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L3 Process Technology PDF
L3 Process Technology PDF
L3 Process Technology PDF
Continuing
Education
In Nond~structive
3>k
Publication and review of this text was under the direction of the-personnelTraining and CertZication Committee
of the American Society for Nondesmctive Testing:
Contributors:
Donald R. Kibby
Dr. Robert C. McMaster
Dr. Vernon L.Stokes
Published by
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711Arlingate Lane
PO Box 28518
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
Copyright 8 1981 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASMT is not responsible for the
authenticity or aumacy of information herein.Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the
opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recom-
mendation of ASNT.
IRRSP, Level 111 Sh.idy Guide, Matemis Evaluation, NDT Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Han&ook, The NDT
Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing,Inc. ACCP,
ASNT, Resemh in Non&shuctive Evaluation and W E are registered trademarks of The American Society for
Nondestructive Testmg, Inc.
ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testjng.
ISBN: 1-931403-065
Printed in the United States of America '
CHAPTER
1 RELATION OF NDT TO
MANUFACTURING 1
NONDIESTRU~IVE!TESTING: NDT Defini-
tion. REQUIREMENTS FOR NDT SUPER-
VISORY PERSONNEL. QUALIFICATION
AND CERTIFICATION OF NDT LEVEL I11
TESTING PERSONNEL: Swrces of Technical
Information Available to NDT Personnel.
MANUFACTURING: MATERIALS AND
PROCESSES: Material Failures, Purpose for
Use of MDT. NDT IN FRACTURE CON-
TROL.
2 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACRJRING
TECHNOLOGY 9
History. INDUSTRIAL RELATIONSHIPS:
Competition in Industry. Personnet Nomencla-
ture. SUBJECT MATI'F,R: Materials. Re
cesses. Economics. Order.
3 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 15
INTRODUmION: Classes of Properties. Sig-
nificance of Properties of Design. LOADING
SYSTEMS AND MATERIAL FAILURE:
Loading Systems. TESTING: The Tensile Test.
True Stress-True Strain. Compression Testing.
Transverse Rupture Testing. Shear Testing. Fa-
tigue Testing. Creep Testing. Notched Bar
Testing. Bend Testing. Hardness Testing. Fac-
tor of Safety.
Relation of NDT to
Manufacturing
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
NDT DEFINITION
Like most complex procedures, NDT is not definable
by a few simple words. Nondestructive testing is nor-
mally interpreted to mean the use of physical methods
for testing materids and -products without harm to
those materials and products. Many inspection proce-
dures such as dimensional measurements, visual. exam-
ination for completeness, functional tests. and others,
although required in a manufacturing process, are not
normally considered part of a NDT program.
Nondestructive Tests Are Always Indirect. It is
frequently important b know a property or character-
istic of a material or product which, if tested directly,
would be destructive. Therefore it becomes necessary
to perform a nondestructive test on some property or
&aracteristic which can be related to that about which
knowledge is desired. The test may be very simple in
some cases, but in others may be complex and difficult.
However, in every case, reliable correlation must be es-
tablished between the desired property and the mea-
sured property (or properties),
Correlation M a y Be Costly And Difficult. Analysis
t o provide accurate knowlege of the relation between a
testable quality and one which cannot be tested direct-
ly without destruction is likely t o require a great
amount of knowledge, skill, and background experi-
ence together with g o d judgement which, in a broad
sense, can be described as an instinctive knowledge of
the laws of statistical probability.
Properties of 3
Materials
INTRODUCTION
facturing processes must still be defined and of manufacturing process. Neither iron nor aluminum
measured by empirical test for each material. in the pure state has many applications in manufac-
turing because their strengths are low, but their
alloys, particularly iron alloys, are the most common-
ly used of all metals. Both of these materials can be
strengthened over their weakest forms by factors of
almost ten by suitable alloying and treatment, with
alloys of iron being approximately five times as
strong as those of aluminum on a volume basis.
Processing Properties. As pointed out at the
beginning of the chapter, the properties that have
been discussed are actually dependent on the atomic
IRON ALUMINUM
structure of a material, but in practice these proper-
Figure 3-1
ties must be separately measured. In a simiJar way,
Atomic structure different properties that are related to hardness,
strength, ductility, and other physical and mechanical
CLASSES OF PROPERTIES properties and that are frequently of even greater
The application to which a material is put deter- importance to manufacturing must in practice be
mines which of its properties are most important. defined by separate tests. These include tests for
Chemical Properties. The chemical properties castability, weldability, machinability, and bending
(reaction with other materials) are of interest for all that describe the ability of the material to be proc-
material mainly because of the almost universal need essed in definite ways. Tests of this type may be
for resistance to corrosion. Although aluminum is developed at any time there is need for determining
chemically more active than iron, in most atmos- the ability of the material to meet critical needs of
pheres the corrosion by products of aluminum form a processing, and they are usually performed under
denser coating, which acts as a shield to further corro- conditions very similar to those under which the
sion, than do the corrosion byproducts of iron. process is performed.
While the atomic and crystalline structure of all
metals gives them high electrical and thermal conduc-
tivity compared to nonmetals, individual metals still SIGNIFICANCE OF PROPERTIES TO DESIGN
differ considerably. Aluminum is among the best A designer is necessarily interested in properties
electrical conductors, while iron, although much because he must know material strengths before he
more conductive than nonmetals, is a poor conductor can calculate sizes and shapes required to carry loads,
compared to aluminum. On the other hand, the chemical properties to meet corrosive conditions, and
magnetic properties of iron make it much more desir- other properties to satisfy other functional require-
able for some electrical uses than aluminum. ments. Knowledge of processing properties is likely to
Physical Properties. Physical properties for each be of more importance to manufacturing personnel
material are constants associated with the atomic than to the designer, although even he must be able
structure. These properties include density (weight to choose material that can be manufactured in a
per unit volume), crystalline type, atomic spacing, reasonably economical manner. Many manufacturing
specific heat, cohesive strength (theoretical), and problems arise from choice of materials based only
melting point. Iron has a much higher melting point on functional requirements without considering
and density than aluminum. Iron is allotropic, mean- which is the most suitable for the processing required.
ing it can exist in several different crystalline struc- Similar results can occur when inspectability has not
tures as opposed to aluminum, which always exists in been given proper consideration in design.
single crystalline pattern. This difference makes pos- Material Choice a Compromise. Most products
sible, for iron-based alloys, methods of property con- can be manufactured from a number of different pos-
trol by heat treatment that are not possible for alumi- sible materials that will satisfy the functional require-
num. Some aluminum-based alloys may be heat ments. However, some are more desirable from the
treated for property control, but the reaction is entire- product standpoint than others, and one particular
ly different. material may have the best possible combination of
Mechanical Properties. Of most interest to man- properties. Likewise, all materials can be manu-
ufacturing are the mechanical properties of hardness, factured by some means, although costs of manufac-
strength, and oth~rs that are of prime importance in turing will vary, and there will likely be one single
design considerations. for determining sizes and shapes material from which a usable product could be manu-
necessary for carrying loads. These qualities will also factured at lowest cost. Seldom can a material be
determine the work loads for any deformation type chosen that has optimum properties for both the
Properties of Materials 17
product and thp mamlfacturillg, so the majority of written as a formula, s = PIA. Because in this case the
material choices turn <)ut to be compromises. The applied force is a pulling force or tensile force, the
final choice may be a result of trial and error tests internal loads are tensile stresses CSt), and the formula
among several possible best materials and processes. may be written St = PIA.
New choices may be required with changes of design, Reversal of the external load P would cause the
material availability, processes, or market demand. internal stress to be compressive instead of tensile.
LOADING SYSTEMS AND MATERIAL FAILURE The unit stress on any plane x - x perpendicular to
the line of force would then be calculated from the
LOADING SYSTEMS
formula Sc = PI A.
Physical loading of material is a result of applying Shear Stresses. Tension and compression, forces
force under one or more simple, basic loading sys- and their resulting stresses are always considered to
tems. In nearly all cases, even when a piece is loaded act normally, or perpendicular, to a plane. A third
by only a single set of outside forces, the internal term, shear stress, is used to describe the effect of
loads developed are more complex than those ap- forces that act along, or parallel to, a plane. No provi-
plied. However, in many testing procedures this sion has been made for describing forces meeting a
complexity is disregarded, and the forces are treated plane at an angle. Because, however, an infinite num-
as though they are uniform thoughout the material. ber of planes may be of interest, it becomes necessary
Stresses. Internal forces, acting upon imaginary to resolve the stresses to various angle:; to determine
planes cutting the body being loaded, are called critical values and positions. Figure 3-3 illustrates a
stresses. For purposes of ease in understanding and bar, similar to that of Figure 3-2, with tensile load
comparison, stresses are usually reduced to unit stress being applied to the end. As already illustrated, ten-
by assuming that the force acts uniformly over the sile stresses, and tensile stresses only, are set up on
cross-sectional area under consideration. The load- any imaginary plane x - x perpendicular to the line
per-unit area can then be calculated by dividing the of force. If, however, a plane not perpendicular to the
total load or force by the area on which it acts. The line of force is examined, it can be seen that a differ-
common units used for measurement and description ent situation exists. The imaginary plane z -z is at any
in the United States are pounds for force and square angle</>.The area cut by the imaginary plane z-z is
inches for area, so unit stress becomes pounds per equal to the area of the plane x- x multiplied by the
square inch (psi) or when dealing with large figures, secant of the angle rp. Therefore, the unit shear stress
thousands of pounds per square inch (kips/in2 ). IS
With the changeover to the international metric
system of measurement, the units for stress become Ss - P sin 4> - P .
newtons per square meter (pascals) in which a newton
A sec </> - A SIn rp cos rp
_J!. .
is equal to approximately 0.2248 pounds of force - 2A SIn 2 rp
(poundals). Conversion of kips/in2 involves multipli-
cation by the factor 6.894757 to obtain megapas.cals
(MPa). Approximate conversion can be accomplished
by use of the multiplying factor 7.
Normal Stresses. Figure 3-2 represents a bar sub- ~ //
[
Figure 3-2 If, in the preceding case, the external load were
Simple loading compression instead of tension, shear stress would
18 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
have been developed to the same magnitude and in cerned with a product, a process, or both. Direct test-
the same way but opposite in direction and combined ing is usually time-consuming, and, for the results to
with compressive stress instead of tensile stress. Shear have statistical significance, often requires compila-
stress exists alone only in a bar subjected to pure tion of data from many test samples. The procedure
torsion, that is, a bar being twisted with no tension, is necessary, however, for those cases in which simp-
compression, or bending present. Shear stresses are ler methods are not available and in which sufficient
important to our manufacturing processes because historical information has not been accumulated to
these are the forces that cause material to shift in permit correlation between the attribute about which
plastic flow and permit shape changing by deforma- information is desired and some other measurable
tion processes. factor.
Bending. Bending loads create a combination of Indirect Testing. Indirect testing involves the use
stresses. The concave side of a bent body will be in of such a correlation, such that accurate knowledge
compression and the convex side in tension with of the relationship between the two factors must
transverse shear occurring along the axis between exist. The ability of grinding wheels to resist the
them. The maximum unit stress will be in the outer
centrifugal forces imposed in use is directly tested by
fibers of the bent body and is represented by the rotating them at higher speeds than those of actual
formula Sb = Mc/I where. M equals bending moment, use. Such a test indicates that the wheel strength is
c equals distance from neutral axis, and I equals sufficient for normal use with some safety margin. An
moment of inertia of the body. indirect test that is sometimes used for the same
Effects of Stresses. The principal' point to be purpose can be performed by rapping a suspended
made in this discussion of forces and stresses is that wheel to cause mechanical vibrations in the sonic
structural designs must be of suitable size and shape range. A clear tone indicates no cracks. A danger of
and must be made of material with proper strength indirect testing is that the conclusions depend on the
values to withstand the loads imposed upon them. assumption that the correlation betweAn the meas-
When a structural member (almost any object) is ured factor and the critical factor exists under all
physically loaded by weight, by pressure from conditions. The rapping test for grinding wheels does
mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic sources, by not give any real indication of strength, unless knowl-
thermal expansion or contraction, or by other means, edge of the wheel's history permits the assumption
internal stresses are set up in the member. The size, that with no cracks it has sufficient strength for use.
direction, and kind of stresses are dependent upon
the loading system. The magnitude of the unit Destructive Testing. A large number of direct
stresses will be dependent not only upon the applied tests are destructive. These also are dangerous because
force but also upon the area of material resisting the the assumption must be made that those materials
stresses. As loads are increased, unit stresses will not tested are like the ones for which test informa-
increase to the point where, in some direction, one or tion has been obtained. A portion of weld bead may
more reach critical values in relation to the material. be examined for quality by sectioning it to look for
Failure by plastic flow or by fracture can then be voids, inclusions, penetration, bond, and metallurgical
expected, depending upon which critical values are structure by visual examination. By this 0peration,
reached first. In nearly all cases of fracture failure, this portion of the bead has been destroyed; regard-
the separation of material is preceded by at least a less of the quality that was found, the only knowl-
small amount of plastic flow. In those cases in which edge acquired about the remaining portion of the
plastic flow occurs to a large degree, fracture failure weld comes from an assumption that it is similar to
will finally result. that examined because it was made under the same
conditions.
TESTING
Testing of material is essential to gain practical Nondestructive Testing. In addition to the nondes-
knowledge of how materials react under various situa- tructive feature, these tests almost entirely are indi-
tions. The ultimate goal of any test is to enable the rect tests that require first, correlation with the de-
making of decisions that provide the best economic fects that are being sought, and second, expert evalua-
results. In practice, two general methods of testing tion or interpretation of the evidence that is gathered.
are used. Nondestructive tests may be for faults and discontin-
Direct Testing. The only test that supplies abso- unities located on either the surface or internally and
lute information about a workpiece or a material is a may be performed before, during, and after the
test of the particular property of interest conducted manufacturing process.
on that part itself. In this method of direct testing, an These tests are performed by (1) exposing the prod-
attempt is made to use the materials under the exact uct material to some kind of probing medium {radia-
conditions of practical use, and the test may be con- tion energy, sonic energy, magnetic and electrical
20 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
mations in the elastic range, nd as long as the load at closer and closer together until there is no detectable
B is not exceeded, the material will resume its original difference.
position and shape after removal of the load. B is the Yield Point and Yield Strength. Many materials
elastic limit for this particular material, and loads do not have a well-defined or reproducible yield
above that limit will cause permanent deformation point. Plotting of tensile stress-strain values produces
(plastic flow) that cannot be recovered by removal of a curve of the type shown in Figure 3-7. For these
the load. At the load represented by the point at C, materials, an artificial value similar to the yield point,
plastic flow is occurring at such a rate that stresses are called yield strength, may be calculated. The yield
being relieved faster than they are formed, and strain strength is defined as the amount of stress required to
increases with no additional, or even with a reduction produce a predetermined amount of permanent
of, stress. The unit stress at C is known as the yield strain. A commonly used strain or deformation is
point. 0.002 inch per inch, or 0.2% offset, which must be
necessarily indicated with the yield strength value.
The yield strength is the stress value indicated by the
E
intersection point between the stress-strain curve and
the offset line drawn parallel to the straight portion
F of the curve.
'"
c- c Modulus of Elasticity. In the stress range below
o the elastic limit, the ratio of unit stress to unit defor-
.~
a D
mation, or the slope of the curve, is referred to as the
e/)"
e/)
w
a:
l-
e/)
I-
Z
-'
A
'"
c-
UNIT DEFORMATION
2 I
I
Figure 3.6 .~ I
Stress-strain diagram e/)" i
e/) I
w
a:
Plastic flow occurring at normal temperature is l-
e/)
I
called cold working, regardless of the kind of loading I-
I
Z I
system under which it is accomplished. As plastic :J
flow takes place, the crystals and atoms of the materi-
al rearrange internally to take stronger positions
resisting further change. The material becomes
stronger and harder and is said to be work hardened.
At the point D in Figure 3-6, the curve suddenly turns .001 00200>
upward, indicating that the material has become UNIT DEFORMATION
or deformation in the elastic range must be given con- True stress would continue to increase throughout the
sideration, The relative stiffness or rigidity of differ- test, as shown in Figure 3-8, and maximum stress
ent materials can be ascertained merely by comparing would occur at the final break. The test of Figure 3-6 is
their moduli. By rearrangement of the formula for E, usually called an engineer's stress-strain diagram. This
the unit deformation becomes equal to the unit stress curve ~s shown as a dotted line in Figure 3-8. Not only
divided by E, If a bar of steel with a cross-sectional is it easier to prepare than a true stress-true strain
area of 1 square inch and with a modulus of elasticity diagram, but the value for ultimate strength obtained
of 30 million pounds per square inch is subjected to a from it is more useful for design than the maximum
tensile pull of 1,000 pounds, each inch of length of true stress that occurs when the specimen breaks. The
the bar will be stretched 1/30,000 of an inch, A true concern of a designer is the maximum load that
30-inch-long steel bar with this cross section would can be supported, not the maximum stress.
then be elongated 1/1,000 (0.001) of an inch overall
with a 1,000-pound tensile load.
Ductility. The tension test provides two measures
of ductility. One is called percent elongation, repre-
sented by the formula
co
0..
percent elongation = (Lf - Lo) X 100
Lo 2
where
'in
a. ---- / ENGINEER'S
TRANSVERSE RUPTURE TESTING parison cannot be made with ultimate tensile strength
Limitations of Tensile Tests for Brittle Materials. values taken from a tension test, nor can the values of
In a number of cases a substitute for the standard modulu,s of rupture be used as design tensile strength
tensile test is necessary. With some materials that are d u e s . The values are useful for comparing materials,
difficult to shape or very brittle in nature, it is im- and they are useful in design when the material is to
practical to produce a specimen for tension testing. be used as a beam.
This condition occurs particularly with ceramics.
With most materials that are very brittle in character,
even though a tensile specimen might be produced,
the results from the s h d a x d tensile test would have
only limited significance. It is almost impossible to
insure in the tension test that the applied load will be
precisely centered in the specimen and will be exactly
parallel t o the axis of the specimen. If this is not the
case, bending moments are introduced in the speci-
men. With a ductile material, small amounts of plastic
flow take place in the specimen, particularly where
the load is applied; the specimen aligns itself properly
with the load; and the stresses are uniform across the
tested area. With a brittle material in which this align-
ment cannot take place, the bending moments result
in higher stresses on one side of the specimen than on
the other. The specimen fails when the highest stress
reaches some critical value, but the observed stress at
this time, based on the assumption of uniformity, is
somewhat lower. As a consequence, the results from
testing a number of similar brittle specimens exhibit
wide variations and are not representative of the true Flgure 3-9
strength of the material. Transverse rupture test
The Transverse Rupture Test. The transverse rup- SHEAR TESTING
ture test, while it gives less complete information
In the section dealing with material failure, it was
than the tension test, is a fast and simple test, making
use of more easily prepared specimens, and is especi- painted out that when a bar is subjected to a tension
ally well suited to brittle materials. In many instances load as in the tension test, the value of shear stress
the specimen can be an actual workpiece. The test is existing in the bar at failure can be calculated from
particularly well suited for those materials that are to the load and the dimensions of the bar (Figure 3-10).
be used in beam applications. It is really the only
meaningful type of strength test for reinforced con-
crete.
The test consists of loading a simple beam as illus-
trated in Figure 3-9. While some standards have been
set for particular materials, there are no univeral
standards for specimen sizes and shapes as there are
for the tension test.
The modulus of rupture, or beam strength, is cal-
culated by the formula
The term shear, however, has a broader meaning than boundaries, may be sources of fatigue failure. With
shear stress only and is used to describe loading sys- repeated stressing, a crack starts at one of these
tems that subject a material to a shearing action. fatigue nuclei and grows until insufficient solid metal
Actually, the stress distribution in such loading sys- remains to carry the load. Complete failure in a sud-
tem is quite complex, but a rather simple shear den, brittle manner results. As seen in Figure 3-11, the
strength test has been developed that simulates the exposed surface of a fatigue failure shows part of the
conditions of actual loading and provides information surface to be smooth and polished, while the rest
that may be used in deisgn where the loading situa- exhibits a well-defined grain structure. The crystal-
tion is similar to that of the test. Such loading occurs line-appearing portion was separated in the sudden,
in using bolts or rivets and in shearing operations in final break. The smooth part was polished and
which material is being separated. In the test indi- burnished by the movement of the material with
cated in Figure 3-11, the bar with cross-sectional area repeated deflection as the crack developed and grew.
A is made to fail simultaneously in two places so that Fatigue failure is more frequent than commonly
the area of failure is 2A, and shear strength is defined thought. There have been estimates that with equip-
as shear strength = P/2A. ment having moving parts or subject to vibration as
much as 90% failures include fatigue in some form. Be-
p
p cause any kind of discontinuity, particularly those at
(or near) the surface where tensile stresses are likely to
be highest, can be the nucleus for fatigue failure, loca-
j tion of these spots by NOT may prevent a later cata-
strophic failure.
Endurance Limits. Because a material may fail
under conditions of a great many repeated loads at a
stress level far below that determined by the standard
strength test, a designer must know how different
materials stand up under these conditions. Tests have
been developed with special machines that bend
plate-shaped test specimens or subject a rotating
beam to a bending load for large numbers of cycles.
From data collected from such tests, the endurance
limit of a material can be determined.
