to the steel deck of a ship. These studs are
almost directly proportional to the welding current then used for holding the wood overdeck. The stud is
for any given rod diameter. However, the range of supported in a special gun and forms the electrode in
currents that may be used with any electrode to much the same manner as the filler material in con-
obtain a balance between burn-off and heating of the ventional arc welding. It is then moved to the work
base metal is limited. From 10% to 30% of the melted until an arc is established, drawn back, then forced
rod is normally lost through vaporization and spat- into the work-after a short period of arc heating-
tering outside the molten pool. with sufficient pressure to cause some upsetting of
Gas Shielding Improves Quality. During transfer the end of the stud. The process is used primarily for
across the arc gap, the molten metal is shielded by attaching threaded fastening devices in applications
protective gases from oxidation and other reactions similar to that described above-.
with the arc atmosphere. These gases may be pro-
vided by the burning of coatings on the welding rod WELDING EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES
itself, by flux powders beneath which the arc burns,
or by a flow of shielding gas from an external source. Most of the basic shape-producing methods
tcertain
Straight Polarity-Welding Rod Negative.
welding rods., the polarity of the rod
With
with
make use of a relatively small number of equipmen~
types for each of the individual processes. For both
practical and economic reasons, the majority of weld-
respect to the work exerts a measurable influence on
ing processes make use of heat to establish the con-
I burn-off rate and the amount of spattering. When the ditions necessary for welding. Most heating means are
f rod is negative, the setup is called straight polarity. used at one time or another, so that the equipment
When the rod is positive, the setup is called reverse design varies over a wide range. Welding is still in an
polarity. Manufacturers designate the preferred polari- earlier stage of development than casting, forging,
ties for most rods.
pressworking, or machining, and new techniques with
Arc Welding Versatile and Important. Arc weld- associated equipment are constantly being developed.
ing has developed into the most versatile of all weld- At some future date, a higher degree of equipment
ing processes. Power supplies of almost unlimited standardization is likely, but at present, each new
capacity are available, and deposition rates in excess development adds another piece of specialized equip-
of 100 pounds per hour are used with the faster pro- ment.
cedures. Many production processes have been de-
r veloped, most with automatic regulation of current,
ARC-WELDING ELECTRODES
',rod feed, and speed of travel along the proper path.
With proper shielding, most metals and alloys may be Coatings Provide Protective Atmosphere. Early
~ arc welded. Products that are regularly arc welded welding rods were bare iron wires, with which it was
include tanks and other pressure vessels, structural difficult to maintain stable welding arcs: the deposit-
steel, large diameter steel pipes, ship hulls and fit- ed metal was frequently porous or contained oxides
,tings, large machinery frames, and aircraft structures. and other inclusions. Modem welding rods for manual
.,~ Percussive Welding. One other use of the electric use are usually heavily coated with constituents that
I arc is in percussive welding, a process more closely alleviate these problems.
associated with pressure than fusion methods and The first function of the coating is to provide a
f~,Usedonl~ for making butt joints between the flat gaseous shield that flushes away the atmospheric
'~nds of work pieces without filler material. The work- gases to prevent oxidation and other gaseous contami-
[pieces are connected to a large capacitor charged to nation of molten metal during transfer from the rod
[~pout 3,000 volts, then driven toward each other by and after deposition in the molten pool. The gaseous
108 Materials and Processes for NDT Technoloro.::

shield generally also. contains ionizing constituents structures, and welding of cross-country pipelines, do
that assist in ionizing the arc atmosphere by reducing not permit positioning of the work.
the effective ionization potential so that the arc may Even so, welding often proves to be far cheaper and
burn with lower applied voltage. Sodium salts are produces more reliable structures than other fabrica-
commonly used for direct-current welding rods. tion processes.
Potassium salts are used for alternating-current weld- Quality and Speed Improved with Modifica-
ing rods for which arcs are more difficult to maintain tions. When manual arc welding with stick rods can-
because the current passes through zero 120 times not provide welds of high enough quality or when the
each second (twice for each cycle of 60 hertz cur- nature of the work, especially the amount of welding
rent). to be done, permits higher setup and equipment costs
Slag Protects Hot Metal. In addition, the coating with reduced operating labor time, a number of
may provide slag-blanket forming materials, which modifications are available.
form a protective layer over the deposited weld Inert Gas Shield-Tungsten Electrode Welding of
metal. The insulating coating reduces the rate of cool- many modern metals and alloys, such as magnesium,
ing by heat loss to the atmosphere and protects the titanium, stainless steels, and others is done with gas
hot metal from atmospheric oxidation and gas tungsten-arc welding (Figure 10-2). In this process,
absorption at the higher ~emperatures at which gases first developed during World War II for welding mag-
are readily soluble in the metal. For welding on ver- nesium alloys, an arc is maintained between a noncon-
tical and overhead surfaces, special coatings with high sumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece, while
slag viscosities are needed to prevent the slag from shielding is provided by an inert gas or gas mixture,
running off the surface of the metal during the period most commonly argon or helium. Filler metal mayor
when the slag itself is molten. may not be added as the particular application re-
Coating May Add Filler. In high-depositon-rate quires. This method has been well developed and finds
rods for flat position welding, extremely heavy coat- many applications today, particularly for welding
ings may be employed to carry powdered iron or iron some of the difficult materials. In the past, this non-
oxide materials that combine with the deposited consumable process has been referred to as tungsten
metal to add to the deposition rate. Contact elec- inert gas welding.
trodes are designed with coatings that burn off slowly
enough to support the rod at a proper distance above
the work for good arc length with less operator skill
- SHIELDING
GAS

than demanded by the usual manual procedure. The


operator merely drags the electrode over the work,
yet maintains a good arc position as the coating bums
away in unison with the melting of the metallic
material.

MODIFICATION OF ARC WELDING FOR SPECIAL


PURPOSES
Manual Procedures Very Versatile. Many installa-
tions in use today are for manual welding. Most use Figure 10-2
coated electrodes of consumable types; shielding of the Schematic diagram of gas tungsten.arc welding
arc is provided by burning of the electrode coating. The
core wire provides the deposited metal. These elec- Wire Electrode May Supply Filler. Several varia-
trodes are manufactured in stick form with core wires tions of gas metal-arc welding (Figure 10-3) have
of various diameters and coatings for various welding been developed. Processes of this type have in com-
purposes. mon the use of a filler material in wire form, which is
Manual Welding Economical For Small Quanti- continuously fed into the weld metal pool, and a
ties. Manual welding is costly in terms of time and shielding gas, or mixture of gases, to provide the
labor as compared to automatic production processes protective atmosphere. Filler-wire diameter may
but requires little or no setup time. Speed of manual range from 0.5 to 30 millimeters (0.020 to 0.125 inch),
welding is increased, where feasible, by using work and currents may range from 90 to 800 amperes.
positioners. These permit welding on complex shapes Equipment is available for both hand-held and ma-
to be carried out in optimum welding positions, flat chine-guided operation.
or horizontal if possible. In this way, high-deposition- Several Gases Used as Shields. Argon, helium or
rate electrodes may be employed to speed the work mixtures of argon and helium are the commonest
and lower its cost. Certain applications, such as repair shielding gases, particularly for high alloy steels and
and maintenance welding, construction of bridges and nonferrous metals, because of their complete
Welding Processes and Design 109

SHIELDING GAS
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding. A great amount of
automatic welding is performed by the gas tungsten-
Jr WIRE DRIVE
arc method becuase the non-consumable tungsten elec-
trode provides for a heat source with good stability.
Most automatic gas tungsten-art welding machines
are applied with electronic controls that automatically
move the electrode holder upward or downward to
maintain a constant arc length. The possible compact-
ness of the electrode holder permits use of the method
in locations where a human operator could not see or
manipulate. Much of the development work was per-
formed in submarines for successfully welding pipe in
inaccessible areas.
The method is widely used for pipe welding both in
the field and in the shop. In some cases, welds without
Figure 10-3
filler wire are produced-most on relatively thin sheet
Schematic diagram of gas metal-arc welding
metal products. In other cases, cold filler wire is fed in-
to the weld puddle or in still other cases, preheated
chemical inertness. However, the gas mixture has filler wire is fed to promote faster welding. Recently
considerable effect on the depth of penetration, the developed are pulsed-arc power supplies capable of pro-
contour of the weld surface, and the arc voltage. viding various pulse characteristics to the arc. Such
From 0.5% to 5% oxygen is sometimes added to controls impart high frequency agitation of the matter
improve the weld contour. Carhon dioxide gas is fre- puddle, in effect stirring the oxides and evolved gasses
quently used when welding mild steel; even then it is out of the weld.
difficult to avoid porosity in the weld. Weld quality As with any automatic process where the human ele-
may be improved by providing a small amount of dry ment is reduced, reliability and consistency tend to be
flux as a magnetic powder that either clings to the improved once the process is in operation. However,
rod as it emerges from the holder or is contained in because the operator no longer has the ability to in-
the center of hollow filler-wire. Similar improvement stantly compensate for observable errors, problems of
may be obtained by using two shielding gases: a small initial preparation and fit-up become more critical.
amount of inert gas such as argon or helium near the Automatic Welding Under Flux. A high produc-
rod and a larger flow of cheaper carbon dioxide sur- tion process in wide use today is submerged arc weld-
rounding the inert gas. ing (Figure 10-4). The power supply and feeding ar-
rangement are similar to those that would be used with
, AUTOMATIC WELDING gas metal-arc welding, but shielding is provided by a
Almost all electric arc processes except those using granular flux fed from a hopper to surround the arc
covered electrode wire are amenable to a certain completely. Part of the flux is fused by the heat of the
amount of automatic or machine control. Those using arc to provide a glassy slag blanket that protects the
gas metal-arc and/or flux core wire with gas shield are molten metal and the solidified weld as it cools. In
sometimes adapted for automatic operation. Usually a addition, the normally nonconductive flux becomes
constant voltage power supply and adjustment of cur- conductive when fused and permits very high current
rent flow permits the burn-off rate to maintain an ap-
proximately uniform arc length regardless of the rate
of wire feed.
The automatic feature of this kind of welding is often
the result of experimentation and custom design to
provide proper coordination in the relative motion be-
DIRECTION OF TRAVEL .
tween the heat source and weldment. Sometimes, the
;, electrode holder is moved through a predetermined
i! path by control of a holding fixture that is clamped to
. the work. In other cases the arc may remain in a fixed
location and the weldment moved past it by action of
RECOVERABLE FLUX

I the positioner on which it is mounted. Although in a


~ root pass a straight line motion is most likely to be WORK
, Used,on multiple pass welds, a waving motion such as WELDBEAD
'!night be imparted by an expert welder may be incor-
'Porated by automatic control to improve the weld qual- Figure 10-4
ity and increase the deposition rate. Schematic diagram of submerged arc welding
no Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

densities that give deep penetration. Because of the


greater penetration with a saving of filler material and 1, WA TER

a higher welding speed for a given current, smaller


grooves may be used for joint preparation with this
process than with others. It is basically a shop process.

ELECTRIC RESISTANCE HEATING


Heat for an important group of hot pressure-
welding processes is supplied by the passage of elec-
] TRANSFORMER
WElD NUGGET

tric current through the work. The rate of power


expenditure in any electrical circuit is given by I
P = 12R Figure 10-5
where P is the power in watts; I, the current in Spot welding
amperes; and R, the resistance in ohms.
Highest Resistance at Interfaces. Heat is gener- shaped electrodes, as shown in Figure 10-5. Accurate
ated throughout the circuit, and resistance-welding control is necessary to prevent burning of the elec-
processes are based on the fact that the highest resis- trodes and excessive heating of the base material,
tance occurs at the interfaces between metal surfaces which would cause too much plastic flow under the
where the contact is limited to a number of points of pressure of the electrodes. Spot welding is sometimes
relatively small area. This condition occurs not only facilitated by interrupting the current flow and using
at the interface between the work pieces, where max- a series of short heating periods to provide a different
imum heat is desired, but also at the contacts with heat distribution.
the electrodes, for which the heating effect is mini- Modified Spot Welding. The two most common
mized by using high conductivity copper alloys with variations are seam and projection welding, shown in
water cooling and high pressure contact of formed Figure 10-6. In seam welding, a series of overlap-
surfaces. ping spot welds produce a continuous joint used
Melting Incidental Only. As the contact points primarily where pressure or liquid tightness is a re-
heat between the work surfaces, they become plastic, quirement, as in automotive gasoline tanks.
and the clean metal union is expanded by deforma- In many cases, multiple spot welds or single spot
tion and by the fragmentation, spheroidization, and welds of highly localized character may be made by
diffusion of the oxides into the base metal. Some confining the area of contact to projections on the
local melting may take place but is not necessary for surface of one or both workpieces. Large electrodes
the process to be successful. Even with the increased shaped to the contour of the work may be used, and
area of contact, the interface area remains the point
of greatest heat generation because the resistance of
the base metal rises as its temperature is increased.
The duration of the current is controlled by a timer
that in most cases regulates the periods of current
flow by controlling the number of cycles of alter-
nating current permitted to flow through the primary
ili~".o,,; ~ ..1...
of the step-down transformer. The pressure is also ffI"'" m WNW 1
timed, with an increase to cause plastic flow after PROJECTION WELDING
heating has occurred.
Dissimilar Metals May Be Joined. Nearly all met-
als, as well as most combinations of different metals,
may be resistance welded. Difficulties are sometimes
encountered in welding high conductivity metals such
as aluminum and copper or in joining parts of differ-
ent thicknesses. Experimentation to establish the best
weld conditions will produce satisfactory welds for
most applications.
Spot Welding for Joining Sheet Metal. The most
important applications of resistance heating are for SEAM WELDING

spot welding and its variations. Used primarily for lap


joints between flat sheets, spot welds are obtained by Figure 10-6
concentrating the pressure and current flow with Variations of spot welding
Welding Processes and Design III

the exterior of the part has little or no marking from cur. The boiling of the molten metal at the high
the electrodes. Uses of projection welding include the temperatures removes impurities that may be present,
joining of electrical contacts to relay and switch parts and the resulting weld may be of higher quality than
and the manufacturing of fencing in which the pro- the base metal. The high rate of heating restricts the
jections are inherent in the product where the wires heat-affected zone, and there is minimum distortion
cross. and alteration of physical properties. A ratio of fu-
Spot Welding an Important Assembly Pro- sion depth to width of as much as twenty is possible.
cess. Spot welding and its variations are among the The process uses high cost equipment, and the
most used joining processes in the manufacture of total amount of heat available is small. Electron-beam
high quantity goods, such as automobiles, home ap- welding is valuable for welding beryllium, molyb-
pliances, office equipment, and kitchenware. Dissimi- denum, zirconium, hafnium, and other refractory
lar metals and parts of different thicknesses may be metals difficult to weld by other methods.
joined. Little cleaning of the parts is necessary either
PLASMA ARC
before or after welding. The greatest limitations are
the initial cost of equipment, the experimentation For most gases, the stable molecular form at
sometimes necessary with new applications, and the room temperature contains two atoms, but the gas,
restrictions to joining relatively thin material except when ionized, becomes monatomic in form. A plasma
in the case of projection welding. is a gas that has been heated to such a temperature
that the gas is ionized. A reduction in temperature
results in the recombination of atoms to the molecu-
SPECIAL WELDING PROCESSES
lar form and the release of energy as heat. The gas
As in the case of sheet-metal forming, a number column in arc welding is ionized, but in this case, it is
of limited-use joining processes have been developed a relatively small, stationary quantity of gas that is
for special applications. These may be concerned with involved.
the welding of refractory or easily oxidized metals, of In the plasma-arc process, a stream of gas is ion-
metals that require extremely high rates of heat in- ized by heat as it is passed through an electric arc
put, or of heavy sections or may simply involve by one of the two methods shown in Figure 10-8.
special procedures that assist some otherwise con- Thermal expansion of the gas stream causes it to flow
ventional process. Most are of rather limited use be- at supersonic speeds as its diameter is restricted by
~ cause of the special equipment required, the restric- the magnetic properties of the arc. The drop in tem-
tion of sizes, the high cost involved, or being new, the peratures caused by contact with the relatively cool
, lack of widespread knowledge. work surface results in loss of ionization and the
release of large amounts of heat directly at the sur-
face to be heated. The process has a high intensity
r ELECTRON-BEAM WELDING
Energy for heating may be made available in and a high rate of heat transfer, which makes it
many forms. In the electron-beam gun (Figure useful for welding high conductivity metals such as
10-7), a stream of high energy electrons is focused aluminum.
electrically toward a spot on the surface to be heated. NEGATIVE

Rapid localized heating takes place with the possi- ELECTRODE

bility of melting for welding or of complete vaporiza-


tion for removing metal. The process is carried out in
GAS
I~GAS GAS GAS
a vacuum so that no products of combustion and no
contamination or oxidation of the heated work oc-
1\ (I \ {
t-wJ
- -
filAMENT

PLASMA fLAME
+ HIGH VOLTAGE DC

lOW VOLTAGE DC

iI:
VACUUM
WORK WORK

WORK
1 TRANSfeRRED ARC NONTRANSfERRED ARC

Figure 10-7 Figure 10-8


Schematic diagram of a simple electron-beam gun Plasma arcs
112 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

ULTRASONIC WELDING MECHANICAL


HEAT DEVElOPED
FROM FRICTION
FRAGMENTATION OF SUR-

\I
Vibration Aids Cleaning. One of the principal
limitations on cold bonds is the excessive deforma-
FACEOXIDES f'
tion required to provide enough fragmentation of the
oxide layers on the contacting surfaces. Cold bonding
may be performed with less deformation by applying t~-+-~~~
STATIONARY BAR ROTATING BAR
high frequency mechanical energy in the process
called ultrasonic welding. The vibrations introduce Figure 10-9
shearing forces that assist in the fragmentation; as a Friction welding
result, more than 50% clean-metal contact may be
established.
~ RUNOFF TABS
Both spot and seam welds may be made, and the
widest use has been for metals difficult to join by ELECTRODE GUIDE

conventional processes. These include stainless steel,


molybdenum, zirconium, various bimetal combina-
tions, and thin foil or sheet aluminum. The upper
limit is about 0.100 inch, although thin sheets may be
welded to thicker sections. Ultrasonic welding is also WATER-COOLED r-- ---
REAR SHOE -..1
an important assembly method for plastics. (Front shoe not
shown)
I
I
MOLTEN SLAG
I
I
I I
MOLTEN METAL

I I
I I
FRICTION WELDING I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I
In ultrasonic welding, mechanical energy is sup- I I
L_- --r-- ---f J
plied to facilitate fragmentation. In friction welding : : RESOLIDIFIED METAL
(Figure 10-9), mechanical energy is supplied not I
I
I
I
only to facilitate fragmentation but also to develop I
I
I

heat. In the process, used almost exclusively for


making butt welds in heavy round sections, the bars
or tubes are brought together with high force while
one is rotated. The friction develops sufficient heat to
make the metal plastic and to permit cleaning and Figure 10-10
closeness to be achieved in much the same manner as Electroslag welding
in resistance butt welding.

Multiple Electrodes Needed for Heavy Sections. A


ELECTRO SLAG WELDING
single electrode is used for sections up to about 2
Slag Protects the Heated Metal. The principal of inches thick. For thicker sections, multiple electrodes
electroslag welding is illustrated in Figure 10-10. The may be used, and melting rates of up to 40 pounds
edges to be joined are placed in a vertical position per hour for each electrode are possible. While the
with a gap between them. Water-cooled copper shoes principal applications have been for forming butt
or slides cover the gap where the welding is in pro- welds between plates and for producing heavy-walled
cess. Slag is first deposited in the gap and a wire cylinders rolled from flat plate, shaped rather than
electrode introduced to form an arc. Once the arc has flat slides may be used for producing tee joints or
melted the slag, the arc is automatically extinguished, special built-up shapes on the surface of a part. In a
and heat is produced by the passage of current newer variation of the process, an arc is used contin-
through the molten slag. The electrode is fed into the uously, without slag, but with a protective gas atmos-
slag as it melts, and, as the gap fills, the copper shoes phere fed through ports at the tops of the copper
and electrode guide are gradually raised. The process slides.
might well be defined as continuous casting, with the
EXPLOSION WELDING
base metal and the copper slides forming a moving
mold. The slag forms a protective layer for the weld In recent years, explosion welding has developed
pool and, in addition, forms a coating over the copper into an important process particularly suited to join-
slides that protects them from the molten metal. By ing large areas of two or more metals of different
changing the rate of wire feed and the electrical compositions. Standard explosive materials supply
input, the rate of deposition and the penetration into the energy to produce the weld, which may be made
the base metal may be controlled. on flat or curved surfaces.
Welding Processes and Design 113

Progressive Cleaning and Welding. A uniform cov- design if the maximum permissible stresses are con-
ering layer of explosive material is detonated to pro- sidered and joint areas are increased where necessary.
duce a shock wave that progresses uniformly across Unitized Product. The single-piece concept is
the material to be welded. The materials to be welded used in many applications. For example, in much
are originally spaced a small distance apart. The shock welded pipe, the weld is undetectable without critical
wave from the explosion closes the gap in such a way examination; a drill or reamer shank is continuous
that surface impurities are pushed ahead and extreme- with the body of the tool, even though they are of
ly high pressures establish the contact of clean metal different materials. In modern welded structural steel
for welding. assemblies, the joints may be stressed as continua-
The greatest use for the procedure is in coating, tions of the beams involved, although strengthening
or cladding, structural metal with a more expensive plates are sometimes necessary. In many instances,
but more corrosion-resistant metal. The purpose may welding permits the single-piece concept to be applied
be to protect the metal from ordinary environmental to designs that would not otherwise be possible.
exposure or to prevent damage from more intense Assembly Fastening. The second concept of weld-
exposure such as in chemical process containers. ing is as an assembly means in competition with
mechanical fastenings. The welded assembly is gen-
DIFFUSION WELDING
erally permanent, but the individual parts retain their
Solid-state processes of joining metals were the identity, and the strength of the structure is frequent-
earliest used and antedate the fusion processes. Re- ly governed by the strength of the joints. The use of
vived interest in the principles of the solid-state pro- spot, seam, and projection welding is normally in this
cesses, however, has recurred in very recent years class. In many cases, not only are the mechanical
together with increased theoretical knowledge of fasteners eliminated but also preparation by drilling
solid-state bonding. The result is development of dif- or punching holes is unnecessary and gaskets are no
fusion welding. longer needed for sealing. Fitting of parts together
Pressure, Temperature, Time-Independent Vari- may be simplified because alignment of holes is not
ables. The process involves the establishment of a required. The parts may be merely positioned with
smooth, clean surface that must be maintained until proper relationship to each other.
the weld is accomplished. This often means protect- JOINTS
ing the surfaces in an inert gas environment for a few
seconds to a number of minutes. Low to moderate The terminology applied to the shapes of welded
pressure is applied to the surfaces to be joined at the joints is somewhat loose. The type of joint and the
same time the temperature is raised. The welding type of weld are two different considerations. Two
temperature is somewhat dependent on other con- flat plates, for example, may have their edges butted
ditions but usually falls someplace between the re- together, one may be lapped over the other, or they
crystallization temperature and the melting tempera- may be placed at right angles to each other. The
ture of the material. configuration adopted would be referred to as the
Present Use Limited. Diffusion welding does not type of joint. Although some joints are more con-
at present seem to be economically competitive with viently welded by some processes than by others, and
other processes when the other processes can produce some processes are restricted to certain types of
joints, the specification of a joint type does not
. satisfactory results. The main use to date has been in
welding new materials to avoid metallurgical, car- automatically specify the welding process or the man-
ner in which filler material is to be placed.
l. rosion, and physical problems sometimes associated Weld Type Usually Distinguished from Joint
j. with older welding techniques. The process has been
:~ used most for joining special alloys in aerospace and Type. The actual shape of the bonded area or the
.- atomic energy applications. cross-sectional shape of the filler material, frequently
governed by the preparation given the edges of the
ilL
part to be welded, is known as the type of weld. In
(;; WELDING DESIGN the lapped position, the plates might be joined by
Welding may fulfill either one of two basically building up fillets along the edges, filling in holes or
, different design concepts. As a basic shape-producing
.means, welding competes with other basic processes,
slots in one plate with weld metal, spot welding, or
seam welding. Frequently, a close connection exists
~ .especially forging and casting. The individual parts between the type of weld and the process that may
I making up a weldment are most frequently cut from be used. Either term, joint or weld, is sometimes used
~ rolled sections that are produced in high quantities at to refer to both the relative positions of the parts to
low cost. Ideally, the finished weldment may be be welded and the type of weld.
'thought of as an homogeneous structure equivalent to Figure 10-11 shows the weld types that may be
'a single part. Even with less than 100% joint efficien- produced by fusion welding. Following the name is
"cy, the single-piece concept may still be used in the drawing symbol for each type. Bead welds are
114 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

often used for building up metal on a surface where


joining is not needed. The type of groove weld used
will have considerable influence on the penetration
into the base metal necessary for good bonding and on

~ M
~~ FILLET ~ SQUARE GROOVE -H-
Figure 10-13
Tee joints

~
Other side
member of joint

(
'0 r-
BiD I
I L- ~ Arrow of
SQUARE GROOVE -tt- BEVEL GROOVE JL VEE GROOVE :::L welding symbol

V\ Arrow side
member of joint

~ J-GROOVE.JL
rtJh .
lJ-GROOVE
~'

-'L
Figure 10-14
Lap joints
Arrow side
Figure 10-11 of joint
Fusion-weld types
Arrow of
the amount of distortion encountered. A vee or bevel welding symbol
weld requires simpler preparation than a V- or J-weld
but results in greater distortion because much more
heat is present at the opening of the vee than at the
bottom. The heat difference is not so great in a
V-weld. Where access is available to both sides of the Figure 10-15
members, many groove welds are made in double Corner joints
form, especially for heavy members. Adequate pene- Arrow side
tration with square grooves is generally possible only olioin!
Arrow 01
by welding from both sides. The weld types shown welding symbol
also apply to braze welding, except that in this appli-
cation no melting of the base metal would occur, and
the dotted lines in the figure would be the extent of
fusion.
Configuration Determines Joint Type. Five basic
types of joints are used for welding. These are shown Figure 10-16
in Figures 10-12 through 10-16. The types of welds Edge joints
that may be used with each and the standard weld
symbols that apply are shown.

Other side
01 join!

Figure 10-12
Butt joints Elements in this
Basic weld symbol area remain as
or detail reference shown when tail
and arrow are
reversed
The Welding Symbol. Figure 10-17 illustrates the
elements of a welding symbol as recognized by the Figure 10-17
American Welding Society. The symbol is used on Elements of the weldjng symbol
Welding Processes and Design 115

drawings to designate the details of a weld. Any part were designed according to rules that permit freedom
of the symbol that is not needed for clarity may be in the joints as is generally assumed for bolting or
omitted. Figure 10-18 shows the manner in which the riveting. Large improvements in joint strength and
symbol would be used to describe a welded corner joint ductility have resulted from improved methods for
together with the result of following these specifica- preventing contamination of the weld metal and as
tions. The joint is to have a If4-inch unfinished fillet the metallurgical changes that take place in a weld
weld on the inside of the corner (opposite side) and a have become fully understood.
1/4-inch back weld on the outside (near, or arrow
side) that is to be ground flat. The shielded-metal WELD ABILITY
arc-welding process is to be used. It is to be a continu- Weldability Varies with Material. The relative ease
ous weld along the corner because no pitch or spacing with which a sound union may be produced between
is designated. two parts by welding is knows as the weldability of a
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS metal. A number of factors must be considered. Some
metals may be more easily contaminated than
It has been fully realized in recent years that weld- others. The contamination may consist of gross oxide
ing is a unique process and that all of the design rules inclusions or voids that would be very apparent in a
applied to other processes db not necessarily apply to cross section of the weld, or of microcontamination
that results in structural changes detectable only by
~1;'4 ~ examining the metallurgical structure. Gross defects
SMAW/V4 Q ~ not only reduce the actual cross section of the weld
but also introduce stress concentrations that are par-
ticularly harmful in a metal with low ductility. The
principal effect of structural changes is reduced duc-
tility. Contamination can be controlled by providing
the correct environment for the molten metal.
Hardenability. Especially important for steels is
consideration of the hardenability of the metal. It
will be remembered that this term is related to the
COMPLHED WELDJOINT
cooling rate necessary to form a structure of given
Figure 10-18 hardness in a steel. Again remembering that as hard-
Example of welding symbol use ness is increased, ductility decreases, the effect of
hardenability on weldability can be predicted. In all
welding. Welding started as a repair method and the important welding processes, the metal is heated
( developed from this, primarily as a substitute for near or above the melting temperature, and cracking
"'-other methods of joining. When it is used strictly as a or high residual stresses as the metal cools differen-
. joining method, particularly by spot welding, little tially can be prevented only by yielding of the metal
. trouble is experienced. However, when parts are fully in the weld area. With few exceptions, any element
i' joined to form rigid, one-piece structures, designers that is added to pure iron increases its hardenability
: have not always realized that such structures do not and therefore decreases its weldability by reducing
i: respond to loading in the same way as a bolted or ductility and increasing the possibility of cracks or
,.' .
nveted structure. Many structures must allow for high residual stresses. Therefore, increased welding
: yielding
v
or shifting in service that might be permitted
by a bolted structure but not by a weldment, unless
difficulty can be expected as carbon or alloy content
is increased in any steel. The major exception to this
:% ,thedesign were changed. nde is the addition of vanadium, which reduces
hardenability.
1'- Unit Structure-Special Consideration. A number
! of failures of welded ships and storage tanks have Thermal Conductivity. Another factor affecting
, been traced to cracks that can grow to a large size in a weldability is the thermal conductivity of the metal.
welded structurebut would be interrupted by a If a metal had infinitely high thermal conductivity, it
~1l11eChaniCally fastened
,

joint. Monolithic welded struc- could not be fusion welded at all because it could not
, tures have been found to be somewhat more notch be locally melted. Aluminum, for example, has such
',sensitive with a corresponding drop in impact high conductivity that high rates of heat input are
t strength, especially at low temperatures. required to prevent excessive melting of the base
kc On the other hand, designers have not always taken metal. On the other hand, stainless steels have low
full advantage of the potential joint strengths offered
" conductivity, which results in hot spots, and very
,by welding. Welding can produce rigid joints that high temperature gradients in the weld zone, which
~prove beam strengths. The material would be used results in increase of the stresses developed on cool-
un efficiently if a welded structural steel assembly ing.
116 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Composition. . Composition can have other effects both sides of a joint, but the first side welded usually "'
than those on hardenability. Stainless steels may not will have the greatest effect. When a number of welds
be hardenable to martensite at all but may develop are to be made at a number of locations in a weld-
higher stress on cooling than carbon steels of equiva- ment, distortion may be controlled by choosing the
lent strength at room temperature because stainless proper sequence for making the welds.
steels have higher yield strengths at elevated tempera- Pre-Heat and Post-Heat Treatment. The most
tures. The chromium in stainless steel is especially universal solutions to the problems of stresses and
subject to oxidation, and chromium oxide does not distortion are pre- and post-heat treatment of weld-
separate out easily from the molten weld pool. Many ments. Pre-heat treatment does not eliminate shrink-
nonferrous alloy constituents are subject to segrega- age and yielding that lead to stresses, but by lowering
tion when cooled rapidly. the yield strength of the base metal, it provides a
Recrystallization. Heat produces other effects on greater volume through which the shrinkage may be
structure than those of quench hardening of steels. distributed, and by lowering the thermal gradients in
Material that has been cold worked is automatically the weld zone, it reduces the size of the stresses by
recrystallized during welding, usually for a consider- distributing them over greater areas. Post-heat treat-
able distance away from the actual weld. Most ment relieves stresses by permitting yielding to occur
aluminum alloys begin to recrystallize at about 1500 at reduced stress levels; it can also help restore a uni-
C (300° F) so that a weldment made from work- form structure with an improved grain size, particu-
hardened aluminum may actually be more ductile in larly in steel.
the heat-affected zone than in the unheated base When materials have sufficient ductility, correct
metal but only with an accompanying reduction of dimensions can be established by straightening. This
strength. Grain growth will follow recrystallization, may involve pressing operations in fixtures or local-
and even subsequent heat treatment cannot restore a ized heating with torches.
desirably small grain size in most nonferrous metals. The factors that lead to residual stresses and distor-
Corrosion Resistance. The corrosion resistance of tion generally have an adverse effect on the strength
stainless steels may be especially affected by welding. of welded metals. Inclusions or voids not only reduce
At low cooling rates, small amounts of carbon can area but also are stress concentration points. Compo-
combine with chromium and reduce the corrosion sition changes in the weld area may either increase or
resistance. Nearly all cooling rates will exist some- decrease strength with a corresponding change in
where in the weld area; consequently, corrosion resis- ductility. In some nonferrous alloys, brittle inter-
tance will likely be lowered in some spots. Post-heat metallic compounds may form that have a serious
treating of stainless steel weldments is nearly always effect on ductility.
required to restore maximum corrosion resistance- Weld Penetration. The efficiency of a fusion-
In addition to the structure effects, heat causes welded joint may depend on the amount of pen-
other changes. The surface of practically all metals is etration achieved. Although melting of the base metal
oxidized at welding temperatures. While surface oxi- is not absolutely necessary for bonding, and, in any
dation may not directly affect strength, it does affect case, proper bonding requires only that the surface of
appearance and may produce surface imperfections the base metal be melted, practical joint shapes can-
that lead to fatigue failures or serve as focal points for not generally be heated to melting only on the sur-
intergranular corrosion. face. To obtain proper bonding at the bottom of a
Distortion. Even when the residual stresses do not square-groove weld with most heat sources, it is
lead to actual failures, they cause other difficulties. necessary to melt a considerable amount of base
The dimensions of a weldment are usually different metal. Heat sources differ in their ability to pene-
before and after welding, and machining is nearly trate, that is, in the depth-to-width ratio of the
always necessary for close dimensional control. The molten zone that may be produced, dependent
machining itself may release residual stresses to cause largely on the degree of heat concentration.
further dimensional change. When close tolerances
must be held, stress relief prior to machining is usual-
ly required. WELD DEFECTS
A number of precautions and corrections can
alleviate the problems caused by stresses and distor- Many of the possible weld defects have been dis-
tions. If the amount of distortion can be predicted, cussed, or indicated, earlier in this and the previous
the parts to be welded may be purposely off-posi- chapter. The following discussion is for the purpose of
tioned before welding to compensate. This procedure summarizing those most important and most likely to
is somewhat like overbending sheet metal to com- require the use of NDT.
pensate for springback. Some automatic compensa- The general sources of weld defects include: impro-
tion will occur in a double-groove weld made from per design, poor joint preparation, defects in the par-
Welding Processes and Design 117

ent material, improper welding technique, faulty solid- SPECIFIED VEE GROVE ANGLE

fication of molten metal, and heating or cooling effects '>II( ~/

on both the base metal and the weld metal. Some de- \_/
"
preciating faults, such as decreased strength of cold I,
1/ LANDWIDTH
rolled steel due to recrystallization of the base metal in
the heat affected zone, are inherent in the process and II ROOT OPENING
essentially become design problems. If the somewhat
broad assumption is made that the design is proper, Figure 10-19
many defects are the result of improper welding tech- Warpage, angular distortion of a butt joint produced with
nique. It follows then that an experienced, knowledge- a single vee preparation
able operator using care and good equipment should
turn out the work containing the fewest defects. Even
under the best of conditions, however, perfect results
should never be expected. There are too many possible
reasons for defects to occur. All critical welds require
nondestructive testing for assurance of quality or as a
means to enable repairs to be made.
T
SIZE

FUSION WELDING
When welding is used during the manufacture of con- 1
sumer products and for large structures, with the ex- INSUFFICIENT
THROAT
ception of resistance spot welding, a fusion arc weld-
ing process is most likely selected. The American
Welding Society categorizes weldment defects in three UNDERCUT OVERLAP
general classes:
1. those associated with drawing or dimensional re-
quirements /"
~
/ /
2. those associated with structural discontinuities / /
- in the weld itself / /
/ /
I 3. those associated with properties of weld metal or / /
/ /
! welded joint. '/ /
i
I DIMENSIONAL EFFECTS
Figure 10-20
Fillet welds.
Warping. Differential heating and cooling sets up
unequal stresses in the weld area that must be ab- Ideal top left with others showing typical defects
sorbed by position shift (warping), deformation (plastic
flow), or cracking if neither of the others can occur. Al- , /
though warping is inherent in the process, it can be
/
>< REINFORCEMENT NOT TO
EXCEED SPECIFICATION
minimized by proper welding control including joint
'\
~
preparation. When necessary, fixtures may be used
also to minimize distortion. In some cases, peening to
produce localized deformation or post-heating to equal-
~ tDouble
:i~re ~1
vee welds.
ize residual stresses may be needed to prevent crack- Ideal top with others showing typical defects
ing.
Weld Dimensions and Profile. Usually the unit
strength of weld material is weaker than the unit UNDERCIJT
If strength of the base material it joins. This is due not
only to the chemical composition normally used but
also to the possible defects it may contain as a finished
weld filler. When full strength is desired welds are
.~ made slightly oversize with a given shape. If the con- \
vexity is too large though, time and material are " !
P wasted and the chance of other defects is increased. I
I
? ..l,.
\
\
OVERLAP

& As can be seen in Figures 10-21, 10-22, and 10-23,


Some profile defects create discontinuities hi addition /f"- ...,
, "to not doing their full job of reinforcement. Figure 10-23
~!

118 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Final Weldment Dimensions. All weldments are de- cess over which welding is performed, or almost cer-
signed to meet dimensions necessary to function pro- tainly when insufficient clearing has been performed
perly or unite with other parts. Welds, especially when on previous passes of multipass welds. In welds made
multiple, must be carefully controlled regarding spac- with an inert covering gas, inadequate fast flow or ex-
ing for overall dimensions to be within usable range. cess moisture in the gas can result in oxide and porosi-
Accumulation of weld size error affects overall dimen- ty formation. Figure 10-25 shows possible locations of
sions and even when balancing may cause poor quality slag in a multiple pass vee weld. In welds made by the
welds. fast tungsten-arc process, small bits of tungsten are
occasionally dislodged from the electrode and enter the
weld metal.
STRUCTURAL DISCONTINUITIES

,. . "I'
Porosity. The term porosity is used to describe
pockets or voids that are the result of the same kind of J
chemical reactions that cause similar defects in cast- \." -"/"1-FUSIONZONE
BOND LINE SLAG\t, . .~SCATTEREDSLAG
ings. Gases are produced or released at high tempera- .A"\-, //
tures and when unable to escape, remain in the solidi- '\ '\ (/ ROOT AREA SLAG
fied metal. They may be microscopic in size or exist as
large as liB-inch or more in diameter. It is seldom that Figure 10-25
porosity in welds can be eliminated completely but a Some types and locations of slag inclusions
few small, scattered pores may not create significant
harm except in the most critical applications. As Incomplete Fusion and Inadequate Joint Prepara-
shown in Figure 10-24, porosity may exist as uniform- tion. Incomplete fusion can occur in any location
ly scattered, clustered, or linear. where the base metal, or previous pass weld metal, has
not been brought up to fusion temperature. Inade-
quate joint penetration, when present, usually occurs
in the root area of the weld and is caused by similar rea-
f-- - - - - - ./ WELDZONE sons-sufficient heat for fusion does not reach the bot-
: 0 "'; '" '" ";- 0-'; ,-. -;; :; :0- 0- -;; "00-"-0 -. -0-
1-°_"-"..:'~"'.2°~"'O.. - - - -DO'" - - -Co", - - <2-
~ ~ ~o_o
"",00'"
tom of the groove. Either may be caused by welding
operator error but inadequate penetration may also be
caused by too close fit up or other improper joint pre-
UNIFORMLY SCATTERED
Tend to be uniform size for a given condition
paration or design. Other contributing factors are too
large electrode, too fast travel, or too low welding cur-
rent. Figure 10-26 and 10-27 show some examples of
poor fusion and penetration.
f- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
;'" 0 .:tg~ . : " '0
".~ '" .. '" <..> '" '" '" '" '" '"
~ -"- ~::. :':. ::.. - ",_o.~ ::. - E. - ~ - ~ ~

CLUSTERED
Often associated with some welding condition change

1 - --- ------
f
'<}:~.. g,ra"o~,r.,.:'So"'...:6,,';'Og.,'3"~'0~~,0
- -- - - ----
8s;!;"~.: d':i ",~'1. ~

LINEAR
Occurs most often in root pass of a multipass weld

Figure 10-24
Three types of weld porosity
Figure 10-26
Inclusions. The most common inclusions that ap- Incomplete fusion
pear in welds are slag, metal oxides, and non-metallic
solids that are entrapped during welding. They are to Undercut. Undercuts are the result of melting base
some degree associated with certain types of welding metal and not replacing it with weld metal, leaving a
but are most likely to be present when the weld metal notch or groove. When occurring on the last pass of a
temperature has not been high enough to permit their multiple pass weld, or with single pass welds, the
floating to the surface, when there is an undercut or re- groove if deep may be a serious defect that should not
Welding Processes and Design 119

LONGITUDINAL STAR
CRATER CRACK CRATER CRACK

Figure 10-29
Types of weld metal cracks

Cracks in the heat-affected zone of base metal occur


almost entirely only in metals that are heat-treat hard-
enable. Most are longitudinal in direction and some-
Figure 10-27 times may be extensions of bond-line cracks as shown
Inadequate penetration in Figure 10-30. Crack defects in fillet welds may ap-
pear in the weld or as longitudinal toe cracks or longi-
tudinal root cracks as illustrated in Figure 10-31.

;/ Surface Irregularities. Occasionally surface irregu-


larities and imperfections may be nuclei of future fail-
ure but usually they have little significance in weld
joint strength and utility. However, spatter, weld rip-
/' '\ ple, uniformity of bead, and other surface qualities are
Figure 10-28 frequently covered by specification and may require in-
Undercuts in a double vee butt weld and spection even if their only effect is on appearance.
in a horizontal fillet weld
WELD METAL AND BASE METAL PROPERTIES
be left. Undercuts such as shown in Figure 10-28 are re- Weld Metal. The properties of the weld metal are
sults of operator technique in most cases but are also controlled basically by the weld filler material and the
influenced by welding conditions. way it is deposited. Most tests to determine its quality
Cracks. The cracking of weld metal and base metal are destructive types and can be used only as spot-
i in or near the weld zone is usually caused by high checks. Any weld inspector should however observe
~stresses set up by localized dimensional changes. Such. and check that proper materials and methods are used
changes are caused by the large thermal gradients es- and that the welding operator uses the techniques nec-
tablished during heating and cooling of a weld joint. essary to produce desired qaulity.

n
Cracking may occur during welding, during cooling, or
particularly with hard or brittle materials at some
later time. Weld cracks are most likely to occur when \, /J.-
weldments are of heavy sections creating a faster \, r; ""'"
~/
quenching action.
, Cracks in the weld metal are primarily of three
Figure 10-30
types-transverse, longitudinal, and multiple star-
shaped crater cracks, all of which are pictured in Fig- Bond line crack extending into base metal
ure 10-29. Sometimes the cracks are highly visible,
sometimes magnification is required to see them, and
at other times they can be detected only by nondes-
I
J\
HEAT AFFECTED
tructive testing methods. '\",..~ ZONE
Crater cracks may be single or star-shaped multiple I ( I
, and form during shrinkage of the final weld pool. They I \
I)
I I
\ I
WELD CRACK
mat propagate into longitudinal cracks or they may - --- ,L ,---
appear any place along a weld where welding has been \, , '-- ~, J\. '--'" /
,stopped and restarted unless they are completely re- '--I-
FI~E ROOT CRACK -.-FINE TOE
~ CRACK
~elted in the process. Unless removed or fully re-
{melted, cracks in the root of a weld are likely to propa- Figure 10-31
;gate through all subsequent weld layers. Root and toe type cracks in base metal with fillet welds
120 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Base Metal. Similar to weld metal tests, most tests BASIC SYMBOLS FOR NDT
for checking properties of base metal are destructive. In the interest of saving space and simplifying draw-
Code colors and other methods are used to identify ings and specifications, abbreviated symbols are ac-
that proper materials are being used. The inspector cepted and encouraged to describe standard nondes-
should also be fully aware at all times while performing tructive test procedures. The American Society for
nondestructive tests for weld quality that defects in Nondestructive Testing recognizes the following sym-
base material may be indicated. Defects such as de- bols:
picted in Figure 10-32 may have been missed in base
material that was previously not inspected. Welds de- Type of Test Symbol
posited over already existing defects can cause the Acoustic Emission AET
base metal defects to enlarge or extend into the weld Eddy Current ET
deposit. Such conditions found during weld inspec- Leak LT
tions often indicate the need for more complete inspec- Magnetic Particle MT
tion of the base material prior to welding on subse- Neutron Radiographic NRT
quent weldments. Penetrant PT
Radiographic RT
Ultrasonic UT
These symbols are used on a drawing with a testing
symbol very much like the welding symbol used to
G- specify welding types and procedures. As with the
I welding symbol, the placement of the basic test sym-
bol below the reference line means testing is to be per-
formed from the side to which the arrow points. Figure
NON-FUSED JOINT IN 'LAMINATION IN
10-33 shows the testing symbol which carries the tail
WELDED STEEL PIPE A ROLLED PLATE
only if some special reference is to be indicated and
may at times be combined with the welding symbol for
the same joint by carrying two reference lines.
TEST ALL-AROUND

>ARROWSIDE
OTHER SIDE ~ /\
MT + RT
~
~
---
CRACKS OR TEARS INCLUSION OF Figure 10-33
IN A CASTING SCALE IN A The testing symbol. (a) General form. (b) Combined with
STEEL FORGING
welding symbol to indicate that a vee groove butt weld is
Figure 10-32 to be both magnetic particle and radiographically
Some typical base material defects inspected from the opposite side.
Plastic Flow 11

Extensive use is made of the ability of most metals


to undergo considerable amounts of plastic flow. The
importance of the manufacturing processes based on
plastic flow may be realized by considering some of
the products. Of the total annual United States pro-
duction of 100 million tons of steel, about 10% is
used as castings, and the other 90% undergoes
deformation of some sort, starting in nearly every
case with a hot-rolling operation. For most products,
additional hot-rolling or forging operations will in-
volve plastic flow. More than 25 million tons are
produced as cold-rolled plate, or sheet, which be-
comes the raw material for pressworking operations
in which additional plastic flow'iJroduces most of the
high production consumer goods, such as automobiles
and home appliances. These 25 million tons are more
than the total of all nonferrous metals and plastics
produced annually.
Deformation Offers Unique Advantages. Num-
erous factors account for the use of deformation
processes. When the quantity is sufficiently high to
justify the extensive and costly tooling, many shapes
can be more economically produced by deformation
processes. One outstanding reason for this is the diffi-
culty of casting very thin sections. Perhaps even more
important is the high duplication accuracy of most
deformation methods, particularly those in the cold-
working category.
Important Properties Improved. The properties of
wrought materials are in general much improved over
their cast counterparts. Rolling, forging, and drawing
generally tend to improve Qoth strength and ductility.
Few Restrictions. The greatest limitation of de-
formation processes is the need for a ductile stage in
the material. Nearly all metals have ductility at some
elevated temperature (the major exception being cast
iron) and may be at least hot worked. Working at

.
122 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

lower temperature is limited to those materials Ductility Not Lost in Hot Working. When de-
classed as being ductile. formation work is performed above the recry-
Deformation Increases Probability of Defects. In stallization temperature, it is termed hot working
metals processing, deformation is fundamental and is because recrystallization proceeds along with strain
successfully performed on virtually every product at hardening. The net result, however, is not different
some time during the manufacturing cycle. However, from that which occurs when metal is cold worked,
improperly controlled, the multitude of manufacturing then heated above the recrystallization temperature.
processes that produce deformation can also produce a Hot working, therefore, permits continuous deforma-
multitude of defects. Both manufacturing and NDT tion instead of the cycle of cold working, recrystalliz-
personnel must be aware of the capabilities of materi- ing to regain ductility, and more cold working that
als to sustain deformation without the formation of un- would be required for large amounts of deformation
intended defects. They must also be alert in the early below the recrystallization temperature.
detection of defects caused by deformation and initiate EFFECTS OF FLOW RATE
corrective action in the manufacturing process to elim-
inate the causes. Recrystallization Requires Time. The changes
associated with recrystallization depend on finite
EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION movements of atoms within the material and on the
formation of new grain boundaries, which take finite
WORK HARDENING AND RECRYSTALLIZATION amounts of time. The actual time required will de-
It has been pointed out in Chapter 4 that when pend on the relation between the actual temperature
loads which exceed the elastic limit are applied to a and the recrystallization temperature as well as on the
metal, a permanent change of position is effected. rate of straining. However, some critical rate of strain-
The properties of the material change because of ing will exist, above which recrystallization cannot
redistribution of dislocations, change of grain size, proceed fast enough to prevent rupture. If deforma-
and other metallurgical effects. In general, the most tion proceeds too rapidly, it is possible, even above
pronounced of these changes of property are per- the recrystallization temperature, to develop cracks,
manent, and material is- said to be strain hardened, and the closer the working temperature approaches
cold worked, or work hardened. the recrystallization temperature, the more likely it is
Ductility Recoverable. The changes in properties for faults of this type to occur.
associated with work hardening are due to the A different type of strain-rate effect becomes evi-
strained and unstable position of atoms in the cry- dent at very high (ballistic) speeds; the failure can
stalline structure. The changes may be reversed by occur with little plastic flow regardless of the temper-
supplying energy in the form of heat. The atoms, by ature or the ductility a metal may show in a standard
the process called recrystallization. rearrange them- tensile test. However, this type of failure is of little
selves into an un strained condition similar to that concern to processing except in some new special-
which existed before strain hardening. The tempera- purpose processes involving high energy rate forming.
ture at which the rearrangement takes place is called
the recrystallization temperature and varies with DIRECTION EFFECTS
different metals (as shown in Table 11-1). Alignment of Crystals Develops Directional Prop-
TABLE 11-1 erties. Any deformation process causes different
Recrystallization temperatures for some common amounts of plastic flow in different directions. Metals
metals and alloys used in manufacturing are ordinarily polycrystalline
materials with more or less random orientation of the
Metals and Alloys crystals. In single crystals, a considerable difference in
Material °c OF properties along different planes usually exists, but in
175 a polycrystalline metal with random orientation of
Aluminum(pure) ....... 80 ..........
the crystals, the differences tend to average out. With
Aluminu alloys. . . . . .. 316 ........" 600
plastic deformation, crystal fractures, rotations, and
Copper (pure) ......... 120 .......... 250 reorientation lead to loss of randomness. As a result,
Copper alloys ......... 316 .......... 600
the properties become different in different direc-
Iron (pure) ........... 400 .......... 750 tions.
Lowcarbon steel. . . . .. 540 ........., 1000
Directional Effect May Be either Beneficial or
Magnesium(pure) . . . . .. 65 .......... 150
Harmful. In products such as drawn wire, this direc-
Magnesiumalloys. . . . .. 232 .......... 450
tionality is seldom harmful. The best properties, par-
Zinc ............... 10 . . . .. . .. .. 50
Tin ............... -4 25 ticularly strength, are developed parallel to the
..........
25 direction of drawing where they are most needed in
Lead............ ... -4 ..........
use. In rolled sheet metal, however, the loss of due-
Plastic Flow 123

tility perpendicular to the direction of rolling but in expense of properties perpendicular to the direction
the plane of the sheet, may cause secondary drawing of flow. Proper design of the product and the tooling,
or bending opera,tions to be difficult or impossible. particularly in forging, can take advantage of this
For some products, the difficulty may be overcome directionality, which persists even after heat treat-
by proper layout of the shape with respect to the ment.
direction of rolling, as shown in part A of Figure Results of Directionality on NDT. Since internal
11-1. For others, such as shown in part B of Figure faults are often flattened and elongated during heavy
11-1, the part may be oriented 45° with the direction working, the sensitivity of various NDT methods to
of rolling. Otherwise, the only solution may be detect defects lying in most probable orientations
recrystallization of the sheet to restore ductility lost must be considered. For example, it would be of ques-
not only because of directional effects but also be- tionable value to radiograph a highly reduced section
cause of cold working. The directionality developed such as that shown in Figure 11-2 through the short
by working is never completely eliminated because transverse direction. In some cases, grains elongated
even recrystallization grains are likely to have pre- in one direction can produce markedly different propo-
ferred orientations. gation characteristics of ultrasonic energy from one di-
GOOD POOR
rection to another. The results from other NDT meth-
ods can also be more or less critically affected by direc-
tionality.
I
'
I [J
[0 I
I
I
,

DIRECTIONOF ROLLING

PART A
- TEMPERATURE AND LOADING
SYSTEM EFFECTS
POOR BETTER
No Theory Fully Explains Plastic Flow. No single
theory explains all the phenomena observed in the
plastic flow and failure of metals. The following ex-
planation is based on several reasonable assumptions.
Elastic Failure Depends on Shear Stress. Plastic
DIRECTIONOF ROLLING

PART B
- flow occurs only when some critical shear stress is
exceeded in the material. This critical shear stress
becomes lower as temperature increases except
DOTTED LINES REPRESENT FUTURE BENDS perhaps at temperatures at which recrystallization or
Figure 11-1 crystal transformation take place. Its value also de-
i Directional effect of rolling on secondary operations pends on the degree of strain present in the struc-
f.
ture, and in the hot-working range, it depends on the
Directional Effects Also from Internal Faults. A rate of deformation. Strain hardening may be inter-
: second type of directional effect is illustrated in Fig- preted as an increase in the critical stress required for
. ure 11-2. Metal as normally cast will contain small plastic flow.
"',.quantities of foreign inclusions, such as scale, oxides, Fracture Failure Depends on Tensile Stress. Frac-
/i-.and insoluble,l compounds, and voids or pockets ture will occur only when some critical tension-stress
,i:caused by shrinkage and gas evolution during solidifi- value is exceeded in the material. This critical tension
,cation. During working, these defects are elongated in stress appears to be essentially a constant for a given
il"the direction of flow with resulting mechanical prop- material and temperature. It drops slightly as the
tLerty improvement in that direction, generally at the temperature is increased but is not affected by strain
hardening.
'II Deformation Processes Produce Low Tensile
Stresses. While the loading system encountered in
, most deformation processes is quite complicated, the
i. primary loads are usually compressive, and tensile
. stresses induced are secondary stresses and are often
,ir small compared to the compressive and shear stresses.
Consequently, much greater percentages of plastic
Figure 11-2 flow may be achieved in an extrusion operation, for
Directional effects from example, than can be achIeved in a tension test, even
elongation of inclusions and voids below the recrystallization temperature.
124 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

GRAIN SIZE and temperatures; the grain size of the final product
Raw Deformation Material Coarse Grained. For will depend on the place where processes stop.
any given metal or alloy, the grain size established on Importance to Nonferrous Materials. The phe-
solidification will be determined primarily by the nomena illustrated by this figure are of extreme
cooling rate. The rate will be determined by the mold importance because, for the majority of nonferrous
material, the superheat present in the liquid metal, metals, these are the only methods for grain-size con-
the specific heat of the m~tal, the section thickness of trol. For example, if improper heat treatment during
the casting, and the ratio of the metal mass to the recrystallization following cold work has permitted
mold mass. For most products that are to be used as excessive grain growth further cold work would be
castings, this ratio is small, and the castings have rela- necessary before grain refinement could be accom-
tively thin sections. Consequently, a desirably small plished, and this would not be possible if the final
grain size is established in most castings. However, shape had been established. To sum up, grain refine-
when it is intended that metal be subjected to some ment for metals that exist in only one crystalline
deformation process, it is still necessary to first cast form can be accomplished only by hot working, cold
the metal into an ingot. The most desirable forms for working, and recrystallization following strain. hard-
ingots are usually quite large with a heavy cross sec- ening, and grain growth will occur any time metals
tion and a large mass. Therefore, the cooling rate for are held at excessive temperatures for sufficient time.
ingots is quite slow compared to most other castings, Various techniques of ultrasonic testing have been
and the grain size developed in ingots is very large. developed to semi-quantitatively evaluate grain size.
For this reason, when ultrasonic testing is called for on
ingots and other coarse grained castings, lower fre-
quencies may be necessary. In some austenitic stain-
less steel castings, even the lowest practical frequen-
cies result in excessive noise from the large grain boun-
daries. Large grains can also cause diffraction effects
in radiographic testing that are undesirable. For best
strength and hardness properties for most uses, it is
desirable that the grain size be small.
Grain Size Refined Mechanically and Thermally. ~
~

z
Any working operation, either hot or cold, results in ~
crystal fractures, rotations, and realignments that 0
produce a small grain size as the material is strain
hardened. The actual effect that these grain-size
changes have on properties is hard to evaluate, how-
f-- WORK---j- ---J WORK 1

ever, because the major property changes are due to I HOT I HOLD I_COLD~T-HOL(j--

the strain hardening. However, if following the strain , RECRYSTALIZATION )

hardening, recrystallization takes place, either be-


Figure 11-3
cause of subsequent heat treatment if the material
Grain size during deformation processing
was cold worked or during hot working, the grain size
immediately after recrystallization will always be
small. Ferrous Grain Size Refined Two Ways. For most
ferrous alloys, the grain size changes, not only during
Regrowth at. Elevated Temperatures. Unfor-
working and recrystallization, as shown in Figure
tunately, the small grain size established by recrystal-
11-3, but also at any time ferrous metals are heated
lization is not completely fixed, and a metal that is
through the transformation range. Figure 11-4 shows
held at to.o high a temperature or at an elevated
the nature of these additional changes. For any initial
temperature for too long a time following recrystalli-
grain size of body-centered cubic iron (below the trans-
zation will undergo the phenomenon of grain growth
formation temperature), the face-centered crystals that
during which the grains will combine and grow to
form after transformation will always be smaller. How-
larger size again. Given sufficient freedom (time at
ever, the size of the face-centered crystals will increase
elevated temperature) crystals tend to grow to a
if the metal is held above the transformation tempera-
critical stable size that is dependent mainly on their
ture; the amount of growth will depend on the tempera-
constituents. Figure 11-3- shows the relations that ture level and time.
may exist among grain size, working conditions, and
temperature during deformation processes. The slopes Best Method by Transformation. Whatever grain
of the various lines are only qualitative and may vary, size is established in the face-centered crystals will be
depending on the particular alloys, rates of working, preserved when the transformation is made back to
Plastic Flow 125

body-centered cubic iron. This means that the grain faults still exist in the maIn body of the ingot but
size of a steel casting may be refined by heat treat- during hot working have their effects minimized by
ment alone or that the grain size of a hot-worked the closing and welding of voids and the elongation of
product that is held at excessively high temperature inclusions. Ultrasonic testing is frequently used to lo-
following working may be refined by heat treatment. cate the optimum plane for cropping. The major voids
Note, however, that this refinement requires that the and inclusions are detected and the ingot is cropped at
metal be reheated' through the transformation a location which produces maximum yield with the
temperature range and also that strain hardening is least defects. The discontinuities that remain in the
not a requirement. In general, for ferrous metals, usable portion of the ingot may have no important ef-
refinement by transformation is much more effective fect on the final product, but in some cases may be the
than working or recrystallization. origin of a future failure.
HOLD AT HIGH TEMP
Major Deformation by Hot Working. Cold work-
ing is used primarily as a finishing process and usually
follows hot working that has been used to accomplish
the major portion of deformation. The ductility and
strength properties of the finished product can be
controlled to a rather wide degree by the amount of
cold working that is performed in the final stage.
~
~

z
Last Cold Work Effective. With any degree of
:;(
0 ~ i
I
HOLD AT CRITICAL TEMP
cold working, the material could be restored to the
original conditions of elastic limit and ductility by
recrystallization and could then be subjected again to
I cold deformation. The final strength and ductility
fCC BCC
will therefore depend on the amount of cold working
BCC TO---- fCC TO-
IRON IRON done after hot working or after the last recrystalliza-
INCREASING TEMP HOLD DECREASING TEMP tion treatment.

Figure 11-4
Example of Cold Deforming. The application of
these principles in practice may be understood by
Grain-size change with crystal transformation
in ferrous metals considering the manufacture of cold-finished steel
sheet. Nearly all such steel is first hot rolled to a
thickness of about 4 millimeters (5/32 inch). If cold
RELATIVE EFFECTS OF HOT AND COLD WORKING finished to 2 millimeter (0.080 inch) thickness by
repeated rolling passes with no intermediate heat
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
treatment, the resulting sheet would have high hard-
Hot-worked Metal Soft and Ductile. Material that ness and strength with minimum ductility and be
has been hot worked will generally exhibit maximum suitable only for products that could be finished with
o. ductility and minimum hardness and strength for a little or no further deformation operations.
particular composition. Possible exceptions may If an intermediate anneal were followed by only a
come from directional effects caused by grain orient- few cold-rolling passes, the resulting product would
1-' ation and fibering and effects that cooling from the have intermediate hardness, strength, and ductility
~ high temperature may have on the structure of the and be suitable for a limited amount of further cold-
~. material. Any effects of strain hardening will have working operations, such as shallow drawing or bend-
been continuously relieved by recrystallization at the ing with large radii.
" hot-working temperature. If, following the reduction to final thickness, the
Faults Minimized by Hot Work. Materials that are sheet were annealed, it would have minimum hard-
hot worked start as ingots having relatively large cross ness and strength but maximum ductility and would
. sections. As a casting, this shape and size results in be suitable for de~p drawing or other operations in-
r pronounced casting defects, such as ingot-type seg- volving large amounts of deformation. Any of these
I regation (composition differences within crystals), further deformation operations would add to the
,t voids (dendritic microporosity and macroporosity strength and hardness and reduce the ductility.
~ from gas evolution), shrinkage cavities, and inclusion Reduced Ductility Desirable for Most Machining.
:
, of metallic oxides, slag and other foreign matter.
Some of these faults are removed by cropping the
, ingot. Cropping involves the removal and discarding
When the products of deformation operations are to
be further processed by machining, cold finishing is
generally desirable, even though the hardness and
of as much as one-third of the top of the ingot where strength are not needed functionally in the product.
tthe largest shrinkage occurs. However, many of the The overall machinability of most metals is improved
126 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

with reduced ductility because of improved finish- decarburized shell. Subsequent heat treatment, which
ability. For this reason, much of the bar material to depends on carbon content, does not produce the
be finished by machining is cold rolled or cold drawn. desIred results on the surface, and hot-worked steel
The compressive stresses left on and near the surface that is to be hardened by heat treatment needs to
of most cold-worked material are of bOme benefit have sufficient material removed from the surface to
when the material is subjected to fatigue conditions get below the decarhurized layer. High carbon hot-
in service. Fatigue failures generally start at areas of rolled steels are usually at least 1/16-inch oversize in
high tensile stresses on the surface of parts, and the the raw-stock stage to permit surface removaL Decar-
residual surface compressive stress reduces the actual burized layers can severely limit the application of ed-
value of surface tensile stress due to applied loads. dy current tests. On the other hand, eddy current tech-
niques can be used under some conditions to provide a
FINISH AND ACCURACY measure of the thickness of decarburization, thus
assuring adequate removal.
Surface Qualities Affected by High Temperatures.
Limitations exist as to the surface finish and accuracy
PROCESS REQUIREMENTS
that may be obtained by hot working. Most metals
are subject to rapid oxidation at their hot-working Most cold working is performed at room tempera-
temperatures, which are often well above room temp- ture at which normal variations are unimportant and
erature. In addition to chemical damage, oxide forma- no specific temperature control is necessary. The
tion is frequently nonuniform, and scale may spall increased conduction and radiation rates at elevated
off, exposing new metal to oxygen contact. The sur- temperatures cause control to be much more diffi-
face finish and dimensional accuracy obtainable are cult. In some continuous working processes involving
largely determined by the rate of oxidation and the large amounts of deformation, the energy added by
tendency for spalling. Such surface conditions can ad- the process affects the temperature, and the main-
versely affect the application of some nondestructive tenance of correct temperatures depends on the
tests. Frequently, ultrasonic, penetrant, magnetic par- proper rate of working.
ticle, and eddy current tests cannot be adequately per- Lower Work Energy Required. In addition to the
formed without the removal of rough scale and oxides. maintenance of ductility by continuous recrystalli-
Effects on Low Melting Alloys Not Serious. For zation, one of the principal benefits of hot working is
aluminum and many other nonferrous alloys, the that metals are weaker at high temperatures and can
hot-working temperatures are low enough that oxida- be deformed with lower loads and less work. The
tion is not serious, and good finishes and close accu- lower loads result in lighter and more versatile equip-
racies may be held. For steels, hot-working tempera- ment than would be required for equivalent deforma-
tures are in the range of 950° to 1,300° C where tion performed cold.
oxidation is rapid. With the scale that forms at these Equipment Life Reduced by High Temperatures.
temperatures, it is not possible to obtain good fin- The dies, tools, and other equipment that come into
ishes or close dimensions. Tolerances are generally 0.4 contact with heated materials must be able to main-
millimeter (1/64 inch) or greater on hot-worked steel tain adequate hardness and strength. Hot-working
products. However, cold working of steel can produce tools, therefore, must frequently be made of heat-
finishes limited only by the rollers or dies used in the resisting alloys or be water cooled for satisfactory
process and tolerances of 0.025 millimeter are possi- life. Occasionally, nondestuctive tests are used to aid
ble. in determining when tooling repairs are needed or
Decarburization Changes Surface Composition. when the useful life of the tooling is being approached.
Steel in particular, because of its high working temp- Tooling failures can sometimes result in larger scale
erature, is subjected to selective oxidation. The car- machine failures, thus warranting the application of
bon burns at a higher rate than the iron to leave a NDT as a maintenance procedure.
126 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

with reduced ductility because of improved finish- decarburized shell. Subsequent heat treatment, which
ability. For this reason, much of the bar material to depends on carbon content, does not produce the
be finished by machining is cold rolled or cold drawn. desIred results on the surface, and hot-worked steel
The compressive stresses left on and near the surface that is to be hardened by heat treatment needs to
of most cold-worked material are of wme benefit have sufficient material removed from the surface to
when the material is subjected to fatigue conditions get below the decarhurized layer. High carbon hot-
in service. Fatigue failures generally start at areas of rolled steels are usually at least 1/16-inch oversize in
high tensile stresses on the surface of parts, and the the raw-stock stage to permit surface removal. Decar-
residual surface compressive stress reduces the actual burized layers can severely limit the application of ed-
value of surface tensile stress due to applied loads. dy current tests. On the other hand, eddy current tech-
niques can be used under some conditions to provide a
FINISH AND ACCURACY measure of the thickness of decarburization, thus
assuring adequate removal.
Surface Qualities Affected by High Temperatures.
Limitations exist as to the surface finish and accuracy
PROCESS REQUIREMENTS
that may be obtained by hot working. Most metals
are subject to rapid oxidation at their hot-working Most cold working is performed at room tempera-
temperatures, which are often well above room temp- ture at which normal variations are unimportant and
erature. In addition to chemical damage, oxide forma- no specific temperature control is necessary. The
tion is frequently nonuniform, and scale may spall increased conduction and radiation rates at elevated
off, exposing new metal to oxygen contact. The sur- temperatures cause control to be much more diffi-
face finish and dimensional accuracy obtainable are cult. In some continuous working processes involving
largely determined by the rate of oxidation and the large amounts of deformation, the energy added by
tendency for spalling. Such surface conditions can ad- the process affects the temperature, and the main-
versely affect the application of some nondestructive tenance of correct temperatures depends on the
tests. Frequently, ultrasonic, penetrant, magnetic par- proper rate of working.
ticle, and eddy current tests cannot be adequately per- Lower Work Energy Required. In addition to the
formed without the removal of rough scale and oxides. maintenance of ductility by continuous recrystalli-
Effects on Low Melting Alloys Not Serious. For zation, one of the principal benefits of hot working is
aluminum and many other nonferrous alloys, the that metals are weaker at high temperatures and can
hot-working temperatures are low enough that oxida- be deformed with lower loads and less work. The
tion is not serious, and good finishes and close accu- lower loads result in lighter and more versatile equip-
racies may be held. For steels, hot-working tempera- ment than would be required for equivalent deforma-
tures are in the range of 950° .to 1,300° C where tion performed cold.
oxidation is rapid. With the scale that forms at these Equipment Life Reduced by High Temperatures.
temperatures, it is not possible to obtain good fin- The dies, tools, and other equipment that come into
ishes or close dimensions. Tolerances are generally 0.4 contact with heated materials must be able to main-
millimeter (1/64 inch) or greater on hot-worked steel tain adequate hardness and strength. Hot-working
products. However, cold working of steel can produce tools, therefore, must frequently be made of heat-
finishes limited only by the rollers or dies used in the resisting alloys or be water cooled for satisfactory
process and tolerances of 0.025 millimeter are possi- life. Occasionally, nondestuctive tests are used to aid
ble. in determining when tooling repairs are needed or
Decarburization Changes Surface Composition. when the useful life of the tooling is being approached.
Steel in particular, because of its high working temp- Tooling failures can sometimes result in larger scale
erature, is subjected to selective oxidation. The car- machine failures, thus warranting the application of
bon burns at a higher rate than the iron to leave a NDT as a maintenance procedure.
Millwork, Forging, 12
and Powder
Metallurgy

Although some of the softer metals that can be


found in a relatively ductile condition in nature, such
as copper, lead, gold, and silver, have been wrought
by hammering methods since the early days in his-
tory, most shaping of metal articles in the early days
of manufacturing was performed by casting processes.
As indicated in earlier chapters, casting is still an
important shaping process and is frequently the
cheapest and most satisfactory method for producing
a useful shape from some materials.
Some Serious Limitations in Casting Processes.
Some limitations exist, however, that discourage uni-
versal use of cast metal products. Picture, for in-
stance, the problems associated with casting thin
sheets of large area in any kind of material. Even with
thicknesses of an inch or more, the problems of ob-
taining uniform thickness and properties over large
areas ?-fe enormous. Unfortunately, many of the
materials that have the best castability have other
properties that are unsatisfactory for many applica-
tions. Porosity and associated problems reduce the
strength. Increased brittleness, leakiness, and poor
appearance are faults commonly associated with cast
materials.
Deformation Improves Properties. With many
metals, the internal structure to provide the best
properties can be developed only by deforming the
material in the solid state, usually by a process involv-
ing cold working. The deformation processes, cold or
hot, can often be used to provide the double benefits
of property improvement and shape changing at the
same time.
Both Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals Deformation
Processed. Even with higher costs, the value of
improved properties is so great that approximately
128 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

80% of the iron-based metals are finish processed as


wrought material. Although nearly all metals are and
can be cast in the making of some products, a situa-
tion similar to that for iron-based metals exists for
aluminum-based, copper-based, and other metallic
materials, and large percentages of each are deforma-
tion worked for improvement of their shapes, dimen-
sions, and properties.
Most Output Requires Further Processing. Most
of the output of the mill is in shapes that become raw
material for further processing in smaller quantities at
some specific user's plant. Typical products of this
class include foil for packaging operations, cold-rolled
sheet for pressworking operations, bar stock for
machined parts, and rough-rolled billets for forging
operations.
Figure 12.1
End Product by Secondary Deformation. The
Processes and product types of primary mills
second group of deformation operations are those
that are product oriented and are usually performed material, the work is usually done hot to reduce the
on a smaller scale in plants fabricating finished prod-
energy requirements and to permit ductility recovery
ucts. For practically all of these operations, the raw
by recrystallization as deformation occurs. Some mate-
material is bar or sheet stock that is produced in large rials must be worked at elevated temperatures in order
quantities as a mill operation. For example, the most to attain adequate stability and ductility to preclude
convenient raw material for a drop-forging operation
fractures during deformation.
might be a 6 -inch length of 2-inch-square hot-rolled
Blooms, Slabs, and Billets. Following reduction of
steel. This would be cut from a long length of 2-inch-
the ore or, in the case of steel, following carbon re-
square hot-rolled bar. The same 2-inch-square hot-
duction, most materials start as cast ingots that are
rolled bar inight be the most convenient size for other
rolled initially into blooms, slabs, or billets. Blooms
fabricators for forgings, for parts that are to be
and billets are approximately square cross sections of
machined, or for welded -assemblies. It is often econo-
large and small size, respectively, and slabs are rec-
mical to apply NDT to products intended for secon-
tangular shapes. All are destined for further deforma-
dary operations in order to assure that prior proces-
tion work by rolling, forging, or extrusion, usually at
sing defects are not carried forward into secondary the same mill but sometimes at an individual fabrica-
processing. The detects might include seams, cracks,
and other internal discontinuities of significant size. tor's plant.
Thickness Reduction by Compression. Mill rolling
Few Mills - Many Fabricators. These smaller fab-
is done by passing the material through rolling stands
ricators are much greater in number than are pro-
where rollers, arranged as shown in Figure 12-2, apply
ducers of mill products. The equipment for the sec-
ondary operations is lighter, the first cost of the
equipment is generally less, and the total tonnage of
metals used by any individual fabricator is small
compared to the output of a mill.
(0:

~
)
~ 0 0 0'-

HOT ROLLING
MILLWORK
r;;- 0 0
TWO-HIGH, REVERSIBLE
IN A CONTINUOUS
0 0 0'- -~C~i~~'~
EXCEPTWHEN
OPERATION
0 :~:--,;---,:J 1
THREE-HIGH, REVERSIBLE BY TABLE
HEIGHT CHANGE

Hot Rolling Is the Common Initial Operation.