Figure 3-11
The endurance limit is the highest completely re-
Shear strength test versed stress whose repeated application can be
endured for an indefinitely large number of cycles
FATIGUE TESTING without failure. Figure 3-12 shows a typical SoN, or
endurance limit, curve. The material represented by
A metal may fail under sufficient cycles of re- this curve would have an endurance limit of 42,000
peated stress, even though the maximum stress pounds per square inch (290 MPa) because the curve
applied is considerably less than the strength of the
material determined by static test. Failure will occur 60
, at a lower stress level if the cyclic loading is reversed,
alternating tension and compression, than if the
cycles are repeated in the same direction time after N 50
time. The conclusion from one comprehensive study "C"'a.
of service failures was that in 90% of such failures in
~
which fracture occurred, fatigue was involved. Struc-
vi
en 40
tural members subject to vibration, repeated variation w
of load, or any cyclic disturbance causing deflection a:
I-
en
must be designed to have low enough stress levels that
fatigue phenomena will not cause failure. X 30
<{
Fatigue Failure Initiation and Development. ~
Fatigue failure normally starts at some spot where 20
stress concentration is high because of the shape of 104 IO~ 108 107 108 10" 1010
the member or some imperfection. Holes through the CYCLES
material, notches in the surface, internal flaws, such as
voids, cracks, or inclusions or even minor scratches Figure 3-12
'and faults caused by corrosive attack on the grain Typical S-N curve
L
24 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
impact testing machine and struck on the side oppo- variable that they are of little value and are not re-
site that of the notch. The testing machine is con- corded. Instead, the angle of bend at failure is com-
structed with a weighted pendulum, which is lifted to pared with results of other tests.
start the test. Upon its release, the pendulum swings Guided Bend Test. In guided bend tests, the test
past the specimen, and breaks it. As the pendulum specimen is bent about a fixed radius to 1800. The
swings past, the remaining energy can be measured by bend angle of a failure before 1800 bending usually
the height of the swing and the absorbed energy de- cannot be satisfactorily compared with other test
termined. results because of nonuniform plastic flow of material
Izod Test. The Izod specimen is supported in the in the specimen caused by pressures set up by the
testing machine by one end only and is loaded as a guided bend fixture. Multiple-radius guided bends
cantilever beam with a notch on the side of impact. may be used for rating specimens by determining the
Energy absorption is measured in the same way as smallest radius about which a standard specimen will
with the Charpy specimen. bend 180°.
Test Specimens. Two kinds of notches are used
on bending impact specimens. The Izod specimen is HARDNESS TESTING
usually made with a 45° angular notch with a
O.OlO-inch radius at the bottom. The specimen is The most frequently used tests for determining
extremely sensitive to variation of notch size or material properties are hardness tests. With sufficient
change of radius, and extreme care in manufacture of knowledge of material composition and previous
the test specimen is necessary for reproducibility of processing, hardness tests can be used as indirect
test results. The keyhole notch shown on the Charpy measures of properties entirely different from hard-
specimen can be duplicated more accurately but is ness. For example, hardness can sometimes be used to
limited in the smallness of the hole producing the separate raw materials of different composition, to
notch effect by the size of the smallest drill that will determine whether or not satisfactory heat treating or
not "drift" in making the hole. The notches in the other processing has been accomplished, or to mea-
test specimens act as points of stress concentration, sure the strength and wear-resistant properties of a
and the smaller the notch radius, the more severe is product. Hardness measurements, therefore, are fre-
the stressing at this point. These notched test speci- quently made on raw material, on parts in process,
mens actually provide only information regarding and on finished goods ready for use.
material that is to be used in a similar notched condi- With some metal alloys, electrical conductivity and
tion but are often practical because materials are fre- hardness are related within limited ranges. Eddy cur-
quently used with design shapes or structural imper- rent tests standardized to measure electrical conduc-
fections that cause a structural member to be, in tivity can therefore be used as an indirect measure of
effect, a notched beam. hardness. Such tests must be applied cautiously since
Tensile Impact Test. Greater reproducibility and the ranges are restricted over which the relationship
greater similarity between the test and some use con- between hardness and conductivity are reasonably lin-
ditions can be provided by tensile impact tests. The ear. Aluminum alloys and other non-ferrous metals are
specimens for these tests are not notched and are more reliably tested by this method than are ferrous
supported so that uniaxial tensile impact loads may alloys.
be applied. The standard impact testing machine with Most hardness tests result in some kind of measure
pendulum weight can be tooled for testing small of the ability of a material to resist penetration of the
\ specimens of this type. For larger specimens a special
machine with a variable-speed flywheel to store
near surface material. Penetration of material with
any kind of indentor requires the use of force and
energy can be obtained. involves plastic flow of the tested materi~1. The
work-hardening qualities of a material, therefore,
become part of most hardness measurements and
BEND TESTING
partially explain the difficulty of converting from one
Materials that are to be deformation processed by type of hardness measure to another, because dif-
being subjected to bending loads and materials that ferent methods of measuring hardness do not measure
may have been affected by localized heating, such as exactly the same thing. They are, however, well
in welding, are sometimes tested by bend tests to enough standardized to provide useful and practical
provide comparative data. information.
Free Bend Test. Free bends are accomplished by Mohs Test. One of the first standardized systems
pre bending a flat specimen slightly to produce eccen- of measuring hardness made use of the Mohs scale of
tricity and then loading the specimen in compression hardness, which specifies ten standard minerals ar-
Ii'- (column) until failure occurs or a 180° bend is pro- ranged in order of their increasing hardness and num-
, duced. Normally, the loads to accomplish this are so bered according to their position. Starting with
,It
26 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
number 1 as the softest, the standard Mohs scale is as numerical value of the Brinell hardness number is
follows: obtained by dividing the load in kilograms by the area
1 ... Talc 6 ... of the spherical impression in millimeters. In practice,
Orthoclase (Feldspar) the average diameter of the impression is usually read
2 ... Gypsum 7 ... Quartz
. .. with a measuring microscope and the Brinell hardness
3 Calcite 8 ... Topaz number determined directly from a table.
4 ... Fluorite 9 ... Corundum
5 ... Apatite 10 ... Diamond Advantage and Limitation of Brinell Tests. The
Brinell hardness method has the advantage, as com-
If a material can be noticeably scratched by the pared to most other measuring methods, of determin-
mineral topaz (number 8) but cannot be scratched by ing a hardness value over a relatively large area, thus
quartz (number 7), it would have a hardness value reducing the inconsistencies caused by flaws, imper-
between 7 and 8 on the Mohs scale. The Mohs scale fections, and nonhomogeneity in the material, likely
of hardness has little value for hardness testing of to be introduced with small area measurement that
metals but is still widely used in the field of minera- includes only a few metallic grains. With plain carbon
logy. and low alloy steels, the relation between tensile
File Test. Another abrasion or scratch method of strength and Brinell hardness is so consistent in the
measuring hardness that does have some practical use medium hardness range that the tensile strength of
in metal working is the file test. Standard test files the steel can be closely approximated by multiplying
can be used to gage quickly the approximate hardness the Brinell hardness number (BHN) by 500. The
of a material and, although not very accurate, can be principal disadvantages of the Brinell method are that
used in many shop situations with satisfactory results. the machine to supply the load for impressing the ball
Experience and comparison with standard test into the material is often cumbersome and cannot
blocks will permit a fair degree of accuracy to be always produce the impression where desired. The
attained. ball cannot be impressed in very thin materials and,
Brinell Test. In 1900 Johan August Brinell, a of course, cannot be used to examine extremely small
Swedish engineer, introduced a new universal system samples, and the impression is of such size that it may
for hardness measurement. The method involves harm the appearance or use of finished surfaces.
Rockwell Test. Because of its convenience and
impressing, with a definite load, a hardened steel ball
into the material to be tested and calculating a Brinell the fact that only small marks are left in the work
hardness number from the impression size (Figure tested, one of the most frequently used tests is the
3-15). A wide range of hardnesses can be tested by Rockwell hardness test (Figure 3-16). This also is an
varying the size of the ball and the loads imposed, but impression test, but the hardness number is deter-
in the hardness range most frequently tested, a ball mined by a differential depth measurement that can
10 millimeters in diameter is impressed into the ma- be read directly on a dial indicator of the machine
terial under a load of 3,000 kilograms for 10 seconds used to impose the load (Figure 3-17 shows the.
to check steel and under a load of 500 kilograms for Rockwell hardness tester.) To obtain a Rockwell
30 seconds to check nonferrous materials. The
7:
O~
~ ?
8HN=P/1ID(D-~)
2
hardness reading, the equipment is first used to place spherical tip of 0.200-millimeter radius. The diamond
a minor load of 10 kilograms on the penetrator. This penetrator, or indentor, is known as a brale.
reduces the effect of dirt, oil films, scale, and other The penetrator used and the size of load impressing
surface conditions that might affect the reading. A it into the test material are defined by a letter that
major load of 60, 100,or 150 kilograms, depending becomes part of the Rockwell reading. The accom-
upon the type of penetrator and scale being used, is panying Table 3-2 shows the relationship among the
then imposed to force the penetrator into the work scale designation, the loads, and the penetrators.
material. After the penetrator has seated to its full
depth - the time usually being controlled by a dash TABLE 3-2
pot built into the equipment - the major load is
removed. The permment differential depth between Load
the minor and major loads is then read directly as a Scale kilograms Penetrator
Rockwell hardness number. A ........................... 60 Brale
B ........................... 100 1/16'' ball
Standard Rockwell Scales. Although provision has C ........................... 150 Brale
been made for use of a 1/8-inchdiameter ball as a D ........................... 1WJ Brate
penetrator, almost all hardness testing with the ............................
f=
60 1116" ball
Rockwell equipment is done with two standard pene- G ........................... 50 1116" ball
kators. The one used for softer materials is a 1116-
inch-diameter hardened steel ball supported in a
The letter designating the test conditions is a very
important part of a hardness notation because the
number alone could represent several different hard-
ness conditions. For example, a Rockwell hardness
reading of B 60 would represent a relatively soft
material, such as a medium hard copper alloy. A
.Rockwell hardness reading of C 60,sometimes written
Rc 60, on the other hand would represent a hardness
such as might be used for a hardened tool steel to cut
metals.
Superficial Rockwell Test. Another machine, the
Rockwell superficial hardness tester, is contructed
and used in much the same manner as the standard
machine but is a special-purpose tester designed to be
used when only a very shallow impression is permis-
sible or when measurement of hardness of material
very close to the surface is the principal aim. The
superficial hardness tester makes use of the same
penetrators, except that the bxale is of higher pre-
cision and is designated as N brale. The loads used to
cause penetration are lighter: 15, 30, and 45 kilo-
grams. Table 3-3 shows the testing conditions for
Rockwell superficial hardness testing.
TABLE 3-3
A;.,: *
Scale
-
ISN
Load
kilograms
......................... 15
Penetrator
N brale
Figure 3 1 7
Rockwell hardness tester. The tester impresses a 30N ........................ 30 N brale
penetrator into the work to provide a 45N ...... ............. 45 N brale
direct surface hardness measurement 15T ........................ 15 1/16" ball
30T ........................ 30 1/16" ball
special chuck that permits easy replacement should 45T ........................ 45 1/16" ball
the ball become damaged. The testing of harder
materials that would cause excessive deformation of As in the previous case, the scde indication must
the hardened steel ball is performed with a diarnond- be used as a prefix to the hardness number read from
tipped penetrator with a 120" conical point and a the dial.
28 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
Vickers Test. The Vickers hardness tester operates suIts. Also, because of the complexity of stress-
on the same principle as the Brinen instrument but analysis problems, it is almost essential that simpli-
makes use of a diamond penetrator shaped as a four- fying assumptions be made during design to prevent
sided pyramid. The impression made by the pene- design costs and time from becoming prohibitive. A
trator is accurately measured by swinging a micro- factor of safety is therefore used to prevent working
scope into position without moving the test piece in too close to maximum values. The factor of safety is
the machine. As in the Brinen method, the Vickers the ratio between the maximum value and the work-
hardness number is the ratio of the force imposed on ing value and is determined by competent judgment,
the indentor to the area of the pyramidal impression. taking into consideration all conditions of use. Fac-
In the lower range of hardness, under Brinen 300, tors of safety vary from as low as one to as high as
Vickers and Brinen hardness numbers are almost iden- five or more. They may be applied to any quality but
tical, but above this range they separate as hardness are most commonly used in connection with
increases, primarily because of distortion of the steel strengths.
ban used for Brinen testing when it is forced against As an example of its lise, if the ultimate tensile
the harder materials. strength of a certain grade of steel is 80,000 pounds
Microhardness. It is frequently important, partic- per square inch and its elastic limit, 60,000 pounds
ularly in research or development work, to test the per square inch, an allowable stress, or working stress,
hardness of material that is very thin or very small in of 20,000 pounds per square inch would provide a
area. A number of special machines have been devel- safety factor of four, based on the ultimate strength,
oped for determining "microhardness." One of the or of three, based on the elastic limit.
more commonly used pieces of equipment of this The closer the factor of safety approaches one, the
type is the Tukon micro hardness tester. Normally, more the danger that an unforeseen fault or condition
the machine is fitted with an elongated diamond- of use may cause failure. On the other hand, the
shaped penetrator. Microscopic measurement of the larger the factor of safety, the greater the volume and
impression provides information that can be con- weight of material needed, with a corresponding
verted to Knoop numbers. Knoop hardness measure- increase in cost and in space-need problems. Factors
ment often cannot be compared directly with Brinell of safety in the range of two to four are most com-
or Vickers hardness measurement because the elonga- mon, but a satisfactory value depends upon a great
ted impression is rather strongly affected by the number of conditions, some of which are described in
directional properties of the material being tested. the following paragraphs.
The use of a symmetrical, square-based, pyramid- Allowances must be made for unexpected loads or
shaped indentor will provide hardness data com- conditions. This is particularly true if the human ele-
parable with that of the other systems. ment is large in the use of the equipment, since the
It should be self-evident that the lighter the in- human mind is most unpredictable. It is common to
dentor loads and the smaller the impressions made, include a factor of at least two in the factor of safety
the greater the care that must be used to perform a when a design is based on static tensile strength values
hardness test, and the better must be the quality of but subjected in use to varying loads. This cor-
surface on which it is made. In Brinell testing, small responds approximately to the ratio of static tensile
surface imperfections tend to be averaged out because strength to endurance limit.
of the large area covered, but in microhardness Allowances must be made for environmental and
checks, in which the impression may be only a few time factors. Strengths of most materials are greatly
thousandths of an inch long, small scratches and sur- reduced by corrosion and other chemical effects.
face imperfections may contribute large errors. Micro- Other materials lose strength or become brittle with
hardness testing is usually performed on a highly age. The consistency of test data should influence the
polished surface, and in many cases, to obtain repro- factor of safety choice. Test information should be of
ducibility, it is necessary to etch the surface to reveal large enough volume to be statistically significant.
the constituent structure in order to locate the im- Larger safety factors are necessary with materials
pression properly. varying widely in quality than with those that are
quite uniform.
FACTOR OF SAFETY Whether or not the use of a material may affect
Na property, structural or otherwise, whether cal- human life has a large influence on the factor of safe-
culated from theoretical considerations or determined ty. In the designing of hoists, cranes, and other lifting
by test procedures, can be safely used at or very close equipment, factors of safety of five or more are com-
to its ultimate (maximum) value. Tests are neither monly used because failure could mean injury or loss
consistent enough nor accurate enough, particularly of life. The same consideration applies, of course, to
as they are not conducted under exact use conditions, aircraft design. Here, however, space and weight are
to permit strong confidence to be placed in their re- very important, and large factors of safety could easi-
ly prevent a usable design; consequently, the problem
is handled in a different way. Extreme care is used in
selecting and testing materials. Stresses are carefully
calculated and, as far as possible, the structures built
so that they cannot be overloaded in use. Thus, by
spending more care, time, and money preceding and
during manufacturing, it is possible to use a smaller
factor of safety because of greater certainty of not
exceeding the design condition. The smaller the safety
factor and the more important any' possible failure, the
more reliable must be any nondestructive testing pro-
cedure that is used.
The Nature of 4
Materials and Solid
State Changes in
Metals
The chemist ordinarily considers the smallest func-
tional portion of matter to be the atom. The atom
consists of a nucleus, made up of positively charged
protons and uncharged neutrons, surrounded by
electrons. The electrons carry negative charges and
move in orbit at different levels. Each level of orbit
can contain only a definite number of electrons, and
the number of levels or shells is determined by the
atomic number of the element. All the shells will
usually be full except the outer one, which is short
of the maximum possible number of electrons for
most materials. All of the electrons are in constant
motion, spinning about their own axes and traveling
through their orbits about the nucleus with speeds
dependent on their energy level, which in turn is
strongly affected by the pressure and the temperature
conditions. The physicist's picture of an atom depicts
it as a heavy nucleus containing most of the mass,
surrounded by a cloud of moving electrons.
and not tied closely together. In this liquid state, the from a liquid to a gas. The intersecting point of the
materials have fixed volume but assume the shape of curves at the temperature Tx and pressure Px is
the container in which they are placed. known as the triple point and occurs at the tempera-
As the energy level is further decreased, the mobili- ture and pressure conditions under which a material
ty of the atoms decreases. There are at least four may exist as a solid, a liquid, a gas, or partially all
different mechanisms by which the atoms can assume three at the same time. For most metals, this point
positions well fixed enough that for practical pur- occurs below normal temperatures and well below
poses the material could be called solid. Of the atmospheric pressure; consequently, most metals
materials of interest to manufacturing, all the metals upon being heated go through the changes from solid
occur as crystalline solids. to liquid to gas as the temperature increases.
Space Lattices. As the energy of a liquid metal is
METALLIC STRUCTURE reduced by taking away heat, the attraction between
Definition of a Metal. Metals are usually defined atoms increases until they arrange themselves in
as materials having some degree of plasticity, relatively definite three-dimensional geometric patterns that are
high hardness and strength, good electric and thermal characteristic of the metal. Thes~ structures are called
conductivity, crystalJinity when solids, and opacity. space lattices and consist of network groupings of
A definition based on atomic structure is more pre- identical Imit cells that are aligned in parallel planes.
cise. A metallic solid is one that has free electrons There are fourteen types of crystal lattices, but
available in the structure to carry a current and that most of the common and commercially - important
has a negative coefficient of conductivity with in- metals exist, in the solid state, in one of three struc-
creasing temperature. tures. These are, as shown in Figure 4-2, body-cen--
States of Matter. Figure 4-1 shows the relation- tereel cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal closed-
ship that exists among the three states of matter for a packed. In the illustrations of unit cells, the dots repre-
crystalJine material. At the intersection of tempera- senting atoms should be considered as centers of activ-
ture TJ and pressure PIon the curve, notice that an ity for the atoms and not as graphic illsutrations of the
increase of temperature of a material for which this atoms themselves.
curve is valid would cause the material to change
directly from a solid to a gas. Similarly, a reduction
I
of pressure (a shift toward the left) would also cause I I
the same change. Such a change of state from solid , I~
directly to gas is known as sublimation. Arsenic is the "- I /1/ /
T, ---
r
W
II:: T2
:;:)
Tx> -- -- .-- - -- --
~
II::
W
a..
::t T, SOLID
w
I-
HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED LATTICE
PI Px Po.
<.
PRESSURE ~
A single unit cell does not exist alone. To attain referred to for metals, the grain, runs into interfer-
stability, it must grow past some critical size by being ence from other grains that are forming simultaneous-
joined with other cells that share the atoms on the ly about other nuclei.
outer adjacent surface. For purposes of illustration, it Although with some metals and with special treat-
has been assumed that a unit cell can exist by itself ments it is possible to grow single crystals several
and that all its atoms belong to it alone. inches in diameter, with most metals and at the usual
Body-centered Cubic Lattice. The body-centered cooling rates, great numbers of crystals are nucleated
cubic cell is made up of nine atoms. Eight are located and growing at one time with different orientations.
on the corners of the cube with the ninth positioned If two grains that have the same orientation meet,
central1y between them. The body-centered cubic is a they will join to form a larger grain, but if they are
strong stucture, and in general, the metals that are forming about different axes, the last atoms to solidi-
hard and strong are in this form at normal tempera- fy between the growing grains will be attracted to
tures. These metals include chromium, iron, molyb- each and must assume compromise positions in an
denum, tantalum, tungsten, and vanadium. attempt to satisfy a double desire to join with each.
Face-centered Cubic Lattice. Face-centered cubic These misplaced atoms are in layers about the grains
cells consist of fourteen atoms with eight at the cor- and are known as grain boundaries. They are inter-
ners and the other six centered in the cube faces. This ruptions in the orderly arrangement of the space lat-
structure is characteristic of ductile metals, which tices and offer resistance to deformation of the metal.
include aluminum, copper, gold, lead, nickel, plati- A fine-grained metal with large numbers of interrup-
num, and silver. Iron, which is body-centered cubic at tions, therefore, will be harder and stronger than a
room temperature, is also of the face-centered struc- coarse-grained metal of the same composition and
ture in the temperature range from about 910° C to condition.
1,400° C. This is a solid-state change that will be dis- Grain size, grain orientation, and the composition of
cussed more thoroughly in the following chapter. grain boundaries are factors that can influence some
Hexagonal Close-packed Lattice. Seventeen atoms nondestructive tests. In radiography, at certain x-ray
combine to make the hexagonal close-packed unit energies, diffraction effects can produce images that
cell. Seven atoms are located in each hexagonal face resemble flaws and, at best, make interpretation diffi-
with one at each comer and the seventh in the center. cult. Ultrasonic testing of large grained castings and
The three remaining atoms take up a triangular posi- welds also may be radical1y influenced by excessive
tion in the center of the cell equidistant from the two noise and attenuation, which may produce false indica-
faces. The metals with this structure are quite su&- tions or mark the presence of dangerous flaws.
ceptible to work-hardening, which will be discussed in
the following chapter. Some of the more commonly
GRAIN SIZE
used metals that crystallize with this structure are
cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, titanium, and zinc. The grain (crystal) sizes produced during solidifica-
Tin is an exception to the other commonly used tion are dependent both upon the rate of nucleation
metals in that the atomic configuration is body- and upon the rate of growth of grains. For most
centered tetragonal, which is similar to the body- materials the rate of growth is relatively slow, and the
centered cubic but has wider atomic spacing and an primary influence on grain size is the rate of nuclea-
elongated axis between two of the opposite faces. tion. Grain size can be used as an indication, or
\ measure, of properties. For this reason, visual stand-
I SOLIDIFICATION ards have been set up to aid accurate comparisons.