The chart of Figure 12-1 is typical of steel mills and
also applies to most nonferrous mills, although
emphasis on the operations will vary for different
metals. One of the most common mill operations is
the rolling of metal into fiat and two dimensionally
formed shapes. This is accomplished by passing the
material between fiat or shaped rollers to set up FOUR -H IGH CLUSTER

forces that squeeze the material and cause it to flow BAOUP ROLLS ADD SUPPORT TO CONTACT ROLLS

to an elongated form while the cross-sectional dimen-


sions are being reduced. For those materials that have Figure 12-2
little ductility and for large changes of section in any Various arrangements of rolls in rolling stands
Millwork, Forging, and Powder Metallurgy 129

pressure to reduce the section thickness and elongate rolling. Scale-breaking rolls are followed by high pres-
the metal. The major portion of stress is compressive sure water or steam sprays for removal of scale. Both
and is in such direction that the effect on width the roughing and finishing operations are done in con-
dimensions is minor compared to the others. tinuous mills consisting of a number of strands in se-
Blooming Mill Reversible. At the blooming mill quence. Some hot-rolled strip is used directly as it
where the first deformation work is done on the comes from the hot-rolling mill for the making of fin-
material, the cast ingot is rolled back and forth be- ished goods such as railway cars, pressure vessels, and
tween rolls or continuously through sets of stands as boats. Most of the flat hot-rolled steel is further pro-
the rolls are brought closer together to control the cessed by cold rolling.
rate of reduction and establish new dimensions. Surface Oxidation a Problem. As pointed out earli-
Mechanical manipulators are used to turn the block, er, the mechanical properties of hot-worked material
or additional vertical rolls are used for making an are affected by the heat to which it is subjected. Work-
approximC!tely square cross section bloom or rectan- ing at high temperature permits maximum deforma-
gular slab that may be as much as 60 or 70 feet long. tion, but for those materials for which the working
Cast Ingot Defects Removed. As much as one-third temperature is above the oxidation temperature for
of the bloom may be cropped (cut away) to eliminate some of the constituents, burning and scale result, and
a major portion of the impurities, shrink, and poor adverse effects on finish occur. Before use as a product
quality metal originating in the ingot. Near-surface in the hot-rolled state, or before cold-finishing opera-
defects caused by ingot or rolling faults are removed tions are performed, surface cleaning is required.
during or following primary rolling by chipping, Cleaning is often done by immersing the material in
grinding, or scarfing (oxygen torch burning). These acid baths (pickling) that attack the scale at higher
long blooms are then sheared to lengths convenient to rates than the base metal.
handle and suitable for the anticipated final material Limited Accuracy in Hot Rolling. Because of
form.
differences in working temperatures affecting shrink-
Continuous Casting Eliminates Ingots. Increasing age, differences in oxidation depths, and more rapid
use is being made of continuous casting as a step in wear on the rolls, dimensions are more difficult to
steel making. Although the cost of changeover is high, hold in hot-rolling processes than when finishing is
the installation eliminates the making of ingots and done cold. Tolerances depend to some extent on the
their breakdown in the blooming mill. The continu- shape and the material. For hot-rolled round bars of
ous casting is made in a heavy slab or plate form that low carbon steel, they range from :t 0.1 millimeter
can be introduced directly into the hot-roll stands. (0.004 inch) for material up to 10 millimeters (0.4
Another advantage gained is the elimination of ingot inch) in diameter to :!: 1 millimeter (0.040 inch) for
cropping. bars 10 centimeters (4 inches) in diameter.
Billets Smaller Than Blooms. Blooms are fre-
quently reduced to billet size, maximum cross section COLD FINISHING
of 36 square inches, in a similar stand with reversing Properties Changed by Cold Working. While most
features, although some installations have been set up steel is shipped from the mill in the hot-rolled condi-
with a number of rolling stands in sequence so that tion, much of the material is cold finished by addi.
billets can be formed by continuous passage through tional rolling in the cold state or by drawing through
the series. dies. The forces set up by either procedure are similar
I Hammer Forging for Specials. Some demand and result in reduction of cross-sectional area. Ma-
. exists for small quantities of wrought materials in terials that are treated in this way must have suffi-
:large shapes not adaptable to rolling. These may be of cient ductility at the beginning, but that ductility is
ivariable section size, for example, a large steam tur- reduced as the hardness, yield strength, and tensile
!bine shaft, or sizes not ordinarily produced by the strength are increased as the deformation progresses.
trolling mill. In these cases, the ingot may be worked Flat Products. The flat products of a steel mill are
Ito the desired shape by a forging operation, usually called strip, sheet, plate, or bar, depending on the
lbetween flat-faced hammers. relative widths and thicknesses, and most are cold
Continuous Hot Rolling. Following the primary finished by rolling. For this work the rolling stands
,reduction operations in the blooming or slabbing mill, are of the four-high type illustrated in Figure 12-3 of
ithe sections are usually further rolled in some secon- the cluster type that performs the same function of
rdary operation, still at the mill. Plate, sheet, and rod permitting small diameter work rolls to be in contact
~shapes are in sufficient demand that many mills pro- with the material. Figure 12-4 shows typical arrange-
Iduce them in continuous mills. The material proceeds ments of stands for cold-rolling strip or sheet. The
tandem mill, with a higher initial investment, is a
Wirectly from one rolling stand to the next, with
~rOgreSSiVereduction and shaping of the cross section higher production method but has less flexibility than
and simultaneous elongation along the direction of the single-stand reversing mill. Power for reduction
~,I .
130 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

S"ew down p'e"u,e oppl ked by la'9r


,/'" d;omete, bod up '°",

"'--- La'9" 1>0,1 ur ,oil. ;m,.,o"" """"O'Y


an" ilotm'" i.y ",""'o';'~J delleeJ;on

Figure 12-3
Arrangement of conventional four-high rolling stand Figure 12.5
may be supplied by the reels alone, by the rolls alone, Orawbench for cold reduction of bar or tubing
or by driving both the reels and the rolls. Sheet is TUBE AND PIPE MAKING
normally kept in tension as it passes through the
stands. The terms pipe and tube have no strict distinctions,
but in most common use, the term pipe refers to a
3 to 5 po"e. for
45% Iu 90% ..duet;on hollow product used to conduct fluids. Except for
some relatively thin-walled welded products, tubing is
generally seamless.

REVERSING SINGLE STAND


Pipe and Tubing - Mill Products. Most pipe and
tubing products are produced in mills, frequently
along with sheet, strip, and bar products. The manu-
facture of tubular products involves both hot and
cold working, in the same order as for other mill
@ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
3 to 5 Hond. 10,
45% Iu 90% ,eduet;on
TANDEM MILL
~C0
products, with hot working being used in the rough
forming stages and cold working in the finishing and
sizing operations. Most pipe made by welding proc-
Figure 12.4
esses is steel. Some steel and nearly all nonferrous
Cold reduction methods tubular products are made by seamless processes. Re-
gardless of the process, NDT is nearly always used at
Since cold rolled strip and sheet is usually produced some stage in the processing of pipe and tubing if the
with high accuracy thickness requirements, some mills product is to be used in high pressure applications.
are equipped with on-line ultrasonic or radiation thick- Pipe by Welding Bell. One of the oldest but still
ness gages. In some sophisticated systems, the output much used processes for making steel pipe consists of
from the thickness gage is fed back to provide roll drawing heated bevel-edged shelp in lengths of 20 to
spacing and tension adjustments while rolling is in 40 feet (6 to 12 meters) through a welding bell such
process. as pictured in Figure 12-6. The skelp is gripped by
A Variety of Bar Shapes Rolled. Bar material can tongs and drawn through the bell where it is formed
be in the form of square, rectangular, round, hexa- to tubular shape and the edges pressed together to
gonal, and other shapes. In the rolling of strip and form a butt-welded joint. Power is supplied by a
sheet, the edges are not confined, and the final width drawbench as in drawing bar stock.
of the sheet may vary. Subsequent to shipping from
the mill, the material is normally trimmed to correct
width by rotary shears. Most bar shapes are not -- BENCH
DRAW.
adaptable to close dimensional control in cold rolling
and are therefore finished by drawing through hard~
ened dies. The operation is performed in a machine
called a drawbench, shown in Figure 12-5. The end of
Figure 12.6
the oversized hot-rolled bar is first pointed by swaging
Shaping and welding of pipe in a welding bell
or forging, then inserted through the die and gripped in
the draw head. Connection of the draw-head hook to a Pipe by Roll Welding. Figure 12-7 illustrates the
moving chain provides the power to draw the material method used for butt welding pipe in a continuous
through the die. Reductions generally range from 0.5 manner. Skelp from a reel passes through a furnace
to 3 millimeters (1164 to 1/8 inch). Round stock may and is drawn through forming rolls where it is shaped.
also be cold finished by rolling between skewed rollers Welding rolls then apply pressure to establish the
in a process called turning or centerless ground for butt-welded joint. Following the welding station,
highest accuracy. rollers squeeze the pipe to smaller size after which it
Millwork, Forging, and Powder Metallurgy 131

I FORMING ROLLS whIch will be discussed in a later chapter, is often the


most economical welding procedure. After the edges

- of the plate have been properly prepared by shearing


or machining, the steps shown in Figure 12-9 are fol-
lowed in forming the pipe.
A relatively small quantity of larger pipe, from
about 4 to 75 centimeters (1.5 to 30 inches), in dia-
meter, is lap welded. For this process, the skelp is
Figure 12-7 beveled on the edges as it emerges from the furnace.
Continuous process of butt welding pipe
It is then formed to cylindrical shape with overlap-
ping edges. While at elevated temperature for welding,
is cut to length by a flying saw. Both types of butt- the tube is passed between a pressure roller and a
welded pipe may require some cold-finishing opera- mandrel for the establishment of welding pressure.
tions, such as sizing between rollers and straightening
Spiral-welded Pipe. The making of light gage pipe
by stretching or cross rolling, before being cut to or tubing as pictured in Figure 12-10 can be accom-
exact length and finished by facing or threading
plished by resistance welding of a continuous spiral
operations. Pipe is produced by pressure butt weld- butt or lap joint. A principal advantage of the process
ing, either short lengths or continuously, in sizes up is the light equipment required and the flexibility in
to 4 inches in nominal diameter.
changing from one size or one material to another.
Resistance Welded Tubing. Light gage steel tubing Any material that can be welded can be fabricated
in sizes up to 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter into pipe by this method.
may be produced by resistance welding of stock that
has been formed cold by rolls which progressively
STEP 1 %. .J
shape the material from flat strip to tubular form.
The general arrangement is shown in Figure 12-8. CRIMPEDPLATE
(P.." °' 0011.1
After forming, the tube passes between electrodes,

U
through which welding current is supplied, and
STEP 2
pressure rolls that maintain pressure in the weld area.
Because the material is heated only locally, the pres-
sure produces flash on both the inside and outside of "u" -ED BY PRESS
DIES

the tube. The outside flash is removed by a form


cutter immediately following the welding operation.
The inside flash may be reduced by a rolling or forg-
ing action against a mandrel, depending on size. Be-
cause this process uses rolls of strip stock as raw
STEP 3

0
"O"-EDBYPRESSDIES

0
! material and is best operated continuously, a flying
STEP 4
, saw is required to cut the tubing to correct length.
f Resistance butt welding may be done in a mill, but
FORMING ROLLS WElDEDBYSUBMERGED-ARC
A PRESSURE
ROLLS OR OTHERWELDINGPROCESS

0
\~ BUTTWELDED
'{\\ I JOINT
, '. STEPS

SIZED BY HYDRAULIC EXPANSION


IN A JACKET

Figure 12-8
Figure 12-9
Resistance welding of tubing
Electric welding of large pipe
because of the relatively light equipment needed, it
frequently is performed as a secondary operation in a
fabricator's plant.
Some Pipe Welded with Filler Metal.
sizes (from about 15 centimeters
unlimited
small quantities,
For large
[six inches] to an
upper limit) that are needed in relativ~ly
pipe may be manufactured by form-
OJ 11))
ing of plate or sheet and welding by any of the fusion Figure 12-10
processes. In practice, the submerged-arc method, Spiral weld pipe
132 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Seamless Tubing. In practice, the term seamless eddy current testing utilizing encircling coils is fre-
tubing refers to a tubular product that is made with- quently applied. By such methods, seamless tubing
out welding. The most common method used for can be automatically inspected at rates up to several
steel involves piercing of round billets of relatively hundred feet per minute.
large cross section and short length, with subsequent Perfect Welds Difficult. It is possible to produce
deformation operations to control the final diameter, welded tubular products that effectively are "seam-
wall thickness, and length. Figure 12-11 shows the less." The weld area can have the same properties as
most common type of piercing mill used. The skew the rest of the pipe or tube and may in fact be
rollers both flatten and advance the billet with a undetectable after welding. However, this degree of
helical motion. High shear stresses are developed at: perfection might require heat treatment after welding
the center of the billet, at which point the material is and additional deformation or machining to produce
forced over a bullet-shaped mandrel. uniform thickness. In addition, it would be very diffi-
cult to produce perfect welds in higher alloy steels,
especially in heavy sections. Both radiographic and
ultrasonic tests are used for inspection of the welds in
pipe produced using a welding process. Fluoroscopic
techniques have been widely applied for rapid inspec-
tion of the welds. A few ultrasonic systems have been
designed to provide pipe weld inspection on-line. Some
small-diamteter seamless pipes are inspected by eddy
current methods that are capable of detecting not only
weld defects but defects in the stock material as well.
Figure 12-11
Roll piercing of round bar material EXTRUSION

Sizing of Seamless Tubing. Subsequent operations Figure 12-12 shows various extrusion methods.
include reeling and rotary rolling, which are similar to Tubing may be extruded by direct or indirect
methods with mandrels as shown. Indirect, or reverse,
piercing and permit the inside diameter to be further
enlarged with a reduction of wall thickness. Rolling extrusion requires lower loads but complicates handl-
between grooved rollers reduces both the outside and ing of the extruded shape. Lead-sheathed electrical
inside diameter with elongation along the axis of the cable is produced by extruding the lead around the
tube. Much seamless tubing is finished cold by rolling cable as it passes through the die.
or drawing through dies with the advantages of

y- ~
HOT BillET

improved tolerances, surface finish, and mechanical \ ~


properties. Squares, ovals, and other noncircular
shapes may be produced by drawing through special
dies and over special mandrels. RAM
Seamless Tubing Useful for Machine Parts. Seam- DIE SHEATHING MATERIAL
less steel tubing is manufactured from nearly all the UNDER PRESSURE
I
common grades of steel, including plain carbon up to
1.5%, AISI alloy steels, and stainless steels of most
types. In addition to use for fluid conduction, seam-
less tubing is also much used as a raw material for
many machined parts, such as antifriction bearing SHEATHED

races, where considerable material and machine-time CABLE

savings may be made. DIRECT EXTRUSION

Some Tubing Made by Press Operation. In cup-


ping operations, seamless tubing is produced by a
press-type operation similar to shell drawing, which
will be discussed later. A heated circular disc is forced
through a die by a punch to form a closed bottom
cylinder. The cylinder may be further processed into
a pressure container, or the bottom may be cut off
and the tube processed into standard tube types.
REVERSE EXTRUSION
NDT of Seamless Tubing. Since the production of
seamless tubing can cause tears and other crack-like Figure 12-12
defects and irregularities in sizing and wall thickness, Common methods of extrusion
Millwork. Forging, and Powder Mettalurgy 133

Extrusion a High Energy Process. The high degree described are all performed almost exclusively in large
of deformation required for extrusion leads to a num- mills. Mill products usually represent only an inter-
ber of limitations. Most metals are ductile enough for mediate stage of manufacture with no specific fin-
extensive extrusion only at high temperatures. Even ished product in mind. Of the remaining deformation
then, the loads are very high and require large heavy operations, those performed primarily on flat sheet
equipment and large amounts of power. Die materials metal will be discussed in a separate chapter.
must be able to withstand the high loads and temp- Forging Is Three Dimensional. In mill operations,
eratures without excessive wear. This presents a par- the primary shape control is over the uniform cross-
ticularly serious problem with steel, which usually sectional shape of a product. In press operations on
must be heated to about 1,2QO° C to have sufficient sheet metal, the thickness of the metal is not directly
ductility for extrusion. controlled by the operation. Forging operations
Steel may be extruded hot with glass as a lubricant, exhibit three-dimensional control of the shape. For
but die life is short; the process is used primarily for most of these operations, the final shape of the
steel sections produced in such low quantity that the product is forged, and further finishing operations are
cost of special rolls could not be justified, and for necessary only because of accuracy limitations of the
some high alloy steels that are difficult to forge or process.
roll. Forging Dies May Be Open or Closed. The pur-
Used Extensively for Nonferrous Materials. The pose of forging is to confine the metal under suffi-
extrusion process is used primarily for forming shapes cient pressure to cause plastic flow. In open die forg-
of aluminum, copper, lead alloys, and plastics. In ing, the metal is alternately confined in different
fact, except for flat stock that may be more eco- directions with the final result that three-dimensional
nomically rolled, extrusion is the principal process control is gained. With closed impression dies, the
used for producing parts having uniform cross sec- work material is fully confined at least at the com-
tions from these materials. Many metals may be pletion of the operation in a manner similar to casting
extruded at room temperature. For lead, tin, and except for the state of the material. As in metal mold
zinc, this actually means hot working because the casting, draft angles are required, and there are similar
recrystallization temperatures are at or below room shape restrictions based on removing the part from
temperature, and some heating of the metal occurs as the die.
a result of deformation work energy being converted High Compressive Loads Required. The load
to heat. requirements for forging have led to several means for
Flexible Process but Limited to Uniform Cross applying the pressure. In those forging methods in
Sections. Theoretically, extruded parts have no size which the metal is worked throughout at the same
restrictions. In practice, the size of the equipment time, the flow can be produced by constant squeezing
limits the size of the extrusion that can be produced. pressure or by impact. Because of the large amounts
Dimensional tolerances depend on the material in- of work energy required and the need to exceed the
volved, the temperature, and the size of the extru- yield strength throughout the material at the same
sion. In hot extrusion, the die tends to expand as the time, these operations are frequently done hot, and
material passes through, resulting in a taper to the even then the equipment is massive compared to the
extruded part. The principal error is in straightness, size of the workpiece, particularly when constant
and most extrusions require straightening. This is pressure is supplied. For localized flow, the yield
accomplished automatically when the extrusion is strength must generally be exceeded only on small
cold finished by die drawing. areas at a time, either because of the progressive
The principal shape limitations are concerned with nature of some rolling-type operations or because of
maintaining uniform cross-sectional thicknesses. the need to reorient the workpiece periodically to
Otherwise, the extrusion process is quite flexible; odd present new areas to be loaded, as in hammer forging
and hollow shapes are possible that would be impossi- or rotary swaging.
ble or uneconomical to roll. As previously mentioned,
eddy current methods are most commonly applied to NDT OF FORGINGS
testing tubular products that are intended for high
pressure applications or high strength structural appli- Because large volumes of metal are deformed and
cations. moved during any forging process, the probability of
defect formation can be relatively high. Forgings done
FORGING AND ALLIED OPERATIONS at improper temperatures or excessive pressures can
exhibit a variety of defects, both surface and sub-sur-
With the exception of some tube-making opera- face. Because of the improvement in properties and
tions and some cold finish rolling and extrusion, controlled directionality offered by forgings, they are
.especially on ferrous metals, the operations so far often used in light-weight critical structures like air-
134 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
ROLLERS SPINDLE
craft and missiles. Even in less demanding applica-
tions, forging's are generally selected where high
strength and/or directionality is used to advantage.
With the capabilities of NDT to aid in the assurance
of high quality, safety, and reliability, forgings are fre-
quently inspected by various methods of NDT. Ultra-
sonic testing is used principally for detection of inter-
nal discontinuities, while magnetic particle and pene-
trant methods are used for detecting surface flaws. DIES AND DIE
BAC KERS
Since many forging defects can be tightly closed and in
many cases lie in unexpected orientations due to the Figure 12-13
large deformations typical in forgings, much care and Rotary swaging
attention to technique must be applied in NDT of forg-
ings. Forgings often present challenging NDT prob- tube, or wire stock so that it may be started through
lems because of the odd shapes and varying cross-sec- a die for a drawing operation. Rotary forging may be
tions commonly encountered. Personnel responsible done either hot or cold, in many cases the choice
for developing and directing NDT of forgings must being determined by the requirements of the drawing
have knowledge of the forging process in considerable operation that follows the forging. In addition to
detail if reliable inspection is expected. pointing of stock for drawing purposes, the process is
used for closing or necking of cylinders and for over-
all reduction of tubularproducts.
OPEN DIE FORGING
CLOSED DIE FORGING
Blacksmithing - A Manual Operation. When the
quantity of parts to be manufactured is small and the Gosed Dies Expensive. Most forging was done
cost of tooling must be kept low, blacksmith or with flat-faced hammers until just prior to the Civil
hammer forging may be used to alter the shape of the War when matched metal dies were developed. The
material. One of the simplest examples is the manu- process was first used in the production of firearms.
facture of a horseshoe from bar stock by using a With flat-faced hammers and simple grooving tools,
hammer and anvil with manual power and manipula- no particular connection exists between the tooling
tion. While the village blacksmith is no longer so and a specific product, and it is feasible to forge even
prevalent, this method still finds wide use industrially a single part. Matched metal dies, like patterns for
for the manufacture of special tools and low quantity castings, must be made for each shape to be forged
products that are often of an experimental nature. and become feasible only when the tooling invest-
Accuracy and shape of the product are greatly ment can be divided among a sufficiently large
dependent on the operator's skill. Because of the number of parts.
close association with the human element, duplica- Forging and Casting Competitive. To some
tion accuracy is limited, and large quantities can extent, forging and casting are competitive, even
where different materials are involved with each
seldom be economically produced. The manual opera-
tion of blacksmith forging can therefore be used only process. As a general rule, the tooling investment is
for relatively light work and is almost always per- higher for forging than for casting. Thus, the use of
formed hot. forging tends to be restricted to applications in which
Power Assist for Heavy Work. Hammer forging is the higher material properties of steel compared to
an extension of blacksmith forging for larger work- cast iron or the higher properties of wrought steel
pieces in which power is supplied by pneumatic, r.ompared to cast steel can be made use of in the
hydraulic, or mechanical hammers. The operator is design. Because forgings compete best in high
still responsible for positioning the work under the strength applications, most producers take particular
hammer but may lay special tools over the hammer care in raw material selection and inspection. In many
faces for producing some shapes. For very heavy cases, either forgings or castings may have adequate
work pieces, mechanical supports and handling devices properties, and one process has no clear economic
are frequently used as aids. advantage over the other.
Rotary Swaging. A rotary swaging machine, as Material Quality Improved. Proper design for
shown in Figure 12-13, is constructed like a straight forgings must capitalize on the improvement in prop-
roller bearing with the inner race replaced by a erties in certain directions that occurs with metal
powered spindle carrying shaped dies in slots. As the flow. Voids tend to close and be welded shut under
spindle rotates, the backs of the dies are forced the high heat and pressure, and inclusions are elongat-
inward as they pass each roller. Machines of this type ed to the degree that they have little effect on the
are used most frequently for reducing the ends of bar, strength in some directions.
Millwork, Forging, and Powder Metallurgy 135

Sequential Steps Necessary. In forging, a suitable be observed is that suitable material continues to be
quantity of metal is placed or held between the halves fed to the machines.
of the die while they are open, then forced to con-
form to the shape of the die by pressure from the dies
FORGING WITH PROGRESSIVE APPLICATION OF
themselves as they are closed. In drop and press forg- PRESSURE
ing, the dies are not completely closed until the In any closed die forging operation, it is necessary
forging is completed, with the consequence that, as to provide, either by~constantly applied pressure or
the dies are closed, the metal may be squeezed to the by impact, a great enough load that the compressive
parting line and be forced out of the die in some strength of the material is exceeded throughout the
places before the closing is completed. To overcome material for the forging to be completed. Even for
this difficulty, two steps are taken. For most forgings, forgings of a few pounds, this requires heavy, massive
some preshaping operations are used to insure that equipment. For a few particular shapes, processes
approximately the right quantity of metal is already have been developed by which the material is worked
at the proper place in the dies before they are closed. only locally with light loads being required, and the
These operations are frequently similar to open die or area being worked progresses by a rolling action to
hammer forging and include upsetting (enlarging the other parts of the workpiece.
cross section by pressure from the end), drawing (re- Roll Forging Progressively Reduces Cross Sec-
ducing the cross section of stock throughout), fuller- tion. Roll forging, illustrated in Figure 12-14, is
ing (reducing the cross section of stock between the particularly useful when a cylindrical part is to be
ends), edging (distributing the metal to the general elongated throughout part of its length. The drawn
contour of the finished stock), and blocking (shaping section may be tapered, but the process is not capable
to rough-finished form without detail). of upsetting or enlarging the original diameter. In
Excess Metal Insures Die Filling. Even with the operation, the heated workpiece is placed between
preshaping operations, it is necessary to provide some the first groove, and the rolls are energized to make
excess metal to insure that all parts of the final die one turn, after which the workpiece is moved to the
cavity are filled. The dies are constructed so that in next groove and the operation repeated.
the closed position a space is left at the parting line
through which this excess metal is forced into a
gutter. The excess metal, called flash, is actually part
of the forging and must be removed in a secondary
{I
operation, generally by trimming in a shearing type of
die.
[-+--
Steel Drop Forged - Nonferrous
Forged. Theoretically, any metal
Materials Press
with enough
--
ductility could -be either press forged or drop (im-
pact) forged. In practice, steel is almost exclusively
drop forged because of the large capacity presses that
would be required for press forging and because the Figure 12-14
die life would be shortened by th(;'. longer time of Roll forging
contact between the die and the heated steel. Most
I, nonferrous metals are press forged. The slow squeez- POWDER METALLURGY
t: ing
.
action in press forging appears to permit deeper
flow of the metal than in drop forging, and the dies The definition for the term powder metallurgy, as
, may have somewhat less draft. provided by the Committee for Powder Metallurgy of
the American Society for Metals, is "The art of
.

I, .. Fast and Accurate but High Setup Cost. Machine producing metal powders and objects shaped from
ti' noforging provides high production rates with little or
material loss and is thus close to an ideal process,
individual, mixed, or alloyed metal powders, with or
without the inclusion of nonmetallic constitutents,
~ providing that tolerances are acceptable, quantities by pressing or molding objects which may be simul-
~ are large enough to cover tooling costs, and the taneously or subsequently heated to produce a co-
'. deformation ratios are permissible. herent mass, either without fusion, or with the fusion
, Most common machine forged parts made in very of a low melting constituent only."
I Originally Developed as a Step in Refining. Ref-
. large quantities, such as bolts, rivets, nails, small gear
blanks, and great numbers of small automotive fit- erences to the granulation of gold and silver and
, tings, require very little inspection of any kind after subsequent shaping into solid shapes go back as far as
.
..' '. the process is in operation. Tool life is long and consis- 1574. It is also noteworthy that in the nineteenth
i ". tency of product is extremely good. One precaution to
"
..
.
century more metallic elements were produced in
136 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

powder form than in any other form. For the most


part, however, these were all precious or rare metals
for which powder metallurgy was the only practical STEP l-SELECT
A POWDERS STEP 2-MIX & BLEND

method of manufacture, and it has only been within


the last 50 years that this process has become com- HEAT
petitive with more conventional processes in the
manufacture of articles from iron, copper, aluminum, 1/111\\\\\
and the other more common metals.
Two Unique Advantages. Early developments in \\\\\111111
HEAT
powder metallurgy were based on two factors. During
the production of platinum, tantalum, osmium, STEP 3-PR ESS STEP 4-SINTER
tungsten, and similar refractory metals, reduction was
purely a chemical process from which the reduced Figure 12-15
metal was obtained as a precipitate in flake or powder Elements of powder metallurgy
form. Because furnaces and techniques were not
available for complete melting of these materials, the used. Some sintering takes place under high pressure
only procedure for producing them in solid form was at room temperature. However, cold pressing is
to press them into coherent masses and sinter at usually followed by sintering at a temperature some-
temperatures below the melting point. This procedure what below the lowest melting point of any of the
still applies in the production of some metals, espec- constituents. An intermediate elevated temperature
ia:!ly tungsten. A second major advantage of the may be used during pressing, then the shape removed
process, which led to early use and is still applied from the press and subjected to higher temperature.
today, is in the production of porous shapes obtained In hot pressing, the final sintering temperature is
with lighter pressing pressures or lower sintering applied simultaneously with the pressure.
temperatures. Materials in this form are useful as Mixing Important to Product Quality. Mixing is
chemical catalysts, filtering elements, and bearings. required for even a single metal powder to promote
Process Involves a Series of Steps. Figure 12-15 homogeneity with a random dispersion of particle
shows the steps ordinarily required in the production sizes and shapes. Single materials are often mixed
of a part by the powder metallurgy process. Suitable from a variety of sources to develop improved proper-
powder must first be produced. While theoretically ties. The mixing and blending is even more important
any crystalline material may be fabricated by powder for combinations of materials that depend on uni-
metallurgy, the production of suitable powder has form alloying to develop final properties. Small
presented restrictions in many cases, either because of amounts of organic materials may be added to reduce
difficulty in obtaining adequate purity or because of segregation, and other materials, both organic and
economic reasons. After selection and blending of the inorganic, may be added to act as lubricants during
powder and manufacture of a die for the shape to be pressing or sometimes in the final product.
produced, the powder is pressed to size and shape.
The application of heat results in crystalline growth PRESSING
and the production of a homogeneous body.
Little Opportunity for NDT During Mechanical and Atomic Bonds Established. The
Processing. Most NDT on powdered metal products bond that is established between particles in powder
is performed after the parts have completed the sinter- metallurgy varies all the way from mechanical inter-
ing process. Parts produced from sintered metal pow- locking to the growing of new, common crystals
ders are nominally inspected as though they were pro- across the borders of the initial particles. Every atom
duced by either casting or a deformation process or is surrounded by a force field that is effective at up to
combination of both. Inclusions, cracks, voids, and a few atom diameters. Proper bonding then depends
density variations can result from improper proces- primarily on bringing adjacent particles close enough
sing. Since net or near-net shapes are commonly pro- together that these atomic forces can be effective.
duced by powder metallurgy, NDT is most often called The effective closeness is dependent on both particle
upon to inspect for both surface and sub-surface de- size and particle shape. Mixed sizes and shapes, at
fects. Radiography is useful to reveal internal voids, least with random packing, provide the maximum
cracks, and inclusions and to provide a qualitative as- closeness and the greatest number of contact points.
sessment of compaction consistency. Conventional Deformation Increases Contact Area. Most metals
penetrant methods are used to detect surface-con- can be plastically deformed, and with these, pressure
nected flaws like porosity and cracks. can be applied to cause the contact points to groW
Properties Influenced by Heat-Pressure Cycle. into relatively large areas. The face-centered cubic
Various combinations of heat and pressure may be metals such as nickel, copper, and lead do not work
Millwork, Forging, and Powder Metallurgy 137

harden readily and can be deformed with compara- density because each particle of material supplies a
tively low pressures. The metals that work harden force of its own. Rods of various cross-sectional
easily and that are also usually harder and stronger to shapes may be extruded with relatively uniform
begin with, such as the body-centered cubic struc- density throughout their length. Thin coatings of
tures of iron, tungsten, and vanadium, require much powdered materials may be applied to rigid backings
higher pressures to establish suitable contact areas. by rolling. This procedure is especially useful for
High Temperature Accelerates Bonding. Surface various bearing materials.
atoms will be rearranged both by plastic flow and by
mutual attraction with atoms of the adjacent surface.
Increasing temperature aids both of these mechanisms
by decreasing resistance to plastic flow and by in-
creasing the energy of the atom. Particles that have
been severely work hardened as a result of the plastic
flow may recrystallize at elevated temperatures, and
the new crystals may actually cross the original DOUBLE SINGLE PUNCHES DOUBLE MULTIPLE PUNCHES

particle boundary to establish complete atomic


bonds. Figure 12-17
Multidirectional Forces Desirable. Compacting of Multiple punch for density control
metallic powders ideally would be done by applying SINTERING
pressure in all directions at one time. This is usually
impractical for commercial use, and most compaction The term sintering is used to identify the mechan-
is done along a single axis. Pressure is sometimes ism by which solid particles are bonded by appli-
applied from one direction only, but in other cases cation of pressure or heat, or both. In its broadest
opposing motions are used to reduce the effect of sense, the process includes such procedures as weld-
sidewall friction. Figure 12-16 shows the effect of ing, brazing, soldering, firing of ceramics, and union
sidewall friction on the density of a compact. The of plastic flakes or granules. Each of the procedures
effectiveness of pressing is most often evaluated by other than those involving metal in powder form are
measuring the density of the material and expressing important enough and of such wide usage as to have
developed their own language and technology.
Sintering a Nonmelting Procedure. Sintering can
be accomplished at room temperature with pressure
alone but is most often performed at elevated temp-
erature, either at the same time or after pressure has
been applied. With some multiple-constituent
SINGLE DIRECTION PRESSURE
compositions, some of the low temperature melting
OPPOSED DIRECTION PRESSURE
materials may be melted, but in most cases sintering
is a fully solid-state process. The two most common
Figure 12-16
sintering procedures are (1) application of heat and
Density variation from sidewall friction
pressure together, called hot pressing; and (2) applica-
tion of heat after the particles have been closely
it a8 a percentage of the theoretical density for solid packed, by cold pressing.
metal of the type being treated. Densities depend on
the particle size and shape, the material, the pressure, Densities Improved with Hot Pressing. In hot
the time, and the temperature. The figure illustrates pressing, the plasticity of the particles is greater, and
the variation in density as the distance from the they recrystaUize more readily and thus permit high
source of pressure increases. This variation depends densities to be achieved with lower pressures than
primarily on the length to width or diameter ratio of would be necessary at lower temperatures. For some
the compact and ranges from as little as 3% for a ratio materials, densities high enough to provide acceptable
of one-fourth to as much as 25% for a ratio of two. properties in the finished product are possible only
by hot pressing. However, a number of problems are
Uniform Density Difficult with Complex Shapes. involved. The high temperatures involved (above
The density variation problem is further complicated 1,370° C for some materials) require expensive die
by shapes that are other than simple cylinders. Partial materials whose life may be very short. For some
solution to this density variation problem may be materials, a graphite die is used for each part pressed.
laccomplished by prepressing or the use of multiple Gas that is evolved may be trapped within the
~punches, as shown in Figure 12-17. Development of material, which leads to porosity defects as in cast-
~ressure by. centrifuging may produce more uniform ings.
138 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Protective Atmosphere Desirable. Cold-pressed ganic materials, such as oils or waxes, may be
parts that are subsequently sintered may be heated in impregnated into porous metal products for purposes
conventional manner by being placed in ordinary of lubrication. An entirely different kind of product
furnaces or salt baths. In those cases where heat is can be produced by impregnating high melting temp-
supplied by convection or radiation, it is usually erature metals with low melting temperature metals.
necessary to provide a protective atmosphere of inert The principal use of this technique is in the pro-
or reducing gas to protect the part from corrosion or duction of cemented steels. A porous, skeleton iron
chemical change. compact, which may be produced from low cost iron
powder, is impregnated with molten copper. The
resulting product has better strength, ductility, and
SIZING AND POSTSINTERING TREATMENTS
machinability than conventional powder metallurgy
Properties Improved by Deformation. Because of parts and may be more readily plated or joined by
variations of density and other factors, shrinkage of brazing. Sintered iron has also been impregnated with
powder metallurgy products during sintering is dif- lead alloys to improve anti friction properties for use
ficult to control. Parts that require close tolerances as bearings.
must nearly always be finished by some dimensional Conventional film radiography and fluoroscopy have
treatment. Cold working may be used for minor been effectively utilized on metal/metal impregnations
changes of dimensions, but this procedure is limited to determine the adequacy of the impregnation. Most
by the lack of ductility common to powder metal- often, the material used to impregnate is of much dif-
lurgy. products. Repressing, sometimes referred to as ferent density than the host compacted material.
coining, improves the density, strength, and ductility Unimpregnated voids can be readily seen as can the ex-
of the material. Even with this process, it is seldom tent of migration of the impregnating metal.
that these properties are equal to those of a similar
material produced by fusion. Most commercial APPLICATION FOR POWDERED
deformation working is done by hot working or by METAL PRODUCTS
cold working with frequent interruptions for recry-
stallization. Powder metallurgy occupies two rather distinct
Conventional Heat Treatments Possible. Powder areas. It is a basic shape-producing method for prac-
metallurgy products may be heat treated in the same tically all metals, in direct competition with other
ways as other materials of similar chemical composi- methods. In addition, for many refractory (high melt-
tion, but the treatments are usually not as effective as ing point) materials, both metals and nonmetals, pow-
for the fusion-produced metals, mainly because of the der metallurgy is the only practical means of shape
porous structure restricting the heat conductivity. production. Tungsten is typical of the refractory
Many of the voids within powder metallurgy products metals; it has a melting point of 3,400° C, and no
are stress concentration points that not only limit satisfactory mold or crucible materials exist for using
service loads but also increase the stresses arising from conventional casting techniques at this temperature.
thermal gradients during heat treatment. The treat- Tantalum and molybdenum are similar. For some
ments include resintering for stabilization and other metals, possible to melt, impurities picked up
homogeneity, annealing for softness, grain refinement by the liquid from the containers would be undesir-
for improved ductility, and hardening for improved able, and powder metallurgy offers the most econom-
wear resistance. The hardening processes may be ical means of obtaining solid shapes.
Cemented Carbides an Important Powder Prod-
quench hardening of carbon steels, precipitation uct. Cemented carbides form one of the most impor-
hardening of nonferrous materials, or surface hard-
ening by carburizing, cyaniding, and nitriding. tant groups of materials that can be fabricated into
solid shapes by powder metallurgy only .The biggest
Machined When Necessary. The machinability of use is for cutting tools and cutting tool tips or inserts,
sintered materials is usually poor, but machining is but the cemented carbides are also used for small dies
sometimes necessary to provide final control of di- and some applications where wear resistance is impor-
mensions or to establish shapes that are not practical tant. The principal material used is tungsten carbide,
for the powder metallurgy process. With some types although titanium carbide and tantalum carbide are
of products, such as the cemented carbides, grinding also used. Some very useful production cutting tools
is the common finishing process both to control size are manufactured by using a strong, tough material as
and shape and, in many cases, to eliminate the surface a core and impregnating the surface with titanium car-
produced in the sintering process. The original sur- bide or another hard, wear resistant material.
faces may contain faults or inclusions damaging to Sintered Bearings. A further area in which powder
use of the product. metallurgy produces products not practical by other
Properties Improved by Impregnation. One im- means is in the manufacture of materials with con-
portant finishing step is that of impregnation. Inor- trolled low density. One of the first mass-produced
Millwork, Forging, and Powder Metallurgy 139

powder metallurgy products was sintered porous far, powder metallurgy is in a somewhat noncompeti-
bronze bearings. Mter cold pressing, sintering, and tive position so far as the specific products are
sizing, the bearings are impregnated with oil, which in concerned. Competition exists between cemented
service is made available for lubrication. Although not carbides and other cutting tools, but cemented car-
true fluid film bearings, they provide long service bides can be fabricated only by powder metallurgy.
with low maintenance. Porous materials are also For many of the other products made of most metals,
useful as filters. more direct competition exists between powder
Unusual Alloys Formed by Powder Metallur- metallurgy and other methods strictly as processes
gy. Composite electrical materials form a group where the final products may be identical. In this
similar to the cemented carbides. Tungsten and other area, powder metallurgy has a number of advantages
refractory metals in combination with silver, nickel, and disadvantages. In many cases, the powder metal
graphite, or copper find wide application as electrical product is completely finished with no material loss,
contacts and commutator brushes; powder metallurgy as a result of the process. Production rates are high;
not only provides a means for producing the combi- finishes and tolerances are good. Powder metallurgy is
nation but also provides the finished shape for the particularly useful for shapes with two parallel faces
parts. Many of the currently used permanent magnet but a complex cylindrical contour in the other dimen-
materials are produced by powder metallurgy. sions.
Powder Metallurgy May Compete Economically
with Other Processes. In the applications noted so

l
Pressworking of 13
Sheet M eta I

Since its inception about 1850, the working of


sheet metal has grown constantly in importance and
today is perhaps the most important method of fabri-
cating metal parts. As pointed out in Chapter 12,
about 30% of steel mill output is in the form of sheet
and plate. Most of this material is further processed
by individual fabricators by various pressworking
operations that involve deformation, usually cold,
and shearing operations in which metal is removed.
Most Metal Consumer Goods - Pressworked. The
importance of this form of processing to the eco-
nomy is especially apparent from an examination of
the mass-produced metal consumer goods, such as
automobiles, home appliances housings, and office
equipment. In addition to exterior housings, many
functional parts are made from sheet metal; for type-
writers, business machines, and other equipment
made in large quantity, the percentages of parts made
by this process may approach one hundred.
Ductility Essential. Two requisites to this type of
processing are (1) sufficient quantities to justify the
high tooling cost that is required and (2) the presence
of enough ductility in the material to permit the
plastic flow necessary for the particular type of
operation being considered. Shearing operations, in
which plastic flow is not required, are possible on
nearly all sheet materials, even brittle materials such
as glass and some plastics. All other pressworking
operations are deformation operations, and the
degree of processing permissible is dependent on the
ductility present in the particular material. Some
metals may be cold worked to completion with
material as it comes from the mill, some metals re-
quire intermediate recrystallization between cold-
working operations, and some require heating for
more than shearing or minimum deformation opera-
tions.
142 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Applied Loads Cause Material Failure. Presswork- ning. and other forming operations may also require
ing operations, whether shearing or deformation, NDT to assure freedom from defects that can result
involve the failure of the metal by controlled loading. from the large deformations that such operations pro-
In shearing operations, the metal is loaded in a man- duce. Ultrasonic, penetrant, and eddy current tests are
ner to cause fracture. In bending, drawing, and other generally most suitable for detecting tears and cracks
deformation operations, the metal is loaded past the that can result from irregularities in the materials or
elastic limit to cause plastic flow only, usually by processes used.
application of tension or bending loads. Unlike most SHEARING
forging operations in which the metal is totally con-
fined, the final thickness of the metal depends on the Shearing Is a Cutting Operation. The term shear-
original thickness and the nature of the operation. ing, as used in pressworking, applies specifically to
Special Tools - High Cost. The majority of press- the operation of loading to fracture with opposed
working operations requires special tooling. In most edges. Shear stress applies to an internal load con-
cases, the cutting or forming tools are attached to a
standardized die set that is mounted in the press.
Figure 13-1 shows a simple die set for shearing a round
hole or producing a round disc.
Tooling Aligned in Die Set. When mounted in a
press, the punch shoe is attached to the ram of the
press and the die shoe to the bolster plate, which is
the fixed member corresponding to the anvil of a
forging press. The guide posts insure proper alignment DIE SHOE

of the punch and die and simplify the setup because ~ BLANK

the entire die set may be removed from the press and
replaced later without any critical adjustments to be Figure 13-1
made. In some complex dies, there may be confusion Simple die set
as to which is the die and which is the punch; in dition tending to slide one plane on another, and
normal use, however, the tool member with a recess, various amounts of shear stress occur with practically
hole, or depression is called the die, and the punch is all loading systems. In a shearing operation, material
the member that enters the hole or depression of the is actually loaded by a combination of compressive
die. In most cases, stock feeding and handling prob- and bending loads, and the internal stress condition is
lems are simplified by mounting the punch on the top quite complex. Of real importance is the fact that
and the die on the bottom of the die set. when the external loads become great enough, the
Limitations of NDT Applications. Most products internal stresses will exceed critical values for the
using sheet metal seldom require extensive NDT of the material and rupture will occur. The rupture mayor
sheet metal components. For example, while large may not be preceded by plastic flow, depending on
quantities of sheet metal are used in aircraft, most of the properties of the particular material.
the NDT performed on aircraft during manufacturing Shearing Used for a Variety of Purposes. A num-
is devoted to sub-structure like frames, beams, and ber of different shearing operations exist with some
spars or heavier structures like landing gear and en- confusion in names. One of the many ways of classi-
gine components. There are exceptions to this state- fying these operations is by the process purpose. The
ment, however, and at some time the NDT specialist is purpose may be to produce an external shape, which
likely to be asked to provide inspection of sheet metal. may either be a finished shape or be the raw material
While sheet metal inspections are most likely to oc- for some other operation; to remove part of the
cur during the service lifetime of the structure to which material or cut it in such a way that an opening or
the sheet metal is integral, some thin metals are used indentation is produced; or to remove material that
in rockets, some ordnance devices, marine and trans- was necessarily left on the part from some other
portation structures, and pressure vessels. Therefore, operation. Shearing operations may be grouped as
some knowledge of the common manufacturing pro- follows:
cesses for sheet metals will be needed if inspection and
Stock preparation and blank-producing operations
NDT is called for. One example of an important appli-
cation of NDT to thin metals is in thickness control Shearing
and measurement. Ultrasonic and eddy current meth- Slitting
ods can both provide highly accurate means for thick- Cutoff
ness measurement, and are particularly useful where Parting
access is limited to only one surface of a thin metal Dinking
structure. Products made from bending, drawing, spin- Blanking
Pressworking Df Sheet Metal 143

Hole-making operations Slitting. Figure 13-3 shows rotary slitting, which


Punching is used primarily for reducing coil stock to narrower
Slotting widths. Slitting is usually a mill or warehouse opera-
Perforating tion but occasionally is done by an individual fabrica-
Seminotching tor.
Notching
Lancing BENDING
Piercing In shearing operations, any plastic flow that occurs
Finishing operations along the edge is incidental because the purpose of
Trimming shearing is to cause separation of the metal without
Shaving any deformation in the sheet itself. Bending is in-
tended to cause localized plastic flow about one or
Straight Line Shearing. The term shearing gener- more linear axes in the material without causing frac-
ally refers to straight line cutting performed on a ture.
squaring shear that has permanently mounted, op- Duc tility Required for Bending. Bending is
posed straight blades. The upper blade is set at an accomplished by loading the material so as to set up
angle to give progressive engagement and reduce the stresses that exceed the yield point of the material
maximum force required. Squaring shears may be and cause permanent deformation. Shearing is pos-
used to reduce large sheet or coil stock to smaller size sible on materials having very low ductility as well as
for handling purposes or to produce parts with fin- on those having high ductility. Bending is possible
ished or semifinished shapes, as indicated in Figure only on materials having sufficient ductility to permit
13-2. the required amount of plastic flow. The severity of
bends possible will depend on the ductility. While the
oiIC degree of bending possible cannot be determined
directly from a standard tensile test, this test gives
useful comparative data. For two materials, the one
showing the greatest percentage of elongation in the
tensile test may be bent more severely than the other.
Outside Radius Distorted. Figure 13-4 indicates
Coil stock is usually cut
the nature of the deformation taking place in a bend.
perpendicular to edges. The metal on the inside of the radius is subject to
high compressive stresses that may cause an increase
in width for material that is nearly square in cross
EOO section. With any cross section, and regardless of how

Sheet stock may be cut in any direction t


limited only by the length of the shear blade.
'fly " /
"
Figure 13-2
Shearing
-- -L----
, ('°1,',
",

DVR ~~ ,'I'~
011
fS~
Q(". ~"
<"ss
'
'\

\
"'

~
/"vGSS/t- ','to
'" <" \ oP
1-11 '%.~\'1. '-
/
~ 90°
, --- \\ 1- '!J.
c:J.;;'
C>
\\
\\
<>
'i
C>
\\
\\

7 \ 'I

I
DIVIDERS

TOP VIEW
12

1 L- 1

ROTARY SLITTING
MANDRELS Figure 13-4
SIDE VIEW
Distortion during bending
the operation is performed, the high tensile stresses
Figure 13-3 on the outside of the bend cause thinning of the
Slitting metal. The degree of thinning will depend on the
144 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

ratio of bend radius to metal thickness. In practice,


the distortion must be considered for two reasons. START
Unless the metal is actually squeezed at the com-
pletion of the bend with sufficient force to cause
forging, the outside shape of the bend will not be a
true radius and is uncontrolled. On part drawings, the
inside radius only should be specified because this
radius can be controlled by the tooling.
Forming. By a strict definition, bending would
include only operations in which the plastic flow is
confined to a narrow straight line region where the
bend is made. It is not possible to perform a bend
along a curved axis without plastic flow occurring in
the material away from the line of the bend. This
type of operation would more strictly be called
drawing. In practice, however, a number of opera- f-
tions are considered bending that do include some
drawing. The term forming is sometimes used in a
broad sense to include simple bending, multiple bends
made along more than one axis, operations that are
INCREMENT FROM
d ---j

r
h

L
FLANGE

primarily bending but include some drawing, and COMPlETED


some operations that are basically drawing in nature CUP

but are of shallow depth or confined to a small area


of the workpiece.
Figure 13-5
Roll Forming - Alternative to Conventional Bend- Shell drawing
ing. Roll forming, illustrated in Figure 12-8 in
connection with tube making, is not a press opera- than the previous, are then used to produce the final
tion, but the metal is shaped by means of a continu- product dimensions.
ous bending action. While the completed shape could Recrystallization May Reduce Number of Steps. An
be produced by bending only, some stretching occurs operation might be accomplished with a single redraw
during the actual forming as the strip changes from if the part were reheated for recrystallization after the
flat to formed. Roll forming is used for making first draw to restore the original ductility and permit a
tubing, architectural trim, and other similar parts in greater reduction in the first redrawing operation. The
which a uniform cross section of relatively long actual choice of a single draw and two redraws as op-
length is necessary. The choice between roll forming posed to a single draw, recrystallization, and one re-
or shaping by conventional press tooling requires draw would depend on the economics of the particular
economic analysis. Short parts are frequently made situation and would involve consideration of quan-
by cutting roll-formed stock to correct length. tities, equipment, and other factors.
Single Form Used in Stretch Forming. Figure
DRAWING 13-6 illustrates the short-run method known as
Drawing Involves Multiple Stresses. The most stretch forming. The sheet to be formed is held under
complex press operation, from the standpoint of the tension with sufficient force to exceed the yield point
stresses involved, is drawing. In simple bending, a and pullE'd down over, or wrapped around, the single
form block. Considerable trimming allowance must
single axis exists about which all the deformation
occurs, and the surface area of the material is not be left along the edges of the part, and the process is
significantly altered. Drawing involves not only bend- restricted to shallow shapes with no reentrant angles.
ing but also stretching and compression of the metal However, the method is capable of forming opera-
over wide areas. While examples of drawing are many tions on large parts and has been used most in the
and include such items as automobile fenders and aircraft industry for large wing and body sections.
other body parts, aircraft wing and fuselage panels,
kitchenware, and square or rectangular box shapes,
the simplest illustration is shell drawing in which a
flat circular blank is pushed through a round die to
form a closed-end cup or shell, as shown in Figure 13-5.
In many cases, the dimensions of the required shell
are such that it cannot be completed in a single step. A Figure 13-6
series of dies, (two or more) each smaller in diameter Stretch forming
Press working of Sheet Metal 145

Spinning - Versatile, Low Cost, but Low Quanti- a short time. This feature has led to the use of the
ty, Process. One of the oldest production methods term high energy rate forming (HERF).
for cylindrical drawn shapes is spinning, shown in Explosive Forming. Most highly developed of
Figure 13-7. Prior to the manufacture of auto- these methods is explosive forming, shown in Figure
mobiles and other consumer goods in mass quantities 13-8. Two general methods have been used. In the
after 1900, spinning was the predominant method for first, sheet metal structures are sized or formed by
forming deep-drawn shapes and is still used to a
EXPLOSIVE
considerable extent when low quantities are pro-
duced. Most spinning is done cold, but for heavy
materials or materials without sufficient ductility at
room temperature, elevated temperatures are used.
Typical parts include pressure tank ends, kitchenware
of a special design and in special metals, and many
WORK
experimental parts that will, in production, be pro- BLANK
~ VACUUM
duced by conventional deep drawing in steel dies.
~
EXPLOSIVE

SPINNING

LATHE CHUCK
SPINDLE

'-- FOLLOW
BLOCK

VACUUM

WORK BLANK

Figure 13-8
Figure 13-7
Explosive forming
Spinning
drawing; high explosives detonated in air or in water
Tooling is generally low cost and, for light gage at some predetermined distance from the workpiece
ductile materials, wood is the most common form are used. Pressures as high as 4 million psi are devel-
material. Shapes produced may be shallow or deep, oped by the explosion, which creates a shock wave in
and bulging operations are possible with special set- the fluid medium that transmits the energy to the
ups. Nearly all metals may be spun, most of them workpiece. In the second method, a closed die is used,
cold. Limitations include the operation time involved and lower pressures of about 40,000 psi are
and the skill required of the operator because the developed by slower burning propellants or gas mix-
spinning tool is held and manipulated manually tures. This system is particularly useful for bulging
except in highly automatic setups where the process operations. In either case, a number of advantages
loses its low tooling cost advantage. Usually some exist when the process is compared to conventional
thinning of the metal occurs. The problems of wrink- press forming. The capital investment is low com-
ling and tearing are present as in conventional draw- pared to conventional press equipment, tooling is
ing operations, particularly with thinner materials. simple and inexpensive, and sizes can be shaped that
would be impractical with conventional equipment;
the principal restriction is long production time so
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN SHEET METAL
that the processes cannot be economically used for
FORMING
quantity production. There has been some indication
Most new developments in this area have at least that greater amounts of deformation may be achieved
two features in common. Like the processes just dis- by explosive forming than by conventional press
cussed, most are low tooling cost methods, useful for forming.
low production quantities, and most make use of a Electrical Energy Methods. Similar methods are
. single forming surface instead of matching dies. All of based on the sudden release of electrical energy
'them use nonconventional energy sources, usually stored in banks of condensers. In one method, a spark
is created between two electrodes while they are sub-
i;some system that releases large amounts of energy in
146 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