Growth of a Crystal. As the temperature of the While not in routine usage, ultrasonic methods have
liquid metal is reduced and the atoms become less been applied to grain size determination. If the grains
active, they are attracted to each other and take defi- are randomly oriented, at high ultrasonic frequencies,
nite positions to form unit cells. Because cooling can- reflection from grain boundaries that would usually be
not be exactly the same for every atom, certain ones considered noise can be related to grain size.
will assume their positions ahead of others and Importance of Grain Size. Grain size exerts an
become a nucleus for crystal formation. In the proc- important influence on the mechanical properties of
ess of assuming their positions, these first atoms will materials and, fortunately, can be controlled by
give up kinetic energy in the form of heat, which methods much more precise than manipulation of the
retards the slowing down of other atoms; but as heat factors that influence growth during solidification. In
t removal is continued, other atoms will take their some processes though, particularly casting, the soli-
places along the sides of the already solidified unit dification grain size is important, because with some
I '" cell, forming new cells that share atoms with the first materials and some shapes, grain size cannot be readi-
I and with others to come later. Orderly growth con- ly changed after the first formation. In those cases in
which changes can be effected, additional processing
jl1 tinues in all directions until the crystal, or as usually
34 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
costs will be added. The methods, other than solidifi- WORK HARDENING
cation, that can be used for grain-size control involve Effects of Deformation. The application of loads
solid-state changes. to a solid material in processing or in service can
As has already been indicated, coarse grains in the cause two kinds of deformation. If the load does not
harder materials have lower strength than fine grains. stress the material past its elastic limit, the deforma-
Coarse-grained materials machine more easily, requir- tion is "elastic," and the material returns to its
ing less power, although the quality of surface pro- original position upon removal of the load. If, how-
duced will not be as good as with a finer-grained ever, the elastic limit is exceeded, the material does
material. Coarse-grained ferrous material is easier to
not return completely to its original position when
harden by heat treatment than fine-grained material the load is removed and is permanently deformed by
of the same composition but has increased suscepti-
plastic flow within its crystalline structure. When the
bility to cracking under the thermal loads. Coarse-
elastic limit is passed, elastic properties are not lost,
grained material will caseharden on the surface more
but instead are enhanced, providing the deformation
readily than fine-grained. It is evident, then, that
is produced by cold work. The strength of metal is
coarse grains may sometimes be desirable during
increased by plastic flow and the elastic limit is
processing, but fine grains are usually necessary in the
raised. Some of the deformation processes produce
final product to provide the best mechanical proper-
improved properties at the same time the shaping is
ties. Some deformation processes of shaping materials
can be used so as to cause grain-size reduction auto-
being performed.
matically during the shaping process with little or no PLASTIC DEFORMATION
additional cost involved.
Permanent deformation of metallic crystals occurs
in three ways: slip, twinning, and rotational deforma-
tion. The degree of each is dependent largely on the
characteristics of the particular metal.
SOLID STATE CHANGES IN METALS .-... -cr -cr -cr-9
t I I I
-t - 'r -
In the previous section the process of metal solidifi- t t t
cation was briefly described. The properties of a mate-
rial are derived from the crystalline structure, includ-
ing the atomic arrangement and the crystal sizes, and
are affected by the boundary layers that join the grains
"
together. The atomic arrangement is primarily a func-
tion of the material composition, which may consist of
a single material or a combination of materials that are
completely soluble, partially soluble, or totally insolu- UNSTRAINED GRAIN
out of alignment, slip may occur along other less vibrations that travel at high velocity through the ma-
preferred planes. terial and can be detected by sensitive microphones or
Twinning Deformation. Figure 4-4 shows a type transducers coupled to the metal surface. Analysis of
of grain deformation referred to as twinning, which the intensity, duration, and rate of such acoustic emis-
seems to occur most easily under loads applied sud- sions can provide information about the formation and
denly, rather than gradually. With twinning, the grain growth of microcracks that result from continued load-
ing. Acoustic emission monitoring is a relatively new
means of nondestructive testing that has the capabil-
ity of signaling states of over-stress and producing ear-
ly warning of impending failure.
by treatment for recovery, most of the distorted Theory of Recrystallization. It is believed that
crystalline lattice remains as it was produced by cold recrystallization takes place by the nucleation of new
work. The elastic limit for the material has been grains mainly about the high energy points of dislo-
raised close to the ultimate strength, and further cation in a work-hardened grain. They then appear to
deformation will cause fracture failure. Recovery of grow until they fill the old grain space and eliminate
ductility to permit further change of shape by defor- the existing strain by realignment of the atoms into a
mation can be obtained only by elimination of the new crystal lattice. Recrystallization can thus be a
deformed grains, and this can be accomplished by grain-refining process as well as a method for recovery
recrystallization. By this heat-treating process, new, of ductility, if it is discontinued as soon as complete
smaller, unstrained grains with fully recovered capac- recrystallization has taken place.
ity for plastic flow can be formed by solid-state The new grains formed during recrystallization are
change in the metal. It is important to note that in likely to take positions with preferred orientations.
the absence of allotropic changes, which will be dis- Directional properties caused by preferred orientation
cussed later, no grain-size changes by heating metal to are objectionable for most manufacturing operations.
any temperature below the melting point can be This tendency can be reduced and more random
accomplished unless the strained condition of cold- orientation obtained by the addition of small
worked metal is present. Recrystallization is the amounts of an alloying element or by recrystallizing
nucleation and growth of new, strain-free crystals before maximum work hardening has been per-
from the strained crystals of a cold-worked material. formed.
Recrystallization Temperatures. The phenomenon Recrystallization Seldom Terminal. In a few
occurs over a wide temperature range with the length cases, recrystallization may be used as an end process
of time required for complete recrystallization in- to leave a product in its most ductile condition or
versely related to the temperature and to the degree with its best electrical and chemical properties, but
of strain present. For practical purposes, recrystalli- more often it is an in-process treatment for ductility
zation temperatures, such as shown in Table 4-1, are improvement or for grain refinement. In many cold
temperatures which will permit complete recry- deformation processes, such as deep drawing, the
stallization in a time period of approximately 1 hour ductility of the material may be reduced by cold
for metals that have been fully hardened by previous working to the point where fracture failure is immi-
cold work. nent. Ductility may be returned to the material any
TABLE 4.1 number of times by repeated recrystallization be-
Recrystallization Temperatures for Some Common tween steps of the forming operation. In most cases
Metals and Alloys the last forming operation will not be followed by
Material °c OF recrystallization, in order that the higher hardness
175 and strength of the cold-worked material may be re-
Aluminum(pure) 80
600 tained in the product.
Aluminumalloys.. . 316
250 . Although heating for recovery is a stress-relieving
Copper (pure) 120
,... 600 process, recrystallization at a higher temperature is
Copperalloys. . . . . . . .. 316 sometimes also called stress relieving. The same proc-
Iron (pure) , 400 750
Lowcarbon steel. . . . . . 540 1000 ess may be referred to as process annealing, particular-
Magnesium(pure) . . . . . . 65 . .. . . . . . . . 150 ly when performed in conjunction with deformation
Magnesiumalloys. . . . .. 232 450 processes.
Zinc ... . 10 50 GRAIN GROWTH
Tin -4 .......... 25
Lead -4 " 25 If a metal is kept heated at or above its recry-
stallization temperature after the new, unstrained
The table shows that zinc, tin, and lead re- grains have formed, the tendency is for some of the
crystallize at temperatures below room temperature. new grains to absorb others and grow to larger size.
This means that these metals in the pure state cannot, Large grains are more stable than small grains because
at ordinary temperatures, maintain a work-hardened of the higher grain-to-boundary-area ratio, which is a
condition. The normal use of deformation processes lower energy state. If fine grain structure is desired
on these materials would be hot working rather than after the recrystallization process, it is necessary to
cold working since it would be performed above their reduce the temperature quickly to prevent sub-
recrystallization temperatures. Examination of the sequent grain growth. This is usually performed by
table also reveals that contamination of a pure metal some kind of quench.
with other elements makes it more difficult for re- Grain-Size Control. During processing, small grain
crystallization to occur, and the temperatures must size is not always wanted because large grains usually
be increased for completion to occur in a reasonable exhibit greater ductility, better machinability, and
length of time. require less pressure to be deformed. The final
Materials and Solid State Changes in Metals 37
product usually should be of relatively fine structure, saturation of the a phase, the metal is quenched to
though, in order that the material will exhibit its best create the supersaturated solid solution at room
properties. Grain size for materials that do not go temperature. High energy points in the crystal lattice
through allotropic phase changes is controlled pri- set up by the nonequlibrium situation of supersatura-
marily during the solidification process for cast tion causes the alloy to be harder than its annealed
metals and by recrystallization for wrought (defor- condition.
mation worked) metals. Allotropic metal (existing in Transition Stage by Precipitation. The full hard-
more than one crystalline form) grain size can be ness, however, is developed during the second stage of
controlled by a more effective and satisfactory treatment when the excess metallic component is
method discussed later in the chapter. partially precipitated from the solid solution. This
step is usually referred to as aging and may be natural
AGE HARDENING or artificial. If the surplus material goes into the
initial transition stage of precipitation of its own
Some metal alloys display a variable solid state solu- accord at room temperature, full hardness will
bility of one metal in another with change of tempera- develop naturally with the passage of time. If an
ture. If the solubility increases with increase of tem-
increase of temperature is necessary, as is true with
perature above room temperature and if return to the many alloys, to release the unnaturally held metal,
normal room temperature state can be prevented by
this heat-treating step is called artifical aging. Too
sudden cooling, the alloy may be susceptible to age
high an aging temperature or too much time with this
hardening.
stage, or both, causes the precipitant to reach its final
Theory of Age Hardening. Exact explanation of
equilibrium state in which the hardness and strength
this hardening phenomenon is not available with pre-
properties are low and similar to those of the an-
sent knowledge, but from close study it has been theor-
nealed alloy.
ized that the precipitant from a supersaturated solu-
tion first appears as a transition lattice widely dis- Process Valuable for Aluminum Alloys. One of
persed and closely associated with the solid solution the greatest uses for precipitation hardening is for
lattice. Close association causes lattice distortion with improvement of properties of some aluminum alloys.
accompanying increase of hardness, much as the dis- The system can be used for either cast or wrought
tortion by cold working increases hardness. With suffi- shapes and can be of particular value in some in-
cient time, which decreases with higher temperature, stances because of the time that is necessary for full
the transition particles combine to form a larger, more hardening to develop. For example, it has been
widely spaced, and more stable equilibrium precipi- common practice in the aircraft industry to solution
tant, as in the annealed structure. For hardening pur- treat aluminum rivets and hold them under refrigera-
poses, the intermediate phase must be present, and tion after their quench to retard precipitation. Before
when it disappears because of the complete formation precipitation starts, they are relatively ductile and
of the final phase, the material is considered to be over- easy to form plastically. In this condition they can be
aged with loss of the special properties present during headed to join riveted assemblies and develop their
the intermediate, or transition, stage. full strength by aging after being upset in place.
The need for hardness and strength is often not
present at the time of metal solidification. Com- ALLOTROPIC CHANGES
mercial practice handles age hardening, precipitation
hardening, or solution hardening (all names used to Phase Changes. A few metals change lattice struc-
describe the same process) as a treatment separate ture upon heating and cooling to exist in different
from solidification when there is a need for develop- forms through various temperature ranges. Such
ment of hardness properties or strength properties, or metals are classed as allotropic. Allotropic changes are
both. very similar to the phase changes from liquid to solid,
Solution Heat Treatment. The first step is solution although they occur completely in the solid state
treatment (heating) to dissolve a maximum amount of with a slower reaction. In addition to a significant
equilibrium precipitant in the solid solution and change of properties, heat is given up or absorbed as
freeze it in place by sudden cooling to eliminate the the metal phase change occurs in the solid state but
necessary time at temperature for precipitation to to a much lower degree than in freezing or melting.
reoccur. The solution temperature used should be low With some metals special methods are necessary to
enough to prevent excessive grain growth but high detect heat changes that accompany the solid-state
enough to insure maximum diffusion oX the preci- phase change.
pitant to saturate the a phase in a minimum amount Iron combined with carbon and sometimes small
of time. The time required depends upon the metal amounts of other elements is by far the most used
r. alloy and may vary from a few minutes to several metal for manufacturing. Iron is an allotropic ma-
rL hours of soaking at the increased temperature. After terial that changes upon heating to 912° C (1,674°F)
38 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
from a body-centered cubic (BCC) lattice to a face- changes in electrical conductivity. The heat treatment
centered cubic (FCC) lattice. A second phase change processes described in this chapter produce various
occurs with further heating to 1,394° C (2541° F), physical property changes including electrical con-
where the lattice structure returns to the body- ductivity. Both eddy current and thermo-electric meth-
centered cubic form. The reverse transformation ods are capable of indicating changes in electrical con-
occurs on cooling through the same temperatures. ductivity and to some extent can provide absolute
Iron in the temperature range up to 912v C is called measures of electrical conductivity. However, both
alpha iron; from 912° C to 1,394° C, gamma iron; methods only probe relatively small volumes of the
and above 1,394° C to 1,538° C (2,800° F), the melt- test material essentially at an exposed surface. During
ing point, delta iron. Little attention is given to delta heat treatment, exposed surfaces tend to heat and cool
iron because the changes that occur in this range have at a different rate from the interior. Thus, measure-
little or no effect in commercial practice of treatment ments of surface characteristics do not necessarily
for properties. The changes that take place between characterize the condition of the interior, but in many
alpha and gamma iron at 912° C, however, are ex- practical cases can provide adequate information for
tremely important. The most effective change is the process control purposes.
difference of carbon solubility in the two phases,
which serves as the basis for all heat-treat hardening
and most grain-size control for steel. APPROXIMATE EQUILIBRIUM HEAT-
TREATMENT PROCESSES
Several heat-treating processes place the material in
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL either a complete or an approximate equilibrium
Steel has been treated by heating and cooling energy condition. These processes include austenitiz-
methods to vary its properties ever since its discovery, ing, annealing, normalizing, and spheroidizing. Except
but even today the exact mechanism by which these for the first, all are finalized at room temperature,
variations take place cannot be completely explained but since austenitizing consists of diffusion of carbon
by fully accepted theories. Most of the treatments into face-centered cubic iron that exists at a mini-
have been developed empirically. Various theoretical mum temperature of 727° C (eutectoid composition
explanations have been used to describe the mechan- only, all others higher), stability, or equilibrium, in
ism, but it has been only in recent years that the this state can be maintained only at the higher temp-
theory has advanced to the point that it is a prime eratures. Austenitization is therefore not a final
source of new development of commercial heat-treat- process but only a step in one of several heat-treating
ing methods. procedures. For these approximate equilibrium
NDT and Other Control Methods. Change of pro- processes, it is possible to predict the material be-
perties of steel can be accomplished by cold working, havior from the equilibrium phase diagrams.
by precipitation hardening, and by allotropic changes. AUSTENITIZATION
Cold working changes are important in most of the
cold deformation processes and, in some cases, may When steel is heated to or above its critical temp-
be the only treatment received by the metal. Precipi- erature (transformation temperature range), the value
tation hardening is seldom used intentionally, except of which is dependent upon the alloy percentages,
for stainless steels, although it may be an accidental and held at temperature for some period of time,
occurrence with some of the processing treatments. carbon unites in solid solution with iron in the
Causing allotropic changes by heat treating proce- gamma or face-centered cubic lattice form. In this
dures is the most effective and most easily accom- phase, as much as 2% carbon can dissolve at the
plished method of varying mechanical properties of eutectic temperature of 1,148° C at which the widest
steel and therefore is the most frequently used way of range of gamma composition exists.
obtaining the desired properties. Grain-Size Control. It is important that the
Heat treating is often defined as intentional heating austenitization temperatures not be exceeded more
and cooling for control of properties. Such a defini- than necessary to accomplish the work in a reason-
tion is perfectly good, but it must be remembered able length of time because grain growth can occur
that the effects of temperature changes are no less rapidly as the temperature is increased. One of the
important when they are caused by unintentional important features of austenitization is grain refine-
heat transfer during a process such as fusion welding ment that occurs with the formation of the new face-
or during a service use in high environmental tempera- centered cubic lattice. These new small grains are
tures such as in a furnace or gas turbine. nucleated with the raising of the metal temperature
Assessment of thermal treatment, whether inten- through the austenite range and will remain small if
tional or not, is often amenable to nondestructive test- the temperature is not raised too high or maintained
ing techniques that are capable of measuring subtle too long. With lowering temperature and decompo-
Materials and Solid State Changes in Metals 39
sition of austenite into the room temperature phase, iron carbide to form in its more stable and lower
the grain size changes little. Grain sizes are affected energy state of small, rounded globules.
only by increasing temperature through this range The main need for the process is to improve the
and not by decreasing temperature. However, because machinability quality of high carbon steel and to pre-
metal grains must be of a certain critical size before treat hardened steel to help produce greater structural
they can maintain themselves alone, practically all the uniformity after quenching. Because of the lengthy
grain refinement that is possible can be acquired by treatment time and therefore rather high cost,
one or two austenitization treatments, providing grain spheroidizing is not performed nearly as much as
growth is not allowed at the higher. temperature. annealing or normalizing.
Distortion and Ckacking Mhirnized by Martemper- grw, corrosion can influence all meeds, but its effect
hg. S e d special tym of quench are conduck! varies widely depending upon the combination of
to minimize quenching g t r e ~ md
s demease the ten- mew 4 corrosive agent.
dency for distortion and cracking. One of these, The tmm "corrosion"ia used to describ action that
is called naartempet.Ing and consists of quenching an is normally considered to be detrimenkd, but the prin-
austdtized s h l in a salt bath at a temperature about ciple is actually used for benefit in some cases. For ex-
that needed for the start of mmhnsite formation. The ample, acids and alkalies are used to corrode metal
st& being quenched is held in this bath until it is of away in the manufacturing prcmss of chemical milling.
uniform temperature but is removed befirre there is Also, aluminum alloys are frequently anodized to pro-
time for the formation of bainite to start. Completion duce an oxide coating thak resists further oxidation
of the mling in air then causes the e r n e hard martan- and, in addition, m y serve as an improved surface for
site that would have formed with quenching from the paint adhesion.
high temperature, but the high thermal or "quench Corrosion attacks metals by direct chemical action,
stresses that are the primary source of cracke and by electrolysis (electrochemical action), or commonly
warping will have been eliminated. . by a combination of the two. The subject is complex
-
Austempering a Terminal Step. A similar proc- and many persons have devoted their lives to its study.
This discussion will summarize some of the known
ess performed at a slightly higher temperature is
called alcstempering. In this case the steel is held at facts concerning the subject in order to develop some
the bath temperature for a longer period, and the understanding of corrosion,its detection, and preven-
result of the isothermal beatment is the formation of tion
-
&masion Definition. In general, corrosion is the Galvanic Series. Table 4-3 ehows a list of metals ar-
deterioration of metals by the chemical action of some ranged in order of their decreasing chemical activity in
surrounding or contracting medium which rnay be li- sea water. This is a special arrangement of the electm
quid, gas, or some combination of the two.To some de- mechanical and the electromotive force d e s . It
Mateeriala and Solid State Changes in Metah 41
S a m
KZINCANODES(+)
w
-
STEEL HULL(-)
Z
Lead
Nickel
Brass -CuZn Figure 4-6
Bronze-CuSn
A ship's steel hull may be protected by attachment
Copper
Stainless Steel
of sacrificial anodic plates to the sides
Silver under the water line
Gold
Platinum EARTH'S SURFACE
.
\. ~ ~n:diCcorrosion
after
to exposure
moisture
~
SHARP BEND
Pitting. Pitting is a localized corrosion by which Some variations of intercrystalline corrosion are
pits that extend deep into the metal develop. This is a known by the names of season cracking, stress corn-
more serious corrosion than the slower general type be and frettifig, all of which are cor-
swn (seeFigure 4-14),
cause the pita may decrease the material strength and roeion systems in which corrosion is accelerated by the
also be the nuclei for fatigue failure. With some materi- metal being under load at the same time corrosion is
als pitting rate may increase with time. Steel which occurring. Season cracking is associated with brass
normally rusts uniformly upon exposuxe to atmo- and some other copper-bearing alloys and occurs most
sphere may, with sufficient time, develop pits. Figure frequently when the materd has undergone cold work-
4-12 illustraks pitting. ings. Season cracking is much accelerated when the
corrosive atmosphere contains ammonia. Fretting is
corrosion-assisted w a r resulting from small osdlla-
tory movements between mating surfaces under load.
Stress corrosion cracking is of major concern because
of its effect, on a fairly large number of common alloys
of various metals used in chemically aggressive envir-
onments. In high strangth steels and martensitic stain-
less steels, stress corrosion cracking is usually inter-
gxanular; in austenitic stainless steel, usually trans-
granular. Control of stress corrosion cracking necessi-
tates controlling the four equitial requirements for
s t r ~ corrosion
s to occur: a susceptible alloy; an ag-
gressive, conrrosive environment; applied or residual
stress; and time. Acoustic emission monitoring tech-
niques have been used in-situ to detect and record the
Figure 4-12 progression of cracking due to stress corrosion.