merged in water or air near the workpiece. In a piece, which sets up fields that interact with the coil
second method, a high current discharged through a fields to create high forces. With properly designed
relatively small diameter wire results in vaporization coils, tubular shapes may be expanded into a die or
of the wire. In either case, a shock wave is created compressed onto a mandrel or various inserts. Flat
that transfers energy to the workpiece. workpieces may be forced into a shallow drawing die.
One of the newest methods involves the release of One of the principal uses has been in assembly of
stored electrical energy through a coil near the work- tubular components with end fittings. The system has
piece, as shown in Figure 13-9. The rapidly created been called either electromagnetic forming or induc-
magnetic field induces eddy currents within a con- tive-repulsive forming. It does not appear to be
ductive (though not necessarily ferromagnetic) work- limited to low production as are most other high
energy rate techniques.

~~~~
Yl W","O

1~~
Figure 13-9
Electromagnetic forming
Machining 14
Fundamentals

THE MACHINING PROCESS


Machining as a shape-producing method is the most
universally used and the most important of all manu-
facturing processes. Machining is a shape-producing
process in which a power-driven device causes ma-
terial to be removed in chip form. Most machining is
done with equipment that supports both the work-
piece and the cutting tool, although in some cases
portable equipment is used with unsupported work-
pieces.
Low Setup Cost for Small Quantities. Machining
has two applications in manufacturing. For casting,
forging, and pressworking, each specific shape to be
produced, even one part, nearly always has a high tool-
ing cost. The shapes that may be produced by weld-
ing depend to a large degree on the shapes of raw
material that are available. By making use of generally
high cost equipment but without special tooling, it is
possible, by machining, to start with nearly any form
of raw material, so long as the exterior dimensions are
great enough, and produce any desired shape from
any material. Therefore, machining is usually tlie
. preferred method for producing one or a few parts,
even when the design of the part would logically lead
to casting, forging, or pressworking if a high quantity
were to be produced.
Close Accuracies, Good Finishes. The second
application for machining is based on the high accu-
racies and surface finishes possible. Many of the parts
machined in low quantities would be produced with
lower but acceptable tolerances if produced in high
148 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

quantities by some other process. On the other h<md, Machining-Localized Force Energy. To shape a
many parts are given their general shapes by some product by material removal in machining, a fracture
high quantity deformation process and machined failure must be caused at the desired location. Load-
only on selected surfaces where high accuracies are ing of the material by relative motion of the tool
needed. Internal threads, for example, are seldom causes plastic deformation of the material both be-
produced by any means other than machining, and fore and after the chip formation. All materials, how-
small holes in pressworked parts are machined follow- ever brittle they may seem, undergo some plastic
ing the pressworking operations. deformation in the machining process. In machining,
Tool Applies Controlled Loading to Cause Material the energy is in the form of a localized force that
Failure. Machining, as well as forging and presswork- causes plastic deformation and fracture to produce a
mg, is based on the fact that one material can be chip.
harder and stronger than another. If the harder one is CHIP FORMATION
properly shaped, it can be called a tool; when the tool
is brought into contact with a weaker workpiece with Some controversy exists over the theory that best
sufficient force, failure results in the workpiece. All explains the formation of a chip in metal cutting. The
deformation operations are based on the proper con- following, whether or not it is completely correct, is
trol of this failure. The loading is controlled in ma- one of the more generally believed theories that ser-
chining so as to produce 'only localized failure in the ves a good purpose in helping provide a better under-
workpiece, which results in the removal of material in standing for tool design and use.
the form of chips without significant deformation in The Tool Is Simply a Loading Device. First, let it
other parts of the workpiece. be understood that a cutting tool is merely a device
Processes Differ Primarily in Energy Use. To for applying external loads to the work material. If a
understand better what is involved in machining, it tool is strong enough that it will not fail and the work
might be well to consider what is involved in some of is rigid enough to resist deflection away from the
the other fabrication processes and then see how ma- tool, a chip will be produced by a relative motion
chining differs. between the two, regardless of the shape of the cut-
Casting-Heat Energy. In casting, energy is added ting tool edge in contact with the work. Although
in the form of heat so that the internal structure of any shape of edge may cause a chip to be formed,
the metal is changed and it becomes liquid. In this certain shapes will be more efficient in use of work
state, the metal is forced by pressure, which may con- energy than others and will exhibit less tendency to
sist of only the force of gravity, into a shaped cavity set up forces of such magnitude that the tool or work
where it is allowed to solidify. The shape changing is will be damaged.
therefore accomplished with the metal in such condi- Forces Are Created by Tool Motion. Figure 14-1
tion that the energy form is primarily that of heat, shows a single-point tool moving into the work and
and little energy in the form of force is required. subjecting it to compressive loading. The load may be
broken down into two forces: a force perpendicular
Welding-Heat and Force Energy. Welding involves to the tool face, which is called the normal force; and
placing the metal in a molten or near-molten condi-
tion, again by the addition of heat, and affecting a
union by fusion, which may involve pressure. Neither
of these processes changes the shape of the metal
while it is in its solid and strong state.
Deformation Processes-Mainly Force Energy over
Large Areas. In forging, bending, drawing, rolling and
extruding operations, advantage is taken of the prop-
erty of metals to deform plastically. In forging, roll-
ing, and extrusion, pressure loading is applied so that
the primary stresses produced in the metal are com-
pression. In drawing operations, metal is pulled or
drawn through a controlling die with a complex stress.

y'~~
distribution involving tension and compression at the TOOl fA" R
point of metal flow. The forces used to produce FACE

shapes by bending result in compressive stresses on ~N


one side of the material and tensile stresses on the
TOOL
other. All of these operations are basically the same
WORKPIECE
in the sense that a given quantity of metal is placed in
a new shape without any appreciable change in Figure 14-1
volume. Forces in chip formation
Machining Fundamentals 149

because this is a dynamic situation, a force along the


tool face, which is the friction force. The two forces
may be added vectorially to produce a resultant that,
as is shown, projects downward into the work ma-
terial. The direction and magnitude of the resultant
are dependent on its two component forces and are
influenced by the angle of the tool face and the coef-
ficient of friction between the chip and tool face.
Equal and opposite forces will occur in the tool, but
these are of little interest, providing the tool is strong
enough to withstand the applied loads.
Stresses Cause Material Failure. As pointed out in
the discussion of stresses in Chapter 3, an external Figure 14-3
force applied in a single direction may set up stresses Deformation of chip material
in other directions within the material. Figure 14-2
shows that maximum shear stresses are induced at an single plane of maximum shear probably does not
angle of approximately 45° to the direction of the exist, but rather there is a shifting plane creating a
resultant and that the plane region extending from region or zone in which plastic flow of the work
material occurs. In this region, the material is de-
formed in such a way that the chip is always thicker
and shorter than the material from which it is made.
The amount of change in shape is dependent not only
on the characteristics of the work material but also
on the direction of the applied forces.
Chip Types. There are three distinct types of chips
that are produced in machining depending primarily
upon the machining qualities of the work material but
also influenced by tool shape, cutting speed, and other
factors.
With brittle materials the chips universally break in-
to segments because of the inability of these materials
Figure 14-2 to withstand the deformation of chip formation with-
Shear stresses in chip formation out fracture. Tool shape and use to produce chips of
small pitch (short segments) usually produces best re-
the tip of the cutting tool to the uncut surface of the sults concerning tool life and surface finish.
work is subjected to these maximum shear stresses. In When ductile materials are machined the resulting
Chapter 11, it was indicated that plastic flow will chips tend to hold together producing chips that are
occur when the shear stresses reach a critical value for continuous or of relatively long length before breaking
any material. As plastic flow occurs along this plane, free. Ideally all the material that breaks away from the
work hardening will increase resistance to further base material will escape uniformly and continuously
flow, higher stresses will develop, and fracture failure over the tool face leaving a smooth work surface that
near the tip of the tool will cause the separation of a has been disturbed to only a minimum degree.
chip that will ride over the face of the tool and there- Unfortunately most chips from ductile materials
by create the friction which causes one of the com- tend to form somewhat intermittently with some mate-
ponent forces acting on the work. rial adhering to the tip temporarily, then escaping both
Chip Form Dependent on Material and Force Direc- over and under the tool tip. This leads to fluctuating
tion. If the material is of brittle nature, it will be able forces which may cause chatter and leaves partially re-
to stand only a small amount of plastic deformation moved particles on the work surface affecting the fin-
without fracture failure. If it is of ductile nature, the ish and wear qualities.
chip may hold together in a long continuous strip or In addition to the above three identifiable types of
ribbon, deforming considerably, but not fracturing chips, under many machining conditions chips may
except near the tool tip where it separates from the have varying degrees of the qualities of each and can-
parent stock. not be categorized as a single type.
I, Figure 14-3 indicates the probable nature of the Surface Effects From Machining. Regardless of
"
deformation in the chip, assuming a homogeneous the type chip produced during machining, force must
work material with uniform round crystals. Because
' be used and energy expended resulting in material de-
,
actual materials are not completely homogeneous, a formation and heat formation.
I
150 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

The force required to form the chip is in such direc- with superior properties and the need for operating at
tion, as indicated in Figure 14-1 and 14-2, that it not higher cutting speeds to increase production. The
only deforms the material of the chip but also applies principal difference between the tool materials in
high pressure to the newly created work surface that common use is in their ability to maintain hardness
passes under the tool. With some materials this defor- and strength at elevated temperatures. Some of the
mation action may result in fine surface cracks. tool materials with their principal characteristics are
Although machining is not normally a heat depen- as follows:
dent process, evidence of its presence is usually quite Carbon Tool Steel. A plain high carbon steel con-
clear. Immediately after machining a part will feel taining from 0.9% to 1.2% carbon. Machinable in its
warm, or hot, depending on the amount of material re- annealed condition. Heat treat hardened and tempered
moved or there may even be considerable radiant heat after machined or forged to shape. Little used as a cut-
from the part or chips. In many chips, red heat can be ting tool material except for some special low use tools.
observed at the tool tip as it cuts, and in nearly all High Speed Steel (HSS). An alloy steel that main-
cases chips will show discoloration from being exposed tains cutting hardness and strength to about 550°C
to air at room temperature. Except for certain nonfer- (lOOO°F), approximately twice that of carbon tool
rous materials, grinding displays sparks of burning steel. Used for many drills, reamers, milling cutters,
materials. as a result of cutting action. and other cutting tools where the cutting speed has
In many cases such as grinding or other high cutting relatively small effect on the overall manufacturing
speed operations, very high localized temperatures ap- cost.
proaching the melting temperature of the work materi- Cast Nonferrous Alloys. Alloys that are not nor-
al may be generated. High temperature gradients can mally machinable except by grinding. As a cutting tool
set up thermal stresses sufficient to cause small sur- it is used to some degree for machining cast iron and
face cracks that could be harmful. For critical parts in- malleable iron because of its high abrasion resistance.
spection by NDT may be required to detect these de- More commonly used as a structural material or coat-
fects and determine their frequency. It should be noted ing because of its chemical and abrasion resistance.
that these defects are often disguised by smear metal Cemented Carbides. A powder metallurgy product
wiped over the surface by the machining operation- of tungsten, titanium, and/or tantalum carbides com-
even during some of the finest grinding work. bined in various mixtures with cobalt or nickel to pro-
duce a variety of hardness and strength properties.
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS The single most important industrial cutting tool
group, in present day manufacturing. Used most as a
Tool materials have always played an important cutting tool tip or insert. Withstands temperatures
part in the economy of the world. In the earliest days over 1100°C (2000°F).
of history, stone was the principal tool material. As Ceramics or Cermets. Another powder metallurgy
late as the nineteenth century, the American Indian product, the most successful of which has been made of
used flint for arrow points, spear heads, knives, and almost pure aluminum oxide. Less shock resistant
other types of cutting edges. Even today some prim- than most of the cemented carbides but economical to
itive peoples use stone as one of the main tool ma- use for removal of large amounts of material with unin-
terials. During the Bronze Age, copper alloys took the terrupted cuts or for machining some hard materials
place of stone in the more civilized areas. With the that would otherwise require grinding.
discovery of iron and steel, a tool material was found Diamonds. The hardest material known to man but
that has been used for hundreds of years and was brittle and subject to failure from thermal shock. Used
added to only after the Industrial Revolution and the in single crystal or sintered polycrystal form for ma-
development of mass-production principles called for chining low tensile strength materials (aluminum, sin-
tool materials that could operate at higher speeds. tered bronze, graphite, and some plastics) with high
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, a num- speed, shallow cuts producing hard quality finishes.
ber of new tool materials have been developed, and Coated Tool Materials. Strong, shock resistant tool
most of them play some part in current manufactur- bodies coated with hard, wear resistant materials. An
ing. example is titanium carbide impregnated into the sur-
Strength at Elevated Temperatures-an Important face of high speed steel to take advantage of the values
Characteristic. The requirements for a satisfactory of each.
cutting tool material are that it be harder and strong-
er than the material it is to cut, that it be abrasion ABRASIVES
resistant to reduce wear, and that it be able to main-
tain these properties at the temperatures to which it The above mentioned tool materials are used for
will be exposed when cutting. The latter requirement single point tools or for multipoint tools in which the
has become increasingly important during recent cutting edges are carefully related to each other.
years because of the development of work materials Another group of materials known as abrasive are used
as wheels, sticks, or stones, or in free form. In use each Milhg. There are a great, variety of nziEiing m c ~
abrasive grain as it makes cantact with the work cuts chines which like the drill p e s s e m @ y apecid muIti-
by exactly the same mechanismas would a single point edge eu-s. Except for same special production type
cutting tool. The random shape ofthe grains togetha milling machines, this e q ~ p m m premita
t multi-
with their random orientation c r e a k s a multitude of tion f w and the aktms perfarm their principal
cut;ting conditi~nswhich continually vary as tool wear cutting on their periphery edges.
occurs.
Aluminum Oxide. A hard strong grain, much larger
i h n when used in a ceramic cuttipg tad, used fox the
vast majority of grinding toals and applications.
S i b Oxide. Harder and sharper grains than du-
mhum oxide but more brittle so they break easier in
f
.
-
@ rq&, --+
use. U a d hrge~yfor tool grinding work and for grind- lmL '\ ~ L L I ~ G Mtul~e
TURNINa
ing low strength materiala.
Diamond. Tha same material used for single point TOO r ,-.
tools but in this case crushed, graded, and usually sup-
ported by a metal or ceramic back up matmid. Used to @-
h,p$zj6 m\
a great extent for M s h W d h g some of the harder
Cutting tools.
Boron Cubic Nitride. A relativa newcomer (1969).
This materid approaches the hardnesa of the diarnond.
. PLANING

FEEDMOTDN
CUTTING h4OTlON-
---
SHAPING GRtNDING

It has had some ~uccessas a lapping material and


shows promise in wheel8 for tool grinding. Flgure 14-4
Feed and cuttlng motions
MACHINE TOOLS

they are designed. 1'ypial machine toola are inu-


s i d e d in Figures 145 through 14-12. Figure 14-5
Turning and Boring. These machines normally ro- Small slze engine lathe. Yersatlle tool-room machine
tate the workpiece to ptoduce the cutting motion and Involving a large human element. Seldom used for
feed a single point tool param to the w d axis or at praduction of eomsumer goods.
some angle t o it. External cylindrical machining is
called turning, internal cylindrical machining is called Straight Line Machines. One group of machine
boring, and making a flat surface by feeding the tool taols provide straight line cutting motion for its cut-
perpendicular to the axis of revolution is termed fm- ting action. This includes the shaper (straightline mo-
ing. , planer (straight 1im motion of
tion of the cutt ~ )the
Drilling. A specid fluted tool with two or more cut- the workpiece), and the broach (straightline motion of
ting lipa on its exposed end is called a drill and is ro- a special multitooth cutter).Because of the hgh cost of
tated and advanced axially into the workpiwe by use the special cutter, 'broaching is used only fur prduc-
of a drill press. The principal work is the making of, or tion quantity machining but the shaper and planer are
enlarging of, cylindrical holes. job-shop type machines.
-uqge aqa~dmooynbax q~qqasoqq moq pawnqsno3
am s a w ? lmqennpBm a= -qmmdpbano~wnpoq
'a3q
-Jnspe+mp eqq @no3A m rlrrmquoa p y ay3~w @no
-~mqpqs suoyom aldgpm empa~dQsnsn pw
uol70m 3w7n3 a w peads Srrl??W q m s1-M
'Bu!ll!~ueuIl 1yBp~1seuos
pue 'Bu!ddw ' 6 u ! ~ q'dululea~'BU!IIIJP40 suo!geulqwaa
104 alqm!ns o B u ~ q oloor 1anuRt.u pule s d a ~ syldep
a ~ d u ~ n411M
u eury3aur leuo!suauqp-om1 ~ u ~ o d - o ~ - Q y~~od
.~eluar,B u ! u ! y 3 ~ upello~luosLlleo!Aeurnu y
6-ftLalnB1d

&~!33np0~d lnq
MOl S AfB~jla[sA
dnws eidurls pus KQt!qeslen y ~ m
aqqpeur urocryaol v -rdw.s-yuej:, l m u o z ~ o ~
w1 ans!d
le-Io
~1gur8
A.sTx-sptndla&ill press that can be set up with Figure 54-12
a variafr 07 twb,far a series of saqmflal operatlQns Plain vertfcal mllllng machine. Shown fitted wlth
ahell end-mllllng cutter and fixturs designed for
job.shop production,

an operation does not fill all the needs of a mmhhbg


definition, it is nevertheless a chip-forming operation
that uses a hard and strong tool to -use locdized
Mure in a workpiece. The whittler has doubtlessly
also noticed that some woods are easier to shape than
others. He is faced with an inherent d i f f m c e in the
"'whittleabjliky7'of different kinds of wood. This ease
of working is affected not only by the kind of wood
but also by the m o i b content and the atate of
seasoning.
A a consideration arises in m a d h h g meMs.
Different metals may be cut at different rates, dif-
ferent amounts of power are required, and different
finishes are obtained. These differences depend not
Figure 14-11 only on the k i d of metal ar alloy but aXso on its
A flat surface broaching cutter mounted prior history of p m c e h g , including deformation
an the ram of a vertical braaching maehlne. and heat-keating operations that affect its hardnea,
Each cutter tonth projects a b o v ~the preceding ones, strength, and grain structure.
and a surface is completed in a stngle pass. Machiaability-an Inherent Material Quality. The
term mchinubiiity ia used to describe the relative
tion and considerabIe operating skill from the operator ease with which any material may be machined, In
to production types that are fully automatic. Compan- me respect, the term is like the word st~ength, for a
ies manufacturing large quantities of l kproduct oh- m h r i a l can have tende &ength, shear strength,
tain their greatest economy using transfer type m- impact dxength, fatigue strength, and compressive
chines connected together with autumatic banding strength, dl of which are measured in di-fferent ways
systems to move the product from one station to the and any one of which does not neca&y correlate
next. These machina hequently indude built-in out- with t h e others. That is, mahiah having equal tensile
put during wntinuous manufacturing. strengths do not always have the same impad
strength or fatigue strength. Three different measure-
menWiniash, powex consumption, and tool life-may
NearIy everyone has at sorne time used a pocket .
be considered in machinability W e measurements
knife to whittle some shape b m wood. While such of strength properties, these do not always gb0 pre-
154 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

cise numerical information, but are more often rela- Finish Not Always Predictable. While surface
tive to some standard. finish depends on many variables and in many cases
on the particular combination of all the variables,
FINISH especially when vibration is encountered, it is possible
To have real meaning, any measurement of finish to make some general statements about the effect of
would have to be made with all the variables that the more important factors. Table 14-1 shows the
might affect finish under strict control, and the values most likely effect on surface finish caused by increas-
obtained would be reliable only for a particular set of ing the more important machining variables from
machining conditions. The relative finishability of dif- some standard set of conditions. The predicted results
ferent materials has somewhat more reliability. For are intended to be qualitative only and even then
example, brass normally finishes better than steel apply only if one variable at a time is changed.
under any given set of conditions. TABLE 14-1
Waviness-Broad Uniform Variations. The geo- Relation of machining variables to surface finish
metry of any surface is affected to different degrees Finish Effect with
by different factors. The gross conformance of a sur- Variable Increase of Variable
face to its intended or theoretical shape is controlled
by the accuracy of the machine tool motions, by Cutting speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Improvement
vibrations or deflections of the machine tool or work- Feed Deterioration(degree
piece, and by deformations that may occur as the dependent on nose shape)
result of temperature change or the release of residual Depth of cut. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deterioration
stresses. The term waviness is used to describe those True rake angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Improvement
variations of conformance that are relatively widely Relief angle Little effect
spaced or large in size. Noseradius lmprovement
Roughness-Fine Uniform Variations. The term Work hardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Improvement
roughness is used to refer to the relatively finely
spaced surface irregularities, the height, width, and There are major exceptions when vibration is con-
direction of which establish the predominant surface sidered. Changing almost any condition can often
pattern. These irregularities are superimposed on the stop vibration, even when the change is in the direc-
waviness. Roughness may be due to higher frequency tion that would otherwise produce a poorer finish.
vibrations, to feed marks occurring as a result of the Further exceptions occur at feed rates and depths of
combination of tool shape and machine tool relative cut near zero. With either of these variables at very
motions, or to the particles of built-up edge that have low values, finish is frequently poor, especially as
escaped under the cutting edge and been smeared on tools become dull. With a very small depth of cut or
the finished surface. feed and a worn tool, the rake angle is decreased with
Lay-Direction of Tool Mark Pattern. The lay of a increased forces and greater tendency for built-up
surface is the direction of the predominant surface edge.
pattern. Lay is determined primarily by the direction Some compromise is frequently involved among
of the cutting motion used to machine the surface finish, tool life, and machining time. Decreasing the
and may be single direction, circular, or random in depth of cut or feed may improve finish, but either
nature. change would increase machining time. Increasing
The exact classification of many surface irregulari- cutting speed almost universally decreases tool life.
ties frequently depends on the method of measure- Increasing the rake angle may make the tool subject
ment. Most surface-finish measuring instruments may to edge chipping or fracture failure or may induce
be adjusted to respond only to variations of less than chatter.
some particular width so that feed marks, low fre-
quency vibration, or chatter mayor may not be NUMERICAL CONTROL
recorded in the measurement. Measurements of both
waviness and surface roughness will generally be dif- Numerical control (N/C) systems are auxiliary ma-
ferent when measured in different direction because chine control equipment that may be applied to almost
of the effect of the lay. any kind of mechanical device which can function by
Imperfections Usually Random. Any surface may repeating a certain cycle of operation. This relatively
contain, in addition to roughness and waviness, ran- new development is especially important in the manu-
domly distributed flaws or imperfections. These facturing field because it can be applied to most ma-
are most often due to inherent faults, such as inclu- chine tool types and some other machine equipment
sions or voids in the material, that are exposed only such as punches, welding equipment, cutting torches,
when the outside surface is machined away. Scratches and even drafting machines.
or marks caused by mishandling also fall in this cate- Greatest Value for Small to Medium Quantities.
gory. Although it would be possible to retrofit a standard
Machining Fundamentals 155

machine with NIC, the results obtained would be very EOB CHANNELS

limited in scope, accuracy, and time saving so that (End of


block)
only rarely would such action be economically justi-
fied. Practically all NIC equipment is of special design x
with an integrated control system such that the total
cost may be many times that of a conventional ma-
chine designed to perform similar product work. Be-
cause the cost is high it seems unusual that is it most 0

0
economical to use N/C equipment on relatively small ~
quantity lots, only occasionally exceeding one or two
hundred pieces.
The major benefits received from N/C include reduc- CHARACTER -~------ --5
tion of the human element relation to the product with (Line) ""
u
y
resulting improvement of consistency requiring less in-
spection. The reason for its value in small lot sizes is b
I (
based on the short set up time, particularly when the
7
program has already been prepared for previous runs. '"
The equipment can therefore be shifted from one pro- 0
duct part to another by changing the tape and avail- I
able tools with very little time loss. 9

At the present time, and likely into the indefinite fu- 0


ture, large quantity manufacturing of the continuous
type can be done most inexpensively with specialized, EOB

single purpose machines, usually tied together with


mechanical handling equipment, and in many cases in- BIT (I ndividual
location)
cluding most of the inspection equipment needed to
maintain quality. Figure 14-13
Principles of Operation. Numerical control consists Section of N/C tape
of storing information in the form of numbers and sup-
plying that information in proper order to the machine Some machines use the supplied information imme-
to cause the machine to go through some predeter- diately, but others operate more smoothly by reading
mined cycle of operation. Some machines are of con- ahead of the action to a greater degree and storing the
ventional design and may be operated manually as well information until it is needed.
as by N/C. Others are so special that manual control is Most Machines of Closed Loop Design. A small
very difficult and in order to exhibit their greatest number of machines have been designed to obey their
value may need to use a computer generated program. commands without response to the control system.
Program Storage. Several storage media such as Most though are designed with transducers in the ma-
magnetic tape, punched cards, and others can and have chine elements which generate feedback signals for the
been used, but currently industry has generally ac- control system. As long as error exists between the
cepted a I-inch wide 8 channel tape as a standard input compareI' feedback and command signals, movement
medium. Figure 14-13 shows a short section of such a continues. As soon as the comparison error disappears,
c tape displaying two words of information to describe X the next command takes over.
i and Y axis positions. The presence or absence of holes Controlled Motions Called Axes. Some machines
t at various locations along the eight channels are bits of such as a simple N/C drill which moves the work only
~ information that make up characters and words which through an "x" and "y" axis under a spindle that
; can be interpreted by the machine reader to initiate ac- moves only with a single position stop are called two
[ tion. axis machines. Such is shown in Figure 14-14. Others
I Readers Usually of One of Two Types. Some are more complex with a "z" axis (spindle control) and
t readers are of mechanical type constructed with spring
sometimes rotational motion of the work about one or
more axes to present different faces of the work to the
f loaded pins that can complete an electrical circuit
[ wherever a hole exists to permit electrical contact. cutting tool.
I This type reader usually reads a block of information Many machines are also constructed with multiple
at a time, actuating relays or other electrical devices in tool holding racks and the capability of selecting and
the control system. using particular coded tools as called for by the pro-
Other readers are photoelectric and usually read only gram on the tape.
one character (line) at a time but do this so rapidly that Some machines move from one point to another with
l the tape is in continuous motion and the information is no control over the path traveled to arrive at the new
~ recorded. position. Others differ from the simpler "point to
166 MabrialS and w for NI)T Technology

Figure 14-15
A conttnuaus path numerically controlled lathe.
tape reader and controls are shown at the left.

NlC D i s a h h g e g . O r @ d machine more costly,


Figure 1414 Machin- more cornpl~xthus mquhhg more &ten-
Numerically eontrollsd dril llng and mllllng machine anee. Operatma and maintenance persumel m q u h
special h h h g and a m . Ma- usual& mpke
znachtne by operating through a cxm~uoUs1.y mare floor space than conventional types. EEective
controlled path p d t t h g the generation of a m a t e use necessitates m&tion of design with the equip
a w e s and ~ihapes.Figure 14-15pictuns an NIC lathe merit.
afthistspe. Cwnputm. Many pm$rams prepred for NIC caa
' Machine Typw Most of the machine tods fitW best be done by use of a computer to perform lengthy
with NIC fhll in the general categories of lathes, drU- mmputatiow and turn out a hpe ready for use, In
h gmachines, a d ndhgm w h a although many -are addition to computer a m i d d programming, some
mmbinatiom of tha dtiUing d d h g types wxl equipmat b desigued to be directly operated by a
have been given the g e n d name of mwlaiahg center computer which uses its awn memory bank for pro-
b u s e of the great variety of work that canbe accom- gram storage and elhimtes the need for a tape and
pbhedonaworkpi~c~hasingleset up. tape reader. The NIC equipment may be connected di-
N/C Advant- Reduced -ling c o a h by u'ee of rectly t o its on dcomputer or may be included in
Bimplified jiga and httmm. Low tmtnp time and cost a bank of machines ccmtmlIed by a large computer. h
4-t important valuee), E x c d h t repeabbility with either ease, the program can normally be edited or c u r
relativdy g o d accuracy, Fewer error8 hornhuman fal- rected at the computer k e y b o d or caa. be quickly
I!de-l&.khE:. shifted to an entirely new program.
Miscellaneous 15
Processes
The processes that have been discussed in previous
chapters have all fit the conventional definitions for
casting (melt and flow), deformation (plastic flow in
the solid state), welding (bonds formed by heat or
pressure or both), or machining (chip formation by a
cutting tool). In some respects the processing of plas-
tics follows these same conventional methods, but dif-
ferences in their structure and properties from those of
metallic materials causes different processing prob-
lems and prevents their being treated in exactly the
same ways.
Adhesive bonding, although closely related to weld-
ing as a joining process; is also a somewhat special pro-
cess that seems to fit better with this miscellaneous
group.
A number of processes for shaping metallic materi-
als do not fit the standard categories of metal proces-
sing. Most are relatively new processes that are still
undergoing development. Most are of importance pri-
marily for some special purpose and do not compete
economically with the more conventional processes on
a wide scale. Several of them have been developed
largely because of the need to shape new high strength
and temperature-resistant alloys that are not easily
worked by the older processes.

PLASTIC PROCESSING

Closed Die Molding Similar to Die Casting. In a


general way, the forming of sheets of plastic may be
compared to the pressworking of metals: many of the
techniques are similar. Most of the casting methods
used with plastics are similar to permanent mold
casting of metals. The most important area of plastic
processing is matched die molding. In this area,
compression molding and cold molding are like forg-
ing and powder metallurgy in that the material is
158 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

introduced into an open die, and the forming pressure part removed, although' partial cooling is sometimes
is applied by the closing of the dies. Transfer molding beneficial to the dimensional stability of the product.
is essentially cold chamber die casting, and injection The setting time varies from a few seconds to several
molding is quite like hot chamber die casting. In fact, minutes, depending on material, temperature, heating
the equipment used for these processes is usually method, and section thicknesses. It is possible to
similar in appearance. Extrusion of plastics is directly compression mold thermoplastics; but, after the
comparable to the extrusion of metals. pressure and heating portion of the cycle, the mold
Plastic Type Limits Processing. Many of the must be cooled before removal of the part.
procedures have been developed because of the Advantages and Limitations of Compression
nature of the plastic groups, particularly because of Molding. Compared with other molding techniques,
the difference between thermosetting and thermo- a number of advantages and limitations are associated
plastic materials. While the initial treatment of these with compression molding. Size restrictions are rela-
two types is similar, and both soften during initial tively few, and the largest molded articles are gener-
heating, this ductile stage of thermosetting plastics is ally made by this method. There is no waste material
of limited duration, and the setting reaction proceeds and little erosion of the dies because the material
with time, particularly at elevated temperature. does not flow under high pressure from outside the
Thermoplastic materials, however, may be held in the mold. Because of the short, multidirectional flow of
softened condition for prolonged periods of time material within the mold, distortions and internal
with little or no chemical change. stresses within the mold may be minimized. On the
other hand, undercuts and small holes are not practi-
cal, and the nature of the process requires that the
COMPRESSION MOLDING shape of the article be such that the two halves of the
Mold Closing Provides Pressure. The oldest and mold can fit telescopically together to insure filling.
simplest of plastic molding processes is compression The high pressures required, together with the low
molding, shown in Figure 15-1. Material in powder, viscosity of most thermosetting materials in the
granule, pill, or preformed shape is first introduced plastic state, result in filling clearances between mold
into the mold, followed by the application of pres- parts even when they are on the order of 0.025
sure and heat. With thermosetting plastics, for which millimeter (0.001 inch). Thus, not only will removal
the process is normally used, the first effect of the of flash from the part be required but also cleaning of
heat is to soften the material to a thermoplastic stage the mold parts between successive cycles will fre-
quently be necessary.

~
~m~~;~~.
GRANULES
CLOSED DIE MOLDING
By far, the most important molding processes
used are those that introduce the plastic into closed
-"'~' dies by some external pressure system. The principal
FLASH (vimm;ng difference between these methods and the die casting
'equ;,ed)
FLASH-TYPE MOLD
used in the foundry is the softened plastic condition
DIMENSION AND DENSITY CONTROL of the material rather than the liquid state of the
WASTE MATERIAL
metals. Because of the similarities, the terminology is
mostly1he same as that used in the foundry.
Transfer Molding - Thermosetting Plastics. The
variations are due principally to the differences be-
tween thermoplastics and thermosetting materials.
Transfer molding, used with the latter and shown in
S TRAIGHT-PLUNGER-TYPE LANDED-PLUNGER-TYPE
Figure 15-2, is like cold chamber die casting in all
MOLD MOLD important respects. A predetermined quantity of
DENSITY CONTROL DIMENSION CONTROL
VARIABLE DIMENSION VARIABLE DENSITY molding compound, always including some excess, is
introduced into the transfer chamber. This material is
Figure 15-1 usually preformed and may be preheated. Sufficient
Compression mold types heat is supplied to the material in the transfer
chamber to bring the plastic to the softened state.
in which the particles coalesce and flow under pres- Pressure is applied to force, or "transfer," the charge
sure to fill the mold cavity. With prolonged applica- to the die cavity. Additional heat is supplied to the
tion of heat, the thermosetting reaction takes place, die for the thermosetting reaction. The excess ma-
and the material becomes permanently rigid. The terial in the transfer chamber and the sprue and
mold may be opened while still hot and the finished runner system also set, resulting in a cull that must be
Miscellaneous Processes 159

removed at the completion of the cycle. This cull is injected on the next cycle without the cull losses
scrap because the thermosetting reaction may not be normally expected in transfer molding of thermoset-
reversed. ting plastics.
PlUNGER Some injection molding of thermosetting ma-
terials is done, but precise temperature and time
controls are necessary to prevent premature setting of
the material in the injection chamber. When used for
these materials, the process is known as jet, flow, or
offset molding.

CASTING
With the exception of acrylic rod and sheet
materials, which are cast against glass, and some
MOLD CAVITY
protective coatings applied by dipping, casting of
CUll plastics is primarily a low tooling cost procedure
restricted to thermosetting resins and used for low
production of jewelry, novelty items, laboratory
specimens, and similar parts. Polyesters, epoxies, and
phenolics are most frequently used in syrupy or
liquid form, with hardening promoted by chemical
catalysts or by prolonged heating at low tempera-
tures.

Figure 15-2 EXTRUSION


Transfer molding
Most plastics that are finished as sheets, tubes,
Injection Molding - Thermoplastic Materi- rods, filaments, films, and other shapes of uniform
als. For thermoplastic materials, the transfer process cross section are produced by extrusion. With some
is simplified because of the nature of the material. plastics that have a high degree of crystallinity, higher
The term injection molding is used to describe the strengths may be developed by stretch deforming the
process. Prolonged heating is not necessary or desir- material after extrusion.
able, and the material may be forced into a cool die Thin Plastic Films. Two methods are used for
where the material becoIPes rigid as a result of producing film. In one, the film is extruded through a
cooling rather than chemical change. As indicated in slit of appropriate size. In the other, the material is
Figure 15-3, a measured charge of raw material is extruded as a tube that is then expanded by air
introduced when the plunger is withdrawn, and, on pressure and either slit or passed between heated
the working stroke of the machine, the material is rollers where it is welded into a single sheet. By the
forced around the spreader where heat is supplied. expanded tube method, films of less than 0.025-
Material for four to eight working strokes, or shots, is millimeter thickness are produced in large quantities
normally kept in the heating chamber. Temperatures for food wrapping and other packaging.
are controlled so that the sprue separates at the
nozzle when the parts are removed, with the material
in the nozzle remaining heated sufficiently to be REINFORCED PLASTIC MOLDING
One of the fastest growing fields in recent years
has been the production of relatively large plastic
articles with filler in the form of reinforcing fibers in
loose, woven, or sheet form. The principle is old;
plywood is an example, although the early adhesives
used for plywood were not considered to be plastics,
and the wood fibers were not fully saturated with
resin as is common with most molding of this type
now.
Fibrous Fillers - Thermosetting Resins. Glass
fibers and paper are the most common filler materials
Figure 15-3 used. Wood and fabric in various forms also have
Injection molding some applications. At present, the process is limited
160 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

to thermosetting materials because of both the nature Reinforced Plastics Convenient. The success of
of the processing used and the higher strengths "fiberglass" boats, automobile bodies, and similar
available. Phenolics, polyesters, melamines, and large shapes attests to the value of reinforced plastics.
epoxies predominate. The simplicity of tooling and equipment required
In nearly all variations of the process, the filler (even for amateur home building projects) makes the
and resin are brought together in the process itself, contact method ideal for low quantity production
and the thickness of the molded parts is established and permits rapid design changes when desired.
more by the placement of the filler material than by Strength and shock resistance are generally quite high
mold pressures. but depend primarily on the type and proportion of
Contact Layup - Filler, Resin. The simplest filler material.
procedure is contact layup, in which successive layers POSTFORMING
of manually placed filler material are brushed or Secondary Operations by Many Methods. Two
sprayed with resin as they are applied to the mold, general classes of operations are performed on plastics
which may have either a concave or a convex shape. after the initial shape has been produced by one of
The mold may be of almost any material that can be the methods already discussed. Conventional material
properly shaped, including wood, plaster, concrete, removal processes, including sawing, shearing, dink-
metal, or plastic, and there are almost no size limita- ing, and blanking, are possible with any plastic but are
tions. The resins used may incorporate catalysts that most frequently used for the preparation of sheet
promote setting at room temperatures, or heating stock prior to a further hot-forming operation. Ma-
may be required. In either case, because no pressure is chining is possible but is generally practical for small
applied, the ratio of resin to filler must be high to quantities only, and other processes are usually
insure complete saturation of the fibers. One of the cheaper for large quantities. Cutting speeds for ther-
more interesting applications involves the use of glass moplastics must be kept low to prevent heating and
filaments, coated with resin, that are wound on softening of the material.
mandrels into the shape of spheres or cylinders. With Thermoplastics Often Reheated to Soften. The
proper winding techniques, the filaments may be widest use of postforming operations is made on
orientated to make most efficient use of the longi- thermoplastics in sheet form that are heated and
tudinal strength of the fibers; tensile strengths up to made to conform to a single surface mold or pattern
1,000 MPa (150,000 psi) have been reported for by pressure or vacuum. Variations are based primarily
structures produced by this method. on the method of applying pressure and include
Contact Layup Variations. The commonest draping, where gravity only is used; drawing and
variations of the contact layup method, vacuum bag stretch forming, which are identical to the same
molding, expanded bag molding, and autoclave mold- operations performed on metal; blow-dieing, which is
ing, are all methods for developing some pressure on a combined drawing and air-bulging operation; and
the surface of the molding to permit a lower resin-to- vacuum forming, which is similar to vacuum molding
filler ratio. Vacuum bag molding is identical with the of reinforced plastics except that no external film is
contact layup method except that a sheet of vinyl used. Some small, relatively flat items, such as brush
plastic film is placed over the mold after the layers handles and buttons, are shaped by forging heated
are built up and the mold evacuated to cause atmos- sheet stock in closed dies.
pheric pressure to be applied. In the expanded bag DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
process, pressures up to 0.35 MPa (50 psi) may be
provided by blowing up a bag that conforms to and is Plastics and Metals Often Competitive. The
held in contact with the molding. The autoclave choice of plastic materials involves the same consider-
method is similar to the expanded bag method except ations that apply in choosing metals to fulfill a need.
that heat and pressure are supplied by steam in a In fact, the two classes of materials are frequently in
closed chamber. direct competition with each other. A number of
Compression Process for Sheet Material. In a different materials will usually satisfy the functional
direct variation of compression molding, matched requirements of a part or product, and the choice
metal dies are used to form reinforced products. This depends primarily on the economics of manufac-
process is used most for flat sheet manufactured for turing for which the material, fabrication, and finish-
table and counter tops but is also used for curved ing costs must all be considered. Many plastics require
shapes, such as chairs, trays, and sinks. For the curved no finishing at all. Often a single plastic molding can
shapes, filler materials are generally preformed before replace an assembly of parts made of metal with
molding. The use of matched metal dies is the only resulting cost decrease, although the material cost
way to produce good finishes on both sides of the alone may be higher.
finished part, and the high pressures used permit as Properties of Metals Usually Higher. The stabili-
much as 90% filler and result in higher strengths than ty of properties and the durability of the appearance
would otherwise be possible. of plastics are usually poorer than those of metals.
Miscellaneous Processes 161

They are generally better for thermosetting materials bonds of these types are established, the positive and
than for thermoplastics, but the thermosetting plas- negative charges of most atoms are not completely
tics are usually slower to process and more expensive. neutralized, and Van der Waals' forces provide addi-
The dimensional stability for plastics ranges from tional bonding between the atoms. While not strictly
poor to excellent. The low rigidity and thermal an adherence phenomenon, mechanical interlocking
conductivity, when compared to metals, may be may take part in the action of some adhesives, al-
either advantages or disadvantages, depending on the though this action appears to be secondary to true
application. adhesion.
Plastic strengths are generally lower than metal Solvents Used with Some Adhesives. As in weld-
strengths. Most plastics have tensile strengths below ing of metals, the proper performance of an adhesive
10,000 psi, but some of the reinforced materials have requires that intimate contact be established between
extremely high strength-to-weight ratios, at higher the adhesive and the surfaces to be joined. Different
cost. Many plastic articles compete successfully with means are used to provide closeness. An adhesive can
metals only through the use of metal inserts for be applied as a solution in a volatile liquid. Evapora-
bearings, threads, and fastenings. tion of the solvent is necessary for the adhesive to
Most plastics excel in corrosion resistance to develop the desired properties, and, as evaporation
ordinary environments. This is true to the extent that proceeds, the adhesive proper is drawn to the bare
many metals are coated with plastic films for protec- material surfaces. Adhesives of this type are useful for
tion. porous materials, such as wood, paper, and fabrics,
ADHESIVE BONDING into which the vapors can penetrate. For nonporous
materials, extremely long drying times may be re-
The elements of an adhesive bond are shown in quired because the edge of the joint is the only area
Figure 15-4. An adhesive is most commonly con- exposed for evaporation.
sidered to be a material with some "tackiness" or Pressure or Heat. or Both. Needed for Some Adhe-
"stickiness," and the animal glues used almost ex- sives. Some relatively new materials are normally
clusively up to the current century met this require- solid but become liquid with application of pressure,
ment. Modem adhesives, however, have wide range in then resolidify when the pressure is released. Other
this respect. Contact cements have sufficient tacki- adhesives are purely thermoplastic in nature, soften-
ness that bonding with considerable strength occurs ing or liquifying from heat and hardening on cooling.
immediately, under only moderate pressure. Some Thermosetting Plastic Resins Used for Metals. The
thermosetting plastic compounds have little or no most important adhesives for the bonding of metals
tackiness as applied and develop strength only after are thermosetting compounds applied as liquids,
the setting reaction has been promoted by heat, pres- pastes, or powders, then polymerized in place through
sure, or chemical reaction with the parts held in the action of catalysts, heat, or pressure. The materials
place. most used include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, and urea
Bonding Mechanisms Complex. No clear distinc- resins.
In addition to the increasing importance of the tradi-
tion can be made between the terms glue, cement,
and adhesive. Common to all of them, however, is the tional uses of adhesives in the manufacture of plywood
property of adherence to a surface, and this property and in the assembly of wood parts, there is consider-
is not essentially different from the metallic bond able growth in the use of adhesives in the bonding of
metal structures. These uses are becoming more impor-
established between metallic surfaces brought into
close contact. At least four mechanisms may be tant as higher strength materials are developed. Adhe-
responsible for adherence. Electrostatic bonds and sives with tensile strengths above 70 MPa (10,000 psi)
covalent bonds result from the sharing of electrons by and shear strengths above 30 MPa (4,000 psi) are avail-
different atoms and account for the formation of able for bonding metals. Many new applications of
most common chemical compounds. Even after joining of dissimilar metals, such as rubber to metal,
OXIDES USUALLY REMAIN ON
are appearing. .

SURFACES. RESIN SOLVENTS MAY Adhesives Provide Several Advantages. Other


PROVIDE SOME CLEANING ACTION
advantages may apply to specific cases. Elevated tem-
peratures are not necessary for most adhesives so that
distortion associated with welding may be avoided.
Thin structures that would be difficult to join by other
methods may be used. In most cases, automatic seal-
ing of joints is achieved. This may not be true of me-
chanically fastened joints. Adhesives may be chosen to
provide corrosion resistance or insulation and damping
qualities. In many instances, adhesive bonding is used
Figure 15-4 because it does not require expensive equipment and
Adhesive bond highly trained personnel.
162 Materids and Rmssea for ,NDT Technology

COMPOSITES Wt up laminations are fully bonded in critical ap@-


cations, careful pmcyming rnuat be maintained and
Compo~ibe consist of mixtures of two OF mere mate- adequate d p e c t i o n ~performed.
riala tbat maintain their own identities but me at- Graphite. One of the newmt developments of
tached tugether in such ways as to minfrce the pro- stmflg, lightweight natwials is graphite reinforced
perties of each by adhesive forces, by theit respective pladc. Graphite, an ~ o r p h o u form ~. a€ mbm,
positions or frequently by both Composites may be mated with spoxy, is wwen in*o doth and is molded
m&,up d dl metsds, r;omhations of metals and non- fnto sheets, rods. and bars wihh he& mdpressure. The
metala or all n~n-metetls.The mest UW reason for de- r e d t is ~trong,light, flexible product suitable to be
velopment of composites b s W n to produce a lighh- laminated into rigid a t m c ~ such s as the &craft
weight structure with high s t m @ or high $tiffnW33 part ahom inFigure 15-6or used in its limber state for
sometimas d t h the a d d i t i d hatwe of withstanding such i b s as fishing rada or gulf clubs that are ac-
some unusual environmental condition. cepted even at high cmt,

LAMINATES
A number of cornpasites are put together in the form
of h d n a k a . Mast &en thege me designedin the form
of either fht or mrvd sheets tbat have very high
stength-wdght ratim and on the basis of weight may
be able to r e p h e steel in many applications. As is true
of many new developments in mated& and processes,
needs of the aerospace industry have initiated the ne-
w s a ry research ~~ctivikies for these materials,.
Aluminum~Boron. The sketch shown in Figure 15-6
displays a ky$d laminated type composite. Boron, a
high melting temperature, hard, str-, non-metdie,
in fiber form is enclosedin a unidirectionalposition in a
diffusion bonded dumjnum matrix. This core is them Flgura 156
Polyester and fibergjass are used in constructing this
88n,dwiched between kwo sheeh of duminum alloy. A
boat (cawfesy Fore and Aft)
simcture of this kinda n ba light in weight, but stmng
and rigid, suitable for many applimtions in aerospace
uses. Problems tbt a d d exist are the alignment, Honeycombb, Applications req- lightweight
spacing, and bredcage of the rehfwchg fihers and but strong sheetst flat to moderaMy curved, where id-
bonding of the interlaminar foils. Zosahle apace pwmita use of more khan a &OX *hi&-
ness, can &en be satisfied by use of honeycomb. Hon-
eytromb derives ihs strength horn a structural design
compoaed of a cellular care of light materid encased
between two lightweight sheets*Each element is thin,
CRC?SS.SECTMNOF COMPOSITE
light., and relatively weak, bit the combination be-
(50% BQRON FILAMENT IN ALUMINUM MATRIX) comes strong md rigidprovidmg the bondsr am sound.
Figwe 15-7 shows a simple honeycomb s h c t u e of
Flgure 15-5 fibergha and gapbite. Manufacturing &&a with
Alumlnum~4or~n
composite:

FibergIaes. Glass in fine fiber form is used in a


number of ways ruld for a large number of products as
a teinfmhg agent for epoxy, p ~ i l and y ~other~ ~
thermosetting phstiqs. Relatively short r d o m l y ori-
entea ~~ may be u s d as a general r e h f d n g filler.
Higher strengths m y be abtaimd by aligning bng fi-
b&s in t%e dirMou the greatest strength is neededd
M d t i w t i o n alignment rnay also be used or the fi-
bers may be woven into a cloth before beirig joined
wi$h the @astic. Ghas minfmced plastics are uiwd in Figure 15-7
the wmtmction of boats, auhmobileb, aerospace ve- Honeycomb structure of fiberglass core covered with
hicle parts, and m a y &her prodncta To assure that graphite sheets. All bonded with 8poxy.
for the proper positioning of a tool relative t~ the
work and must still provide a geometrically con-
trolled interference path between the tool and the
wmk. The b-t difference occurs in the mechan-
isms used t o produce materid failure. With few
exceptions, it is a chemical or a thermal, rather than a
mechanical, failure.

ELBCJXtICAL 131-GE MA-G '

Flgwe 15-f0
Old Concept - New Development. The oldest,
most succemfd, versatile, and middy uwd of the new
Bridge struotures often appear to be all concrete. removal p m a w s b ebctdcd disc- machining,
Both the columns and beams are internally reinforced
om a b m d m ~ , early is 1763, it
to carry any tension laods-usuaIly the tension
shown that metals were eroded by spark &&ages.
component af a bending load, EMtric am have been used b same extent for cub
ting opmtiom in connection with welding fox mme
METAL REM~YALPROCESSFS time. P m d i d application ta the controlled shaping
Discussions of the processes to be covered here are of me* is much more recent, however, dthougb
often titled nontraditimal or norrcunuentwnal ma- patents were applied fur ia the 1930s.The m e s s in
chining. They am c e f k i d y nontraditional because its cuwent form dates from about I950 in this
they have all been developed since about 1950. comhy and a few year8 earlier In Rumia.
Erccept for the in'trductbn of new tool m a t e d , Bs& EI&cd Vdbge wtes Ionized Current
more saphisticated d m , and tnore highly powered Path The EDM is based on Ehe fact that if an dw-
machines, traditional machining has undergone no M c f p e n t i d ex& between two conductive sut-
fundamental changes in the last century, The new faces and the surfaces am brought toward web other,
procesm likewise are nmconvention@ when com- a dimharp will occur when the gap Is small ennugh
pared t o conventional machining for they do not that the potential can caw a breakdown irr the
necessarily use a high strength tool to awe material medium between the two s&m. Tfre temperature
failure by applying hmvy localized loads to the work- developed in the gap at the pint of discharge will be
piece. d f i d e n t to ionize common liqpids or so tkat
Mmt Etmnomidly Fwskble Olly for Specid they h t s o M e highly cmdu&h. It is this ionized
Meeds. None of m e new methods can m e n t l y COI- that in the welding pr'ocea pmit9 a welding
compete ecommically with c~nvmtionrtlm-g arc to be m a h h h d at csnsiderable length, even ma
h r shaping low and maderate strength materiala short peri& of zero vdtage when alternating cumt
when &s surface to be machined is readily M b l e is used. The condition of maintained ionbation is
and L cormposed of planes, cyLindmkcones, or other desirable for welding hut m n o t be tolerated fur
simple geumetsic &apes. However, it is only under conkolled shaping, as the discharge would h d to
qxx5d CirrmmaWcea that mkrhis with hardnm remain at one p h so long as a low conductive path
above about 60 Rockwell C cau be machined with were present.
single-pint cutting took, and even then tual life is fnkmitibnt I X m t m a t Re@mL For EDM,
Uely to be quite d~cryt.In addition, while few &apes the el&rrdes are separated by a dieledric Fgdru-
are 1bm1ukIy i m w l e ta machine, many are w b a n oil. The elements of the electrid circuitry we
especidIy diff~oultand particular1J u n e m d a l in shown in Figure 16-11,A capadtor ruxo;sa the e k
mdl quantities. It is toward solving these two prob W e s is chaxged by a direcbcunent power supply.
lam* high m W prapertks and difficult s h a p ~ , With the de~trode;eg e m & by about 0.025 milli-
that m o t of thew new prwwes are dhected. As meter (0.001 in&)d a discharge will occur when the
with some of the newer low tooling cost pnmworking voltage reaches 25 to 100 volts, depending on the
pmwses, the a e x v m ~industries b v e been the exact nature of the dielectdc and the materials of fie
b g w t wrs of these new p r o c e ~ ~ ~ . &&odes. The ementiat element of the process is the
Fbmeimest Re- to as CIliplesSt *wg. k t that the diacha~gewill occur at the point where
Thae pmmsw we d e d machining for wveml ma- the dwtrodes are close& togethe. Whem the d&
mm. They dl remove m a w , most of them slowly charge &odd be defined 2261 an arc OX a spark is a
and in s d amount$ althou#~not neaessatily In matter of =me debate, but the fact ~~ thak
chip form. Ma& of the machines wed d l have the d runaunts of material are moved from both
appearance and general design fea- of conven- eleetrod~,pmbub1y hugely as the d t of d c e
t i o l d m~hineb& hmLlW lll~t v v i d e vaporization caused by the hi& temperature devel-
166 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

materials that could easily be cut by machining. must be greater, particularly in cavity shaping, and
Materials are as easy to shape in a hardened state as tool design is more critical to obtain proper flow of
they are in an annealed condition. the electrolyte between the tool and the work. In
Slow Removal Process. The process has one dra w- addition, as much as 160 horsepower per cubic inch
back in addition to relatively high equipment cost per minute of metal removal is required. This is about
and the problem of electrode wear discussed pre- four times that required by EDM, and more than one
viously. An inverse relationship exists between the hundred times that needed by most conventional
quality of the surface finish produced and the cutting machining. On the other hand, tools do not wear, and
rate. Surface finishes as good as 10 micro inches are the metal removal rate is much greater than with
obtainable, but only with metal removal rates on the EDM.
order of 0.005 cubic centimeter (0.0003 cubic inch)
per minute. Maximum metal removal rates at present
are about 5 cubic centimeters (0.3 cubic inch) per
minute, but when this rate is achieved, surface finish
quality measures about 500 micro inches.

ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is somewhat
newer than EDM but has grown rapidly in the past
few years. It offers great potential for the future, WORK

particularly because of the greater metal removal


rates possible than with EDM.
A Special Reverse Plating System. In this process,
Figure 15-13
as in EDM, both the tool and the workpiece must be
Electrochemical machining
conductive, or at least the workpiece must be con-
ductive and the tool must have a conductive coating.
With a suitable electrolyte between them, the tool CHEMICAL MILLING
and workpiece form opposite electrodes of an elec- This is a process for shaping metals by chemical
trolytic cell. The workpiece is connected to the posi- dissolution without electrical action. The name appar-
tive terminal of a direct-current supply and the tool ently originated from early applications where the
to the negative terminal. The electrical circuit is iden- process was used in aircraft manufacture as an ad-
tical to that used in metal plating where metal is junct to milling. It was originally used primarily to
removed from the anode and deposited on the remove metal for weight reduction in areas of the
cathode. workpiece that were not accessible to milling cutters
-There are two major differences. Different elec- and where work contours made following the surface
trolytes are used so that the material removed from with a cutter virtually impossible.
the anode forms insoluble oxides or hydroxides. In A Fully Chemical Process. The procedure is rela-
electroplating, the un agitated electrolyte permits tively simple. The areas of the part where material is
metal ions to leave the anode only as fast as they can not to be removed are first masked with an oxida-
diffuse into the electrolyte. The low rate of diffusion tion-resistant coating. The masking may be done by
restricts the maximum current flow that can be first coating the workpiece entirely and then remov-
efficiently used. In ECM the electrolyte is made to ing the masking material from the desired areas by
flow rapidly between the tool and the work by pres- hand. When production quantities warrant, silk
sures up to 4 MPa (600 psi). Currents up to 10,000 screening may be used to apply the maskant only
amperes are used on an area 30 square centimeters (5 where needed. The part is then immersed in a suitable
square inches) with a resulting metal removal rate of etchant, which is usually a strong acid or alkali. After
about 16 cubic centimeters (1 cubic inch) per minute. the material has been etched to the required depth,
With adequate power supplies, there appears to be no the work is removed and rinsed and the maskant
reason that the metal removal rate could not be even removed.
greater. Deep Straight Cuts Impossible. One of the most
Work Energy Efficiency Low. The ECM is used widely used applications at present is in the manu-
for many of the same jobs that could be done by facture of printed circuit boards for electronic assem-
EDM, including the making of irregularly shaped blies. The process is also competitive with conven-
holes, forming shaped cavities, and machining very tional press blanking for short runs, especially in thin
hard or abrasive materials. Figure 15-13 gives an out- material. One of the principal drawbacks is the under-
line of the process. Compared to EDM, tolerances cutting that occurs along the edges of the mask.
Miscellaneous Processes 167

Depth control is reasonably good, but straight vertical (fine). The cutting rate and finish produced both
sides or sharp corners cannot be achieved in the cavi- depend on the size of the abrasive. With SOO-grit
ty produced. abrasive, finishes as fine as 10 microinches may be
Variations in circulation of the etchant, variations of attained. Tolerances as close as 0.01 millinieter
temperature, or differences in the material being (0.0005 inch) are possible on size and contour with
worked upon may cause variable rates of chemical ac- fine abrasives.
tion. NDT by ultrasonic tests may therefore be Best for Hard, Brittle Materials. Unlike conven-
necessary on critical parts to check possible thickness tional machining, which works only with material
variations. below a certain hardness, and EDM or ECM, which
work with any conductive material, ultrasonic ma-
ULTRASONIC MACHINING chining is best suited to materials that are both hard
and brittle. However, the work material need not be a
A Mechanical Forming Process. The term ultra- metal or otherwise conductive. The process has been
sonic machining is used to denote an abrasive machin- used for engraving, slicing, drilling, and cavity sinking
ing process used for cutting hard materials by pro- on hardened steel, gem stones, cemented carbides,
jecting tiny abrasive particles at the work surface at ferrites, aluminum oxide, glass, and other ceramics.
high velocities. Figure 15-14 shows the details of the Not Competitive with Usable Conventional
process. The abrasive is carried in a liquid flowing
between the shaped tool and the workpiece. The tool Methods. Metal removal rate is presently the princi-
is made to oscillate along its axis at a frequency of pal drawback, being only about 0.3 cubic millimeter.
(0.02 cubic inch) per minute. It could possibly be
about 20,000 hertz.
increased considerably with better transducers, but
the process is likely to remain in the special-purpose
category .

OTHER POSSIBLE MATERIAL REMOVAL


METHODS

EDM, ECM, chemical milling, and ultrasonic ma-


chining are currently commercia1ly used processes for
which equipment is available. Much development work
still remains to be done on all these processes, but their
current value is sufficient to warrant their existence.
Figure 15-14 Other potential removal processes are now purely in
Ultrasonic machining the development stage but may offer competition in
the future.
Transducer Motion Amplified by Horn. The heart The laser (light amplification by stimulated emis-
of the equipment is the transducer that converts the sion of radiation) was invented about 1960. It quickly
high frequency electrical power to mechanical energy. received much attention and publicity, hailed as
Most transducers are made with nickel laminations the greatest invention of the century. True, it found a
that are placed in an oscillating magnetic field. Nickel number of uses in measuring, in holography, and as a
has the property of magnetostriction and undergoes a signal carrier but, due mainly to limited capacity and
change in length when placed in a magnetic field. The high cost, was until recently of little value for either
amplitude of vibration of the nickel is insufficient for machining or welding on a commercial scale.
practical use and must be amplified by attaching a Development since 1970 has increased the power
suitable horn to one end. The tool is then brazed, capability and reduced the cost to make it more
soldered, or mechanically fastened to the end of the competitive with conventional equipment. Some hole
horn. The entire assembly must be mechanically making and cutting, as we1l as other type of opera-
tuned to resonate at the frequency produced by the tions, are being performed industrially. It is predicted
electronic amplifier. When so tuned, the amplitude of that industrial laser use will grow at a rate of about
the tool motion is from 0.05 to 0.1 millimeter (0.002 $20 million per year. The uses continue to be most
to 0.004 inch). with materials difficult to manufacture with the more
Produces Good Finishes. The tool itself is most common methods.
often made of soft steel and is given the negative The plasma arc was discussed in Chapter 10 to-
shape of the cavity to be produced, as in EDM or gether with electron beams as a heating source for
ECM. The most common abrasive used is boron car- welding. Plasma arcs are also capable of sufficiently
bide in grit size ranging from 240 (coarse) to SOO localized energy inputs that surface material may be
168. Mtiteriala and Pmcesses for NDT Technology

melted and vaporized with relatively small heating of ultrasonic tests. The rate of production is normally
the adjacent materid. The arcs are being used for quits slow and the cost is high.
some straight-line cutting operations, where control is
airnple and tolerance requirements are not too high.
GROSS SEPARATION PRQCESBES
Some experimental work has been done in lathe turn-
ing, udng a plasma arc as a cutting tool.
The following processes are "miscellaneous"only be-
DEPOSITION PROCESSES cause they do not fit well in any of the established cat*
Of t h e more traditional processes, both welding gories of casting, welding, deformation, or machining
processes using filler material and casting invalve the discussed previously. For many ~pplicationsthey are
deposition of molten material. The material is forced in direct competition with awing and shearing for
to conform to the desired shape by pressum provided both straight line and contour cutting.
by gravity, external pressure, or surface tension. One
newer process of the same general type degasits ma- TORCH CUTTING
terial in controlled ernall amounts ahd permits a shape
to be built up. Another new process is a variation of This separation process depends on keeping the ma-
powder metallurgy that allows more complex shapes terial being cut above its kihdling t e m p e r a b (800°C
to be produced and does not require conventional or 1500 OF for pure iron) and supplying a stream of oxy-
dies. gen to promote fast oxidation. High temperature in the
cutting zone is aided by the e x o t h d c reaction of
burning materid.
This process may be descrikd as the reverse of Process Limited Mostly to Steeh. Conditions for
ECM, When a direct current is passed between two cutting are eady obtained with pure iron and low alloy
electxodes immersed in the proper electrolyte, ma- steels but are different with many other metals. Re
terial is removed from the mode and deposited on d d exothermic reaction andlor increased thermal
the cathode. This action is the basis of electroplattng, conductivity reduce the practicality of using the pro-
which will be discussed later. For ele&oforrnin& cess with cast iron, high alloy ste& including stainless
however, coatings of much greater thickness, up to f O and most nonferrous alloys.
millheters (318 inch), are built up. Easily M e c h m h d Figure 15-15shows a d m -
E l e c t r i d Conductance of Pahtern GsentiaI. For bed setup for cutting a atraight line mrt in steeI plate.
the production of an electroformed park, a master, or Oxyacekylene flames are used to bring the steel t o
pattern, must first be produced with external shape kindling temperature, then pure oxygen is supplied
and dimensions corresponding to the interior shape through a centrd orifice in the torch tip to bum a slot
desired in the work. The pattern must have a aon- though the steel as the carriage moves along as its
ducting surfam. If made of a nonconducting material, guide, The torch path may also be established by nu-
it must be coated with a conducting £ilm of metal ar merical control or may be guided by a line reader fol-
gmphite. The pattern is then placed in t h e electrolyte lowing the lines on a part drawing.
and the metal deposited to the required thickness.
For certain shapes, the part may be stripped from the
pattern and the pattern reused. Other shapes may
require that the pattern be removed chemically nr, if
made of a low melting point material, by melting.
Complex Shapes and Miniature Parts Possible.
The process has a number of advantages. It is possible
sible to produce complex Intend contours with close
dimensional control and surface finis he^ as good as 8
micminches. Because of these properties, electro-
forming is used in making high hequmcy wave guides
and venhvis for nozzles and flow measurement. Parts
may be made much thinner than by most conven-
tional processes. It is pssible to deposit mod metals
by the process. Parts with different metals an the
interior and exterior surfaces may also be produced.
On the other hand, wall thickness is diff~cultto
keep uniform so that exterior shapes and dimensions
may llot be controlled accurately. As with chemical Figure 15-15
milling, critical parts may d lfor thickness checks by Qxyacstylene cutting
Miscellaneous Processes 169.

The process is very versatile, may be equipped with High Speed Rubbing Creates Heat. Localized heat
multiple torches for higher production, and produces is created in the workpiece by contact with the edge of
accuracies similar to those obtained by sawing. This a fast moving blade or disc. Edge speeds are in the
sheet may be cut singly or stacked. Steel over 5 feet in range of 3000 to 7500 meters per minute (15000-25000
thickness has been cut by this process and scarfing, re- fpm). The tool may be smooth edged but usually has
moval of defects in large casting and forgings, is com- notches or teeth that help remove softened metal from
monly practiced by use of flame cutting. the kerf.
Arc Cutting Possible. Use of a steel wire electrode The process is used mostly for cutoff work on bars
fed at high speed with gas shielding and very high cur- and structural shapes in steel mill and warehouse oper-
rents can also be used for cutting. Thickness of cut is ations. It may also be useful occasionally for cutting
much more limited than with the torch method, but steel that is too hard to be cut by conventional means.
materials difficult to cut with flame can be parted with
the arc.

FRICTION SAWING
Friction sawing has limited but important use. This
process also is used most for cutting steel.
Surface Finishing 16

Products that have been completed to their proper


shape and size frequently require some type of sur-
face finishing to enable them to satisfactorily fulfill
their function. In some cases, it is necessary to im-
prove the physical properties of the surface material
for resistance to penetration or abrasion. In many
manufacturing processes, the product surface is left
with dirt, chips, grease, or other- harmful material
upon it. Assemblies that are made of different materi-
als, or from the same materials processed in different
manners, may require some special surface treatment
to provide uniformity of appearance.
Surface finishing may sometimes become an inter-
mediate step in processing. For instance, cleaning and
polishing are usually essential before any kind of
plating process. Some of the cleaning procedures are
also used for improving surface smoothness on mating
parts and for removing burrs and sharp corners, which
might be harmful in later use. Another important
need for surface finishing is for corrosion protection
in a variety of environments. The type of protection
provided will depend largely upon the anticipated
exposure, with due consideration to the material
being protected and the economic factors involved.
Satisfying the above objectives necessitates the use
of many surface-finishing methods that involve chem-
ical change of the surface, mechanical work affecting
surface properties, cleaning by a variety of methods,
and the application of protective coatings, organic
and metallic.
172 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

CASEHARDENING OF STEELS heating the material abpve its critical temperature and
Casehardening Results in a Hard, Shell-like Surface. holding it in the presence of excess carbon. Tempera-
Some product applications require surface proper- tures used are usually between 8500 C and 9300 C,
ties of hardness and strength to resist penetration with the choice most dependent on the desired rate
under high pressure and to provide maximum wear of penetration, the desired surface carbon content,
qualities. Where through hardness and the maximum and the permissible grain growth in the material.
strength associated with it are not necessary, it may Penetration is dependent upon both the temperature
be more economical to gain the needed surface quali- and time, with variation of case depth from 0.25 to
ties by a casehardening process. Casehardening in- 1.0 millimeter (0.010 to 0.040 inch) possible in the
volves a change of surface properties to produce a first 2 hours by varying the temperature between the
hard, wear-resistant shell about a tough, fracture- two extremes. The rate of penetration slows down as
resistant core. This is usually accomplished by a the depth increases, as shown in Figure 16-1, so that
for large depths, relatively long periods of time are
change of surface material chemistry. With some
necessary.
materials, a similar condition can be produced by a
phase change of material already present. Carbon May Be Supplied from a Gas, Liquid, or
Solid Environment. The excess carbon for diffusion
Multiple Benefits from Casehardening. Casehard-
is supplied from a carbon-rich environment in solid,
ening may be more satisfactory than through harden-
liquid, or gas form. Parts to be carburized may be
ing in those cases where a low cost, low carbon steel
packed in carbon or other carbonaceous material in
with a hard shell may be used instead of a higher cost,
high carbon or alloy steel needed for through harden-
ing. The process is much less likely to cause warping
or cracking and the product, because of its soft,
ductile core, is less subject to brittle failure than a 50

through-hardened product. Casehardening is often ..


'" 45
./'
suitable for heavy sections that would require very J:0 40 1.0
.= /
special high alloy steels for through hardening to be ...
0
35
./'
effective. ~ 30
/ C
0.75
.;c:
Case depth measurement is sometimes checked by
destructive methods: cutting the object, etching the ~ 25
/
cut surface, and checking the cut depth with a measur-
::J
0
J:
I- 20
/ 0.50
ing microscope. A faster and more usable method when
knowledge is needed directly for service parts is by use
of eddy current tests. .
:t
I-
Q.
~
w
C/)
15
/ :t- E
I;::E
uJ
0
w
« C/)
0 «
u
CARB URI ZING 0.25
10

Casehardening of steel may be accomplished by a 6 7 8 9 10


number of methods. Choice between them is de- CARBURIZING TIME, hr.
pendent on the material to be treated, the appli-
cation, and the desired properties. One of the more Figure 16-1
common methods is carburizing, which implies an Typical carburizing case depth-time relationship
increase or addition of carbon which is actually the
basis of the process. boxes that are sealed to exclude air and then heated
Performed on Low Carbon Steels. Carburizing is in a furnace for the required length of time, in a
process sometimes referred to as pack hardening. The
usually performed on a low alloy or plain low carbon
liquid method makes use of molten sodium cyanide
steel. If an alloy steel is used, it usually contains small
quantities of nickel or some other element that acts in which the parts are suspended to take on carbon.
The cyanide method is usually limited to shallow case
as a retardant to grain growth during the heating
cycle. Low carbon steels are comm6nly used to mini- depths of about 0.25 millimeter (0.010 inch) maxi-
mize the effect of subsequent heat treatments on the mum. The third method - often the most simple for
core material. It is possible to carburize any steel production operations requiring heavy case depth -
containing less than the 0.70% to 1.20% carbon that supplies gaseous hydrocarbons from an unburned gas
or oil fuel source to the furnace retort in which the
is produced in the surface material.
product is heated. The product is usually suspended
Carbon Diffusion Is Time-Temperature Depend- on wires or rolled about in order that all surfaces will
ent. Carbon is caused to diffuse into the steel by be exposed uniformly.
Surface Finishing 173

Grain-Size Control Necessary for Best Proper-


ties. Carburizing steels containing grain-growth
inhibitors may be quenched directly from the carbu-
rizing furnace to harden the outside shell, but plain
carbon steels must be cooled and reheated through
the critical temperature range to reduce grain size.
Even the alloy steels will have better properties if
treated in this manner. Quenching from above the
critical temperature will produce a hard martensitic
structure in the high carbon surface material but will
have little or no effect on the low carbon core. As in
the case of most through-hardened steels, tempering
is usually required to toughen the outside shell. The
complete cycle for casehardening by carburizing is
illustrated in Figure 16-2.

FLAME HARDENING
Surface Must Be Heated above Transformation
Temperature. Another casehardening process that
does not require a change of composition in the CLEANING
surface material is flame hardening. This method can

(AROL-"E
900 HARDEN
u Few, if any, shaping and sizing processes produce
0
750 products that are usable without some type of clean-
w
oc ing unless special precautions are taken. Hot working,
:::J
f- 600 heat treating, and welding cause oxidation and scale
«
~
Cl.
450 formation from high temperature in the presence of
~ oxygen. For the same reason, castings usually are
~ 200 coated with scale or oxides. If made in sand molds,
they may have sand grains fused or adhering to the
20
T'10' +- surface. Residue from coolants, lubricants, and other
processing materials is common on many manu-
Figure 16-2
factured parts. In addition to greasy films from proc-
Heating cycle for casehardening by carburizing
essing, protective coatings of greases, oils, or waxes
are frequently used intentionally to prevent rust or
corrosion on parts that are stored for some period of
time before being put to use. Even if parts are clean
at the completion of manufacturing, they seldom
be used only on steels that contain sufficient carbon remain that way for long. After only short storage
to be hardenable by standard heat-treating proce- periods, corrosion and dust from atmospheric expos-
dures. The case is produced by selectively heating ure necessitate cleaning for best condition or to
part or all of the surface with special high capacity permit further processing.
gas burners or oxyacetylene torches at a rate suf- When using NDT such as penetrant testing and ul-
ficiently high that only a small depth from the sur- trasonic testing, good precleaning may be necessary to
face goes above the critical temperature. Following get accurate results and postcleaning is often needed
immediately behind the torch is a water quenching to leave the surface in suitable condition. In some ap-
head that floods the surface to reduce the temper- plications, such as on stainless steels and nickel based
ature fast enough to produce a martensitic structure. alloys, ultrasonic coolants and penetrant materials
As in the case of carburizing, the surface may be then must be made of only certain material so that the NDT
reheated to temper it for toughness improvement. materials are not one of the causes of a stress corrosion
The depth of hardness is controlled by the temper- failure.
ature to which the metal is raised, by the rate of Cleaning sometimes has finish improvement asso-
heating, and by the time that passes before quench- ciated with it. Some shape-producing methods
ing. produce unsatisfactory surface characteristics such as
174 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

sharp corners, burrs, and tool marks, which may vents, such as trichloretholene, that are free of this
affect the function, handling ease, ffi1dappearance of fault are sometimes substituted.
the product. Some cleaning processes at least partially Conditioned Water Usually Inexpensive. One of
blend together surface irregularities to produce uni- the most economical cleaning materials is water.
form light reflection. Improvement of surface quali- However, it is seldom used alone even if the contam-
ties may be accomplished by removal of high spots by
inant is fully water soluble because the impurity of
cutting or by plastic flow as cleaning is performed. the water itself may contaminate the work surface.
Depending on its use, water is treated with various
CHOICE OF CLEANING METHOD acids and alkalies to suit the job being performed.
Proper Pickling Can Selectively Remove Iron
As indicated by the list at the head of this section,
Oxides. Water containing sulfuric acid in a concen-
many different cleaning methods are available. The
tration from about 10% to 25% and at a temperature
one most suitable for any particular situation is
of approximately 650 C is commonly used in a process
dependent upon a number of factors. Cost is, of
called pickling for removal of surface oxides or scale
course, always a strong consideration, but the reason
on iron and steel. The work is immersed in the
for cleaning is bound to affect the choice. Conveni-
ence in handling, improvement in appearance, elimi- solution contained in large tanks for a predetermined
nation of foreign material that may affect function, period of time after which it is rinsed to stop the
chemical action.
or establishment of a chemically clean surface as an
Improper control of the timing, temperature, or
intermediate step in processing might all call for dif-
ferent methods. Consideration must be given to the Goncentration in the pickling bath is likely to result in
pitting of the surface because of uneven chemical
starting conditions and to the degree of improvement
desired or required. Methods suitable for some ma- reaction. Most pickling baths are treated with chemic
cal inhibitors that decrease the chemical effect of the
terials are not at all satisfactory for use on other
acid on the base metal but have little effect on the
kinds of material.
rate at which the oxides are attacked.
Cleaning and Corrosion Protection Sometimes
Associated. Some cleaning methods provide multiple Many Water Additives Are Proprietary Mixtures.
benefits. As pointed out previously, cleaning and Many of the common cleaning liquids are made up
finish improvement are often combined. Probably of of approximately 95% water containing alkaline
even greater importance is the combination of cor- cleaners such as caustic soda, sodium carbonate, sili-
rosion protection with finish improvement, although cates, phosphates, and borates. The proportions are
corrosion protection is more often a second step that varied for different purposes and are available under
involves coating an already cleaned surface with some different brand names for particular applications.
other material.
Application Dependent on Material and Pur-
pose. Liquid cleaners may be applied in a number of
LIQUID AND VAPOR BATHS ways. Degreasing, particularly on small parts, is fre-
Liquid and Vapor Solvents Common. The most quently done with a vapor bath. This does an excel-
lent job of removing the grease but has the disad-
widely used cleaning methods make use of a cleaning
medium in liquid or vapor form. These methods vantage of not being able to remove chips and other
depend on a solvent or chemical action between the kinds of dirt that might be present. Vapor degreasing
is usually done in a special tank that is heated at the
surface contaminants and the cleaning material. Many
cleaning methods and a variety of materials are avail- bottom to vaporize the solvent and cooled at the top
able for choice, depending on the base material to be to condense the solvent. Cold work suspended in the
cleaned, the contaminant to be removed, the impor- vapor causes condensation of the solvent, which
tance and degree of cleanliness, and the quantity to dissolves the grease and drips back into the bottom of
be treated. the tank. The difference in volatility between the
Petroleum Solvents Good for Greases and Oils. solvent and the greases permits the vapor to remain
Among the more common cleaning jobs required is unchanged ,"nd to do a uniform cleaning job.
the removal of grease and oil deposited during manu- Mechanical Work Frequently Combined with
facturing or intentionally coated on the work to Chemical Action. Spraying, brushing, and dipping
provide protection. One of the most efficient ways to methods are also used with liquid cleaners. In nearly
remove this material is by use of solvents that dissolve all cases, mechanical work to cause surface film
the grease and oil but have no effect on the base breakdown and particle movement is combined with
metal. Petroleum derivatives such as Stoddard solvent chemical and solvent action. The mechanical work
and kerosene are common for this purpose, but as may be agitation of the product as in dipping, move-
they introduce some danger of fire, chlorinated sol- ment of the cleaning agent as in spraying, or use of a
Surface Finishing 175

third element as in rubbing or brushing. In some ing. The blasting method using this medium is com-
applications, sonic or ultrasonic vibrations are applied monly known as liquid honing.
to either the solution or the workpieces to speed the
cleaning action. Chemical activity is increased with ABRASIVE BARREL FINISHING
higher temperatures and optimum concentration of
the cleaning agent, both of which must in some cases A Low Cost Cleaning and Finishing Method. When
be controlled closely for efficient action. large numbers of small parts that do not need to have
Important That Chemicals Be Removed. Washing sharp detail or accurate dimensions require cleaning,
and rinsing away of the cleaning liquids is usually the rotating barrel method may be very economical.
necessary to prevent films and spots. Fast drying of Names used are: Barrel finishing, rolling, tumbling,
water solutions on iron and steel products is some- and rattling. They are all similar but various media
times needed to prevent the formation of rust. If the may be combined with the work as indicated in Figure
product mass is large enough, heat picked up from 16-3. High polish may be produced by tumbling with
the cleaning bath may be sufficient to cause fast pieces of leather to wipe the surfaces smooth as in a

.
drying; otherwise, air blasts or external heat sources strop honing operation. In some cases a number of
may be required. hours may be required to produce the desired results
but since the finishing machines do not have to be
BLASTING tended by operators, the unit cost may be extremely
low.
Blasting Provides Large Mechanical Action. The Machines with a vibratory motion and loaded with
term blasting is used to refer to all of those cleaning abrasive media are also used for similar type cleaning
methods in which the cleaning medium is accelerated
to high velocity and impinged against the surface to
be cleaned. The high velocity may be provided by air
and finishing work.
--- -- ---
~
or water directed through a nozzle or by mechanical '~:~', SOA
DETERGENTS .:,:6
means with a revolving slinger. The cleaning agent
'O'O\:S .
may. be either dry or wet solid media such as sand, // ' '::' ",:6\ /. /
abrasive, steel grit, or shot, or may be liquid or vapor
/ /
/
"
",-
.00"
"." 0 ,
' /.
/.

solvents combined with abrasive material. ABRASIVE' J::>OQ::' BALLS


ORSLUGS
ROLLING
Operator Safety Must Be Considered. The solid TUMBLING
POLISHING
BURNISHING

media are used for the removal of brittle surface


Figure 16-3
contamination such as the heat-treat scale found on
Barrel finishing
forgings and castings. Steel grit has replaced sand and
other refractory-type abrasives to some extent be- WIRE BRUSHING
cause of the reduced health hazard (silicC'sis) and a
reduced tendency for pulverization. Sand, however, A number of clean.ing operations can be quickly
can be used without danger to the operator when and easily performed by use of a high speed rotating
parts are small enough to be handled by hand inside a wire brush. In addition to cleaning, the contact and
properly designed chamber fitted with a dust collec- rubbing of the wire ends across the work surface
tor. produces surface improvement by a burnishing-type
Surface Stressed and Work Hardened. In addition action. Sharp edges and burrs can be removed.
Scratches, rough spots, and similar mechanical imper-
to cleaning, solid particles c:m improve finish and
fections can be improved primarily by plastic flow,
surface properties of the material on which they are which also tends to work harden the surface material.
used. Blasting tends to increase the surface area and
Most wire brushing is done under manual control, but
thus set up compressive stresses that may cause a where the surfaces can be made accessible and the
warping of thin sections, but in other cases, it may be
quantity to be treated is sufficiently large for eco-
very beneficial by reducing the likelihood of fatigue nomic feasibility, machines for automatic brushing
failure. When used for this latter purpose, the process can be set up.
is more commonly known as shotpeening. Common applications of wire brushing are the
Water Slurries. Liquid or vaporized solvents may, cleaning of castings, both ferrous and nonferrous; the
by themselves, be blasted against a surface for high cleaning of spatter and slag from weldments; and the
speed cleaning of oil and grease films with both removal of rust, corrosion, and paint from any object
chemical and mechanical action. Water containing whose base material is strong enough to withstand the
rust-inhibiting chemicals may carry, in suspension, brushing. Wire brushing produces a distinctive pattern
fine abrasive particles that provide a grinding cutting- on the surface and in addition to cleaning, it some-
type action for finish improvement along with clean- times is used to produce a decorative surface.
176 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

A precaution regarding surface defect detection supply metal to the electrolyte in a reverse plating
should be kept in mind. Any method of surface clean- process. Material will be removed faster from the high
ing involving abrasion or rubbing may smear the sur- spots of the surface than from the depressions and
face material in such a way as to disguise or cover over will thereby increase the average smoothness. The
surface defects and prevent their detection by usual cost of the process is prohibitive for very rough
methods. Careful selection of a method may be neces- surfaces because larger amounts of metal must be
sary, or in some cases, such drastic methods as etching removed to improve surface finish than would be
may be needed. Machining, inlcuding fine grinding, necessary for the same degree of improvement by
also has similar effects to a lesser degree but should be mechanical polishing. Electropolishing is economical
remembered when small defects could be serious re- only for improving a surface that is already good or
garding service life of the part under consideration. for polishing complex and irregular shapes, the sur-
Penetrant tests are most severely affected and can be faces of which are not accessible to mechanical
rendered practically useless if defect openings have polishing and buffing equipment.
been smeared.
COATINGS
POLISHING
Many products, in particular those exposed to
The term polishing may be interpreted to mean view and those subject to change by the environment
any non precision procedure providing a glossy surface with which they are in contact, need some type of
but is most commonly used to refer to a surface- coating for improved appearance or for protection
finishing process using a flexible abrasive wheel. The from chemical attack. All newly created surfaces are
wheels may be constructed of felt or rubber with an subject to corrosion, although the rate of occurrence
abrasive band, of multiple coated abrasive discs, of varies greatly with the material, the environment, and
leaves of coated abrasive, of felt or fabric to which the conditions. For all practical purposes, some ma-
loose abrasive is added as needed, or of abrasives in a terials are highly corrosion resistant because the
rubber matrix. products of corrosion resist further corrosion. For
Polishing Is a Surface Blending Process. These example, a newly machined surface on an aluminum
wheels differ from grinding wheels only by being alloy will immediately be attacked by oxygen in the
flexible, which enables them to apply uniform pres- air. The initial aluminum oxide coating protects the
sure to the work surface and permits them to con- remaining metal and practically stops corrosion unless
form to the surface shape. an environmental change occurs. Corrosion rates are
Polishing is usually done offhand except when the closely dependent on environment. Rates increase
quantity is large. The process may have several objec- with rise of temperature and greater concentration of
tives. Interest may be only in finish improvement for the attacking chemical.
appearance. The surface finish may be important as Corrosion Deteriorates Appearance and Proper-
an underlay for plating, which has only limited ability ties. The need for corrosion protection for main-
to improve surface quality over that of the surface on tenance of appearance is obvious. Unless protected,
which it is placed. Polishing may also be important as an object made of bright steel will begin to show rust
a means of improving fatigue resistance for products in a few hours of exposure to ordinary atmosphere.
subject to this kind of failure. In addition to change of appearance, loss of actual
material, change of dimensions, and decrease of
BUFFING strength, corrosion may be the cause of eventual loss
of service or failure of a product. Material that must
About the only difference between buffing and
carry loads in structural applications, especially when
polishing is that, for buffing, a fine abrasive carried in
the loads are cyclic in nature, may fail with fatigue if
wax or a similar substance is charged on the surface
corrosion is allowed to take place. Corrosion occurs
of a flexible wheel. The obejctives are similar. With more readily in highly stressed material where it
finer abrasive, buffing produces higher quality finish attacks grain boundaries in such a way as to form
and luster but removes only minor amounts of metal. points of stress concentration that may be nuclei for
With both polishing and buffing, particularly of the fatigue failure.
softer metals, plastic flow permits filling of pores, Corrosion Reduced by Proper Design. The cor-
scratches, and other surface flaws to improve both ap- rections for corrosion problems include choice of
pearance and resistance to corrosion. materials that resist attack from the environment to
which they are exposed, selection or control of the
ELECfROPOLlSHING environment to minimize corrosion effects, and the
use of selective corrosion by placing materials with
If a workpiece is suspended in an electrolyte and greater susceptibility to corrosion near those to be