Pit type corrosion can be observed in the
cylindricaL machined surface of this
alumjnum casting
The first is basically a design problem. The second is NDT for Corrosion Detection. As apparent from
usually a manufacturing or service problem such as the foregoing discussion of corrosion, its effects are
treating coolant water used in a machine tool with a almost always detrimental to the serviceability of criti.
chemical corrosion inhibiter or decerating boiler feed cal components, assemblies, and structures. The NDT
water to remove oxygen. The third is the most com- specialist must understand the effects of the various
mon approach and includes: coating with anodic mate- types of corrosion in order to properly select and direct
rials to promote preferential corrosion, developing a the nondestructive tests most effective in detecting
coating to retard corrosion, and application of a coat- and assessing the extent of corrosion.
ing to exclude the corrosion medium. The coatings For corroded surfaces that are accessible, penetrant,
used are metals, chemical compounds, and organic ma- magnetic particle, and eddy current tests are particu-
terials and plastics. lary useful in detecting the effects of corrosion that re-
Metal Coatings. Coating of metal with another sult in small surface cracks or pits. Very small corro.
metal can be accomplished by electroplating, dipping sion cracks have been detected and recorded by magne-
in molten metal, metal spraying, cladding by rolling tic rubber techniques. For corrosion on the inside of
thin layers over the base metal and by heating the pro- pipes, vessels, and assemblies, other tehcniques are ap-
duct in fine metallic powders. plied. Ultrasonic techniques are particularly effective
Chemical Compounds. Most coatings that consist in the detection and accurate measurement of overall
of chemical compounds are made by treating the base thinning that results from corrosion. Radiography is
metal to change the chemistry of its surface. Anodiz- commonly applied to detect corrosion and corrosion
ing of aluminum is the artificial formation of alumi- thinning in interior and otherwise inaccessible regions
num oxide to a controlled depth on the surface of an of assemblies, insulated components, and the like. Neu-
aluminum alloy. Steel can be given a protective coat- tron radiography has been used to detect interior cor-
ing of iron phos.phate by soaking the product in hot rosion by virtue of the corrosion products having large
solution of manganese phosphate. neutron cross-sections as well as actually imaging cor-
Non-metallic Coatings. Paint, enamel, varnishes, rosion in exceptionally dense materials like lead and
greases, plastics, and many other materials are used to uranium. Acousic emission monitoring has been used
coat objects for corrosion protection. Most of these to monitor the initiation and growth of stress corrosion
materials are used to exclude the corrosive environ- and hydrogen embrittIement cracks.
ment but some contain chemical inhibitors to exert Visual means are also important in the detection of
greater control. Some are for only temporary protec- corrosion. Both corrosion discontinuities and corrosion
tion such as for a few days or weeks, but others may products leave telltale signs by virtue of visible
have a useful life of several years. changes in texture, coloration, topography, and geo-
In all cases of corrosion protection regardless of the metry. Some corrosion products fluoresce when illu-
type, suitable preparation and cleaning of the original minated by ultraviolet light. Further study of corro-
metal surface is essential. Where control of coating sion sites and corrosion products by spectrographic
thickness is important, several methods of NDT are analyses can reveal otherwise elusive evidence as to
available. Eddy current lift-off techniques are most the cause of corrosion.
readily applied, but depending upon the type of coat-
ing and substrate, beta-backscatter, magnetic field
and radioisotopic tagging procedures have been used
effectively.
Ferrous Metals 5
mercury, tungsten, and tin. The location and the the choice usually becomes one based on costs. Frorn
availability of these materials have a marked influence the various materials that would produce a function-
on both the risk and cost of choosing these materials ally acceptable product with sufficient life and frorn
for large-use applications. the various processing methods that are available to a
manufacturer, the best combination must be found.
TABLE 5-1 Obviously, many combinations will be rather quickly
Elements in the Earth's Crust eliminated, but of those remaining, costs of some
may not be entirely predictable without actual exper-
Element Percent Element Percent ience in producing the product. Consequently, the
Oxygen 46.71 Magnesium. . . . . . . 2.08 first choice is not always the final choice, and for this
Silicon 27.69 Titanium ......... 0.62 reason, as well as for reasons of sales appeal and
Aluminum. . . . . .. 8.07 Hydrogen......... 0.14 product redesign, materials and processes frequently
Iron 5.05 Phosphorus. . . . . . . 0.13 are changed on a trial and error basis.
Calcium 3.65 Carbon............ 0.094 Importance of Ferrous Materials. The role that
Sodium 2.75 Others............ 0.436 ferrous materials play in the economy is evident from
Potassium. . . . . . .. 2.58 annual production figures. Approximately 100 mil-
lion tons of ferrous products are made each year in
the United States. For all nonferrous metals, the total
Base Metals. Approximately seventy of the ele- is about 10 million tons per year. Even though much
ments may be classed as metals, and of these, about of the steel tonnage goes into heavy products such as
forty are of commercial importance. Historically, rails and structural steel shapes that require little
copper, lead, tin, and iron are metals of antiquity secondary work, ferrous metals are still the predomi-
because they are either found free in nature or their nant materials of manufacturing. The wide variety of
ores are relatively easy to reduce. These four metals ferrous products is based largely on the economy of
together with aluminum, magnesium, zinc, nickel, producing them; an attempt will be made to discuss
and titanium are presently the most important metals ferrous metals in the economic order of their pro-
for use as base metals for structural alloy systems. duction in the section to follow. Generally, as better
Most other commercially important metals either are properties are required, more costly processes are
metals used primarily as alloying metals or noble necessary .
metals, such as gold, silver, or platinum, that are
important only for special uses or because of their FERROUS RAW MATERIALS
rarity. Ore Reduction. Both iron and steel have their
Material Choice Affected by Process. The method start in the blast furnace. Although other methods for
of manufacture will frequently affect the alloy type reduction have been proposed and will likely be
chosen even after the base metal has been chosen. developed, the tremendous investment in equipment
Although nearly all metals are cast at some time dur- and trained personnel that would be required for the
ing their manufacture, those that are cast to approxi- replacement of present facilities almost insures that
mate finished shape and finished without deforma- the blast furnace method will remain for some time.
tion are specifically referred to as casting alloys. This device is a tall, columnar structure into which
When the metal is fabricated by deformation is fed, through a top opening, a mixture of iron ore
processes, an alloy designed to have good ductility is (oxides of iron - Fe3 03, hematite, or Fe3 04, mag-
specified and referred to as a wrought alloy. Some netite), coke, and limestone. A blast of hot air is
alloys can be either wrought or cast, most wrought supplied through the mixture from near the bottom
alloys can be cast, but many casting alloys have to provide oxygen for combustion of the coke.
insufficient ductility for even simple deformation Temperatures in the neighborhood of 3000° F are
processing. developed in the melting zone. The iron ore is re-
Final Choice Dependent on Many Factors. The duced by chemical reactions with carbon monoxide
choice of a material is usually a stepwise process. gases and by high temperature contact directly with
Sales requirements, raw material costs, equipment the carbon in the coke as well as with other impurity
availability, or specific product requirements will elements in the mixture. Near the bottom of the fur-
frequently narrow the choice between the fields of nace, the iron and the slag, which is made up of other
metals and plastics. With the choice of either metals metallic oxides combined with limestone, melt and
or plastics, some may be eliminated on the basis of accumulate in a well; the lighter slag floats on top of
properties, although a considerable number of plastics the melted iron. The molten iron and slag are tapped
or metal alloys will still satisfy the functional require- off periodically through separate holes. The slag is
ments for the great majority of products. The life to disposed of, either as trash or for byproduct use, and
be expected from the product may also eliminate the iron is run into open molds to solidify as pigs,
some materials from consideration. Finally, however, unless it is to be further processed immediately. In
Ferrous Metals 47
[PIG IRON-H'9.".coo~low
l~-- . _n-
3 ; g
a;~_-
dUChli!1,low~
--I
called steel.
- --
I
-I. - . n
i
t n ,
WROUGHT IRON
SOlod,l,
AdJusl
and Re",e"
ComposHion on
C -Reduce
, AdJusl
Co,bon,
Compos,fion.
Rel,ne, Conl,ol
Bessemeo
and'
Open'
Prior to the introduction of currently used
i'I I Cupola
Poodu'" CoS!
0' Ladle
0'"
i'-' Heoolh,
Majonly
Eleelne,
01 Poaduel
and Oxygen
- Woaughl Pooeess
- -
methods for making steel, a method of reducing the
I I ,f/ ' . "IE '. 1 . - -1 '!
I - -. - carbon content of pig iron had been used since before
1
; I r""" 1
~;"
~
L
~
~I ;II~
~'O:
' I : I [ 1600. The product, although called wrought iron, was
~'i:_J~a_~ll ..
gl
.
ii ! I
~" 0." j ;
: :
I : actually the first low carbon steel to be manufactured
~t
'0;0 ;;; ' fWRoiiGHT]
a. ~ .'. ~ 1
~N -I ' . I
in quantity.
~ J '.0' Iw : ;I
rj
,,~
~ x.': -
...L '.aN~,
-- -I'NGOT 'I
.
..;". causing the molten metal to solidify into approximate Wrought Iron Contains Slag. Because this material
final product form. The result is known as a casting. included slag, which floated on top as long as the
~, The processes of making castings is discussed in Chap- metal was liquid, the slag was mixed with the purified
"'ill: ter 8. Someof the relationships between common cast iron. The resulting product was withdrawn from the
irons are shown in Table 5-2. furnace as a pasty ball on the end of the stirring rod
48 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
TABLE 5-2
Common cast irons
Relative
Type Iron How Produced Characteristics Cost
and, while low in carbon and silicon, contained from tation process. According to the iron-carbon equili-
3% to 4% slag, mostly Si02. These balls were then brium diagram, at 1148° C (2098° F) carbon is
deformation processed by repeated rolling, cutting, soluble in iron up to 2%. At this temperature the
stacking, and reroIling in the same direction. The carbon slowly diffused into the solid material; the
resulting product consisted of relatively pure iron process required a total cycle time, including heating,
with many very fine slag stringers running in the of about 2 weeks. Much of the slag in the wrought
direction of rolling. iron migrated to the surface and formed surface
Although cheaper methods have been developed blisters, which resulted in the term blister steel. Even
for reducing the carbon from pig iron without incor- after this lengthy treatment, the carbon was not
porating the slag in the product, a demand for uniformly dispersed throughout the material, and
wrought iron continues, based primarily on its reputa- multiple cutting and rerolling procedures were re-
tion for corrosion and fatigue resistance. It is quired to produce a high quality product.
presently manufactured by pouring molten refined
iron into separately manufactured slag with subse- Crucible Steel. Further reduction of the slag,
quent rolling. greater uniformity of the carbon, and closer control
Properties of Wrought Iron. Wrought iron has a were later achieved by a secondary operation known
tensile strength of about 350 MPa (50,000 psi) and as the crucible process. Bars made by the cementation
good ductility, although the material is quite aniso- process were remelted in a clay or graphite crucible in
tropic (properties vary with orientation or direction which the slag floated to the surface. This crucible
of testing) because of the slag stringers. Its principal process produced steel of very high quality, and
use is for the manufacture of welded pipe. modifications of the method are still used today, but
While wrought iron originally referred to this it was made possible only by furnace developments
product or to its composition, the term has fre- that permitted higher temperatures to be achieved
quently been extended to refer to any worked low than were needed in the manufacture of wrought
iron.
carbon steel product, particularly a product shaped or
worked by hand, such as ornamental iron railings and Open-Hearth Steel. Both the modem open-hearth
grillwork. furnace and the Bessemer converter were developed in
the 1850s. These two developments greatly increased
STEEL MAKING
the speed with which pig iron could be refined. The
Early Steel. The oldest known method of making modem era of industry can be tied to these develop-
higher carbon steel consisted of reheating wrought ments that led to the production of large quantities
iron and powdered charcoal together in the cemen- of high quality, low-cost steel.
Ferrous Metals 49
~gt:LY
FUEL
~~~INSI';I ~ -fu
~///I/II/IIII//II//I////I/Ill/I/II/III/IIIIIIIIII/IIIIIIIIII~
~
(~~~~ I
1'11[-
WASTEusn
HUTED
AIR
cz0
BLOWING CHARGING POURING
Figure 5-2 shows the construction of an open- Electric Furnace Steel. Electric furnace steel is
hearth furnace as was used for the majority of steel produced in a variation of the older crucible process
produced until recently in the United States. Various with the furnace heated by electric arc or induction.
proportions of pig iron (either solid or molten), steel The atmosphere can be well controlled in the electric
scrap, limestone for flux, and iron ore are charged on furnace, and careful control of composition can be
the hearth of the furnace. The principal reducing maintained. Steel of the highest quality is produced
action takes place between the iron ore and the by this method.
carbon of the pig iron, the final carbon content of the Basic Oxygen Steel. A steel making process
steel being controllable by the proper proportions of known as the basic oxygen process was developed in
the charged materials. The principal difference be- Switzerland and Austria after World War II and first
tween this furnace and that used previously in the used in 1952. By 1957 the method was producing 1%
manufacture of wrought iron lies in the preheating of of the world production. In 1966 the growth of use
the entering combustion air. In the open-hearth fur- was to 25% and currently more than 50% of the
nace for steel making, the air enters through a brick world's steel is made by the basic oxygen process.
checkerwork that has been previously heated by the The Basic Oxygen Process. There are a number of
exhausting flue gases. Two similar checkerworks are variations in the equipment and methods for making
used, one for the exhaust side and one for the enter- basic oxygen steel. Fundamentally they all operate
ing air side of the furnace. After a relatively short much as follows:
period of operation in this manner, the airflow a. Scrap as great as 30% of the heat is charged into
through the checkerworks is reversed. Preheating of the refining vessel, as shown schematically in
the air permits higher temperatures to be developed Figure 5-4.
in the furnace, and the bath of metal may be kept
molten as the carbon content is reduced. b. Molten pig iron is charged on top of the scrap.
c. The lance is positioned, and a high velocity jet
of oxygen is blown on top of the molten mix-
Bessemer Steel. The Bessemer converter is shown ture for about 20 minutes. During this period,
in Figure 5-3. The charge consists of molten pig iron. lime and various fluxes are added as aids for
Steel scrap may be added to help control the temp- control of the final composition.
erature. After charging in the horizontal position, the d. The metal is then sampled, and, if it meets speci-
air blast is turned on through the tuyeres and the
fications, poured through the tap hole into a
converter turned upright so that the air bubbles ladle by tilting the vessel.
through the melt, oxidizing and burning out first sili-
con, then carbon. The process can be used to reduce e. Finally, the vessel is inverted to empty the slag
the carbon content to about 0.05%. Although less and then is ready for reuse. With careful use, the
vessel lining may last for as many as 400 heats.
expensive to operate than the basic-lined open-hearth
furnace, the inability of the acid-lined Bessemer The total time for producing a heat by this method
converter to reduce the phosphorus content of the is 30 to 45 minutes. This compares very favorably
metal has restricted its use to the production of only with the 4 to 6 hours necessary for the open-hearth
about 5% of the steel made in the United States. methods using oxygen.
Some steel is produced by initial refining in the Basic Oxygen Process Provides a Number of Advan-
i
..
U
.
Bessemer converter followed by further refining in tages. Steel made by this method can start from any
grade of pig iron. The finish quality is similar to that
... the open-hearth furnace.
50 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
carbon steels are processed in such structural shapes has on the action of carbon. The hardness and the
as sheet, strip, rod, plate, pipe, and wire. A large strength of any steel, alloy or otherwise, depend
portion of the material is cold worked in its final primarily on the amount and the form of the iron
processing to improve its hardness, strength, and carbide or other metal carbides present. Even in
surface-finish qualities. The grades containing 20 unhardened steel, carbon produces an increase in
points or less of carbon are susceptible to consider- hardness and strength with a consequent loss of
able plastic flow and are frequently used as deep- ductility. The improvement in machinability and the
drawn products or may be used as a ductile core for loss in weldability are based on this loss of ductility.
casehardened material. The low plain carbon steels Alloys Affect Hardenability. Interest in harden-
are readily brazed, welded, and forged. ability is indirect. Hardenability itself has been dis-
Medium Carbon. The medium carbon steels cussed earlier and is usually thought of most in con-
(0.25% to 0.5%) contain sufficient carbon that they nection with depth-hardening ability in a full harden-
may be heat treated for desirable strength, hardness, ing operation. However, with the isothermal trans-
machinability, or other properties. The hardness of formation curves shifted to the right, the properties
plain carbon steel~ in this range cannot be increased of a material can be materially changed even when
sufficiently for the material to serve satisfactorily as not fully hardened. After hot-rolling or forging opera-
cutting tools, but the load-carrying capacity of the tions, the material usually air cools. Any alloy gen-
steels can be raised considerably, while still retaining erally shifts the transformation curves to the right,
sufficient ductility for good toughness. The majority which with air cooling results in finer pearlite than
of the steel is furnished in the hot-rolled condition would be formed in a plain carbon steel. This finer
and is often machined for final finishing. It can be pearlite has higher hardness and strength, which has
welded, but is more difficult to join by this method an effect on machinability and may lower ductility.
than the low carbon steel because of structural
Weldability. The generally bad influence of alloys
changes caused by welding heat in localized areas. on weldability is a further reflection of the influence
High Carbon. High carbon steel contains from 50 on hardenability. With alloys present during the rapid
to 160 points of carbon (0.5% to 1.6%). This group cooling taking place in the welding area, hard, non-
of steels is classed as tool and die steel, in which ductile structures are formed in the steel and fre-
hardness is the.principal property desired. Because of quently lead to cracking and distortion.
the fast reaction time and resulting low hardenability, Grain Size and Toughness. Nickel in particular has
plain carbon steels nearly always must be water-
a very beneficial effect by retarding grain growth in
quenched. Even with this drastic treatment and its
the austenite range. As with harden ability , it is the
associated danger of distortion or cracking, it is secondary effects of grain refinement that are noted
seldom possible to develop fully hardened structure in properties. A finer grain structure may actually
in material more than about 1 inch in thickness. In
have less harden ability , but it has its most pro-
practice the ductility of heat-treat-hardened plain nounced effect on toughness; for two steels with
carbon steel is low compared to that of alloy steels equivalent hardness and strength, the one with finer
with the same strength, but, even so, carbon steel is grain will have better ductility, which is reflected in
frequently used because of its lower cost. the chart as improved toughness. This improved
toughness, however, may be detrimental to machin-
ALLOY STEELS ability.
N G VG G B G VG VG VG G N N VG
Hardenability
G VG G G B VG G G G N N G G
Strength
B VB G VB VB B VB VG G G N G ?
Tough ness
Wear resistance N VG VG N N G VG G VG G N N G
Machinability
annealed G G B G VG B B VB B N B N ?
B VB VB VB B B VB VB VB G B N VB
Weldability
Corrosion
resistance B VB N VG VB G N VG G N VG G ?
Very good VG
Good G
Little or none N
Bad B
Very bad VB
Ferrous Metals 53
structural material with higher yield strength than responds to heat treatment much as any low alloy
plain carbon steel. The addition of small amounts of steel. The gamma-to-alpha transformation in iron
some alloying elements can raise the yield strength of occurs normally, and the steel may be hardened by
hot-rolled sections without heat treatment to 30% to heat treatment similar to that used on plain carbon
40% greater than that of plain carbon steels. Design- or low alloy steels. Steels of this class are called
ing to higher working stresses may reduce the re- martensitic, and the most used ones have 4% to 6%
quired section size, by 25% to 30% at an increased chromium.
cost of 15% to 50%, depending upon the amount and Ferritic Stainless Steel. With larger amounts of
the kind of alloy. chromium, as great as 30% or more, the austenite
The low alloy structural steels are sold almost is suppressed, and the steel loses its ability to be
entirely in the form of hot-rolled structural shapes. hardened by normal steel heat-treating procedures.
These materials have good weld ability, ductility, Steels of this type are called ferritic and are particu-
better impact strength than that of plain carbon larly useful when high corrosion resistance is neces-
steel, and good corrosion resistance, particularly to sary in cold-worked products.
atmospheric exposure. Many building codes are Austenitic Stainless Steel. With high chromium
based on the more conservative use of plain carbon and the addition of 8% or more of nickel or
steels, and the use of alloy structural steel often has combinations of nickel and manganese, the ferrite
no economic advantage in these cases. is suppressed. These steels, the most typical of which
contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel, are referred to
LOW ALLOY AISI STEELS as austenitic stainless steels. They are not hardenable
Improved Properties at Higher Cost. The low by normal steel heat-treating procedures, but the addi-
alloy American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) steels tion of small amounts of other elements makes some of
are alloyed primarily for improved hardenability. them hardenable by a solution precipiation reaction.
They are more costly than plain carbon steels, and Composition and Structure Critical for Corrosion
their use can generally be justified only when
Resistance. In any stainless steel, serious loss of
needed in the heat-treat-hardened and tempered
corrosion resistance can occur if large amounts of
condition. Compared to plain carbon steels, they chromium carbide form. Consequently, the ferritic
can have 30% to 40% higher yield strength and 10%
and austenitic grades are generally made with low
to 20% higher tensile strength. At equivalent tensile
amounts of carbon and even then may need special
strengths and hardnesses, they can have 30% to 40% heat treatments or the addition of stabilizing ele-
higher reduction of area and approximately twice
ments such as molybdenum or titanium to prevent
the impact strength. chromium carbide formation. With the martensitic
Usually Heat Treated. The low alloy AISI steels
grades in which the hardness and strength depend
are those containing less than approximately 8%
on the carbon, the steels must be fully hardened
total alloying elements, although most commercially with the carbon in a martenistic structure for maxi-
important steels contain less than 5%. The carbon mum corrosion resistance.
content may vary from very low to very high, but The austenitic steels are the most expensive but
for most steels it is in the medium range that
possess the best impact properties at low tempera-
effective heat treatment may be employed for
tures, the highest strength and corrosion resistance
property improvement at minimum costs. The steels at elevated temperature, and generally have the best
are used widely in automobile, machine tool, and
appearance. They are used for heat exchangers,
aircraft construction, especially for the manufacture
refining and chemical processing equipment, gas
of moving parts that are subject to high stress and turbines, and other equipment exposed to severe
wear.
corrosive conditions. The austenitic steels are para-
STAINLESS STEELS magnetic (practically unaffected by magnetic flux).