connected to the anode in an electrical circuit, it will protected. The latter is illustrated by the use of
Surface Finishing 177

magnesium rods in hot water tanks. The magnesium is slipping is required because they provide a very low co-
the target for corrosion; as long as it is present, efficient of friction.
corrosion of the steel walls of the tank is insig-
nificant. Another correction for corrosion, when the PREPARATION FOR COATINGS
others are impractical, is the coating of the surfaces Adhesion Associated with Cleanliness. The ability
needing protection with a material that excludes the
environmental elements that are harmful. of an organic film to adhere to a metal surface (adhe-
sion) is dependent to a large degree on the cleanliness
Thickness of coatings may be important for many of the metal surface. However, some materials hold to-
reasons. If the objective is improvement of appear- gether tighter on a surface that has been slightly
ance, uniformity of coating may be required, or lacking roughened by some process such as sand blasting,
that some minimum value may have to be surpassed to while others may require chemical treatment of the
provide the appearance of uniformity. Life of a coating base metal for formation of an oxide or phosphate film
is usually also closely associated with uniformity and for satisfactory adhesion.
depth of coating layer. Many coatings are inherently Cleaning by one or more of the methods discussed
porous to some degree and resistance to corrosion is earlier in this chapter is usually essential before any
likely to require thickness sufficient to resist penetra- kind of coating should be applied. In practically every
tion of liquids and gases. For those reasons manufac- case a clean dry surface is necessary for coating adhe-
turing specifications frequently list minimum thick- sion. Whether or not a combination cleaning and
ness for coatings and a NDT measurement is usually smoothing operation should be used depends some-
the only way to know when that specification is being what on the previous processing as well as on the de-
met. Although other methods are possible, gaging sired final finish. Some coatings, such as the heavier
with eddy current methods is common. plastics, can hide large faults and surface imperfec-
Many Coatings Improve Appearance. In addition tions, but others, such as finishing lacquers and metal-
to stabilizing appearance by resisting corrosion, coat- lic platings, improve finish quality to only a very small
ings are often very valuable for providing color con- degree. With the latter, scratches, surface faults, and
trol, change in appearance, and variety, which may be even tool marks can continue to show on the final sur-
important to sales appeal. Some coatings, such' as face although the coating tends to blend and soften
fillers, paint, and others with substantial body, their appearance.
improve surface smoothness by filling pores and cavi-
ties. Some coating materials can provide uniform
appearance for products made as assemblies of differ-
ent materials.
Some Coatings Improve Properties. Coatings of PAINTS, VARNISHES, AND ENAMELS
various types may be used to change or improve Painting is a generic term that has come to mean the
surface properties. Casehardening of steel has been application of almost any kind of organic coating by
discussed earlier, and although it is a surface proper- any method.
ty-changing method, in most of its forms, case- Paint. As originally defined and as used most at
hardening does not consist of the addition of a present, paint is a mixture of pigment in a drying oil.
coating. . Color and opacity are supplied by the pigment. The oil
Wear Resistance by Plating. Hardness and wear serves as a carrier for the pigment and in addition cre-
resistance can, however, be provided on a surface by ates a tough continuous film as it dries.
plating with hard metals. Chromium plating of gages Varnish Is Normally Clear. Varnish is a combi-
subject to abrasion is frequently used to increase their nation of natural or synthetic resins and drying oil,
wear life. Coatings of plastic materials and asphaltic sometimes containing volatile solvents as well. The
mixtures are sometimes placed on surfaces to provide material dries by a chemical reaction in the drying oil
sound deadening. The additional benefit of protec- to a clear or slightly amber-colored film. A solution
tion from corrosion is usually acquired at the same of resin in a volatile solvent without the drying oil is
time. called spirit, or shellac, varnish.
Increase or Decrease of Coefficient of Friction. Pigment in Varnish Creates Enamel. Enamel is a
Friction characteristics of a surface can be varied in mixture of pigment in varnish. The resins in the
either direction by application of a coating. Rubber varnish cause the material to dry to a smoother,
and some other plastic materials may be applied for harder, and glossier surface than produced by ordin-
increase of friction characteristics. An example would ary paints. Some enamels are made with thermoset-
be the special compounds applied to the floorboards ting resins that must be baked for complete dryness.
or bottom of small boats to decrease the chance of These baking enamels provide a toughness and dur-
slipping. Other plastic materials, the fluorocarbons ability not usually available with the ordinary paints
being good examples, are applied to surfaces where and enamels.
178 Materiala and Procesm for NDT ~ o l o g y

LACQUERS
Lacqueis Easily Removed The term lacquer i6n
used to refer to hishes consisting of t h e m p b t i c
materials dissolved in fast drying solvents. One corn-
rnon combination k cellulose nitrate dissolved in
butyl acetate. Present-day lacquers are strictly air
drying and form £iIms very quickly after being a p
plied, u W y by spraying. No chemical change occurs
during the hardening sf lacqua, consequentIy, the
dry film can be redissolved in the thinner. Cellulose
acetate is u s d in place of cellulose nitrate in some
lacquers b e c a w it is nanfl amable. Vinyls, chlori-
nated hydrocarbons, acrylics, and ather synthetic
themoplastic resins are also used in the manufacture
of lacquers.
I=ommon Because of Fast Drying, Clear lacqum
are wed t o some extent as protective films on such
mataids as polished brass, but the majority are pig-
m t e b and used as color coah. The pigmented lac- Figure 16.4
quers are eometimes called lacquer enamels. Lacquers Paint spraying in a boath where exhaust
are widely used for coating rmnufacturd products air draws the waste palnt and fumes away
because of their ease of application and speed of from the aperator through filters to clean the air
wing.
Spray painting of automobile bodies and other large
objects that are conveyorbedis often done automtic-
ORGANIC COATING APPLICATION
ally with a number of apray heade, some stationary
Paint-type materids are applied by dip, brush, and and same movable, adjusbd t.a spray a uniform layer
spray d over the entire object.
Minimum Labr Cqst by Dipping. Dipping Zs corn- In many cases spray application of penetrant matmi-
rnon for applying protective coatings ta forgings and als b the faatest and best way of obtaining uniform
castings to prevent rust d u h g storage and processing cbvwage. Spraying dds partidarly on p h s cmtain-
and to swve as primers fof the h a l W. Many ing retmses and corners difficult to contact with a
other products made in large quantities aIso are. brush.
finished by dipping. Dip application is limited to parts Unifmm Coating by Electrmtatic Sprayhg. For
that do not have recesses, pockets, or shapes that wilI electroshtic spraying the paint partides are sprayed
hold the Liquid paint ar prevent its flowing to an even through a high ~ 0 l b g 8 electrostatic field. Each paint
soab. p d c l e takes on an electric charge from the field and is
Bmhing Costly, Brush painting is slow and used attractad toward the grounded article to be painkd.
little in manufacturing work except on large, heavy, This method provides better efficiency of paint uee
or add-shaped pmh that cannot be moved or manipu- than ordinary spraying, but even more important,
lated in a spray-paint area. Bmhing md ltollhg are causes the coating t o diatribuh it& more evenly over
commonly used far coating st~ucturdsurfaces. such as the entire object. Electrostatic force can d m be used
walls and milins of buildings. Brushing does provide to pull off drips or team that form by gravity dong the
efficient use of coating material, as practically none is bottom edges of newly painted objects.
wasted, and the mechanical rubbing of a brush or Heat Of- Used to Sped Drying, As indicated
roller provides some cleaning action that may provide previously, organic coating is often done in free air.
better adhesion. Some solvents and vehicles are st,volatile that drying
Speed and Quality by Spraying. By far the great- is accomplished almost immediately, Others require
et amount of organic coatings are applied indus- several days for drying, and still others require ele-
lxially by spraying. This method is used most with vated tempraturea for necessary polymerization to
iacauers and fast drying enamels. The h o d drying W e place- Heat fw drying and speeding chemical
time causes parts to become dust free very quick1y po reaction may be provided by various types of ovens.
that they can be moved away from the spray area and Some ovens are batch types in which racks of parks
advantage can be taken of this fast application are placed for specific periods of time. Others are
method. Spraying is done in booths designed for this continuous types built over conveyor systems &tit,
purpose where adequate ventilation carries fumes and regulate the h e of expasure by the len@ of oven
spmy particles away from the opmtitnr (Figure 16-41. and the speed of conveyor operation.
Surface Finishing 179

VITREOUS ENAMELS and therefore provide preferential corrosion protec-


Porcelain Consists of Fused Glass. Vitreous, or tion, are usually sprayed in thin layers, averaging
porcelain, enamel is actually a thin layer of glass about 0.25 millimeter (0.010 inch) in thickness, as
fused onto the surface of a metal, usually steel or protective coatings. Because sprayed coatings tend to
iron. Shattered glass, ball milled in a fine particle size, be porous, coatings of two or more times this thick-
is called frit. Frit is mixed with clay, water, and metal ness are used for cathodic materials such as tin, lead,
oxides, which produce the desired color, to form a and nickel. The cathodic materials protect only by
thin slurry called slip. This is applied to the prepared isolating the base material from its environment.
metal surface by dipping or spraying and, after dry- Buildup by Metal Spraying. Another important
ing, is fired at approximately 8000 C to fuse the application for metal spraying is in salvage operations
material to the metal surface. For high quality coat- for which a wide variety of metals and alloys may be
ing, more than one layer is applied to guard against used. Surfaces, usually after first being roughened, are
pinhole porosity. built up to oversized dimensions with metal spray.
Excellent Corrosion Protection. Glass applied in The excess material is then machined away to the
this way has high strength and is usually flexible desired dimension. Expensive parts with worn bearing
enough to withstand bending of the steel within the surfaces or new parts that have been machined under-
elastic limits of the base metal. The coatings have sized can sometimes be salvaged by this relatively
excellent resistance to atmospheric corrosion and to cheap procedure.
most acids. Vitreous enamels can be made suitable for VACUUM METALLIZING
use over a wide range of temperatures. Some special
types have been used for corrosion protection on Some metals can be deposited in very thin films,
exhaust stacks for aircraft engines. Considering their usually for reflective or decorative purposes, as a
high quality protection, vitreous enamels are rela- vapor deposit. The metal is vaporized in a high
tively inexpensive and find many uses. vacuum chamber containing the parts to be coated.
Ceramic Coatings for Special Protection. The The metal vapor condenses on the exposed surfaces in
advent of rockets and missiles has introduced an a thin film that follows the surface pattern. The
process is cheap for coating small parts, considering
entirely new field in which high temperature cor-
rosion protection is essential. Porcelain enamel has the time element only, but the cost of special equip-
ment needed is relatively high.
been satisfactory in some of these applications, but
ceramic coatings with better refractory characteristics Aluminum is the most used metal for deposit by
are more commonly used. Some are applied in the this method and is used frequently for decorating or
same way as porcelain enamel. Others are fused to the producing a mirror surface on plastics. The thin films
usually require mechanical protection by covering
metal surfaces with the intense heat of a plasma jet.
with lacquer or some other coating material.
Porosity of porcelain or ceramic coatings can be
checked with penetrants and coating thickness deter-
mined by use of eddy current methods. HOT DIP PLATING

METALLIZING Several metals, mainly zinc, tin, and lead, are


applied to steel for corrosion protection by a hot dip
Metal spraying, or metallizing, is a process in which process. Steel in sheet, rod, pipe, or fabricated form,
metal wire or powder is fed into an oxyacetylene properly cleansed and fluxed, is immersed in molten
heating flame and then, after melting, is carried by plating metal. As the work is withdrawn, the molten
high velocity air to be impinged against the work metal that adheres solidifies to form a protective
surface. The small droplets adhere to the surface and coat. In some of the large mills, the application is
bond together to build up a coating. made continuously to coil stock that is fed through
Bond Mostly Mechanical. The nature of the bond the necessary baths and even finally inspected before
is dependent largely on the materials. The droplets being recoiled or cut into sheets.
are relatively cool when they make contact and can in Zinc Applied in Many Ways. Zinc is one of the
fact be sprayed on wood, leather, and other flam- most common materials applied to steel in this man-
mable materials. Little, if any, liquid flow aids the ner. In addition to protection by exclusion, electro-
bonding action. If, however, sufficient affinity exists chemical protection (the source of the term galvan-
between the metals, a type of weld involving atomic ized iron) occurs when exposed steel and adjacent
bonds may be established. The bond is largely zinc are connected by conducting mositure. Zinc is
mechanical in most cases, and metal spraying is one of the most favored coatings for corrosion pro-
usually done on surfaces that have been intentionally tection of steel because of its low cost and ease of
roughened to aid the mechanical attachment. application. In addition to hot dipping, zinc can also
Anodic Materials Cause Selective Corrosion. Zinc, be applied by electroplating, spraying, and shero-
aluminum, and cadmium, which are anodic to steel dizing. Sherodizing is a process by which steel, heated
180 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

DC
in the presence of zinc dust, becomes coated with POWER SUPPLY
zinc.
Tin plating and terne plating, the latter using a
mixture of approximately four parts lead to one part
tin, are also done by hot dipping.

ELECfROPLATING
Coatings of many metals can be deposited on other
metals, and on nonmetals when suitably prepared, by
electroplating. The objectives of plating are to pro-
vide protection against corrosion, to improve appear-
ance, to establish wear- and abrasion-resistant sur- PLATING METAL (Anode) WORK (Cathode)
faces, to add material for dimensional increase, and to
serve as an intermediate step of multiple coating. Figure 16-5
Some of the most common metals deposited in this Electroplating
way are copper, nickel, chromium, cadmium, zinc,
tin, silver, and gold. The majority are used to provide blue-white color coating over the softer, tarnishable
some kind of corrosion protection, but appearance nickel.
also plays a strong part in their use. Many Problems Even Though a Common Process.
Complex Electrical and Chemical System. Figure Some problems exist with electroplating. Deposit
16.5 is a schematic diagram of a simple plating setup. on irregular shapes may vary widely in thickness.
When direct-current power of high enough voltage is Projections and exposed surfaces may plate readily,
applied to two electrodes immersed in a water solu- but recesses, corners, and holes can sometimes be
tion of metallic salt, current will flow through the coated only by using specially located electrodes or
circuit causing changes at the electrodes. At the nega- electrodes shape<;lto conform to the workpiece shape.
tive electrode, or cathode (the work), excess electrons Electroplating can be costly because it involves pay-
supplied from the power source neutralize Qositively ment for considerable electric power and the metal
charged metallic ions in the salt solution to cause plated and lost. Because plating thicknesses are
dissolved metal to be deposited in the solid state. At usually very small, the coating has little hiding power.
the positive electrode, or anode (plating metal), metal
goes into solution to replace that removed at the
CHEMICAL CONVERSIONS
other electrode. The rate of deposition and the prop-
erties of the plated material are dependent on the A relatively simple and often fully satisfactory
metals being worked with, the current density, the method for protection from corrosion is by con-
solution temperature, and other factors. version of some of the surface material to a chemical
Coating Thickness Usually Low. Thickness of composition that resists attack from the environment.
plating is usually low, in the range of 2.5 microns to These converted metal surfaces consist of relatively
0.025 millimeter (0.0001 to 0.001 inch). Chromium thin (seldom more than 0.025 millimeter, or 0.001
applied for appearance only may be used in a thick- inch thick) inorganic films that are formed by chem-
ness of only about one-tenth these amounts, but ical reaction with the base material. One important
when used to provide wear resistance and to build up feature of the conversion process is that the coatings
dimensions, as on gages, may be applied in thickness have little effect on the product dimensions. How-
as much as 0.25 millimeter (0.010 inch). ever, when severe conditions are to be encountered,
When plating thickness is a critical consideration, the converted surface may be only partial protection,
measurement and control may be established with and coatings of entirely different types may be
NDT. Both eddy current methods and radiation back applied over them.
scatter are useful.
ANODIZING
Multiple Metals for Maximum Properties. Layers
of different metals are sometimes plated for maxi- Aluminum, magnesium, and zinc can be treated
mum properties. For example, an object such as a electrically in a suitable electrolyte to produce a
steel bumper for an automobile may first be copper corrosion-resistant oxide coating. The metal being
plated to provide good adhesion and coverage of the treated is connected to the anode in the circuit,
steel and to facilitate buffing to a smooth surface which provides the name anodizing for-the process.
necessary for high quality final finish. Nickel is then Aluminum is commonly treated by anodizing that
plated over the copper to serve as the principal cor- pI:oduces- an' oxide' film thicker than, but similar to,
rosion protection. Finally, chromium is plated over that formed naturally with exposure to air. Anodizing
the nickel to serve as a hard, wear-resistant, bright, of zinc has very limited use. The coating produced on
Surface Finishing 181

magnesium is not as protective as that formed on corrosion film forms. Contact with either highly
aluminum but does provide some protective value and aerated water films or immersion in stagnant water
substantially increases protection when used in containing little oxygen causes even corrosion and
combination with paint coatings. pitting. The corrosion products of zinc are less dense
Purposely Created Oxide Better Than Naturally than the base material so that heavy corrosion not
Formed Oxide. Because of their greater thickness only destroys the product appearance but also may
and abrasion resistance, anodic films offer much cause malfunctions by binding moving parts.
better protection against corrosion and mechanical Chromium Salts Improve Corrosion Resistance and
injury than do the thin natural films. Aluminum is Paintability. Corrosion of zinc can be substantially
usually treated in a sulfuric acid electrolyte that slowed by the production of chromium salts on its
slowly dissolves the outside at the same time it is surface. The corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys
converting the base metal to produce a porous coat- can be increased by immersion or anodic treatment in
ing. The coating can be impregnated with various acid baths containing dichromates. Chromate treat-
materials to improve corrosion resistance. It also ment of both zinc and magnesium improves corrosion
serves as a good paint base and can be colored in itself resistance but is used also to improve adhesion of
by use of dyes. paint.
The usual commercial anodizing methods used on PHOSPHATE COATINGS
aluminum cause formation of billions per square inch
of aluminum oxide cells which grow above the original Used Mainly as a Paint Base. Phosphate coatings,
metal surface and at the same time extend below that used mostly on steel, result from a chemical reaction
original surface. Each of those cells has a pore in its of phosphoric acid with the metal to form a non-
center that extends to a solid barrier layer near the bot- metallic coating that is essentially phosphate salts.
tom of the cell as pictured in Figure 16-6. These numer- The coating is produced by immersing small items or
ous pores permit impregnation of the surface with vari- spraying large items with the phosphating solution.
ous desirable materials but they are also a source of Phosphate surfaces may be used alone for corrosion
problems for penetrant testing of anodized aluminum resistance, but their most common application is as a
surfaces. The penetrant can enter the pores to such an base for paint coatings. Two of the most common
extent that an extremely high background is produced. application methods are called parkerizing and bond-
Special care to interpretation of results may be neces- erizing.
sary. CHEMICAL OXIDE COATINGS
Checking for cracks is often called for because alumi-
num oxide is brittle and subject to cracking particular- A number of proprietary blacking processes, used
ly if deformation of the material occurs after anodiz- mainly on steel, produce attractive black oxide coat-
ing. ings. Most of the processes involve the immersing of
steel in a caustic soda solution, heated to about
1500 C (3000 F) and made strongly oxidizing by the
CHROMATE COATINGS addition of nitrites or nitrates. Corrosion resistance is
Zinc Dimensions Increase with Corrosion. Zinc is rather poor unless improved by application of oil,
usually considered to have relatively good corrosion lacquer, or wax. As in the case of most of the other
resistance. This is true when the exposure is to chemical conversion procedures, this procecbre also
normal outdoor atmosphere where a relatively thin finds use as a base for paint finishes.
Inspection 17

Inspection is an essential procedure carried on in


connection with all manufacturing processes by
which usable goods are produced. Inspection work,
however, differs from that of all the processes dis-
cussed to this point. Unlike them, it does not change
the individual product, but instead, by elimination of
bad parts improves the average quality of those that
remain for distribution and use.
In general terms, inspection can be defined as an
examination to determine the conformance of parts
or assemblies to their specifications. The information
gathered from such an examination may be used for
several purposes. Because it is frequently impossible
to manufacture articles within close enough limits
that all can be used interchangeably, the inspection
information is frequently used to sort products into
groups. The information gathered from inspection is
also used as an indication of need for adjustment of
equipment or processes. A third objective of inspec-
tion procedures is to provide data for control of
quality.
Quality Control Uses Inspection Data for Process
Improvement. Although the term quality control is
occasionally used synonymously with inspection, its
meaning is sometimes different. The association be-
tween quality control and inspection is close. Quality
control is often a second step, making use of inspec-
tion data for analysis and decision making for achiev-
ing, maintaining, and improving quality of products.
In some manufacturing plants, both inspection and
quality control are performed by the same depart-
ment and personnel. In others, they are completely
separated and may even have separate data collecting
facilities.
184 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

INSPECTION PROCEDURES degree of which will vary in wide ranges depending


largely upon the relationship between the product
Because of their effects on the product function,
design and the process chosen for its manufacture.
the selection of dimensions, qualities, and appearance
The materials of the product, the equipment used,
factors for any product is primarily a design problem.
the personnel operating the equipment, and the
In many cases the choices are empirical in nature,
planned steps by which the manufacturing is carried
being based on past experiences, and in some cases
on are all influencing factors on the quality variation.
are even arbitrary because of the lack of real infor-
mation on which to base the kind of choice. Most di- Inspection is for the purpose of finding these vari-
mensions and qualities are subject to wide variability ations and, in many cases, aiding in assigning the
causes for their existence.
in the manufacturing process and, in some cases, may
also be very difficult to measure.
The desired life expectancy for a product also will
usually play an important part in the consideration ORGANIZATION OF INSPECTION
given to dimensions and qualities needed for satis-
factory manufacturing. Because of these factors and Inspection Always Present. Although certain
the close association between processing and quality kinds of inspection are limited to certain phases dur-
control, both the manufacturing and inspection divi- ing the manufacturing processes, inspection of some
sions of a manufacturing plant are often consulted type, sometimes as simple as casual observation, is
before a final determination of quality tolerances. In needed in every stage of manufacturing of every kind
addition, they are usually the principal decision of product. It is, however, customary in many plants
makers for setting the inspection qualities, quantities, to label in general terms the inspection procedures
and standards. according to the state of the product being examined,
Inspection Varies with Quality Desired. The dif- as receiving inspection, in-process inspection, and
ference in the amount and kind of inspection neces- final inspection.
sary for a machine tool as compared to a piece of Receiving Inspection. The term receiving inspec-
farm equipment is considerable. In the first case, a tion denotes all the inspections, regardless of type,
machine tool would be expected to be rigid, to be that are given to incoming material, including such
free working with a minimum of friction loss, to have things as raw materials, speciality items, and sub-
very accurate related surfaces for maintenance of assemblies manufactured under subcontract. To cut
accurate movement, to have long life, and, during down transportation and handling, companies making
that period, to be able to produce parts accurate use of large quantities of speciality items or subcon-
within a few ten-thousandths of an inch of dimen- tract work frequently perform this kind of inspection
sion. These requirements mean that most of the parts in the supplier's plant.
of which the machine is constructed must be held In-Process Inspection. Inspection that is con-
within extremely close accuracy limits, and large ducted dllring the time raw material is being converted
amounts of inspection are necessary. into a finished product is called in-process inspection.
In the case of the farm machinery, which may be The place of inspection is dependent largely upon the
no less important in its own area, the product must degree of examination and the kind of eql.lipment
be strong, rugged, able to withstand exposure to the needed. When only a percentage of the parts pro-
elements, and also to function over a long period of duced are inspected, either periodically or in spot
time, although the actual hours of use may be rela- checks, the work is usually carried on at the machine.
tively few. The farm machinery, however, does not Particularly in small plants, this inspection may be
require the relationship accuracies that must exist in performed by the machine operator himself. When
the machine tool, so that both the quality and quanti- large quantities of product are to be inspected, and
ty of inspection can be reduced. These differences when the inspection procedures require specialized
naturally show up in the cost of the completed equip- equipment, the work is most often done in cen-
ment. tralized areas.
Inspection Benefits Management and Customer. First-Piece Inspection Part of In-Process Inspec-
The meeting of specifications set by the designer is tion. Regardle$s of the amount of other inspection
primarily a manufacturing problem. Whether or not that might be necessary, first-piece inspection is
the specifications are met is determined by inspec- common practice. After any equipment setup, tool
tion, which may be performed by either operating or change, or any action that may influence the quality
specialized personnel. Regardless of his other duties, of the product, the first piece is examined to deter-
an inspector at the time he is performing this func- mine its conformance to specification. This is some-
tion may be considered to represent both manage- times a very formal procedure, and in many cases, as
ment and the customer. in press working where the effect of wear and other
Processing Closely Related to Quality. Any factors is small, this may be the only inspection
product is always subject to quality variation, the required.
Inspection 185

Final Inspection. Inspection performed at final of defective parts in a lot that would be willingly
inspection may include a great variety of work. Visual accepted. Ideally, a sampling plan would accept all
inspection for appearance (paint, labels, cleanliness) good lots and reject all bad lots of parts.
and completeness (all parts, instruction books, parts Most Economical Sample Size a Compromise. The
list) is nearly always part of the job. Tests for func- ideal, however, can be reached only when the sample
tion, which are sometimes necessary on mechanical size becomes 100% and is, in addition, performed
goods, may involve elaborate testing procedures without fault. As shown in Figure 17-1, ideal results
requiring much time and adding considerable cost to are approached when the sample size is increased;
the overall manufacturing operation. Testing of most consequently the best sample size is always a com-
aircraft in the final stages wouJd fall in this category. promise based on the relative values of improved
When the amount of final inspection is large, re- reliability versus greater inspection costs. Acceptance
duced in-process inspection may be permitted, al- sampling plans are essential when inspection cost is
though this will depend on a number of factors, high and the cost for replacing defectives is low, when
including the relation of inspection cost to processing the sampling plan is more efficient than 100% inspec-
cost and the cost of replacing bad parts in the final tion, and in every case when the inspection procedure
assembly. is destructive.
Nondestructive Testing. The vast majority of in- Always Some Risk of Nonrepresentative Sample.
spection performed on manufactured goods is nondes- The operating characteristic curve shown in Figure
tructive in nature but most measurements of dimen- 17-2 is a single sampling plan requiring an attribute
sions, geometry, appearance, completeness, and the (quality that is either wholly present or absent) of
like do not fit the usual concept of NDT. NDT usually
involves indirect tests that are in some way related to 1.0

qualities and characteristics that cannot be checked di-


rectly without destruction. This kind of testing not on- 0.9
ly fits into all of the described areas of inspection, but N =SAMPlE SIZE
is essential if there is to be assurance of good quality 0.8 C = NUMBEROF DEFECTIVES
THATAREACCEPTABLE
product.
OJ

QUANTITY OF INSPECTION ~ 0.6


The percentage of inspection at any phase of
~
U
manufacturing will vary widely. When lowest inspec- ';1 0.5
0
tion cost is the principal interest, the variation can be >-
from 0% to 100%. When greatest reliability is of S 0.4
interest, 0% would be unlikely, but 100% may also be
~
0
~ 0.3
unlikely because 100% inspection does not always
mean 100% reliability due to the effects of fatigue
0.2
and monotony as well as the psychological and
hypnotic effects of continuous detailed work.
0.1
Desired and Experienced Quality Determine Quan-
tity Inspected With a large portion of manufactured
0
goods, the quantity to be inspected is determined by 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10

the use of various sampling plans. These may be used LOT FRACTION DEFECTIVE

only in those cases where something less than 100%


perfect quality Vlill be accepted. In general, the lot Figure 17.1
size being inspected must be large because of the Operating characteristic curves for different sample sizes
assumption that the inspected quality will vary
according to known statistical laws. Mathematical 200 randomly selected parts to be compared with its
methods are available for designing a number of specification. If four or less defective parts are found
sampling plans that take into account the product in the sample, the entire lot from which it came will
quality level and the willingness to accept a certain be accepted. If more than four defectives are found,
defective part. The necessary sample size is affected the lot will be rejected and likely be sorted for
by these factors. removal of the defectives. In the plan shown, the
Randomness of Sample Important. For any sam- dotted line marked PI indicates the so-called producers
pling plan to be effective the sample inspected must risk. If the lot being inspected had only 1% defect-
be random and truly represent the overall quality of ives, there would be a 6% chance that this plan would
the lot. Before a complete sampling plan can be reject the material. The dotted line marked P2 indi-
devised, a decision must be made as to the percentage cates the consumer's risk, which in this caseis a 10%
186 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

chance that a lot with 4% defectives might be ac- symbol for standard deviation, which is a measure of
cepted. Sampling plans of this type therefore must be the dispersion of the measured values.) Similarly,
designed to be acceptable to both the producer and 95.46% of measured values would be expected to fall
the consumer. within 12a limits, and 68.26% within :t1o.
Chart Constructed from Process History. The con-
PROCESS CONTROL CHARTS struction of a quality control chart usually follows
Need Variables Instead of Attributes. Another the following kind of procedure. First, the process is
valuable use of statistical mathematics in inspection is examined to ascertain that it is normal and that all
for the construction of control charts with limit lines. assignable causes have been eliminated so that its
Inspection values plotted on the chart will rarely fall operation is stable within the limits of chance varia-
outside these lines except when an assignable cause tion. Next, an historical record is made by plotting,
exists. In other words, the variation of points inside the mean values of a number of samples, the size
the control limits can be from chance causes alone. frequency, and selection of which have been carefully
The data collected for construction of process control predetermined after consideration of the process
charts is in the form of variables rather than attri- characteristics. These values are placed on two charts,
butes. Data collection is therefore more costly, but in one for averages and one for ranges, and limits cal-
most cases considerably more information can be culated for each (Figure 17-4). If the limits used are
made available from analysis of the data. ::!:30,not more than 0.2% of any plotted points would
Assumptions Do Not Destroy Value. In the be expected to fall outside these lines. Therefore,
making of control charts, some assumptions are
1.0

I
0.9 I
I
I
I
0.8 I
I
I
I
0.7 I
I
uz I
I
SAMPLE SIZE N = 200
~ C =4
I
~ 0.6
u
I
1
« 1
0 : ,
~
:J
0.5 I
I
~ I
I
I
I
0&: 0.4 I I
I
I
I -3.,.. -2 cr -.,.. X cr 2cr 3cr
0.3 I
I
I I--- 68.26%
95.46%
-.J
I
I I. .1
0.2 I 99.76%
I I.
I
0.1
I P2
---1----------- ' Figure 17-3
I I Distribution under a normal curve
I I
I I
O.L
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06
whenever a point does fall outside, the process is
0.08 0.09 0.10
critically examined for an assignable cause.
As the process continues, current samples are
Figure 17-2 plotted and compared with past history to determine
Operating characteristic curve that the process remains in control. In most
made, which, although they may not be entirely true, processes, the mean is controllable by adjustment of
can usually be approximated closely enough that the the process, but the range can be changed only by
system will work. One of the important assumptions finding and eliminating assignable causes.
is that variation of the quality being inspected will Charts Best for Long Runs. Although process
follow a known frequency distribution. Most often it control charts can be useful for short-run operations
is assumed that the frequency distribution follows a under some conditions, their greatest value is in con-
normal curve, as shown in Figure 17-3. In a normal tinuing operations in which a minimum number of
distribution, 99.73% of the measured values from an changes may contribute to variability. The infor-
entire population will probably fall within the limits mation that can be gathered from control charts can
of 13a from the arithmetical mean. (Sigma is the be useful for several purposes. It may be used for
Inspection 187

Point out of control probably


0.753 has an assignable cause. geometric relationships existing between surfaces.
Corrective action needed. Any quality desired in a manufactured product may
UCL
0.752 ~----- require inspection to assure its meeting specifications.
0.751 In the manufacture of hard goods, the greatest
IX amount of inspection time is spent checking those
en0.750 qualities mentioned in this paragraph. Some impor-
Z x
<{
UJ 0.749
tant properties such as hardness and strength,
:2 together with their testing procedures, have been dis-
0.748
----- cussed in earlier chapters.
~~L----
0.747 DIMENSIONAL REFERENCES
Use of Common Reference Points Valuable.
When dimensional measurements are being made, a
0.008
reference point and a measured point always exist. In
LUCL ----.----
0.007 the case of single dimensions, it usually makes no
a: 0.006 difference which is which, except in those cases in
en' 0.005
UJ.
CJ 0.004
which one surface is more rigid or more easily acces-
~ 0.003
sible and will serve better as a reference point. When a
a: 0.002
NO LCL
number of dimensions originate from the same point
0.001
0.000
or can be measured from a common point, that point
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 2526272829
should be used as a reference point. All measurements
SAMPLE NUMBER
should be made from it to reduce the possibilities of
Figure 17-4 accumulation of error. When a series of dimensions
Quality control process chart are measured, each dependent upon the previous one,
the total possible error is the accumulation of all the
determining the overall quality of a product. The data
individual errors. But if, as shown in Figure 17-5,
can be useful for matching mating part dimensions each measurement is made to a common reference
with a minimum of waste. Understanding of the sta-
point, the maximum total error can be only two
tistical variation in a product usually will permit
individual errors for any of the dimensions measured.
wider tolerance use. Although all the points within
the control limits on the mean chart could be in these In those cases where the only practical dimension-
ing method requires a sequential group of measure-
positions by chance variation, a gradual shift toward
ments, it is good practice to leave the least important
one or the other limit can often be interpreted as a
dimension off the drawing and thereby eliminate the
trend caused by an assignable reason. For example,
argument as to whether the overall dimension or
gradual tool wear in a cutting operation would cause
the average mean value to change gradually.
Process Improved by Identification of Causes.
Frequently, the use of process control charts will
cause improvement in the processes on which they
are used by pointing out possibly correctable varia-
LilJu
tion causes. Analysis of the process itself and cor-
rection of faults as they are found will produce bM-+-,,+,,-1-,,-L,,~
A+8tC+I>+E ~~

gradual improvement in the process history and tend SEQUENTIAL MEASUREMENTS

to tighten down on the control limits as they are


recalculated. The presence of regularly kept charts in LLA+8tCZJ .
- (A+a:!-)
C2+

the process area tends to have a rather large psycho- !-, 2-


logical effect on the operators. Frequently they do a
better job merely because the chart is before them.
The data that are collected for construction of the [[Ill I

J
control chart are, of course, useful also for inspection
acceptance, and often provide more information than
would be available from data collected for inspection
alone. ~., ~'H'~~d
A+8tC+I>+E:t
PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
COMMON REFERENCE POINT MEASUREMENT
This section of inspection is concerned primarily
with dimensions, shapes, finishes, dimensional toler- Figure 17-5
ances, and the dimensional relationships, together with Accumulation of dimensional error
188 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

individual dimensions should receive first considera- dimensions and thereby eliminates the need for
tion regarding the holding of tolerances. calculation by production personnel. However, it
Drawings and Procedures Should Agree. Drawing tends to clutter up the drawings because of its
dimensions should always agree as closely as possible sometimes greater space requirement and the increase
with manufacturing and inspection procedures to of significant numbers.
minimize the need for calculations by machine opera- Understood Tqlerances - Local Agreements. The
tors and production personnel. When changes in a majority of dimensions on drawings are not critical
process cause changes in measurement procedures, and are usually shown without tolerances indicated.
action should be taken to correct the working draw- However, to prevent complete loss of control, these
ings to fit the new methods. are usually treated to have understood tolerances that
may vary in different plants but are usually in the
TOLERANCES range of :1:0.010to :1:0.015 inch.
Tolerances Should Fit Product and Process Need.
SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT VARIATION
Although it is possible by use of sufficient time and
care to work as closely to a given dimension as is Variation in dimensional measurement comes from
desired, it is impossible to manufacture to an exact a number of sources. Some are common enough that
size. Regardless of the accuracy displayed, it is always they should be given consideration in the majority of
possible to choose a finer measuring method that can measuring and inspection procedures. Among these
show discrepancies in the dimension. As working to are parallax, temperature effects, pressure effects, and
higher accuracies costs more in money, time, and human error.
equipment, it is most economical and practical that Parallax Is an Apparent Displacement. The illu-
dimensions should be permitted to vary within the sion created by parallax is shown in Figure 17-7. If
widest limits for which they can still function prop- the hand swinging over the scale is viewed from Point
erly. This variation is permitted by the use of toler- A, directly in front, measurement 5 would be ob-
ances added to dimensions in such a way that they served. If, however, the eye were moved to position
indicate the permissible variation. Theoretically at B, the hand in the same position would indicate a
least, the designer applies dimensional tolerances as reading of 6. This is the illusion that makes it difficult
wide as can be safely used. One of the inspector's jobs to read a clock correctly when viewing it from an
is to determine whether the product is made within angle.
these manufacturing limits. Any measuring or indicating device that has a finite
Basic Dimensions Displayed as First Goal. Manu- thickness between the indicating member and the
facturing tolerances may be shown in different ways, reading scale or the work will display an error caused
as indicated in Figure 17-6. If a dimension is ap- by parallax if used incorrectly. Many meters are
proached in a definite direction by the manufacturing constructed with mirrors underneath the indicating
process used, and greater chance of error exists on hand so that, to obtain a single view of the hand, the
one side of the basic dimension than on the other, eye must be positioned in the only spot where a
unilateral tolerances are usually displayed, using the correct reading can be directly read. Many meters and
dimension that would be reached first as the basic instruments used for NDT are so equipped.
dimension. When no reason exists for error on one SCALE
side of the basic dimension more than on the other, 11~~1~~?~1
bilateral tolerances permitting variation in both direc- 1/
tions are used. The third method shows both limiting /
/,f,I HAND
/ I
/ I
/ I
T-+OOI / I
// I
~ I J:~1 /
/ I
I
BILATERAL TOLERANCES / I
B/ A

TOP VIEW

, ]I~
UNILATERAL TOLERANCES

~
~ "
'\.
4 565C.</«

HAND
>
(J

~
LIMITING DIMENSIONS
1.247
I --.L
!
Figure 17-6 Figure 17-7
Methods of showing dimensional limits Parallax
Inspection 189

Temperature Effects Often Present. It is well tures over a part being checked may also cause read-
known that temperature variation causes changes of ings to vary in different locations when no difference in
dimension in materials, causing them to grow larger the tested attribute really exists.
with increased temperature and smaller with de- For critical dimensions, particularly those of small
creased temperature. Different materials are affected size when the percent error will be large, care should be
to different degrees by temperature changes or in taken to see that the product being tested and any
other words, have different coefficients of thermal comparison standards are at the same temperature
expansion. Many of the manufacturing processes level.
cause temperature changes in the work and in the Pressure Springs or Deforms Work and Equip-
gaging and measuring equipment or are concerned ment. For most dimensional measurement, some
with different materials such that measurement prob- element of the measuring device must make contact
lems caused by temperature are significant. with the work surfaces. The effect of the contact
The coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is pressure depends on the strength and rigidity of both
approximately 0.0000117 unit per unit per 0 C the work and the measuring tool and on the loads
(0.0000065 unit per unit per 0 F). It would not be applied. Most measuring devices are constructed to
unusual for a steel disc being machined to use light pressures that only break through oil and
150 millimeter (6-inch) diameter to have its tempera- dirt films on the surfaces, as contact is often only at a
ture increased during the machining work to 1200 C point or along a line until deformation causes suf-
(2000 F) above standard temperature of 200 C (680 ficient bearing area to carry the applied load. It must
F). If measured while still hot with a gage calibrated be remembered that load can be carried only by a
for use at standard temperature, an error of about reaction of bending or deformation; consequently,
0.21 millimeter (0.008 inch) would be measurable on light and repeatable contact pressures are a necessity
the disc when cooled to standard temperature. to accurate dimensional measurement.
120 X 1.17 X 10-5 X 150 = 0.21 mm Human Element a Large Variable. One of the
(200 X 6.5 X 10-6 X 6 = 0.0078 in.) most difficult problems to deal with in inspection, as
well as in all the other phases of manufacturing, is
Aluminum, for which the coefficient of expansion
error caused by the human element. Inspection pro-
is approximately 0.0000216 unit per unit per 0 C
cedures making use of any of the human senses (sight,
(0.000012 unit per unit pero F), would under the
same conditions be expanded almost twice as much hearing, smell, taste, or touch) are subject to some
and upon cooling would show an error of more than variation with any individual and usually to large
0.38 millimeter (0.014 inch). variation between individuals. Sight and touch in
particular are frequently used as part of a measuring
120 X 21.6 X 10-6 X 150 = 0.389 mm system. At any time great reliability is required, the
(2000 X 12 X 10-6 X 6 = 0.0144 in.) procedure should be designed to minimize the effects
When using a steel measure or gage on a steel of the human element.
workpiece, little error would be caused if both were
at the same temperature (dependent somewhat upon BASIS FOR MEASUREMENT
the gage design). However, in the case of the gage and Measurement of various attributes may be either
the work being of different materials, such as a steel comparative or absolute. In many cases knowledge of
gage on an aluminum part, exact measurement can be the value of a dimension or other quality is unim-
made only when both are at standard temperature. portant, and interest is focused on measurement of
For example, if the above aluminum disc and steel the difference from some standard.
gage were both at only 200 C ( 360 F ) above standard Many kinds of gaging apparatus are designed to
temperature, the error in measurement would be show only the nearness or faTness of a measurement
almost 0.03 millimeter or more than 0.001 inch. from a predetermined standard.
20 X 21.6 X 10-6 X 150 = 0.0648 mm Other gaging equipment sets the limits within
20 X 11.7 X 10-6 X 150 = 0.0351 mm which a dimension must fall to be acceptable and also
0.0648 - 0.0351 = 0.0297 mm does not assign any real value to the measurement.
A third type of measurement provides knowledge
(36 X 12 X 10-6 X 6 = 0.00259 in.) regarding the real or absolute value of a measurement
(36 X 6.5 X 10-6 X 6 = 0.00140 in.) by comparing the measurement with a known stand-
(0.00259 - 0.00140 = 0.00119 in.) ard.
Temperature also affects resistivity of material and Comparison with Standards May Be Converted to