Tonnage-wise, the most important of the higher This fact precludes the use of magnetic particle
alloy steels are a group of high chromium steels testing. In the as-cast state, and in welds, austenitic
with extremely high corrosion and chemical resis- stainless steel is quite coarse-grained. In ultrasonic
tance. Most of these steels have much better testing of this material, high levels of noise and atten-
mechanical properties at high temperatures. This uation serve to limit the effectiveness of the test.
group was first called stainless steel. With the Both the ferritic and martensitic stainless steels
emphasis on high temperature use, they are fre- are magnetic. Most are not as corrosion resistant at
quently referred to as heat and corrosion-resistant high temperatures as the austenitic type but offer
~ steels. good resistance at normal temperatures. They are
t.! Martensitic Stainless Steel. With lower amounts used for such products as cutlery, surgical instru-
ments, automobile trim, ball bearings, and kitchen
..~f chromium or with silicon or aluminum added to equipment.
~ome of the higher chromium steels, the material
54 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
Fabrication Difficult. The stainless steels are otropic. At the same time, they become weaker and
more difficult to machine and weld than most other more brittle in the perpendicular directions. Steel
ferrous materials. In no case can stainless steels be that is cast to shape loses the opportunity for gain
classed as the easiest to work, but they can be in properties by plastic work but, by the same
processed by all of the normal procedures, including token, is not adversely affected by weakness in
casting, rolling, forging, and pressworking. some directions.
Wide Variety of Composition. As far as composi-
TOOL AND DIE STEELS
tion is concerned, no real differences exists between
The greatest tonnage of tools (other than cutting wrought and cast steel. It was pointed out earlier
tools, which are discussed in Chapter 18) and dies that steel is a combination of mostly iron with
are made from plain carbon or low alloy steels. This carbon in amounts from just above that soluble at
is true only because of the low cost of these materi- room temperature (0.008%) to as high as 2%, the
als as their use has a number of disadvantages. They maximum soluble in austenite at the eutectic temp-
have low hardenability, low ductility associated with erature. Other elements may also be part of the com-
high hardness, and do not hold their hardness well position in quantities small enough to be negligi-
at elevated temperature. ble or sufficiently large to influence the heat treat-
Manganese Steels. Manganese tool and die steels ing of the alloy or even exert effects. of their own,
are oil hardening and have a reduced tendency to as in wrought alloy steels. The carbon content can
deform or crack during heat treatment. They con- be in any of the three ranges, low, medium, or high,
tain from 85 to 100 points of carbon, 1.5% to but the majority of steel castings are produced in
1.75% of manganese to improve hardenability, and the medium carbon range because nearly all are heat
small amounts of chromium, vanadium, and molyb- treated to develop good mechanical properties.
denum to improve hardness and toughness quali-
ties. MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS
Chromium Steels. High chromium tool and die
steels are usually quenched in oil for hardening, but Variety of Metallic Materials Necessitates Specifi-
some have sufficient harden ability to develop hard- cation Codes. During earlier times in our industrial
development, there was less need for material identi-
ness with an air quench. One group of the high
chromium steels, called high speed steel, has sub- fication systems. A manufacturer generally had
stantial additions of tungsten, vanadium, and some- complete charge of the entire operation from raw
times cobalt to improve the hardness in the red heat material to finished product. In any event, there
range. were relatively few materials from which to choose.
More recently, specialization has led to more divi-
CAST STEELS sion of the manufacturing procedure. Fabricators
seldom produce their own raw materials, and the
Quantity Relatively SmaIl. Compared to the ton- number of material choices has grown tremendously
nage of cast iron and wrought steel produced, the and continues to grow yearly. Reliable and univer-
quantity of cast steel is small. The high tempera- sally accepted systems of material specification are
tures necessary make melting and handling more essential to permit designers to specify and fabrica-
difficult than for cast iron and also create problems tors to purchase materials and be assured of compo-
in producing sound, high quality castings. The sition and properties.
mechanical properties of cast steel tend to be The first group of materials for which standardi-
poorer than those of the same material in wrought zation was needed was ferrous materials. The
form, but certain shape and size relationships, to- automotive industry set up the first recognized
gether with property requirements that can be sup- standards, but with broader use and more classes of
plied only by steel, may favor the manufacture of a steels, the present most universally recognized stand-
product as a steel casting. Steel castings may be ards are those of the AISI.
produced with greater ductility than even malleable AISI Numbers for Plain and Low Alloy Steels.
iron. The number of possible combinations of iron, car-
Cast Steel Is Isotropic. The principal advantages bon, and alloying elements is without limit. Some
of steel as a structural material, mainly the ability of these, for example, the low alloy high strength
to control properties by composition and heat treat- structural steels, are riot covered by any standard
ment, apply for both the wrought and the cast specification system, or designation. However, the
material. One advantage of cast steel over its majority of commonly used steels in the plain
wrought counterpart is its lack of directional prop- carbon and low alloy categories can be described by
erties. Wrought steel and other materials tend to a standardized code system consisting of a letter
develop strength in the direction of working when denoting the process by which the steel was manu-
deformed by plastic flow, that is, become anis- factured, followed by four, or in a few cases, five
F-
Ferrous Metals 55
digits. The first two digits refer to the quantity and TABLE 5-4
kind of principal alloying element or elements. The AISI Basic Classification Numbers
last two digits, or three in the case of some high
carbon steels, refer to the carbon content in hun- AISI No. Average Percent Alloy Content
dredths of a percent. At one time, the process used 10XX None
in steel making affected the properties of the fin- llXX 0.08-0.33 S
ished product enough that it was important to 13XX 1.8-2.0 Mn
know how it was made. Letter prefixes as follows 23XX 3.5 Ni
were used for this purpose. 31XX 0.7-0.8 Cr 1.3 Ni
B - Acid Bessemer carbon steel 41XX 0.5-1.0 Cr, 0.2-0.3 Mo
C - Basic open-hearth steel a3XX 0.5-0.8 Cr , 1.8 Ni, 0.3 Mo
D - Acid open-hearth steel 51XX 0.8-1.1 Cr
E - Electric furnace alloy steel 61XX 0.8-1.0 Cr, 0.1-0.2 V
86XX 0.6 Ni, 0.5-0.7 Cr, 1.2 Mo
With the advent of basic oxygen steel, however, the
87XX 0.6 Ni, 0.5 Cr, 0.3 Mo
letter prefix is falling into disuse. The control
exhibited in the basic oxygen process produces steel
of similar quality to that from the open-hearth
method. with exactly the same number throughout will vary
Table 5-4 shows the average alloy content associa- slightly from heat to heat because of necessary
ted with some of the most frequently used classes manufacturing tolerances. Exact composition can
of steels. The exact specified quantity varies with therefore be determined only from chemical analysis
the carbon content of each steel, and even steels of individual heats.
TABLE 5-5
Some Stainless Steels and Properties
Carrasio.n Resistance Usually High. The carra- faurths af all the capper praduced is used far elec-
sian resistance af mast nanferraus metals is gener- trical canductars, so. aluminum is left as the mast
ally superiar to. all ferraus metals except stainless impartant structural no.nferraus metal. Aluminum is
steel, and stainless steel daes nat affer the cast patentially very available. Large are depasits are
advantage af plain carban and law allay steels. This faund at many places, but the mast ecanamical
increased carra sian resistance is the mast frequent reductian pracess yet develaped still requires 8 kila-
reasan far the chaice af nanferraus metals. watt haurs af electrical energy per paund af m~tal
Carra sian resistance is impartant far a number af refined. Even so, the only cheaper metals an a
reasans. Nat anly may the mechanical praperties af weight basis are lead, zinc, and iron. Lead is seldam
the material be affected by co.rrasian but also. the used as a structural metal, and zinc is limited
appearance af a metal is dependent an its carrasian mastly to. law strength applicatians, so. aluminum is
resistance. Where appearance is impartant, the a principal campetitar with iron and steel. On a
cammanly used ferraus metals nearly always require valume basis, anly iran is cheaper.
same kind af finishing and pratective surface treat- GENERAL PROPERTIES
ment. With many nanferraus metals, pratective
finishes are nat needed, even under canditians that Strength af Aluminum Allays. Aluminum allays
wauld be severely carrasive to. steel. The distinctive have tensile strengths that range fram 83 to. 550
appearance af many nanferraus metals is highly MPa (12,000 to. 80,000 psi). These values campare
desirable in many praducts. favarably with ather nanferraus allays and with
many steels, althaugh same steels may have strengths
NONFERROUS
METALS as great as 2,070 MPa (300,000 psi). Nevertheless,
the law density af aluminum, abaut ane-third that
I LIGHT ALLOYS I HEAVY ALLO'( af iran, steel, and brass, is mare impartant than
ALUMINUM BASE COPPERBASE space cansideratians.
MAGNESIUMBASE ZINC BASE Aluminum Has Excellent Ductility and Carro.sian
TITANIUM BASE NICKEL BASE Resistance. The excellent ductility af aluminum
BERYLLIUMBASE TIN BASE
permits it to. be readily farmed into. camplicated
shapes and allaws plastic flaw instead af fracture
LEAD BASE failure under shack and ather averlaad canditians.
Figure 6-1
Pure aluminum has excellent carrasian resistance.
Nanferraus metals but is limited in use to. thase applicatians in which
strength requirements are law. The carrasian resis-
Nanferraus Metals Used far Allaying with Iran as tance af the high strength aluminum allays is gener-
Well as Themselves. Althaugh iran is the most ally gaad except when expased to. same alkaline
frequently used magnet material, having high enviranments. Additianal pratectio.n may be pro.-
permeability and law magnetic hysteresis, pure iran vided far these canditians by cladding the allays
is a paar permanent magnet material. The best with a thin layer af the pure metal ar ather aluminum
permanent magnets are allays high in nickel, alumi- allays.
num, and cabalt. Silver, capper, and aluminum have When called up an to. perfarm canductivity checks on
much greater electrical and thermal canductivities aluminum plates and sheets, NDT personnel should be
than any ferraus materials and are usually used alert far clad materials. Since the electrical conductivi-
instead af steel when these properties are impartant. ties of the base metal and the cladding are invariably
Zinc Used in Large Quantities. Zinc is a typical different, the eddy current canductivity measurement
example af a metal whase use in relatively large may include same combinatian of the two. conductivi-
tannages depends nat so. much an mechanical prap- ties and result in misleading readings.
erties, ar even an superiar carrasian resistance, but Same Po.o.r Pro.perties Restrict Use. The endur-
an a special pracessing advantage. Zinc is weak, ance limit even far hardened allays is in the range
casts aver twice as much per paund as pig iran ar af 5,000 to. 20,000 psi. This weakness prahibits the
law carban steel, and even with gaad carra sian use af aluminum in same applicatians in which
resistance usually needs plating far gaad appearance, vibratian is cambined with high stress levels, and it
but its law melting paint permits its use in die cast- is aften necessary to. abserve special precautians to.
ing with langer die life than any ather cammanly eliminate the occurrence af stress risers, such as
cast metal. natches, scratches, and sudden sectian changes.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS Ano.ther deficiency is the lass af strength that ac-
curs wi th increased temperature. Bath wark-
Aluminum and capper are the mast impo.rtant af hardened and heat-treat-hardened allays lase
the nanferraus metals, being pro.duced in appro.xi- strength rapidly at temperatures greater than abaut
mately equal tannages. Ho.wever, abaut three- 1500 C. This lass af strength at elevated tempera-
Nonferrous Metals and Plastics 59
tures not only restricts the design of parts made of of this type offer advantages over pure aluminum
aluminum but also, because it is combined with a by compromising with a reduction of forming prop-
loss of ductility near the melting point (a condition erties to gain in mechanical properties. The addi-
called hot shortness), makes the processes of casting tional strength is obtained only by the presence of
and welding more difficult. the alloy in solid solution and not because of heat
Aluminum Alloys Provide Valuable Combined treatment. However, the alloys are subject to work
Properties. All of the metals and alloys, both fer- hardening and recrystallization treatments as are all
rous and nonferrous, have some combination of metals. The term annealing, when used with refer-
properties that make them preferred for some appli- ence to pure aluminum or one of the solid solution
cations. While aluminum is exceeded in any indivi- alloys, can only be interpreted to mean recrystalliza-
dual property by some other metal and while it has tion.
deficiencies that limit its use, the combination of
properties it possesses (particularly good corrosion
resistance, conductivity, lightness, good strength-to- PROPERTY CHANGES
weight ratio, and good ductility), when combined
with easy fabrication and moderately low cost, Hardening and Strengthening by Heat Treat-
account for its importance as a structural metal ment. As was discussed in Chapter 4, the possibili-
second only to iron and steel. ty of heat-treat hardening exists even in metals that
undergo no allotropic changes when an alloying
element is more soluble at elevated temperature
WROUGHT ALUMINUM ALLOYS
than at room temperature. Varying amounts of copper,
Uses for All Pure Metals Limited. Aluminum less than about 5.5%, can be alloyed with aluminum.
alloys designed to be used with some deformation Depending on the heat treatment, three different
process, in which ductility and strain-hardening structures may be actually obtained. With slow cool-
properties are of greatest importance, are referred to ing, equilibrium conditions are approximated, and the
as wrought alloys. Any pure metal, including alumi- alloy is placed in its softest, or annealed, condition.
num, generally has greater ductility, higher conduct- With rapid cooling, the fully saturated structure of in-
ivity, and better corrosion resistance than any termediate hardness and ductility is obtained. Follow-
alloyed form of the metal. The purest readily avail- ing the establishment of this supersaturated structure,
able form of aluminum has especially high con- the alloy is subject to aging, either natural with time at
ductivity and is designated as electrical grade (EC). room temperature or artificial at slightly elevated
Compared to copper, its conductivity is 68% on a temperature. The hardest structure is obtained only by
volume basis but 200% on a weight basis. heating to the solution temperature to allow the copper
Pure Aluminum - Soft and Weak but Corrosion to form a solid solution, followed by quenching and ag-
Resistant. Highest purity is necessary only for ing.
electrical use. Commercially pure aluminum has Reaction with Magnesium or Magnesium-Silicon
sufficient impurities present to impair its electrical Similar to Copper. Besides copper-aluminum, two
conductivity significantly but retains excellent cor- other reactions of this type are used in commercial
rosion resistance and ductility. In the fully softened aluminum alloys. Above 4%, magnesium forms heat
condition the tensile strength is about 83 MPa treatable alloys with aluminum, and the combina-
\ (12,000 psi). When fully work hardened, the tion of magnesium and silicon forms the compound
MgSi, which acts in the same way as copper or pure
\ strength is approximately doubled. The combination
of high ductility and low strength generally results magnesium. Strengths of these alloys range from 90
in poor machinability, particularly from the stand- to 241 MPa (13,000 to 35,000 psi) in the annealed
point of surface finish. condition and from 241 to 550 MPa (35,000 to
Pure Aluminum and Most Alloys Not Hardenable 80,000 psi) in the fully hardened condition.
by Heat Treatment. Neither electrical grade nor The fabricator of aluminum products may obtain
commercially pure aluminum is susceptible to hard- the alloys in a number of different heat-treated and
ening by heat treatment. Likewise, a number of work-hardened conditions. Table 6-1 shows the
aluminum alloys containing alloying elements that standard symbols that are used to denote these
remain in solid solution at all temperatures do not conditions. The terms solution treated, aged, an-
respond to heat-treat-hardening procedures. The nealed, and cold worked have been discussed in
effect of the alloys is to increase the strength at the connection with heat treatments.
expense of some ductility. Tensile strengths in the Slight averaging Used for Stabilization. Stabiliz-
tIi> range of 110 to 275 MPa (16,000 to 40,000 psi) ing is an additional treatment used with aluminum
when annealed and 50% to 70% greater when fully alloys to control growth and distortion. In an alloy
~ work hardened may be obtained by additions of naturally or artificially aged to the maximum hard-
ness level, a period of time follows during which the
C manganese, chromium, magnesium, and iron. Alloys
60 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
natural relieving of stresses will result in uncon- alloys have been developed specifically for castings.
trolled, though small, dimensional changes. If the As a cast metal, pure aluminum is subject to the
aging process is carried slightly past that required same drawbacks that are characteristic of the
for maximum hardness, the structure is dimension- wrought alloys. In addition, the relatively high melt-
ally stabilized and no further significant changes will ing temperature leads to excessive oxidation and the
occur. entrapment of gases in the molten metal. The fluidi-
TABLE 6-1 ty of some liquid alloys is too poor for flow into
thin sections, and some are subject to high shrink-
Aluminum temper and heat-treat symbols
age and cracking while solidifying and cooling in the
-F As fabricated.
mold. By proper alloying, all these conditions may
-0 Annealed (recrystallized) temper of wrought materials. be improved.
-H 1 Strain hardened only. Degree of hardening
As with the wrought alloys, some casting alloys
designated by second digit 1 through 8. Second may be heat-treat hardened and some may not.
digit 9 used to designate extra hard temper. Principal among the casting alloys that are not heat
-H 2 Strain hardened and partially annealed. Second treatable are those containing silicon only. Used in
digit 2 through 8 used in same manner as for amounts up to 11%, silicon improves fluidity and
Hl series.
decreases shrinkage. Tensile strengths of 130 MPa
-H 3 Strain hardened and stabilized. Second digit to (18,000 psi) for sand castings and 210 MPa (30,000
designate degree of residual strain. psi) for die castings are typical. Added magnesium
- T 2 Annealed temper of cast material. improves not only the casting characteristics but
- T 3 Solution treat and strain harden.
also the machinability of the cast metal.
- T 4 Solution treat and natural age.
Heat-Treat-Hardenable Alloys More Difficult to
- T 5 Artificial age only after cooling from elevated
Cast. Alloys subject to hardening by heat treat-
processing temperature.
ment are produced when copper only, magnesium
- T 6 Solution treat and artificial age.
plus silicon, or copper plus magnesium plus silicon
- T 7 Solution treat and stabilize.
are used as alloying elements. When subjected to a
- T 8 Solution treat, strain harden, and artificial age.
complete solution, quenching, and aging heat treat-
- T 9 Solution treat, artificial age, and strain harden.
ment, alloys of these types may have strength as
Note: The above symbols follow the number designating the great as 330 MPa (48,000 psi). Many aluminum
aluminum alloy type and become part of the material identi- castings are made of heat-treatable alloys and are
fication. used as cast, without heat treatment. The casting
process itself generally provides rapid enough cool-
NDT Used for Conductivity Testing, Eddy current ing to constitute a degree of quenching sufficient to
conductivity testing methods are in routine use for give some supersaturation, and natural aging will
heat treatment control and alloy sorting. As shown in
provide some hardening. The use. of the heat-treat-
Table 6-2, the electrical conductivities of some com- able casting alloys is restricted to applications
mon aluminum alloys vary, in some cases substan- req uiring high strength-to-weight ratios because
tially, depending upon the variaions in alloying ele- these alloys are somewhat more difficult to cast.
ments and heat treatment. However, examination of Shrinkage is generally higher than with the nonhard-
the % lACS values shown in Table 6-2 shows that in
enable types, and the metal is more subject to
some cases the values are the same or nearly the same
cracking and tearing during the cooling period in
for different alloys. When sorting alloys by eddy cur- the mold. (Table 6-2 shows some typical wrought
rent methods, it may be necessary to conduct a second and cast alloys.)
test to positively identify the alloy or heat treatment
condition. Frequently used for this purpose are chemi- COPPER ALLOYS
cal spot tests. While more difficult to use and not
While the total tonnage of copper has not de-
strictly nondestructive, chemical spot tests will con-
clusively identify the difference between, say 5052-0 creased, the importance of this metal relative to
ferrous metals and to other nonferrous metals has
and 2017-T4, which have electrical conductivities of 35
and 34% lACS respectively, a difference not conclu- decreased throughout recent history. However,
sively separable by eddy current tests. copper is the metal that has been of greatest impor-
tance during the longest period of man's history.
The Bronze Age refers to the period of history
during which man fashioned tools from copper and
CAST ALUMINUM ALLOYS copper alloys as they were found to occur naturally
Special Alloys Needed for Casting. Aluminum in the free state. The copper used today is reduced
castings could be made from any of the alloys from ores as are other metals, and the continued
intended for plastic deformation. These alloys do in use depends on the properties that make it useful as
fact have their beginning as cast ingots, but certain either a pure or an alloyed metal.
Nonferrous Metals and Plastics 61
TABLE 6-2
Some Aluminum Alloys and Properties
Electrical
Ten St. Percent Conductivity
Composition 1000 psi Elong Hardness at 28° Characteristics
Type Cu Si Mn Mg Other (6.9 x 10. Pal (2 in.) Brinell (% lACS) and Uses
Wrought
2017 4.0 0.7 0.5 26 (0) 22 (0) 45(0) 50 Corrosion resistance to rural atmo-
62 (T4) 22 (T4) 105 (T4) 34 sphere; poor corrosion resistance to
marine atmosphere. Machinability
good when hard. Screw machine
products.
6061 0.28 0.6 1.0 Cr 0.25 18 (0) 25(0) 30(0) 47 Excellent corrosion resistance to
45 (T6) 12 (T6) 95 (T6) 43 rural atmosphere; good resistance
to industrial and marine atmo-
sphere. Good weldability. Struc-
tures, marine use, pipes.
7075 1.6 2.5 Zn 5.6 33 (0) 17 (0) 60(0) 57 Good corrosion resistance to rural
Cr 0.29 83 (T6) 11 (T6) 150 (T6) 33 atmosphere but poor for others. Fre.
quently clad. Good machinability.
Poor weldability. Aircraft structure.
43 5.25 19 as cast 8 40 Good corrosion resistance. Only fair
machinability. Sand and permanent
mold castings, marine fittings, thin
sections.
214 4.0 25 as cast 9 50 Good corrosion resistance. Excel.
lent machinability. Sand castings,
dairy and food-handling hardware.
355 1.25 5.0 0.5 42 Sol
Treat Age 4 90 Good corrosion resistance. Good
machinability. Sand and permanent
mold castings.
I:
I
I
GENERAL PROPERTIES
t" Copper is one of the heavier structural metals (30,000 to 125,000 psi), depending on alloy con-
r with a density about 10% greater than that of steel.
f Tensile strengths range from 210 to 880 MPa
tent, degree of work hardening, and heat treatment.
The ductility is excellent and most alloys are easy
t.
62 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
to work by deformation processes, either hot or aluminum. However, the high cost has confined
cold. The machinability ranges from only fair for their use to applications in which the combinations
some of the cast materials to excellent for some of of high strength with high corrosion resistance or t
the wrought materials. The most machinable are high strength with high conductivity are necessary.
those containing lead or tin additives for the pur- Most interesting of these alloys is one containing
pose of improving machinability. 98% copper and 2% beryllium. After proper heat
Copper Has Excellent Thermal and Electrical treatment, this alloy has a tensil strength of 1,280
Properties. If the preceding properties were the MPa (185,000 psi) and a Rockwell C hardness of
only properties of note that copper had, it would 40. It is useful not only for applications such as
probably be little used. However, copper has out- electrical relay springs in which high endurance limit
standing electrical and thermal conductivity and must be combined with high conductivity but also
excellent corrosion resistance, particularly when for chisels, hammers, and other tools for use in
compared to ferrous metals. As noted before, three- mines and other hazardous locations where sparks
fourths of the copper produced is used in pure form must be avoided.
because of its conductivity. While aluminum has Tin and Lead Improve Machinability and Casta-
higher conductivity than copper on a weight basis bility. Copper alloys intended for casting usually
and is displacing copper .for some electrical applica- contain some tin and lead to improve machinability
tions, copper continues to be the principal metal for and to reduce void formation in the castings. The
electrical use. This is particularly due to the higher properties that make the wrought alloys useful
strength-to-weight ratio of copper in pure-drawn apply also to the cast alloys so that a large number
form as is generally used for electrical conductors. of small castings are used in plumbing fixtures,
Corrosion Resistance to Some Environments marine hardware, pump impellers and bodies, elec-
Good. For other than electrical use, copper and its trical connectors, and statuary. Table 6-3 gives the
alloys compete with steel primarily because of bet- compositions and properties of some typical brasses
ter corrosion resistance. Copper alloys have excel- and bronzes.
lent resistance to atmospheric corrosion, particularly NICKEL ALLOYS
under marine conditions. The combination of cor- Considerable Nickel Used as an Alloy in Steel.
rosion resistance and high thermal conductivity Nickel and manganese are metals that have mechani-
makes them useful for radiators and other heat cal characteristics similar to those of iron. However,
exchangers. neither is subject to alloying with carbon and con-
trol of hardness by heat treatment as is steel. Also,
BRASSES AND BRONZES the ores of both metals are much less plentiful than
Definitions. For many years copper alloys were iron ore, and the price is therefore higher. While
rather simply divided into two groups. Those con- manganese is little used except as an alloying element,
taining zinc as the principal alloying element were nickel has sufficiently better corrosion and heat
known as brass and those containing tin as the resistance than iron or steel to justify its use when
principal alloying element were known as bronze. these qualities are of enough importance. Nearly
More recently the names have become confusing. three-quarters of all the nickel produced is used either
Brasses generally contain from 5% to 40% zinc, but as a plating material for corrosion resistance or as an
even one of these alloys is known as "commercial alloying element in steel. However, its use in steel has
bronze." Bronzes contain a principal alloying ele- decreased in recent years with the discovery that
ment other than zinc. Tin is still the most common. other elements in lower percentages may have the
Properties Inverse to Cost. While the conductivity same effects as nickel.
and ductility of any alloy is less than that of pure Most Important Property Is Corrosion Resis-
copper, strength, corrosion resistance to some media, tance. As a structural metal by itself, or as the
machinability, appearance or color, and casting prop- basis of alloys, the properties of nickel and its
erties may be improved by alloying. Pure zinc is alloys are indicated in Table 6-4. Nickel and copper
cheaper than pure copper, and the cost of their alloys are completely soluble in the solid state, and many
becomes lower as the amount of zinc is increased. different compositions are available. Those rich in
Bronzes generally have better properties than brasses, copper compete with brass but have higher cost,
but the high cost of tin has limited their use. The low corrosion resistance, and temperature resistance.
friction and excellent antiwear properties of bronze Those richer in nickel have superior heat and corro.
makes it preferred for many journal-bearing applica- sion resistance at even higher cost and are used in
tions. many applications in which stainless steel is used.
Some Alloys Heat-Treat Hardenable. A few of The 'composition of Monel metal is. determined
the copper alloys are hardenable by a solution- largely by the composition of the ores found in the
precipitation treatment similar to that used for Sudbury district of Canada.
Nonferrous Metals and Plastics 63
TABLE 6-3
Properties of some brasses and bronzes
Ten. St
Composition 1000 psi Percent
Name Zn Sn Other (6.9Xl06Pa) Elong Characterisitics and Uses
Electrolytic 99.9 pure 32-50 6-45 Excellent workability. Good electrical
copper properties and corrosion resistance.
Electrical conductors, contacts,
switches, automobile radiators,
chemical equipment.
Commercial 10.0 37 5-45 Good corrosion resistance. Excellent
bronze workability. Marine hardware,
costume jewelry.
Red brass 15.0 39-70 5-48 Good corrosion resistance to atmosphere.
Good workability. Fair machinability.
Weatherstrips, heat exchangers,
plumbing.
Yellow 35.0 46-74 8-65 Good corrosion resistance to atmosphere.
brass Poor hot workability. Fair machina-
bility- Grillwork, lamp fixtures, springs.
Naval brass 39.0 1.0 25.53 20-47 Corrosion resistance generally good. Seldom
used full hard. Aircraft and marine
hardware, valve stems, condenser plates.
Phosphor 10.0 66-128 3-68 Good atmospheric corrosion resistance.
bronze Poor machinability. Good wear qualities.
Bearing plates, springs.
Aluminum
bronze 7.0 AI 85-90 20.40 Excellent atmospheric corrosion resistance.
Excellent hot workability. Good machina-
bility. Gears, nuts, bolts.
Beryllium 0.3 Co 185 3.50 Good atmospheric corrosion resistance.
copper 2.0 Be
Poor machinability. Good workability.
Springs, valves, diaphragms, bellows-
TABLE 6-4
Properties of some nickel alloys
Ten. St
Composition Balance Nickel 1000 psi Percent
Name Mn Fe Cu Other (6.9 X 106 Pal Elong Characteristics and Uses
A Nickel 0.25 0.15 0.05 55-130 55-2 Corrosion.resistant at high temperature.
Vacuum tube parts, springs, chemical
. equipment.
Monel 0.90 1.35 31.5 70-140 50-2 Good corrosion resistance combined with
high strength at normal and medium
temperatures. Pump shafts, valves,
springs, food-handling equipment.
Inconel 0.20 7.20 0.10 Cr 15 80-170 55-2 Similar to Monel but better high temperature
strength.
Nickel 36 64.0 70-90 36-20 Corrosion-resistant to atmospheres and to
salt water. Low thermal expansion.
Length standards, thermostatic bimetals.
.. Cast 0.75 1.5 32.0 Si 1.6 65-90 50-20 Good corrosion resistance to salt water and
." Monel most acids. Valve seats, turbine blades,
,
exhaust manifolds.
'"
64 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology t
=
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS subject to ignition from sparks, flames, or high ~
temperatures. ~
Although beryllium is the lightest metal available, ;;:
its extremely high cost restricts its use to very ZINC ALLOYS ~t
special applications. Magnesium is therefore the Low Cost but also Low Strength. Zinc has the
lightest metal commercially available, with a density lowest cost per pound of any nonferrous metal.
two-thirds that of aluminum. Magnesium alloys have However, its use has been restricted by a combina-
good strength, ranging up to 350 MPa (50,000 psi) tion of factors. The best alloy has a tensile strength
for wrought alloys and up to 280 MPa (40,000 psi) of 325 MPa (47,000 psi) and an endurance limit of
for cast alloys. Corrosion resistance is good in ordi- 55 MPa (8,000 psi). When combined with the densi-
nary atmosphere but for more severe conditions, ty, which is about the same as that of iron, the
including marine atmospheres, some surface protec- result is a fairly low strength-to-weight ratio. The
tion is necessary. recrystallization temperature of about 200 C for
Wrought and cast alloys have similar composi- pure zinc simplifies tooling and drawing operations
tions. Aluminum, zinc, and manganese improve but results in a very low creep strength. Precipita-
strength and forming properties. With 8% or more tion reactions with even small amounts of iron,
aluminum, a solution-precipitation hardening treat- lead, cadmium, or tin present as impurities can
ment is possible. Thorium, zirconium, and certain result in gradual dimensional change and loss of
rare earth elements produce alloys useful at temper- shock resistance with time. With artificial aging, the
atures up to 4800 C (9000 F). precipitation reaction that takes place with copper
Magnesium Alloys Work Harden Easily. The can be used to improve the mechanical properties of
principal drawbacks of magnesium, other than the some alloys. Because of these limitations, zinc alloys
relatively high cost of recovery from sea water, are are seldom used in a critical application that would
related to its crystalline structure. Magnesium is one warrant NDT.
of the few important metals having a close-packed Preferential Corrosion Feature Valuable. In addi-
hexagonal structure. Characteristic of these metals is tion to the relatively low cost, zinc has a number of
a high rate of strain hardening. This property has two other properties that make it desirable. It has good
practical consequences. The amount of cold working corrosion resistance when used as a coating on
that can be done without recrystallization is quite ferrous materials. The zinc is attacked in preference
limited so that most forming operations must be to the base metal, even though there are interrup-
done hot. This causes no great difficulty in rolling, tions in the coating. Plating or coating with zinc is
forging, and extrusion operations that are normally called galvanizing and accounts for the use of more
performed hot with any metal, but secondary press than 50% of all the zinc produced.
operations on flat sheet may require heating of the Pure or slightly alloyed wrought zinc has high
dies and magnesium sheet. Most pressworking equip- formability. It is an excellent roofing material and is
ment is not designed for this type of operation. frequently used for flashing on roofs of other ma-
Stress Levels High at Notches and Imperfections. terials. Its chemical properties make it useful for
The high rate of strain hardening also results in the dry cell battery cases and for photoengraving plates.
fault called notch sensitivity. At a stress concentra- Low Melting Temperature of Benefit for Die
tion point, such as the base of the notch in an Casting. As a structural material, zinc is used
impact test specimen, the load-carrying ability of a almost exclusively because of its excellent casting
material depends on its ability to permit some plas- properties in metal molds. With pour:ng tempera-
tic flow to enlarge the radius and relieve the stress tures ranging from 7400 to 8000 C, zinc alloys used
concentration. The high rate of strain hardening in in die casting give much greater die life than mag-
magnesium lessens its ability to do this and thus nesium, aluminum, or copper alloys. The higher
lowers its impact test values, and makes it subject density of zinc than of aluminum or magnesium is
to failure at such imperfections as grinding marks, offset to some extent in die casting by the fact that
small shrinkage cracks from welding or casting, or zinc can be die cast in thinner sections than other
sharp internal comers permitted as part of a design. metals. Although zinc has good natural corrosion
For this reason, magnesium components used in air- resistance, this property can be improved along with
craft and similar applications are inspected nondes- appearance by appropriate platings, which are easy
tructively usually by radiography for internal defects to apply.
and by penetrant testing for surface defects.
Fine or Thin Magnesium Can Burn Readily in SPECIAL GROUPS OF NONFERROUS ALLOYS
Air. Some problems are introduced in the process- HEAT. AND CORROSION.RESISTANT ALLOYS
ing of magnesium because of its inflammability.
Reasonable care is necessary to prevent the accumu- Several different groups of materials, some in-
lation of dust or fine chips where they might be cluding certain ferrous alloys, have traditionally
Nonferrous Metals and Plastics 65
been grouped on the basis of property requirements chromium, tungsten, columbium, manganese, molyb-
rather than base metal or alloy content. Of special denum, and carbon. Alloys of this type are useful
importance and increasing interest recently have structurally at temperatures as high as 1,000° C, at
been alloys designed for use under high stress condi- which they have good corrosion resistance and ten-
tions at elevated temperatures in such applications sile strengths as great as 90 MPa (13,000 psi).
as jet turbine engines, high temperature steam
piping and boilers, and rocket combustion cham-
bers and nozzles. The efficiency of many such OTHER NONFERROUS METALS
devices depends on the maximum temperature at Of the many other potential base metals, most
which they can be operated, and they frequently are used under special conditions. Many of these
involve highly oxidizing, corrosive, or erosive metals have properties that are equal to or better
conditions. than those of iron and the more common non-
Manufacturing Cost High. Most special materials ferrous metals, but their use is restricted by econo-
that have been developed for these uses are difficult mic consideration. Gold, platinum, and other noble
to process into usable products by some or all of metals have high chemical inertness, but their rarity
the standard procedures. The high cost of such and high cost restrict their use. Beryllium has the
products is due both to the generally high cost of highest strength-to-weight ratio of any known metal,
the materials themselves (rarity and cost of refining) but the difficulty of obtaining the pure metal and
and the cost of special processing. Hot working the rarity of the ore make the cost almost as high
involves extra high temperatures with high forces, as that of gold. Titanium ores are abundant and
which results in short equipment life; casting fre- titanium has extremely useful properties, but the
quently must be done by investment or other high cost of reduction is approximately one hundred
cost techniques; cold working is difficult or impos- times that of iron. Titanium could easily be the
sible; welding involves elaborate procedures to avoid most important nonferrous metal if low cost pro-
contamination and nondestructive testing to insure duction methods could be developed. Table 6-5
reliability; and machining requires low cutting gives the principal characteristics and uses for most
speeds with short tool life even under the best nonferrous metals that are available commercially.
conditions.
Stainless Steels. These alloys may be divided
into three rather roughly defined groups. Stainless NON-METALS
steels, which were discussed earlier, have better
strength and corrosion resistance than plain carbon PLASTICS
or low alloy steels at temperatures higher than For some time, the fastest growing field of ma-
1,200° F. A number of alloys of the same general terials has been the group called plastics. Any
composition as standard stainless steels have been thorough treatment of plastics, especially concerning
developed with larger amounts of nickel and gener- the chemistry of the materials, would require a
ally larger amounts of the stabilizing elements such number of volumes. On the other hand, plastics
as titanium or molybdenum for better high tempera- cannot properly be ignored in any treatment of
ture properties. Aluminum or copper may be used materials and manufacturing processes because they
to provide a precipitation reaction that makes the are in direct competition with most metals. Since 1958,
1 alloys hardenable by heat treatment. Such heat a greater tonnage of plastics has been produced an-
treatment usually involves solution temperatures nually than of all nonferrous metals combined.
1,
higher than 1,000° C and artificial aging at tempera- Many Materials - Wide Range of Properties. A
f..
tures higher than 700° C. study of plastics is complicated by the tremendous
. Nickel Alloys. Nickel-based alloys form a second number of material variations possible. There are
group of high temperature materials. They normally roughly as many important families of plastics as
contain chromium or cobalt as the principal alloying there are commercially important metals. While it is
element and smaller amounts of aluminum, titan- true that many of the metals are alloyed to different
ium, molybdenum, and iron. These alloys have combinations, the number is relatively small when
better properties at high temperatures than the compared with the number of distinct plastics possi-
stainless steel types but cost more and are even ble in each family. Furthermore, while for metals the
more difficult to process. hardness and strength seldom exceeds a ratio of
Cobalt Alloys. Alloys having cobalt as the prin- perhaps 10:1 for any particular alloy group, many
cipal element form a third group. They are generally plastics that are under a single name are produced
_referred to as cobalt-based alloys, although they with properties ranging from liquids that are used as
may not contain as much as 50% of any single adhesives or finishes to rigid solids whose hardness
-element. Other elements are generally nickel, and strength compare favorably with metals.
f.
66 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
TABLE 6-5
Characteristics of most nonferrous metals
Applications I
Metal Principal Characteristics Pure or as Base Metal As Alloying Constituent
TABLE 6.5-Continued
Applications
Metal Principal Characteristics Pure or as Base Metal As Alloying Constituent
Tantalum High melting point, ductile, Surgical implants, capacitors, Tantalum carbide cutting
corrosion-resistant chemical hardware, electronic tools
tubes
Tin Soft, weak, malleable, Plating, collapsible Bronzes, solders, bearing alloys
corrosion resistant tubes
Titanium Density between steel and Marine, chemical, food-processing High temperature alloys, stainless
light alloys, high strength, equipment steel, aluminum alloys, titanium
corrosion-resistant Aircraft, rockets, orthopedic and carbide tools
orthodontic equipment
Tungsten Highest melting point of Lamp filaments, contacts, X-ray Alloy steels, tool steels, high temperature
metals; strong, high targets, nuclear reactors alloys, tungsten carbide tools
modulus of elasticity;
corrosion-resistant
Vanadium Moderate strength, ductile Rare Alloy steel, tool steel, nonferrous
deoxidizer
Zirconium Moderate strength, ductile, Structural parts in nuclear Stainless steels
corrosion-resista nt reactors
Definition Difficult. The word plastic is derived and grow into much larger molecules by the process
from the Greek word plastikos, which meant "fit for of polymerization. In general, the first polymeri-
molding." Many of the materials called plastics today, zation involves the connecting of the monomers into
such as finishes and adhesives, are not molded at all; long cnains, usually with a progressive degree of
moreover, many materials are molded that are not solidification or an increase in viscosity as the poly-
called plastics. Many metals and most ceramics are merization proceeds. For most plastics, the properties
molded at times. Plastics might best be defined as a depend on the degree of polymerization, which ex-
group of large-molecule organic compounds, pri- plains to a large degree the wide range of properties
marily produced as a chemical product and suscepti- available. For the group of plastics known as thermo-
ble to shaping under combinations of pressure and setting, a second type of polymerization takes place
heat. To include all the plastics, the term organic in which cross-linking occurs between adjacent
must be expanded to include silicone-based as well as chains. This thermosetting reaction frequently results
carbon-based, materials. in greatly increased rigidity.
Major Development Recent. Historically, the
development of plastics has occurred in two general TYPES OF PLASTICS
periods. Chemists in France, Germany, and England,
Long Chain Polymers. There are two broad
- during the period from 1830 to 1900, isolated and
named many materials that are called plastics today. groups of plastics, based originally on their reaction
to heat but more properly on the type of polymeriza-
The actual commercial production of most of these
tion involved. Plastics that are called thermoplastic
materials was delayed until production methods and
have the degree of polymerization controlled in the
facilities became available that permitted them to
initial manufacture of the plastic raw material, or
- compete with the more traditional materials. The
resin. These materials soften with increasing tempera-
second period of even more rapid developments has
ture and regain rigidity as the temperature is de-
been in the United States, particularly since 1940.
creased. The process is essentially reversible, but in
Many new methods of manufacture and treatment as
some cases, chemical changes that may cause some
well as new plastic materials have been developed.
deterioration of properties are produced by heating.
I Thermosetting Plastics - Cross-Linked Poly-
PLASTIC MATERIALS mers. As noted before, the thermosetting plastics
Plastic Structure. Chemically, plastics are all undergo a further cross-linking type of polymeriza-
I polymers. The smallest unit structure, or molecule, tion, which for the early plastics was initiated by the
m.that identifies the chemical involved is called a mono- application of heat, but which for many modem
~ mer. By various means, including heat, light, pressure, thermosetting plastics may be initiated by other
ting plastics, an initial thermoplastic stage is followed thermoplastics. The terms high and low, when used
by the thermosetting reaction at higher temperatures for strengths, service temperatures, and other charac-
or with prolonged heating. Thermoplastics may be teristics, are only relative and apply to plastics as a
resoftened by reheating, but the thermosetting reac- total group.
tion is chemical in nature and irreversible so that once None of the plastics have useful service tempera-
it has taken place, further heating results only in tures that are as high as those of most metals, and the
gradual charring and deterioration. modulus of elasticity of all plastics is low compared
The origin of the resin distinguishes a number of to most metals. While the ultimate strengths of many
different types of plastics. Some true plastics are metals are greater than that available with plastics,
found in nature and used essentially as found. These some specific plastics offer favorable comparisons.
include shellac, used most frequently as a finish for Nylon, for example, is one of a few plastics that,
wood and as an adhesive constituent, and asphalt, being truly crystalline, may be hardened by working.
used as a binder in road materials, as a constituent in Drawn nylon filaments may have ~ tensile strength of
some finishes, and, with fibrous filling materials, as a 50,000 psi, which is actually greater than some low
molding compound. strength steels. Plastics excel in some applications as
Some Plastics - Natural Materials. A number of insulators or where chemical resistance is important.
plastics are natural materials that have undergone The greatest tonnage, however, is used in direct
some chemical modification but retain the general competition with other materials where plastics may
chemical characteristics of the natural material. be favored because of their low fabrication costs in
Cellulose may be produced as paper with slight large quantities, light weight, and easy colorability.
modification, as vulcanized fiber with a slightly great-
er modification, and as cellulose acetate with even
more modification. Wood in its natural state has
thermoplastic properties that are used in some manu-
facturing processes. Rubber latex, as found in nature,
is a thermoplastic material but is generally modified
by chemical additions to act as a thermosetting
material.