changes flow of electric current. Therefore, eddy cur- Absolute. The differential measurements described
rent results may be affected to the point that tempera- in the preceding paragraphs can be converted to
ture readings should also be recorded when tempera- absolute values by addition or subtraction of the
tures are different from normal. Non-uniform tempera- reading with the standard if its absolute value is
190 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

known. All absolute measurements use zero as a defined as exactly 25.4 millimeters. The meter and
reference point. the inch are therefore primary measurement stand-
Metric and English Measuring Systems. Two ards to which all length measurements are related.
measuring systems are commonly used throughout Length Measurement Standardized by Gage
the world. These are the metric and the English Blocks. The use of uniform length measUrement
systems, with the metric being more widespread but throughout the country is made possible by the use
the English being more important to manufacturing of secondary standards in the form of gage blocks
in the United States until the current time. The that are used in three ways. Master gage blocks, the
metric system is universally used in most scientific most accurate obtainable (guaranteed to be accurate
applications but, for manufacturing in the United within :1:0.000002 inch per inch of length), are used
States, has been limited to a few specialities, mostly only for checking other gage block sets so that their
items that are related in some way to products accuracy may be retained. Other sets of gage blocks,
manufactured abroad. which may be of less original accuracy, are used as
The Metric System Soon to Be Worldwide. Eng- references and inspection blocks for the manufacture,
land is currently in the middle of an official change calibration, and setting of various measuring devices.
from the old system to a metric system similar to that A third use applies blocks directly to precision meas-
used in most of the world. The United States is not as uring work in shop operations. The more gage blocks
far along in a similar change to the international are used, the more important it becomes that they be
system of units, which is a simplified form of the frequently checked against other blocks to detect
metric system, but there is little doubt the change inaccuracies from wear and abuse.
will continue and accelerate.
Various Size and Quality Sets. Gage blocks may
United States Changeover Beginning. Some
be obtained in sets containing as few as five to more
primary schools in the United States are introducing
than one hundred individual blocks. They are used by
the new system to students. A few factories have
selecting blocks of such size as needed and wrung
already changed to metric units, and others are
together to make up a desired dimension. Wringing in
studying the problems, both functional and eco-
this case implies the use of a twisting sliding motion
nomic, connected with the change. There are some between the blocks that places their extremely flat
incompatibilities to be ironed out, and there are
bound to be difficulties for those familiar with the and smooth faces so close together that they adhere
to each other and can be built up to larger dimensions
English system becoming comfortable with a replace-
ment. . without inaccuracy caused by added space between
the contacts.
New System to Be Simpler to Use. The inter-
Special Gages and Masters for Production Con-
national system of units (SI) simplifies calculations
trol. A tertiary measuring standard is used in manu-
because of the multiple of ten relationship. Although
facturing in the form of gages and measuring devices
some measurements will eventually be performed
designed for specific purposes, and in the form of
completely with the new units, some will require a
master work parts that can be used for comparative
long period for the change, and all during the transi- measuremen ts.
tion will require conversion at times. This text has
been written with dual units to help with familiariza-
tion of the relationship, but an attempt has been INSPECTION EQUIPMENT
made to emphasize the new system to encourage its The equipment to be described in this section is
use. As an aid to conversion, some tables showing the primarily for dimensional measurement. It employs
relationships between the two systems are available in some type of comparison, with the principal differ-
the appendix. ence being in the degree of reference to an absolute
Length Standard Definitions. Length measure- standard. The steel rule, for example, has a built-in
ment standards are essential in order that units of reference to zero. A dial indicator has no built-in
measure have any meaning. All length measurements reference and is used mostly for differential measure-
are related to the standard meter, which at one time ments, but it can be used for absolute measurement
was the distance between two marks on gold buttons by establishing proper reference. The spring caliper
placed on a platinum-irridium bar stored in Paris, may be used as a gage to establish a dimensional limit,
France. Since the year 1960, a standard meter has or it can be used to transfer a dimension from a work
been defined as being 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of surface to some measuring device. Measuring tools
light emitted from krypton-86. In 1866, the Congress may be classified as direct-reading devices, compara-
of the United States defined a legal yard as being tors, or limit gages.
3600/3937 of the length of a meter. From this Direct-reading devices provide the widest range of
definition, 1 inch turns out to be slightly more than measurement of any of the measuring tools but are
25.4 millimeters. More recently, the inch has been slower to use than the other types. In general, they
Inspection 191

require greater skill from the user and are therefore Figure 17-9,with the nuah scale divided into inches
mare subject to human error. and subdivided into 1/10and 1/40(0.025) inch. The
Steel Rules for Ri?lativeIy R o w Measure vernier scale, which slides along adjacent to the mairl
ment. Among the most common of the dire& scale, has henty-fiva divisions in the length equal to
reading inspection devices are steel rulw m d their twenty-four divisions of the main scde and ffirnhhes
variations. &eel rules are made in all dzes, from ones the witness M e for reading a measurement. Each
a fraction of an inch long hat must be held in spedal d i d o n on the Yernier &ale is 0.001 inch shorter than
holders, up ta those several feetin length. They may be the similar divisions on the main scale, so that for
dib~tatedin different ways, depending on the use for each 0.001 inch of movement between the two, a
which they were Intended, and strmetimes are cali- Merent line on the vernier sale d l line up with
brated with four different ~ & 8 nn the sane rule. one af the marks an the main wale. A measurement
Most common for use ih the United Stakes are reading is accnnrplbhed by first weadb the full
calibrations showing 1/64,3/32, 1/16,and 1/8inch, inches, adding tenths of an inah exposed More tbe
dthough in some applications, divisions in hun- zero of the vernier scale, adding 0.025 inch for each
dredths are of value. Steel rdw showing com- e x p ~ ~subdivkion,
d and finally adding the number
binations of English and metric units or all metric indicated by the mark on the vernier h t is in dosest
units are also available. . ahgnmellt with one of the marks on the main sale.
Good quality steel rules are machine divided wikh
the calibration marks accurately placed, but ordi-
narily cannot he expected to be usad witti acfiurwie8 Micromebr Nomendatwe, The micrometer cali-
closer than sbout 40.5 millimeter or 11/64hch. per, ur "mike," &own in Figure 17-10is one of $he
Variations of the Sted Rule for Improved Ac- mast common measuring ircstruments used in the
curacy, The steel rule has a. number of variations, manufacturing field. For a precision tool, its
including the hooked rule that can be held over a constructian is rdatiVe1y simple. A U+hped frame
corn&, d i p e r r u l e s that have a fixed and a sliding supports a hardened steel button called an anuil on
jaw to permit setting and eskr reading, and degth tbe inside of one end and a eJecve, barrel or"hub
rules #at can reach into recesses. Some of t h e e ruIes contaking a threaded nut on the opposite end. The
are ehown in Figure 17-8. threadd nut supports threads on a spindle that
V d e r Caliper and Heigkt Gam &mila. Vernier extends through the sleeve and frame so that i t 8 flat
calipers are vmiations of the &eel rule that can h end can be paired with the anvil t o serve aa; the
measuring dement. The opposib end a£ the spindle is

Figure 17-8
Sted rules'

read to thousandths of an inch by use of a vernier


.
scale built as part of the irrshment The height gage Figure 17-9
is shilar to the vernier caliper with the exception Vernier caliper
that it is mounted on a base im hold it in a position
suikable for vertical me~surepenB attached to a tubular thimble that rides over tdu
V e ~ Scales
r Are All Similar h Principle4 Both oubide of the sleeve so that when the thimble is
instruments are calibrated as shown in the inserk of h e d , the spindle thread rotates in the fixed nut and
152 Matmiah and Prmesaes for NDT Technology

c a w s the distamrce between the spindle and the anvil


to decrease or increase.
Reading Is a Systematic Procedum, The threads
af rraicrometers axe the real measuring elements and
are precision made, usually being ground in hardened
materials. Forty threads per inch came the thread
lead to be 1/40,or 0.025 inch. A witness line along
the side of the micrometer sleeve is divided into ten
numbered divisions, each representhig four full turns
of the micrometer thread, a distance of 0.100 inch.
Each l/lQ-inchdivision is subdivided into four small-
er divisions, each representing one full turn,or 0.025
Figure 17-10
inch. The -bevel of the micrometer thimble is divided
Micrometer
into twenty-five e q d spaces to enable the user to
read fractional t u r n s with the accuracy permitted by used in lrtboratwies and tool roam for accurate
0.001-inchcalibration. Length measurements. This instrument also uses a
Vernier Use Requires Cmful Setting. Some screw thread far measurement hut is constructed with
micrometers also C~JTJJa vernier calibration conshting a heavy h m e comisting of a steel bar more than 3.5
of ten m k e d spaces on the sleeve of the micrometer inches 113 diameter? and incorporating spriflg loading
in a space equal to nine 0.001-inch divisions on the on the workpiece so that very accurate measuring or
thimble. The principle of the vernier is the same as contact, pressure can be duplicated. The design elirni;
that on the vernier caliper and, with proper use, nates practically all effects of the h u m element.
allows t h e micrometer to be read accurately t o the OTHER ADJUSTABLE T W L S
nixcrest 0.0003 inch. Vernier micrometers c & b d
to this accuracy are not too commonIy used, how- Some commonly used adjustable inspection bols
ever, hcauw variations in temperature, pressure, and can be set to be used as limit gages but are more
the human element frequently cause errors large comonly used as dimnsion transfer devices. Inside
enough to make this kind a£ accuracy impractical. calipers have turned-out legs tu make contact with
Frame Sizea Varied to Cover Large. Range. Most iHside shoulders and holes. Outside calipers have
micrometer heads are substantially the same in design typed-in legs for checking m s s the outside of
and cover a 1-in& range. To permit wide range shoulders or diameters of bar ahi id. Hermaphro-
memwement, the heads are fitted f o frames different
dite calipers, consisting of an inside caliper leg
in size by 1-inch hcxemenh. The tool is in common combined with a pointed dividw leg, are primarily
enough use in small sizes that the I-,2- and 3-inch layout tools rather khan measuring devices. Tele-
scoping gages are made up of deevm that can b e
micrometem (maximum 1lm;iB) rrre usually personal locked in poftion to carry an inside dimension such
tools of machine operators and mechanic^. as a hole diameter to a measuring device such as a
Large Mikes I3ifficult to Use. Larger sizes, usually micrometer.
up to 24 inches, although larger than this have been
Sine Bars or Tables for Accmak Angle Measure
built, are numally suppIied from a company tool crib
whm their use is required. The larger sizes are
ment. Angles may be me-aswedin a number a£ ways,
but one of the more precise methods used m y
naturally more difficult to position on work and to in the laboratory and tool room is by use of a sine
adjust with fie correct "feel.'" Thus, fkquently, some
bar, illwtrated in Figure 17-11. Sine bars are con-
other device will be used when long dimensim must
be accmkely measured.
Mikea are rugged tools and can stand some abuse
but &odd be accorded the careful treatment due a
pcision instrument. With d a t i v e ease, they can be
used for meamring t o accuracies of 0.001 inch;in the
case of vernier rnikles, they approach 0.0001 inch if
p r o p consideration is given to temperature and
pressure effects.
Other Applications. In addition do the outside
micrometer d e d b e d , the same prhciples are applied
in the making of inside mimometers and depth
micrometem for measurements and of various types
of positioning screw for accurate locating-type appli- Figure 17-11
cations. A bench-bype supermimomeEer is sometimes Sine bar
s h c t e d with accufately gmund m u d button5 either retm springs to keep backlash from conki-
5 or 10 inches apart. The bar can be positioned ivith e m r and of high quality b d n g supports p m d ?
wn angular position to match a workpiece. The dif- mdtivity permitting the indicator ta read a c a -
ference in button heights fiom the bwe plane, divided ratdy to within 1/10,000 inch. The majority of did
by five for the &inch bar and by ten 3m the 10-inch indicabxs are cdibmted in husandt-hs of inches, but
bar, provides a namb<erthat is the sine of b e angle of many, partic- in the larger diameters where the
the bar's position in relation to the base- A m t e dibrakim marks can be be* separated, axe cali-
~neasuwmenk of the butkotl height is frequently in lJ10,QOU inch. The majority af dial indi-
performed by use of gtq$ blocks. a t - operate over ranges from about 1/16 to 118
inch, but some 1- range types have been designed
INDICATING GAGBS AND COMPARATORS tcr cover as mu& aa I inch. Thwe are constructed
A w ~ n type
d of i m p e c h device is the indicating with an additiod hand to count the mdtiple rew-
is w d for &Wving $e&
gage ar c t r m p a d ~ r~~h k h
Idions of the main indicating hand.
tion from a h ~ i o n By , M m g the reading to a The majority of dial indimtors are used for
suitable reference, th-eae mes cam provide a h l u h measwhg dimasion diffamces without regard to
masum values. These devices require more skill than absolute values. Many spwial-purpose~~Xrave
the direct-&g inslmments f& setup. ante Set up, been designed far mpporiing dial indicatom for dif-
they may be US fa*,HIeasier, and frequently with ferent kinds of uses, Some are spcia-l attachments
des@ed to p d t contact to ke made with a surface
m t
e r ~~ than the b t type, Many also have
the advan- of being combinable for multiple d i f f ~ c u l tto reach. Some support a dial indicator In
measurements and thus provide even greater time such a way that it may be ysed for work that would
mving~.Most do, however, Rave a m w me&mhg ordinwily be done with a fixed gage. Others hold the
range for any setup. indicator so that it can be adjusM over a table where
Most indicating gages zuld comparators are quite it can be ued for making accurate cornparison meas-
sensitive, witb high mnplif3cation charackrbtica that urement.
m y be provided by mechanic& electrical, pneu- Mo Joint Losses in Reed Mechanisms. The med
matic, or optical sy~kms.They are used for corn- mechanism shorn in Figure 17-13 is another method
paring with known climenaions and mil31 master work- for amplifying small motions. brre mgke of com-
&ces and for checkhg pade&rn, concentricity, parator pg uses this type of mechanism to move a
and general cohformtance lm &ape small mirror. A light beam rqflectepl by this mirror to
Dial Indicators Have Many Applicatiom, The a calibrated scale is in effect a we-tless h m that
increases the amplification of mation atld provides
majority of mechanical-type comparators are of th*
extremely high &tivih and respame, permitting
&I indicator style shown in Figure 17-12.The~eare accurate xeaciing in the range of 0.25 micrm
constructed with I spindle that operates a raak gear in (i/ioo,oao inch).
contact with a system of gears which turn the
indicating hand over a caLihated dial. The use of Zgkt I&&icaZ Cages Permit Qose Measurement. Elec-
trical power is used far operation of both compm-

FIXED
I W K

Figure 17-12 Figure 17-13


Dial lndlsator type of snap gage Reed mechanism far rnwe'mentapptlcalion
184 Materials apd P ~ e forsHDT l'echology

bx-tYpe gages md limit gages. In the comparator


type, movement of the work calrtact point of the
gage from its zero or set pdcion produces unbalance
in the eXedxica1 system th& c m e ~current flaw
which can be read on-a meter caIibraCed as finely as
0.025 micron ~1/1,000,000 inch).
The & c h i d limit type of gage operates by the
action of extremely sensitive switches &at may be
p-t t o definite dimensions, T h e awikhes m y &en
be clonnwkd to operate signal lights, buzzers, or
~~lnbolS of gates in M& speed sorting opmtim.
~ e u m a t i c Gage Allow Nomontaqt Meas-
mat, Air gages fa?making cainpmtiw dimensional
Lb.muremnts are of two tgpes. In the pressme iiype,
a preaure sensing elemat indicates a d i m e n s i d
valere on a cdibrated scale as zl. result ofback pressure
built up from restriction of & flow -ugh the
p g h g head, I~Ithe flow type, an indicator button
floats on a column of & in a tapered glass tube, as six
at constant pressme flows through a flexible t u k and
out orlfims in &e gage head. The gages are usually set Figure 17-14
with m a h r workpieces m w i t h Limit gages that OpTical comparator projecttng a magnf7ted view of the
determine the limiting acceptance points, work silhouette on a gwund glass scram. Sultable for
Air gage a s made with different degrees of dimensional measurement as well as for checklng
amplification and d t i v i t y . Although they axe used shapes and relatlonshlps
@ i d y as b i t ~ g s a, strong indication of abo-
lute value is provided by the podtion of the indicator. discs, usually made of f m d quartz, c~nstrucklwith
Because air gage beads have some clemmce with the the two sides as pmxdlel a$ possible. The principle
surfaces they am designed t o measure, their life is upon which use of the optical Bat is based is inter-
quite long. They are especially satisfacbry for meas- fwomeby, ,a word used to indicate light wave inter-
uring materials that have abrasive ma tics or ference to produce identifiable Light and dark Isads,
for use around abrasive procwes such as grinding, as illustrated in Figure 17-15. Light waves &om a
h ow ,and lapping. monochromatic [single wavelength) light source are
Uptical Coqmatoxs Provide Edarged View of h m i t t e d through the optical fkt, which is set at a
Wurk Optical camparators are designed to show a dight aagle on the work surface. Part of the light will
reflected surface picture, or a prome image, of a be reflected from the lower surface of the optical flat.
w~rkpieceOD a frosted glass wreeln. Thh is accorn- Another part wiU pass t h i s surEace and continue on t o
plished by casting light against the &e of the IM reffeckd from the, work a d w e to rejoin the first
speoimen and projectimg its reflection through a part as both are reflected toward the r>bseTverasleye.
magnifying lens system onto a mirror, which Ln turn Depmdjng on the' dktances each set of waves
~ f l e c t sthe image to the glass screen, or by passing travel, same will be in phase and reinforce each other
light past the edge of the mrk to show its silhouette to form bright lines, while o t h m will be syt of phw,
at qontour (Figure 17-14).Most cmparatnors permif will inMere, and will camel each,other to pmduce
lens changing to vary the magnification £rum 10
p-owerto 100 p u w .
TEre enlarged image on the screen can be measured,
nbsemed visually for defects, or compared with en-
largd drawings, fFepmtly compl& with limiting
outlines, for inspec+ion purposes. The equipment is
especially useful for inpxtion of wmll, complicated
shapes that would be difficult -to examine carefully or
na- by other means, Multiple dimensions and
complex shapes can be quickly checked wiW this
depfce,
Optiaal Flats Used fbr F l a k or Len@ Memm
men& Another method of optical bpection Figure f 7-15
hvulves the use of o p t i d flats,. These are flat, char Llght wave interference
dark bands or C'fringes."Interference to form daxk satisfactory d t s ; ~onaequentlythey are hquently
finges d l occur as the thickness of the air wedge used as production gages.
between the optical flat md the work surface varies Most Are Special Production Gages. Most fixed
by onehalf wavelengths. The frequency of bands will gpges are single-purpose t o o h useful only for the
berefore depend upon the angle of the f l ~ and t the dimension fom which they have been set, although
wavelengths of the light being used. some of the standard types are adjustable and can be
Optical flats may be used for checlcing flatness of changed for o ~ e dimensions
r within a limited r a p .
surfaces because any deviation of the work surface Fked gages m y be designed to check dimensions,
being checked from the lower surface of the optical shapes, relationship, or, in some cases, combinations
flat results in a pattern of fringe bands. The shape and ofthese qualtities.
spacing of the bands can be used t o calculate accu- Pictured in Figure 17-17 are dome typ5cal fhed
rately the degree of difference between the surfaces. gages. Some, such as the plug gages and ring gages, ate
Optical flats can also be used for making measure go-not go gaga that are made with the two tolermce
ments as illustrated in Figure 17-16. In this mse, limits. Others, such as prowe gages, are a negative
I-inch working gage block A is being compared with shape of the part to be checked and may or may not
1-inch master block 3. Observation of the fringe be made t o both talerance limits, depending mainly
bands of block A in the top ~ e w shows three on the importance of the shape and size. Pro-ve
coxnplete bands iridimting that if a monochrumatie wes, such as a sequential series of increasing dia-
light source with a ow-half wavelength of 11.6 qehx plug$, came close to providing an absolute
microinches (0.0000116 inch) is being used, the measure by dividing the overall tolerance into a
optical flat is 3 x 11.6 or 3 4 8 microinches higher on number of maller increments, thw tying the dimen-
one edge than on the otker. By simple proportions, it sion down to a s m a l l r a p .
can then be calculated that block A is shorter than
block 3 by 3 x 34.8 or 104.4 microinches, and the
height of bIock A is 1.000000 - 0.000104 m
0.999896inch.
FIXED GAGES.
A third type of inspection tool is the fixed gage,

Figure 17-17
Flxed gages
Fixed Gage Tolerances Reduce Working m e .
Gages, like any other manufactured articles, must be
made t o tolerances permitting some dimensional
variation. These tolerances, naturally, must be srnaller
than the tolerances for the manufactured part on
which the gage is to be used, and are usually held to
Figure 17-16 between 10% and 20% of the part tolerance.
Work measurement with an opflcal flat Gages must also be designed with some wear
dlowmce so that they w-UJ not accept bad parb after
wkch is set to a limit of a dimension to establish a a short period of use. The wear allowance used is
maximum or minimum value or t o both limits to variable, depending on the conditions of gage use, the
enclose the tolerance range. This type of gage meas- precision of the product being inspected, and the gage
ures attributes only and provides very little infor- life desired. In h g e opemiions, it is common for two
mation regarding ab~01ut.emeasmment. F M gages sets of gages to be used, One set, cdled working
are fast to use and require little skill to produce gages, is made to the a b v e tolerrtncm and is wed by
196 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

the machine eperators to check the product as it is will reflect light to produce a polished appearance. A
being manufactured. The other set, inspection gages, random pattern of even smaller tool marks, such as
are made to approximately one-balf this tolerance, to might be made in a superfinishing operation, will not
reduce the chance of rejecting good parts. reflect light as well but will measure better, although
Where nnny gages of the same type are used, appearing to be of lower quality finish.
master gages are sometimes constructed. with toler- Finish and Dimensions Closely Related. A close
ances 10% of the working gage tolerance for checking relationship exists between surface finish and linear
the gages themselves. measurement. Most measuring procedures involve the
use of tools or instruments that physically contact
SURFACE FINISH the work surface and touch only on the high spots or
In addition to conformance to a general geometric peaks. A bearing surface might lose these peaks very
pattern, many applications require that a surface have quickly in use, and the large change of dimension that
high quality finish. would occur with a rough surface would cause the
Surface Variations of Different Frequency and original measurement to be meaningless. Good sur-
Type. Three kinds of irregularities may occur on a face finish is certainly called for whenever close tol-
surface. The one most evident is roughness, a term erances are required.
used to describe surface irregularities that are rela-
tively close together. Surface roughness is usually a SURF ACE FINISH MEASUREMENT
result of machining or other processing procedure The roughness of a surface is made up ot two qual-
that produces finely spaced irregularities. ities - the height and depth of irregularities, and the
A second surface fault is waviness, which refers to spacing between these. Most measurement methods
irregularities of 'wider spacing than those termed take both into consideration to some degree without
roughness. Waviness may be the result of warping, actually defining their relationship.
deflection, or springing while the workpiece is being Lay - the Direction of the Principal Marks or
worked upon, or the result of a tool movement Scratches. Most surfaces also will show different
pattern while the workpiece is being cut. roughness measurements and characteristics in dif-
The third fault is an irregularlity called a flaw or ferent directions. Measurements across the lay will in
imperfection, which is relatively infrequent and usual- general be much higher than those with the lay. Lay
ly randomly located. Flaws consist of such things as is the direction of the predominant surface pattern.
scratches, holes, ridges, and cracks. For example, a measurement across the lay on a piece
Surface Quality May Affect Function. The turned in a lathe would be taken parallel to the work-
quality of some surfaces can play an important part piece axis.
in their function. Both flat and rotating bearing Surface Comparison by a Variety of Meth-
surfaces must usually be relatively smooth to func- ods. Some surface quality measurements depend
tion properly and often have their maximum rough- upon comparison with standard samples displaying
ness quality specified on their drawings. measured and known roughness. Visual comparison is
Surface Marks Affect Fatigue Strength. Materials sometimes satisfactory but often may not be too
that are likely to be highly stressed in service, particu- accurate because of the effect of dirt, corrosion, and
larly by repeated or reversed load applications, may irregularity of pattern on appearance. Accuracy of
need good quality surface finish to reduce chances for the comparison can be considerably improved by
fatigue failure. Any surface irregularity or discon- scraping a fingernail across the surfaces, adding a
tinuity may be a point of stress concentration that sense of feel. A visual method of comparing optical
can serve as a source of fatigue failure. As a pre- projection through a plastic film that has been
caution, the highly polished wing surfaces for high pressed against the surfaces is also available. A film
performance aircraft are frequently covered with a softened by solvent takes on the surface irregularities
plastic coating for protection against nicks and and by its refraction effect on the projected light rays
scratches during manufacture because any marks on causes a third-dimension effect on the screen, making
the surface might be a source of wing failure during accurate comparisons possible.
flight. Electrical Instruments Most Common.' The
Appearance Important to Saleability. The effect majority of accurate surface quality measurements
of surface finish on appearance alone should not be are made with instruments that trace the work sur-
discounted. It is often the case that appearance is the face with a stylus, which in traveling over the hill5
only factor available for making a decision as to and valleys disturbs an electrical circuit to make a
whether or not to purchase a product. It should be reading possible. With some instruments, a pen is
noted, however, that finish quality and light reflective actuated to draw a magnified profile of the surface' on
ability are not necessarily synonymous. A newly fin-, a moving tape, in addition to a meter reading showing
ished clean surface with small, regularly spaced tool the average value of the surface traced. Other instru-
marks, particularly those made in a grinding process, ments show only the meter reading.
Inspection 197

SURFACE SPECIFICATION maximum permissible roughness. Waviness is shown


The specification of surface quality is indicated on above a horizontal crossbar on the check mark.
the drawing, as shown in Figure 17-18. A 60" check On the drawing should be a note indicating
mark is usually placed on the surface to which it whether the roughness value is total height, average
refers, although in some cases, it may be located on a height, or average deviation from the mean, either
witness line, or an arrow may be used to indicate the arithmetical or root mean square (RMS). It is most
WAVINESS common to show only maximum value figures, al-
HEIGHT \ though lower limits also may be indicated whenever
0,002 they are of value.
Following are the lay symbols used to indicate a
direction of measurement for which the figures in the
specification apply:
= - Parallel to the boundary line of the nominal sur-
face
-L - Perpendicular to the boundary line of the
nominal surface
Figure 17-18 X - Angular in both directions to the boundary line
Drafting symbol for surface quality of the nominal surface
M -Multidirectional
surface. A number representing the maximum per-
missible roughness is located inside the V of the C - Approximately circular relative to the center
check mark. On the right side of the check mark is R - Approximately radial relative to the center of
the nominal surface
the lay symbol indicating the direction in which
measurement should be made and the width of the
Index
Abrasives,150-51,175,176 Atomic structure, 15-16,31 Carbon steel, 50
aluminum oxide, 151 Austempering, 40 Carburizing, 138, 172-73
boron cubic nitride, 151 Austenite, 39 carbon diffusion, 172
diamond, 151 Austenitic stainless steel, 53 grain-size control, 173
silicon carbide, 151 Austenitization, 38-39, 100 casehardening, 172-73
Adhesive bonding, 157 Autoclave, 163 carburizing, 172
adherence, 161 flame hardening, 173
adhesives, 161 Cast aluminum, 60
Adhesive joining, 95 Bainite, 40 Cast iron, 47, 48
Age hardening, 37 Bar, 129, 130 chilled, 48
AISI numbers, 54-55 Basic oxygen steel, 49 ductile, 48
Allotropic charges, 37-38 Bend testing, 25 gray, 48
Alloy steels, 51 free bond test, 25 malleable, 48
low alloy AISI, 53 guided bend test, 25 white, 48
low alloy structured, 53 Bending, 18, 143-44 Cast steels, 54
Alloys, 45 forming, 144 Casting, 79-94, 148
aluminum, 58-60 Bessemer steel, 49 centrifugal, 93
cobalt, 65 Billets, 128,132 chaplets, 89
copper, 60-62 Blacksmithing, 134 chills, 86
eutectic, 82 Blast furnace, 46 cold shots, 85
magnesium, 64 Blasting, 175 cold shut, 85
nickel, 62 abrasive, 175 continuous, 93-94
noneutectic, 82 liquid honing, 175 cores, 89
zinc, 64 sand, 175 crystal growth, 84
Alumina, 163 shot, 175 design, 84-84
Aluminum, 37,58-59 shotpeening, 175 die, 91
castings, 60 steel grit, 175 flasks, 88
heat treatment, 58 Blooming mill, 129 foundries, 80
pure, 58 Blooms, 128 gating, 85
temper and heat-treat symbols, 60 Body-centered cubic lattice, 32, 33 hot spots, 84
wrought, 58 Bonding, 96 investment, 92
Aluminum alloys, 58-59 atomic, 96 melting equipment, 94
composition, 61 cold, 99 microshrinkage, 83
electrical conductivity, 61 flow, 97-99 mold, 80
general properties, 58-59 fusion, 96-97 patterns, 80, 88
properties, 61 pressure, 97 permanent, 91
uses, 61 Bonds plaster mold, 93
Aluminum-boron composites, 162 atomic, 136 plastics, 159
American Society for Metals Metats mechanical, 136 porosity, 83
Handbook, Vol. II, 3 Boring, 151 pouring, 85
American Society of Nondestructive Brass, 62 process, 80
Testing, 3, 120 composition, 63 risers, 86
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, 3 definition, 62 sand compaction, 88-89
Recommended Practice No, SNT-TC- properties, 63 sand inclusions, 85
1A,2 uses, 63 sand molding, 86-90
American Society for Testing and Ma- Braze welding, 98 shrinkage, 82-84
terials, 3 Breaking strength, 20 Cemented carbides, 139
American Welding Society, 3, 117 Brinell test, 26 Cementite, 39
Amorphous, 16 Bronze, 62 Centrifugal casting, 93
Annealing, 38, 39, 100, 138 composition, 63' centrifuge, 93
Anode, 44 definition, 62 semicentrifugal, 93
Arc cutting, 169 properties, 63 Ceramic coatings, 179
Arc welding, 108 Buffing, 176 Ceramics, 163
200 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Chaplets, 89 general properties, 61-62 Electric furnace steel, 49


Charpy test, 24-25 Cores, 89 Electrical discharge machining, 164-66
Chemical milling, 166-67 Corrosion, 4-5,40-44 electrodes, 164, 165
Chemical oxide coatings, 181 atmospheric, 42 Electrochemical machining, 166
Chills, 86 definition, 40 electrolytes, 166
Chromate coatings, 181 direct chemical action, 40-41 Electroforming, 168
Cleaning, 173 electrochemical,41-42 Electrolytic (electrochemical) reaction,
alkalines, 174 fretting, 43 41-42
buffing, 176 general, 42 Electromagnetic forming, 146
electropolishing, 176 intercrystalline, 43 Electron-beam welding, 111
mechanical, 174-75 pitting, 43 Electroplating, 180
pickling, 174 rate, 42 Electropolishing, 176
polishing, 176 season cracki ng, 43 Electroslag welding, 112
solvents, 174 stress, 43 Enamel, 177
vapor degreasing, 174 Corrosion protection, 43-44,174 Endurance limit, 23-24
water, 174 chemical compounds, 44 Engineering materials, 9
wire brushing, 175-76 metal coatings, 44 English measurement system, 190
Coatings, 176-80 nonmetallic coatings, 44 Equiaxed grai ns, 82
anodizing, 179, 180-81 Corrosion resistance, 116 Eutections, 82
brushing, 178 Creep, 4, 24 Explosion welding, 112-13
ceramics, 179 Creep strength, 24 Explosive forming, 145
chemical conversions, 180 Creep testing, 24 Extrusion, 132-33
chromate, 181 Crucible, 94 nonferrous materials, 133
corrosion protection, 176 Crucible steel, 48 plastics, 159
dipping, 178 Crystal growth, 33, 81
drying, 178 Crystal lattices, 32 Face-centered cubic lattice, 32-33
effects on friction, 177 body-centered cubic, 32, 33 Facing, 151
electroplating, 180 face-centered cubic, 32, 33, 124 Fatigue failure, 23, 125
electrostatic spraying, 178 hexagonal closed-packed, 32, 33 Fatigue strength, 24, 196
enamel, 177 Cupola, 94 Fatigue testing, 23-24
galvanizing, 179 Cupping, 132 Ferrite, 39
lacquer, 178 Cutting tools, 150-51 Ferritic stainless steel, 53
metal spraying, 179 carbon tool steel, 150 Ferrous materials, 46-47
metallizing, 179 cast nonferrous alloys, 150 ore reduction, 46-47
oxide, 181 cemented carbides, 150 Fiberglass composites, 162
paint, 177 ceramics or cermets, 150 Filler, 97
phosphate, 181 coated tool materials, 150 Finish, 154
plating, 177, 179 diamonds, 150 imperfections, 154
porcelain, 178 high speed steel, 150 lay, 154
preparation for, 177 roughness, 154
spraying, 178 waviness, 154
Decarburization, 126 Finishing
vacuum metallizing, 179
Defects, 5, 116-20, 129 abrasive barrel, 175
varnish, 177
elongated, 123 blasting, 175
vitreous enamels, 179
porosity, 137 buffing, 176
Cobalt alloys, 65 Deformation, 122-25, 127, 128, 133, 136-
Coining, 138 electropolishing, 176
37, 141 polishing, 176
Cold finishing, 129-30
Dendrites, 81 Flame hardening, 173
Cold pressing, 137
Dendritic microporosity, 125 Flasks, 88
Cold shut, 85
Die casting, 64, 91-92 cope, 88
Cold work, 35, 122, 125-26, 129 cold chamber, 91
Collapsability, 89 drag, 88
hot chamber, 91 Flow growth, 4, 6, 7
Columnar grains, 82 Die set, 142
Composite materials, 139, 162 Flow rate, 122
Dies, 126. 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, Forging, 133-39
aluminum-boron, 162
137, 142 blacksmith, 134
fiberglass, 162
graphite, 137 closed die, 133, 134
graphite, 162
Diffusion welding, 113 drop, 135
honeycomb, 162-63 Direction effects, 122-23
laminates, 162 hammer. 134
Discontinuities, 5 hand, 134
Composites, 162
Drawbench, 130 manual, 134
Compression testing, 21
Drawing, 40,135,144 open die, 133, 134
Computers, 156 shell, 144
Concentration cells, 42 press, 135
Drilling, 151 roll,135
Concrete, 163
Ductility, 21,125,126,128,141,143 Forming, 144
Continuous casting, 93-93, 129
. Dynamic loads, 4 electromagnetic, 146
Control charts, 186
Copper, 62 explosive, 145
corrosion resistance, 62 Elastic deformation, 19 high energy rate, 145
Copper alloys, 60-62 Elastic failure, 123 inductive-repulsive, 146
brass, 62 Elastic limit, 4, 34, 36, 122, 125, 142 roll,144
bronze, 62 Elastomers, 163 stretch, 144
Foundries, 80 nondestructive testing, 185 Martensite, 39, 101
Foundry mechanization, 94 receiving, 184 Martensitic stainless steel, 53
Fracture control, 6-8 sampling, 185 Material failures, 3-6, 18,28-29
nondestructive testing, 6-7 Inspection equipment, 190-91 causes, 4-5
Fracture failure, 123 Inspection reliability, 7 definition, 4
Fracture mechanics, 7 nondestructive testing, 7 fatigue failure, 4, 23
critical plain strain stress intensity, 7 Interchangeability, 10 fracture, 4
fracture toughness, 7 Investment casting, 92 permanent deformation, 4
plane strain, 7 Iron, 37-38, 42 progressive failure, 4
stress intensity, 7 body-centered cubic, 124, 125 Material identification systems, 54-55
Fretting, 43 lzod test, 25 Material testing, 18
Friction, 177 destructive, 18
Friction sawing, 169 Knoop numbers, 28 direct, 18
Friction welding, 112 indirect, 18
Lacquers, 118 nondestructive, 18
Gage blocks, 190 Laminates, 162-63 standardized tests, 19
Galvanic cells, 42 Laser, 167 Materials, 11-12
Galvanic series, 40-41 Lay, 154, 196 atomic structure, 16
Gas metal-arc welding, 109 Liquid honing, 175 chemical properties, 16
Gas tungsten-arc welding, 108 Loading systems, 17 mechanical properties, 16
Gas tungsten wire welding, 109 bending loads, 18 nonferrous, 124
Grain boundaries, 33 load compression, 17 physical properties, 16
Grain growth, 124 load reversal, 17 processing properties, 16
Grain size, 33, 124-25 tensile load, 17 properties, 11,15-29
Grain-size control, 36, 38 Lost wax process, 92 Mean, 186
Graphite composites, 162 Low alloy AISI steels, 53 Measurement, 187
Green sand, 87 Low alloy structural steels, 51, 53 air gages, 194
Grinding, 151 attributes, 189
Machinability, 153-54 comparators, 193-95
Hammer forging, 129 Machine tools, 151-53 contact pressure, 189
Hardening, 138 boring, 151 dial indicators, 193
Hardness testing, 25-28 broaches, 151 dimensions, 187
Brinell, 26 drill press, 151 electrical gages, 193-94
File test, 26 grinders, 151 English system, 190
Knoop, 28 planers, 151 error, 187
microhardness, 28 shapers, 151 fixed gages, 195-96
Mohs test, 25-26 straight line, 151 gage blocks, 190
Rockwell, 26-27 turning, 151 gaging, 189
superficial, 27 Machining, 147 human element, 189
Vickers, 27 abrasive, 150-51 indicating gages, 193-95
Heat- and corrosion-resistant alloys, boring, 151 length standard, 190
64-65 broaching, 151 metric system, 190
Heat treatment, 138 chip formation, 148 micrometer caliper, 191-92
aluminum, 37, 58 chip types, 149 optical comparators, 194
annealing, 38, 39 cutting tools, 148, 150 optical flats, 194
austentizing, 38-39 defects, 150 parallax, 188
control, 38 drilling, 151 pneumatic gages, 194
nondestructive testing, 38 finish, 154 sine bars, 192-93
normalizing, 38, 39 grinding, 151 standards, 189
precipitation, 37 lapping, 151 steel rules, 191
solution, 37 machinability, 153 surface finish, 196
spheroidizing, 38, 39 milling, 151 temperature effects, 189
steel,38 numerical control, 154-56 tolerances, 187
Heating planing, 151 variation, 188-89
electrical resistance, 110-11 shaping, 151 Vernier caliper, 191, 192
Hexagonal close-packed lattice, 32, 33 smear, 150 Melting equipment, 94
Honeycomb, 162-63 surface finishes, 147 crucible furnaces, 94
Hot pressing, 137 tool, 148 cupola, 94
Hot rolling, 128-29 tool motion, 148 electric arc furnaces, 94
continuous, 129 turning, 151 induction furnaces, 94
Hot working, 125-26 Macroporosity, 83, 125 pot furnaces, 94
Magnesium alloys, 64 reverbatory furnaces, 94
Inductive-repulsive forming, 145 Magnetostriction, 167 Metallic structures, 32-33
Ingots, 124, 125, 128, 129 Manual welding, 108 Metallizing, 179
Injection molding, 159 Manufacturing, 73-78 Metallurgy
Inspection, 12, 13, 183-97 definition, 9 powder, 135-36
control charts, 186-87 history, 10 welding, 99-101
final,185 markets, 74 Metals, 135
first-piece, 184 processes, 75-76 body-centered cubic, 136
in-process, 184 Martempering, 40 face-centered cubic, 136
202 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Metals (cant.) supervisory personnel, 2 definition, 67


failure, 123 symbols, 120 films, 159
nonferrous, 57-65, 124 thermo-electric, 38 properties, 68, 160-61
processing, 75-76 thickness control and measurement. reinforced, 159
refractory, 138 142 synthetic, 68
rolling, 128 ultrasonic testing, 33,44,53,82,124, thermoplastic, 67. 69-70, 158, 159.
sheet,141-46 125,132, 134, 142, 167 160, 161
solidification, 80-82 ultrasonic thickness gage, 130 thermosetting, 67-68.158,159
Metric system, 190 for weldments, 97 Plate, 129
Micrometer caliper, 191-92 Nonferrous alloys, 64-65 Plating
Microporosity, 83 corrosion-resistant, 64-65 electroplati ng, 180
Microshrinkage, 83 heat-resistant, 64-65 hot dip, 179-80
Millwork, 128-33 Nonferrous metals, 57-65 Polishing, 176
Misruns, 85 alloying with iron, 58 Polymerization, 67
Modulus of elasticity, 20 applications, 66-67 Polymers, 67
Mold, 80, 89-90 characteristics, 66-67 Porcelain. 179
dry sand, 90 corrosion resistance, 58 Porosity, 83
floor and pit, 90 zinc, 58 Portland cement. 163
green sand, 89-90 Normal distribution, 186 Powder metallugry, 135-36
metal, 90 Normalizing, 38, 39 cemented carbides, 138
shell,90 Notched bar testing, 24 compacting, 137
Molding plastic, 157 Charpy test, 24-25 composite materials. 139
closed die, 157 Izod test, 25 density, 137
compression, 157 Numerical control, 154-56 heat treatments. 138
injection, 157 Nylon, 68 impregnation, 138
transfer, 157 machinability, 138
Monomer, 67 Open-hearth furnace, 49 postsintering. 138
Open-hearth steel, 48-49 pressing, 136-37
Nickel, 62 Operating characteristic curve, 185 refractory, 138
Nickel alloys, 62, 65 Oxidation, 126, 129 . sintered bearings. 138-39
composition, 63 Oxyacetylene welding, 106 sintering, 136, 137-38
corrosion resistance, 62 Precipitation, 37
properties, 63 Parallax, 188 Precipitation hardening. 138
uses, 63 Pattern, 80 Pressworking
Nitriding, 138 Patternmaker's shri nkage, 84 bending, 142, 143-44
Nondestructive testing, 5,18,123, 128, Pearlite, 39, 101 deformation, 142
185 Percussive welding, 107 drawing, 142. 144-45
acoustic emission monitoring, 35, 44 Permanent deformation, 143 forming, 144
for brazing, 98 Permeability, 89 shearing, 142
chemical spot tests, 60 Phase changes, 37 sheet metal, 141-46
for corrosion detection, 44 Phosphate coatings, 181 stretch forming, 145
definition, 1 Pickling, 129, 174 Process annealing, 36
demonstration programs, 8 Piercing mill, 132 Processes, 12
in design, 75 Pig, 47 adhesive bonding, 161
eddy current tests, 25, 38, 39, 44, 58, Pig iron, 47 arc cutting, 169
6~ 126, 132, 133, 142, 172, 179, 189 Pipe, 130 bending, 143-44
electrical conductivity testing, 60 roll welding, 130-31 carburizing, 172
fluoroscopic, 132, 138 spiral-welded, 131 casting, 79-94
of forgings, 133-34 Plasma-arc welding, 11 chemical milling, 166-67
of honeycomb, 163 Plaster mold casting, 93 cleaning, 173
information sources, 2 Plastic deformation, 34-35,123 cold finishing, 130
magnetic particle, 39,44,53, 134 cold work, 35 deformation, 121. 123. 148
magnetic rubber, 44 fibering, 35 drawing, 144-45
for maintenance, 126 rotational, 35 electrical discharge machining, 164
in manufacturing, 78 slip, 34-35 electrochemical machinery, 166
neutron radiography, 44 twinning, 35 electroforming. 168
penetrant, 39, 44,64,93, 134, 136, Plastic flow, 19,34,121-26,137.142, electromagnetic forming, 146
142,178,179,181 149 explosive forming. 145
ofpipe,132 Plastic processing. 157-61 extrusion, 132-33
of pipe and tubing, 130 casting, 159 flame hardening. 173
powdered metal purpose, 136 closed die molding, 157-59 forging, 133-39
purpose of, 6 compression molding, 157, 158 forming, 143
qualification and certification of extrusion, 159 friction sawing, 169
personnel, 2 injection molding, 158-59 hot rolling, 128
radiation thickness gage, 130 postforming, 160 machining, 147-48
radiography, 33, 44, 64, 82, 89, 93, reinforced plastic molding, 159-60 plastic molding, 157
124,132,135,138 transfer molding, 158-59 powder metallurgy, 135-36
of seamless tubing, 132 Plastics, 65, 67-71 pressworking, 141-46
of sheet metal, 142 cellulose, 68 roll forming, 144
spectrographic analysis, 44 characteristics, 69-71 shape-changing, 76-78
Index 203

Processes (cont.) Sprue, 80 Symbols


shearing, 142-43 Stainless steel, 51, 53-54, 65 nondestructive testing, 120
spinning, 145 austenitic, 53, 124 welding, 114-15
,stretch forming, 144 composition, 55 Synthetic plastics, 68
surface finishing, 171 corrosion resistance, 53
torch cutting, 168-69 ferritic,53 Tempering, 40
ultrasonic machinery, 167 martensitic, 53 Tensile impact test, 25
welding, 95-103 properties, 55 Tensile testing, 19
Proof testing, 6, 7 uses, 55 specimens, 19
Properties Standard deviation, 186 Testing
mechanical, 125-26 States of matter, 32 bend,25
Punch, 142 Statistical analyses compression. 21
detection probability, 7 creep, 24
Quality control, 183 level of confidence, 7 fatigue, 23-24
Steel, 46, 47-54 hardness, 25-28
Recovery,35 AISI basic classification, 55 n01ched bar, 24-25
Recrystallization, 35-37, 100, 116, 122. alloy, 51 shear, 23
124,125,126.128,137,138.144 basic oxygen, 49 transverse rupture, 22
theory, 36 bessemer, 48, 49 Thermoplastic plastics, 67, 69-70
Recrystallization temperatures, 36 carbon content. 47 Thermosetting plastics, 67-68. 71
Recrystallize, 137 carburizing, 172 Tolerances, 188
Reinforced plastic molding, 159-60 casehardening, 172 basic dimensions, 188
autoclave molding, 140 cast, 54 unders100d tolerances, 88
compression molding, 160 composit ion, 51 Tool and die steels, 54
contact layup, 160 corrosion resistance, 51 chromium, 54
vacuum bag molding. 160 crucible, 48 manganese, 54
Resilience, 21 electric furnace, 49 Torch cutting, 168-69
Risers, 86 grain size. 51 Toughness, 21
Rockwell test, 27-28 hardenability, 51 Transfer molding, 158-59
Roll forming, 144 hardening, 39-40 Transformation, 125-25
Rotational deformation, 35 heat treatment, 38 Transformation temperature. 124
Rubber. 163 high steel, 51 Transition temperature, 4
Runners, 80 low carbon, 50-51 Transverse temperature, 4
medium carbon, 51 Transverse rupture testing, 22
SONcurve, 23 open-hearth. 48 Triple point, 32
Sacrificial metals, 41 pickling, 40 True stress-true s1rain, 21
Safety, factors of, 5, 6. 28-29 tool and die, 54 Tube, 130
Sand, 86 toughness, 51 Tube and pipe making, 130-32
Sand compaction, 88-89 weldabili1y, 51 Tubing
Sand molding, 86-90 Steel making, 48-50 extruded,132
green sand, 87 Steel sheet resistance welded, 131
procedure, 86-87 cold-finished, 125 seamless, 132
Scarfing, 129, 168 Strain hardened, 122 Tukon microhardne'ss tester. 28
Seamless tubing, 132 Strain hardening, 125 Turning, 151
Season cracking, 43 Strain rate, 122 Twinning deformation, 35
Segregation,82 Stress, 17
dendritic, 82 compressive, 18, 125, 128 Ultimate strength, 20, 21
ingot-type, 82, 125 normal, 17 Ultrasonic machining, 167
Sheet, 129, 130 shear, 17, 132, 142, 149 finishes, 167
Sheet metal, 145 tensile, 17 transducer, 167
Shot peening, 175 unit, 17 Ultrasonic welding, 112
Shrinkage, 82-84 Stress-strain diagram, 19 Upsetting, 135
Shrinkage cavities, 125 Stress corrosion, 43
Sintering, 136, 137-38 St ress risers, 4 Vacuum metallizing, 179
Skelp, 130 Stress rupture strength, 24 Varnish, 177
Slabs, 128 Strip, 129, 130 Vernier, 192
Slag, 46, 47-48, 108,125 Stud welding, 107 Vickers test, 28
Slip deformat ion, 34-35 Sublimation, 32 Vitreous enamels, 179
Slitting. 142, 143 Submerged arc welding, 109
Soldering, 98-99 Superheat, 83, 85 Waviness, 154
Solid-state bonding, 113 Surface finish, 125,196-97 Weld defects, 116-20
Solidification. 33, 84-85 flaws. 196 Weld joints, 113-15
directional, 84 measurement, 196 butt joints, 114
progressive, 84 roughness. 196 corner joints, 114
Solidification of metals, 80-82 waviness. 196 edge joints, 114
Solidification shrinkage. 83 Surface finishing. 171-97 lap joints, 114
Solution heat treatment. 37 casehardening, 172 tee joints, 114
Space lattice, 32 Surface specification, 197 Weldability, 115-16
Spheroidizing, 38, 39 symbols, 197 Welding, 95-103,148
Spinning, 38, 39 Swaging, rotary, 134 angular distortion, 102
204 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Welding (cant.) projection, 110 inclusions, 100-118


automatLc, 109-10 resistance, 110, 131 incomplete fusion, 118
base material, 100-101 restraints, 102 joints, 113-15
defined, 95 reverse polarity, 107 lap, 131
diffusion, 113 seam, 110 porosity, 118
distortions and,stresses, 101-3 shielding gases, 108 postcracking, 103
electric arc, 106-7 spot, 110 postheating. 103
electrodes, 107-8 straight polarity, 107 profile, 117
electron-beam, 11 stud, 107 residual stresses, 102
electroslag, 112 submerged arc, 109, 131 slag and oxides, 100
explosion, 112-13 symbols, 114-15 surface irregularities, 119
filler, 97, 100, 108 ultrasonic, 112 undercut. 118-19
forge, 106 Welding bell, 130 warping, 117
friction, 112 Welding defects, 116-20 Weldment, 95
fusion, 96-96,117 corrosion resistance. 101, 116 Wire brushing, 175
gas metal-arc, 108 cracking, 101 Work hardened, 122
gas shielding, 107 cracks, 119 Work hardening, 34, 122
gas tungsten-arc, 108 crater cracks, 119 Wrought aluminum, 59
gas tungsten wire, 109 dimensions, 117 Wrought iron, 47-48
lateral distortion, 102 dissolved and entrapped gases
manual, 108 99-106
X (mean), 186
metallurgy, 99-101 distortion, 116
oxyacetylene, 106 double vee. 117
percussive, 107 fillet. 117 Yield point, 20
plasma-arc, 11 fusion zone, 101 Yield strength, 20
post treatment, 101 grain structure, 100 Young's modulus, 20
preheating, 101 heat-affected zone, 119
pressure, 97 inadequate joint penetration, 118 Zinc alloys, 64

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