Most Plastics - Synthetic. The greatest number
of plastics presently used are most properly called
synthetic plastics. While many of them make use of
some particular natural material, such as petroleum,
as the principal constituent, the chemistry of the raw
material and the chemistry of the finished plastic
have no direct connection. The raw material may be
thought of simply as the source of elements and
compounds for the manufacture of the plastic.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTICS
Tables 6-6 and 6-7 give the principal character-
istics and typical uses for most of the plastics in
common use. No such list can be complete because
new plastics are constantly being introduced, and the
time span from discovery of a useful plastic to
commercial use is decreasing. The cellulose plastics
among the thermoplastics and phenol formaldehyde
(a phenolic) among thermosetting plastics were the
first plastics to be developed and are still in wide use
today.
TABLE 6-6
A summary of principal characteristics and
uses of thermoplastic plastics
Resin Type Principal Characteristics Forms Produced Typical Uses Relative Cost
ABS High strength, toughness, Injection moldings, Pipe, appliance 50-60
colorability extrusions, formable cabinets, football
sheet helmets, handles
Acetal High strength, colorability, Injection moldings, Gears, impellers, 80
high fatigue life, low extrusions plumbing hardware
friction, solvent resistance
Acrylic High strength, colorability, Injection moldings, Transparent canopies, 45-55
optical clarity, extrusions, castings, windows, lenses,
low service temperature formable sheet, fiber edge-lighted signs,
mirrors, high quality
molded parts
Cellulose Moderate strength, toughness Injection moldings, Toys, shoe heels 36-58
acetate colorability, optical clarity, extrusions, formable buttons, packaging,
wide hardness range, low sheet, film, fiber tape
service temperature
Cellulose Moderate strength, high Injection moldings, Telephone handsets, 40-62
acetate toughness, good extrusions, formable steering wheels,
butyrate weatherability, color- sheet, film appliance housings,
ability, optical clarity, outdoor signs, pipe
low service temperature
Cellulose Moderate strength, high Injection moldings, Radio cabinets, pen 40-62
propionate toughness, good extrusions, formable and pencil barrels,
weatherability, color- sheet, film automobile parts
abi lity, optical clarity,
low service temperature
Ethyl Moderate strength, high Injection moldings, Refrigerator parts, 65-75
cellulose toughness, flexibility, extrusions, film aircraft parts, flash-
colorability, moisture light housings, door
resistance, better electric rollers
properties than other
cellulostics, low service
temperature
Cellulose Toughest of all Extrusions, formable Ping-Pong balls, 70-200
nitrate thermoplastics, good sheet hollow articles
formability, poor aging, high
flammabi lity, low service
temperature
TABLE 6-6-Continued
Chlorinated High chemcial resistance, Injection moldings, Valves, pump parts in 250
polyether moderate strength extrusions, sheet corrosive environments
TFE Chemical inertness, high Sintered shapes, extrusions, Pipe, pump parts, 350-550
(te~rafluoro- service temperature, low formable sheet, film: fiber electronic parts,
ethylene) friction, low creep strength, non lubricated bearings,
high weatherability gaskets, antiadhesive
coatings
CFE Higher strength than 'TFE, Injection moldings, Coil forms, pipe, tank 700-800
(chlorotri- lower chemical resistance extrusions, lining, valve diaphragms
fluoroethylene) than TFE, high service formable sheet, film
temperature, high
weatherabi Iity
Nylon High strength, toughness, Injection moldings, Gears, cams, bearings, 100-200
(polyamide) work hardenability, low extrusions, formable pump parts, coil
friction, good dielectric sheet, film, fiber forms, slide fasteners,
properties gaskets, high pressure
tubing
High strength, toughness, Injection moldings, Gears, hydraulic fittings, 150
Polycarbonate
chemical resistance, extrusions coil forms, appliance
weatherability, high service parts, electronic
temperature components
Moderate strength, high Injection moldings, Housewares, pipe, pipe 32-38
Polyethylene
toughness, good dielectric extrusions, formable fittings, squeeze bottles,
properties, low friction, sheet, film, fiber, sports goods, electrical
chemical resistance, rigid foam insulation
flexibility
Polystyrene High strength, low impact Injection moldings, Toys, electrical parts, 22-43
resistance, high dielectric extrusions, formable battery cases, light
strength, colorability, sheet, film, foam fixtures, rigid condu its
optical clarity, low service
temperature
Vinyl Wide range of properties, Compression moldings, Electrical insulation, 24.43
strength, toughness, extrusions, casti ngs, floor tile, water
abrasion resistance, formable sheet, film, hose, raincoats
colorability, low service fiber, foam
temperature
TABLE 6-7
A summary of principal characteristics and
uses of thermosetting plastics
Resin Type Principal Characteristics Forms Produced Typical Uses Relative Cost
Epoxy Moderate strength, high Casting, reinforced Chemical tanks, pipe, 45-80
dielectric strength, moldings, laminates, printed circuit bases
chemical resistance, rigid foam, filament bases, short-run dies,
weatherability, colorability, wound structures randomes, pressure vessels
high service temperature,
strong adhesive qualities
Melamine Hardest plastic, high Compression and transfer Dinnerware, electrical 42-45
dielectric strength, moldings, reinforced components, table and
moderate service moldings, laminates counter tops
temperature, colorability,
dimensional stability
Phenolics Moderately high strength, Compression and transfer Electricalhardware, 20-45
high service temperature, moldings, castings, poker chips, toys,
dimensional stability, color reinforced moldings, buttons, appliance
restrictions laminates,cold moldings cabinets, thermal
rigid foam insulation, table and
counter tops, ablative
structural shapes
Polyester Moderately high strength, Castings, reinforced Electrical parts, automobile 31-60
(including dimensional stability, moldings, laminates, ignition parts, heater
alkyds) fast cure, easy handling, film, fiber, compression ducts, trays, tote boxes,
good electrical properties, and transfer moldings laundry tubs, boats,automobile
high service temperatures, bodies, buttons
chemical resistance
Silicon Highest service temperatures, Compression and transfer High temperature electrical 275-540
low friction, high moldings, reinforced insulation, high temperature
dielectric strength, moldings, li3minates, laminates, gaskets, bushings,
flexible, moderate strength, rigid foam seals, spacers
high moisture resistance
Urea Moderately high strength, Compression and Colored electrical parts, 19-34
colorability, high transfer moldings buttons, dinnerware
dielectric strength, water
resistance, low service
temperature
Urethane Moderate strength, high Injection moldings Gears, bearings, a-rings, 50-100
toughness, very flexible, extrusions, blow footwear, upholstery
colorable, good weatherability moldings, foam foam
excellent wear resistance, low
service temperatures
The Nature of 7
Manufacturing
The control organization may be based on to a large extent on the better communications that ..
undelegated authority (master and slave), on dele- exist today.
gated authority (elected officials), or on natural con- The greatest increase in markets, particularly in
trols as the result of supply and demand in a free the last 50 years, is due to new inventions and to new
enterprise system. Our system today is based on the applications of older products and materials. In many
latter two in which elected officials and supply and cases the new products have been made economically
demand are the principal controls. possible primarily by improved processing machinery
and techniques. Many of the currently used plastics
MODERN MANUFACTURING have been known to chemists for over a hundred
MARKETS "years, but the development of the plastics industry to
its current state depended on the development of
Manufacturing in any period of history has been economical methods of raw material production and
characterized by certain essential features. One fabrication as well as on the development of a pro-
requirement is that a market exist for any goods duct demand.
produced. A natural market exists for those things Market Forecasting Difficult but Essential.
that are deemed essential to life, such as food, but for Other new products are based on basic concepts or
most manufactured goods, a market must be created discoveries that did not exist 50 years ago. The whole
by a requirement that is sometimes based on an electronics industry, especially that depending on the
expected standard of living rather than on any basic transistor and solid-state physics, falls in this cate-
biological need of man. gory. The increased complexity, cost, and specializa-
Product Life Usually Limited. Few durable tion of modem industry have led to an increased need
goods have truly unlimited life. Because of the econo- for knowledge of expected demand prior to the time
mics of manufacturing or the requirements of a sales are actually made. In the production of goods
design, the life of most products is limited. For all sold seasonally, it is necessary that the proper inven.
practical purposes, an automobile body made of t0ries be built up with a relatively constant level of
titanium would have unlimited life so far as corrosion production or that the work be balanced with other
is concerned, but the cost would be prohibitive for a products in order that plant investment may be kept
reasonable. Accurate forecasts of future demand are
mass market, and the life of the body would be
limited by design changes and wearout of other parts essential when increases in plant capacity or new
of the automobile. The blades in a jet turbine have plants for the production of new goods are anti-
limited life, not because it is desirable, but because of cipated, for the investment in a single new plant may
be over $100 million.
design considerations of weight and the limited prop-
erties of the available materials.
In addition to wearout, a market for replace- DESIGN
ment exists because of obsolescence. New designs,
new materials, or new features may make replace- Appearance in Addition to Function Usually
ment desirable either for convenience, as with many Important. In the case of every product, the manu-
new automobiles, or for economic reasons. Machine facturing process must be preceded by the design.
tools are generally replaced while they are still in The relationships that exist between design and
working condition, but their replacement is justified processing are of extreme importance. The designer
on the basis of lower maintenance, higher pro- normally starts with some definite functional require-
ment that must be satisfied. The environmental con-
ductivity, and higher accuracies of newer designs.
ditions of use, expected life, and loading conditions
Product Markets Grow for Several Reasons. will dictate certain minimum shapes and sizes and
For nearly all durable goods, growth has created an limit the possible choice of materials. The designer's
expanding market in the world and especially in the problems arise mainly from the fact that a single
United States. This growth has occurred in two solution is seldom indicated. Of the many possible
forms. Not only has the population been continually materials and shapes that may satisfy the functional
increasing but also the rising standard of living has requirements, some may have better appearance than
made a greater percentage of the population able to others. For many consumer goods, the appearance
9uy most durable consumer goods. More leisure time may actually govern the final choice. Even in the de-
and increased purchasing power have caused large signing of parts that may be completely hidden in a
increases in the sale of many products. This has been final assembly, the designer seldom disregards appear-
particularly noticeable in automobiles, housing, ance completely.
household appliances, and recreational equipment. A Quality and Costs Must Balance. Even the origi-
part of the increase in per capita consumption must nal desig'n will be influenced by the method of
be attributed to the improved sales and advertising processing that is anticipated and, to give proper con-
techniques that have developed in this country based sideration to all the alternatives, it is essential that the
The Nature of Manufacturing 75
It can be noted, however, that from this point on, material loss and those in which material is added or "
any process may either produce a finished product or taken away.
furnish the raw material for some further processing. No Volume Change. In those processes in which
2
The reverse flow shown in the lower part of the dia- no volume change occurs, property changes are usual-
gram refers particularly to parts that have been heat ly large and distributed throughout the material. In
treated or welded and must then be machined. This casting, the shape change occurs by melting and
step generally would occur only once for any pro- subsequent solidification to a prescribed shape. This
duct. process can be used with practically all metals and
It is the rule rather than the exception, however, most plastics. The material properties depend on
that many reversals may occur within some of the composition and the conditions of the particular
blocks on the diagram. Steel is commonly subjected casting process, but not on the condition of the
to several different rolling operations in a steel mill. material prior to melting. Casting is often the most
Pressworking operations most often involve several economical method for producing complex shapes,
separate steps to produce a product. The greatest particularly where reentrant angles exist.
amount of repetition occurs in machining. It is not Wrought materials are produced by plastic
unusual for a complex part, such as an automobile deformation that can be accomplished by hot work-
engine block, to be subjected to as many as eighty ing (above the recrystalization temperature) or cold
separate machining operations. working. Property changes also occur throughout the
The majority of manufacturing organizations material with these processes; the greatest changes are
specialize in one type of manufacturing operation, usually caused by cold work.
and even the extremely large companies that may Additions or Combinations. New shapes can be
operate in several fields of manufacturing generally prod uced either by joining preformed shapes
have specialized plants for the separate manufacturing mechanically or by any of various bonding means. In
areas. welding, soldering, and brazing, metallurgical bonds
are established by heat, pressure, or sometimes by
chemical action with plastics. Mechanical fastening by
STATES OF MATTER use of bolts, rivets, or pins is primarily an assembly
Material may exist in one of three states of matter, procedure and is often an alternative and competitive
gas, liquid, or solid, but except for some special proc- joining procedure to welding or adhesive fastening.
esses with relatively small use, such as vapor deposi- Shaping from powders by pressing and heating
tion, or for zinc refining, the gaseous state is of small involves the flow of granular materials, which differs
importance in manufacturing. considerably from deformation processing, although
Most Manufacturing Processes Are to Change Ma- some plastic flow undoubtedly occurs in individual
terial Shapes. For manufacturing purposes in which particles. Powder processing is a somewhat specialized
shape changing is the objective, the solid state may be process, but, as in casting or the deformation proc-
thought of as existing in two forms. Below the elastic esses, the material is shaped by confinement to some
limit, materials are dealt with as rigid materials. geometric pattern in two or three dimensions. Be-
Processing involving this form causes no significant cause the total volume of work material is affected by
relative movemel)t of atoms or molecules of the these processes, large sources of energy, pressure, or
material with respect to each other. Above the elastic heat are required.
limit, solid materials may flow plastically, and shape Subtraction or Removal. Shape changing may.also
changing may be accomplished by application of be accomplished by taking material away in chip or
external loads to cause permanent relocations within bulk form or by material destruction. The property
the structure of the material. The end results of deal- changes in these processes are more localized, and
ing with materials in the liquid form are similar to energy requirements are generally smaller.
those with materials above the elastic limit. No appre- Mechanical separation can be performed by re-
ciable density or volume change occurs, and the shape moval of chips or by controlled separation along
may be changed without loss of material. predetermined surfaces. Chip removal by machining
can be used with some success for all materials,
shapes, and accuracies and is probably the most ver-
satile of all manufacturing processes. Separation by
SHAPE-CHANGING PROCESSES
shearing, with localized failure caused by externally
Shapes Changed by No Volume Change, by Addi- applied loads, is limited primarily to sheet materials
tions, and by Subtractions. Shape changing is but frequently turns out to be the cheapest method
possible in any of these states, but most manu- for producing many shapes in large quantities.
facturing processes by definition or nature deal with Special Shape-Changing Methods. Particularly in
materials in only one of these possible forms. Figure recent years, with the advent of new materials diffi-
7-2 shows the processes for shape changing without cult to fabricate by conventional means and of many
MATERIAL VOLUME CHANGE
Solid Stote Only
SAND
PERMANENT
DIE OXYACETYLENE
PLASTER ELECTRICAL
ARC RESISTANCE
INDUCTION ETC.
Figure 7-2
Shape-changing processes
78 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
designs requiring shapes and tolerances and material frequently arbitrarily makes decisions that usually, at
combinations difficult to achieve with conventional least broadly, determine the processes which must be
processes, a number of electrical and chemical used to produce the product. Within this broad
processes have been developed for removing or adding framework, however, exist many other choices of
material. Many of these are restricted in use to a few specific materials, processes, and machines. Materials,
materials, and most are specialized to the point that properties, qualities, quantities, and processes are
they have only a few applications. Included is metal strongly interrelated. The prime effort, from original
plating by electrical or chemical means, used pri- concept to the completion of manufacture, is aimed
marily as a finishing process. Other developments are at finding the optimum combination of these vari-
electrical discharge "machining," chemical milling, ables to provide the best economic situation.
ultrasonic grinding, and electron beam machining, Since NDT is an inseparable part of the manufactur-
which are specialized metal removal processes thai ing system, it is imperative that NDT personnel in re-
compete with conventional machining or press- sponsible positions must have general knowledge of
working operations and involve hard materials, special the elements of manufacturing technology. The NDT
shapes, or low quantities. specialist will devote many hours in analysis and inter-
pretation of the flaws and faults resulting from manu-
SUMMARY facturing operations. In order to provide input to cor-
rective action, he will be called upon many times to fur-
Manufacturing is a complex system. A product
nish technical guidance to the design, materials, manu-
always originates as a design concept required to serve
facturing and quality assurance functions. Without
some purpose. A multiplicity of choices and decisions
some knowledge of the total manufacturing process,
nearly always comes between the establishment of
the NDT specialist cannot adequately fulfill these re-
the need and the manufacturing of the product. The
sponsibilities.
designer, because no logical means are available,
The Casting 8
Process
~~
., '. ",:-:>\'::",::" > produce a number of different things at one time and
:' :',':' """,:',':-:>: :",', are continually changing from one product to
another, although the duplication for some parts may
PATTERN PATTERN IN SAND MOLD
run into the thousands.
SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
The casting process involves a change of state of
..
l,~,: -- \
COMPLETE CASTING WITH
I
material from liquid to solid with control of shape
being established during the change of state. The
problems associated with the process, then, are
-
ATTACHED GATING SYSTEM primarily those connected with changes of physical
state and changes of properties as they may be influ-
MOLD CAVITY WITH GATING SYSTEM
enced by temperature variation. The solution to
many casting problems can only be attained with an
Figure 8-1 understanding of the solidification process and the
Casting steps for a pulley blank effects of temperature on materials.
The Casting Process 81
I
I
""
- U - n -r ~U~:HEA T
~
i~
¥~
"" ~ ~
;/
~
If
,
ft,
J
TIME
r
cult to analyze be- most cases meaning the greater the variation away
CTA' ' OF F,
' ","NCJ
cause of effects from the eutectic composition)
from variable and the smaller the temperature . . .. "
. .
""C~
.
.
,
;,,"
...
g~~
~~~~ SHRINKAGE'
CAVITY
MICROPOROSITY
RANDOMLY DISTRIBUTED VOIDS
OF SMAll SIZE
SHRINKPERCENTAGES
APPROXIMATE
ONLY FOR CASTIRON
Figure 8-8
Figure 8-7 Porosity
Three stages of metal contraction
~~
shrinkage is that occurring after solidification takes from the point of entry
to freeze first with solidi-
place and is the primary cause of dimensional change
fication moving toward a
to a size different form that of the pattern used to
make the cavity in the mold. Although contraction of feed head, which may be
at the point where metal
solidification may contribute in some cases, the Inte"e,';n9 Rib, Heovy Be",
solid metal contraction is the main element POOR DESIGN
is poured into the mold
or can be located at other
~
of pattern maker's shrinkage, which must be allowed
points where liquid can
for by making the pattern oversize.
be stored to feed into the
casting proper.
Coced Hole
IMPROVED DESIGN
Hot Spots Are Focal
POURING AND FEEDING CASTINGS Figure 8-11 Points for Solidifica-
Hot spot elimination
tion. The highest temp-
CASTING DESIGN
erature areas immediately after pouring are called hot
The first consideration that must be given to spots and should be located as near as possible to
obtain good castings is to casting design. It should be sources of feed metal. If isolated by sections that
remembered that although volumetric shrinkage of freeze early, they may disturb good directional solidi-
the liquid is thought of as being replaced by extra fication with the result that shrinks, porosity, cracks,
metal poured in the mold and by hydraulic pressure ruptures, or warping will harm the casting quality. It
from elevated parts of the casting system, this can be is not always necessary to completely inspect some
true only if no parts of the casting freeze off before castings when the vulnerable spots can be determined
replacement takes place. Except for the small pockets by visual inspection. Defects are most likely at hot
completely enclosed by solid metal in the develop- spots created by section changes or geometry of the
ment of dendritic structures, the shrinkage of solidifi- part and where gates and risers have been connected to
cation can be compensated for if liquid metal can be the casting.
progressively supplied to the freezing face as it ad- Control of Hot Spots Usually by Proper Design.
vances.
Hot spots are usually located at points of greatest
Progressive versus Directional Solidification. The sectional dimensions. Bosses, raised letters, non-
uniform section thicknesses, and intersecting members
are often troublemakers in the production of high
quality castings. Solution to the problem involves
changing the design, as shown in Figure 8-11, or pour-
ing the casting in such a way that these spots cease to
be sources of trouble. Changing the design might
include coring a boss to make it a thin-walled cylin-
der, relieving raised letters or pads on the backside,
proportioning section thicknesses to uniform changes
of dimensions, using thin-ribbed design instead of
heavy sections, spreading and alternating intersecting
members, and making other changes that will not
DIRECTIONAL SOLIDifiCATION
affect the function of the part but will decrease the
degree of section change.
Figure 8-10
Uniform Section Thicknesses Desirable. As a
Progressive and directional solidification
general rule, section changes should be minimized as
term progressive solidification, the freezing of a liquid much as possible in order to approach uniform cool-
from the outside toward the center, is different from ing rates and reduce defects. When pouring iron, heavy
directional solidification. Rather than from the sur- sections tend to solidify as gray iron with precipitated
face to the center of the mass, directional solidifica- graphite. Thin sections of the same material cooling at
tion is used to describe the freezing from one part of higher rates tend to hold the carbon in the combined
a casting to another, such as from one end to the state as iron carbide with the result that these sections
other end, as shown in Figure 8-10. The direction of turn out to be hard, brittle white iron. Since it is clearly
freezing is extremely important to the quality of a impossible to design practical shapes without section
casting because of the need for liquid metal to com- changes, the usual procedure calls for gradual section-
pensate for the contraction of the liquid and that dur- size changes and the use of liberal fillets and rounds.
ing solidification. Casting design and procedure should Some section changes are compared in Figure 8-12.
The Casting Process 85
J easy breakage.
I If the pouring rate is too high, it will cause erosion Figure 8-13
of the mold walls with the resulting sand inclusions
: and loss of detail in the casting. High thermal shock
~ to the mold may result in cracks and buckling. The
Typical gating systems
..,.
.
possible concentration points for defects.
86 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
Although the casting process can be used to shape
, ..'
almost any metal, it has been necessary to develop a
. ',: :.~, . ,: number of different methods to accommodate differ-
ent materials and satisfy different requirements. Each
method has certain advantages over the others, but all
Figure 8-14
have limitations. Some are restricted to a few special
Risers for shrinkage control
applications.
SAND MOLDING
CHILLS
Sand is the most commonly used material for
Chills Initiate Solidification. Help in directional construction of molds. A variety of sand grain sizes,
solidification can also be obtained in a reverse manner combined and mixed with a number of other mater-
by the use of chills, which are heat-absorbing devices ials and processed in different ways, causes sand to
inserted in the mold near the cavity (Figure 8-15). To exhibit characteristics that make it suitable for several
absorb heat rapidly, chills are usually made of steel, applications in mold making. A greater tonnage of
cast iron, or copper and designed to conform to the castings is produced by sand molding than by all
casting size and shape. Because chills must be dry to other methods combined.
avoid blowhole formation from gases, it is sometimes Procedure for Sand Molding. The following
necessary to pour a mold soon after it has been made, requirements are basic to sand molding, and most of
them also apply for the construction of other types
of molds.
1. Sand - To serve as the main structural material for
the mold
2. A pattern - To form a properly ooaped and sized
cavity in the sand
INTERNAL 3. A flask - To contain the sand around the pattern
CHill
and to provide.a means of removing the pattern
after the mold is made
4. A ramming method - To compact the sand around
EXTERNAL CHill the pattern for accurate transfer of size and shape
5. A core - To form internal surfaces on the part
Figure 8-15 (usually not required for castings without cavities
Chills as an aid to directional solidification or holes)
The Casting Process 87
6. A mold grating system - To provide a means of ture and the types of sand and clay may be'varied to
filling the mold cavity with metal at the proper rate change the properties of the molds to suit the ma-
and to supply liquid metal to the mold cavity as the terial being poured. To produce good work consis-
casting contracts during cooling and solidification tently, it is important that advantage be taken of the
The usual procedure for making a simple green properties that can be controlled by varying the con-
sand casting starts with placing the pattern to be stituents of the sand mixture.
copied on a pattern, or follower, board inside one- Sand Grains Held Together by Oay. In a mold,
half of the flask, as shown in Figure 8-16.Sand is then the sand particles are bound together by clay that is
packed around the pattern and between the walls of combined with a suitable quantity of water. The most
the flask. After striking off excess sand, a bottom commonly accepted theory of bonding is that as pres-
board is held against the flask and sand and the sure is applied to the molding sand, clay, coating each
assembly turned over. Removal of the pattern board sand particle, deforms and flows to wedge and lock
exposes the other side of the pattern. A thin layer of the particles in place. The clay content can be varied
parting compound (dry nonabsorbent particles) is from as little as 2% or 3% to as high as 50%, but the
dusted on the pattern and sand to prevent adhesion. best results seem to be obtained when the amount of
Addition of the upper half of the flask allows sand to clay is just sufficient to coat completely each of the
be packed against the pattern. sand grains.
TT
Water Conditions the Oay. Water is the third
~
FLASK (Drag)
requisite for green sand molding. The optimum quan-
~
PARTING COMPOUND
S TE P I
FLASK
~ , ,
SAND
O~,B~~~D
,
STEP
SPRUE
2
"
",,:
----..
,
O:
,
' tity will vary from about 2% to 8% by weight, de-
pending largely upon the type and quantity of clay
present. Thin films of water, several molecules in
thickness, are absorbed around the clay crystals. This
water is held in fixed relationship to the clay by
atomic attraction and is described as rigid water, or
tempering water. The clays that have the greatest
ability to hold this water film provide the greatest
~ ooo'"
'0'
:;:,':":,
'0 '"
',:
,
'0 :.-c'
, 0,,',:
'..,'0",'0";
0< :0 ',:
STEP
000:':'
3
,0,',
:':>'
':0"
:'
GG,m
~'~~~2IJ STEP 4
bonding strength. Water in excess of that needed to
temper the molding sand does not contribute to
strength but will improve the flowability that permits
the sand to be compacted around the pattern.
a
RUNNER
9 "",,0,
,~) /::,'.O.::':'~:',:';:':",\:,,:.
0 ' '0'
:.
):':-':,,':::":'::'+:~// :::"",;:'-:0':':,-,:'0::\,:,,:,
,', '" '0 ,..:~
S TEP 5 STEP6
) Principal
Figure 8-16
steps for making a sand mold
~o
.1 is
GREEN SAND
The Word Green Refers to Moisture. The majority
of castings are poured in molds of green sand, which
a mixture of sand, clay, and moisture. The ma-
~ IRREGULAR PARTING
a steady stream by a rotating impeller and is com- relatively free passage is essential for the gases to
pacted by impact as it fills up in the mold. Figure escape through core prints or other small areas.
8-18 illustrates the common compaction methods. Collapsability is likewise important because of this
metal enclosure. Ideally, a core should collapse
immediately after metal solidification takes place. In
~ addition to not interfering with shrinkage of the cast-
ing, it is important in many cases that cores collapse
-
completely before final cooling so that they can be
removed from inside castings in which they are al-
most totally enclosed. For example, cores used to
form the channels in a hot-water radiator or the water
openings in an internal combustion engine would be
HAND RAMMING
r~
TABLE STOP
almost impossible to remove unless they lost their
JOLT RAMMING strength and became free sand grains. The casting
metal must supply the heat for the final burning out
X
"'l/
,<:",:.,..,\','\',
~
of the additives and the binding material.
When a substantial portion of a core is enclosed in a
casting, radiography is frequently used to determine
I
whether or not the core shifted during casting, or to be
certain that all the core material has been successfully
removed after casting.
J SQUEEZE
..
RAMMING
l t~~;0~
SAND SLINGING
~
Chaplets. Very large or long slender cores that
might give way under pressure of the flowing metal
are sometimes given additional support by the use of
chaplets. Chaplets are small metal supports with
Figure 8-18
broad surfaced ends, usually made of the same metal
Common sand-compaction methods
as that to be poured, that can be set between the
mold cavity and the core. Chaplets become part of
CORES the casting after they have served their function of
Cores are bodies of mold material, usually in the supporting cores while the metal is liquid.
form of inserts that exclude metal flow to form in- NDT may be necessary for castings requiring the use
ternal surfaces in a casting. The body is considered to of chaplets. Not ony must the chaplets be chosen of
be a core when made of green sand only if it extends suitable material to fuse with the base metal, but
through the cavity to form a hole in the casting. shrink cavities may form during the cooling, porosity
Green sand cores are formed in the pattern with the may form from moisture condensation, and non-fusing
regular molding procedure. may occur from too Iowa pouring temperature to melt
Cores Need Strength for Handling. The vast the surface of the chaplet. Radiography of the finished
majority of cores are made of dry sand and contain casting can reveal discontinuities surrounding chaplet
little or no clay. A nearly pure sand is combined with . regions and can indicate whether the chaplets com-
additives that bum out after pouring to promote co 1- pletely fused with the base metal.
lapsability and with binders to hold the particles
together until after solidification takes place.
SE'RUE
Final Core Properties Very Important. The prop-
erties needed in core sand are similar to those re-
: quired for molding sand, with some taking on greater
CORE
i ,
". '"
. -;ofte.n almost,
j
but is especially so with core sand because cores are
completely surrounded by metal, and a sand molding is the most economical of all the mold-
.
90 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology- !
.~
ing processes. Green sand can be worked manually or FLOOR AND PIT MOLDS
mechanically and, because very little special equip- Large Molds Difficult to Handle. Although he
ment is necessary, can be easily and cheaply used for number of extremely large castings is relatively small,
a great variety of products. The sand is reusable with molds must be constructed for one, five, ten, and
only slight additions necessary to correct its com- occasionally, even as much as several hundred ton
position. In terms of cost, the green sand process can castings. Such molds cannot be moved about, and the
be bested only when the quantity of like castings is high hydrostatic pressures established by high
large enough that reduced operational costs for some columns of liquid metal require special mold 'con-
other processes will more than cover higher original struction stronger than that used for small castings.
investment or when the limitations of the green sand Floor molds made in the pouring position are built in
process prevent consistent meeting of required quali- large flasks. The mold can be opened by lifting the
ties. cope with an overhead crane, but the cope flask
Green Sand Not Universally Applicable. One of usually must be constructed with special support bars
the limitations of green sand is its low strength in to prevent the mold material from dropping free
thin sections. It cannot be used satisfactorily for cast- when it is lifted.
ing thin fins or long, thin projections. Green sand also Drag of Pit Molds Below Floor Level. Pit molds
tends to crush and shift under the weight of very use the four walls of a pit as a flask for the drag
heavy sections. This same weakness makes the casting section. The cope may be an assembly of core sand or
of intricate shapes difficult also. The moisture present may be made in a large flask similar to that used for a
in green sand produces steam when contacted by hot floor mold. The mold material for these large sizes is
metal. Inability of the steam and other gases to usually loam, 50% sand and 50% clay, plus water. The
escape causes problems with some casting designs, mold structure is often strengthened by inserting
and blowhole damage results. The dimensional ac- bricks or other ceramic material as a large part of its
curacy of green sand castings is limited. Even with substance.
small castings, it is seldom that dimensions can be
held closer together than :t 0.5 millimeter (0.02 inch); SHELL MOLDS
with large castings, :t 3 millimeters (1/8 inch) or
greater tolerances are necessary. Shell molding is a fairly recent development that,
as far as casting is concerned, can be considered a
precision process. Dimensions can be held within a
few thousandths of an inch in many cases to elimi-
nate or reduce machining that might be necessary
DRY SAND MOLDS otherwise and to decrease the overall cost of manufac-
Elimination of Moisture Reduces Casting Defects. turing. The cost of the process itself, however, is
relatively high, and large quantities are necessary for
Improvement in casting qualities can sometimes be
economical operation.
obtained by use of dry sand molds. The molds are Sand Bonded with Thermosetting Plastic. The
made of green sand modified to favor the dry prop-
erties and then dried in an oven. The absence of mold is made by covering a heated metal pattern with
moisture eliminates the formation of water vapor and sand that is mixed with small particles of a thermoset-
reduces the type of casting defects that are due to gas ting plastic. The heat of the pattern causes the
mixture to adhere and semicures the plastic for a
formation. The cost of heat, the time required for
short depth. The thin shell thus made is baked in
drying the mold, and the difficulty of handling heavy
molds without damage make the process expensive place or stripped from the pattern, further cured by
baking at 3000 C and then cemented to its mating
compared to green sand molding, and it is used
half to complete the mold proper. Because the shell is
mostly when steam formation from the moisture
thin, approximately 3 millimeters, its resistance to
present would be a serious problem.
springing apart is low; it may be necessary to back it
Skin Drying - Substitute for Oven Drying. Most up with loose sand or shot to take the pressures set
of the benefits of dry sand molds can be obtained by up by filling with liquid metal. The sand particles are
skin drying molds to depths from a fraction of an tightly held in the plastic bond. As erosion and metal
inch to an inch. With the mold open, the inside sur- penetration are minor problems, high quality surface
faces are subjected to heat from torches, radiant finishes, in addition to good dimensional control, are
lamps, hot dry air, or electric heating elements to obtained from shell molding.
form a dry insulating skin around the mold cavity.
Skin-dried molds can be stored only for short periods METAL MOLD AND SPECIAL PROCESSES
of time before pouring, since the water in the main
body of the mold will redistribute itself and remois- Metal patterns and metal core boxes are used in
turize the inside skin. connections with molding whenever the quantities
The Casting Process 91
manufactured justify the additional expense of the permanent molding. It is made of metal, again usually
longer wearing patterns. The metal mold process cast iron or steel; has parting lines along which it can
refers not to the pattern equipment but to a reusable be opened for extraction of the casting; and is con-
metal mold that is in itself a reverse pattern in which structed with small draft angles on the walls to reduce
the casting is made directly. the work of extraction and extend the life of the die.
Special Processes Receive Limited Use. In addi- Vents, in the form of grooves or small holes, also are
tion to the metal mold processes, there are special present to permit the escape of air as metal fills the
processes involving either single-use or reusable die.
molds. Their use is limited to a comparatively small Hot Chamber Die Casting. The machines in which
number of applications in which the processes, even the dies are used, however, are quite different be-
though more costly, show distinct advantages over cause, in addition to closing and opening the die
the more commonly used methods. parts, they must supply liquid metal under pressure
to fill the cavity. The hot chamber die-casting
PERMANENT MOLD CASTING machine, as shown in Figure 8-20, keeps metal melted
Metal Molds Used Mostly for Low Melting Point in a chamber through which a piston moves into a cy-
Alloys. Permanent molds may be reused many linder to build up pressure forcing the metal into the
times. The life will depend, to a large extent, upon die.
the intricacy of the casting design and the temp-
erature of the metal that is poured into the mold.
Cast iron and steel are the most common materials
with which the mold is made. Permanent mold cast-
ing is used most for the shaping of aluminum, copper,
magnesium, and zinc alloys. Cast iron is occasionally
poured in permanent molds that have much lower
mold life because of the higher operating tempera-
ture. Satisfactory results require operation of the
process with a uniform cycle time to maintain the
operating temperature
of new molds often demands
determine
within a small range. Initial use
experimentation
the most suitable pouring and operating
to
- FURNACE
to flow rapidly and uniformly into the cavity of the Casting Quality High. Sections as thin as 0.4
t .
~old,
.
or die. The die is similar to that used for
millimeter (1/64 inch) with tolerances as small as
~
"
92 Materials and Processes for NDT Technolog?' i)
I,
DIE CAVITY
4
Figure
8-21
Cold chamber die casting
_'.05 millimeter (0.002 inch) can be cast with very OWN DRY TO l!OUlfY OR
VAPORIZE PATTERN ALSO
good surface finish by this pressure process. The DRY MOLD
POUR (ANY METAl! REMOVE INVESTMENT
material properties are likely to be high because the MATERIAL
to vary the mold properties, are used only for casting time the principal product was cast iron sewer pipe,
nonferrous metals. Plaster molds will produce good but present day uses of centrifugal castings include
quality finish and good dimensional accuracy as well shafts for large turbines, propeller shafts for ships, and
as intricate detail. The procedure is similar to that high pressure piping. Because of the critical nature of
used in dry sand molding. The plaster material must some applications NDT may be necessary to check the
be given time to solidify after being coated over the wall thickness and quality of the product material. The
pattern and is completely oven dried after removal columnar grain structure may produce problems in ap-
before it is poured. plying nondestructive tests.
Casting Cools Slowly. The dry mold is a good Semicentrifugal Casting - Solid Product. A simi-
insulator, which serves both as an advantage and as a lar process, which may be termed semicentrifugal
disadvantage. The insulating property permits lower casting, consists of revolving a symmetric mold about
pouring rates with less superheat in the liquid metal. the axis of the mold's cavity and pouring that cavity
These contribute to less shrinkage, less gas entrap- full. The density of a casting made in this way will
ment from turbulence, and greater opportunity for vary, with dense, strong metal around the outside and
evolved gases to escape from the metal before solidifi- more porous, weaker metal at the center. The varia-
cation. On the other hand, because of slow cooling, tion in density is not great, but the fast filling of the
plaster molds should not be used for applications in external portion of the mold cavity produces particu-
which large grain growth is a serious problem. larly sound metal. Wheels, pulleys, gear blanks, and
other shapes of this kind may be made in this way to
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING obtain maximum metal properties near the outside
Several procedures (Figure 8-23) are classed as cen. periphery.
trifugal casting. All of the procedures make use of Centrifuge Casting - Multiple Product. A third
a rotating mold to develop centrifugal force acting on type of casting using centrifugal force can be termed
the metal to improve its density toward the outside centrifuge casting. In this process, a number of
of the mold. equally spaced mold cavities are arranged in a circle
SAND OR OTHER REFRACTORY LINING about a central pouring sprue. The mold may be sin-
gle or stacked with a number of layers arranged ver-
.C'v , CASTTUBING
tically about a common sprue. The mold is revolved
with the sprue as an axis and when poured, centrifu-
gal force helps the normal hydrostatic pressure force
metal into the spinning mold cavities. Gases tend to
>~
- -f=- -= ~- - -- ~- - -Jr
~ 7f
MACHINE DRIVEROLLERS
MEASUREDCHARGE
be forced out of the metal, which improves metal
quality.
CENTRIFUGAL CONTINUOUS CASTING
Although only a small tonnage of castings are pro-
duced by continuous casting, it is possible to produce
two-dimensional shapes in an elongated bar by draw-
ing solidified metal from a water-cooled mold.
Special Equipment and Skills Required. As shown
schematically in Figure 8-24, molten metal enters one
end of the mold, and solid metal is drawn from the
other. Control of the mold temperature and the speed
of drawing is essential for satisfactory results.
1m 18
SEMICENTRIFUGAl CENTRIFUGE
Good Quality Castings Possible. Exclusion of formed in lift out crucibles constructed of graphite, sil-
contact with oxygen, while molten and during solidi- icon carbide, or other refractory material. Gas or oil is
fication produces high quality metal. Gears and other combined with an air blast around the crucible to pro-
shapes in small sizes can be cast in bar form and later duce the melting heat. Unless a cover is placed on the
sliced into multiple parts. crucible, the melt is exposed to products of combustion
An automotive manufacturer makes use of the con- and is susceptible to contamination that may reduce
cept as a salvage procedure for saving bar ends of alloy the quality of the final castings. This is true of all the
steel. The waste material is melted and drawn through natural fuel fired furnaces.
the mold in bar form. Subsequently, the bars are cut in-
to billets that are suitable for processing into various POT FURNACES
automotive parts. Quantities of non-ferrous materials to several hun-
dred pounds may be melted in pot furnaces that con-
MELTING EQUIPMENT tain a permanently placed crucible. Metal is ladled di-
rectly from the crucible, or in the larger size equip-
The volume of metal needed at anyone time for cast- ment, the entire furnace is tilted to pour the molten
ing varies from a few pounds for simple castings to metal into a transporting ladle.
several tons in a batch type operation with a continu-
ous supply, usually of iron, being required by some REVERBERATORY FURNACES
large production foundries. The quantity of available Some of the largest foundries melt non-ferrous
metal can be varied by the size and type of melting metals in reverberatory furnaces that playa gas-air or
equipment as well as the number of units in operation. oil-air flame through nozzles in the side walls of a brick
The required melting temperature which varies from structure, directly on the surface of the charged mate-
about 200°C (390°F) for lead and bismuth to as high as rial. Gas absorption from products of combustion is
1540°C (2400°F) for some steels also influences the high but the large capacity available and high melting
type of melting equipment that will serve best. rate provide economics that help compensate for this
fault. Smaller tilting type reverberating furnaces are
CUPOLA also available for fast melting of smaller quantities of
A considerable amount of cast iron is melted in a spe- metal.
cial chimney-like furnace called a cupola. It is similar ELECTRIC ARC FURNACES
to a blast furnace (described in Chapter 5) used for re-
fining iron ore. The cupola (Figure 8-25) is charged The electric arc provides a high intensity heat source
through a door above the melting zone with layers of that can be used to melt any metal that is commonly
coke, iron, and limestone and may be operated continu- cast. Since there are no products of combustion and
ously by taking off melted iron as it accumulates in the oxygen can be largely excluded from contact with the
well at the bottom. melt, quality of the resulting cast metal is usually
high.
CRUCIBLE FURNACES The arc may be direct (between an electrode and the
Melting of small quantities (1 to 100 pounds) of non- charged metal) or indirect (between two electrodes
ferrous materials for small volume work is often per- above the charge).
REfRACTORY
LINING
INDUCTION FURNACES
Induction furnaces melt materials with the heat dis-
CHARGING
ST EEL ----..
SHELL DOOR sipated from eddy currents. Coils built into the furnace
walls set up a high frequency alternating magnetic
CHARGES field which in turn causes internal eddy currents that
(Coke, iron, heat the charge to its melting point. Rapid heating and
limestone)
high quality resulting from the absence of combustion
products help offset the high cost of the equipment and
TUYERE
power consumed.
FOUNDRY MECHANIZATION
SlAG
HOLE
TAP HOLE
The preceding pages briefly describe the most com-
mon foundry techniques for producing castings. Most
SAND are performed largely by manual effort, resulting in
relatively slow production. However, at any time the
production quantities justify the needed expenditure
for equipment, these same techniques are subject to al-
Figure 8-25 most complete mechanization resulting in higher pro-
Cupola duction rates and improved consistency.
The Welding Process 9
assembly of parts, constitutes a unified structure that Melting Common but Not Essential. Various
functionally has the properties of a solid part. In means may be used to establish these two essential
some cases, particularly with spot welding, welding is conditions of atomic cleanliness and closeness. Clean-
purely an assembly procedure and competes with liness may be established by chemical cleaning (flux-
mechanical fastening, such as riveting or bolting. In ing), providing the products of the cleaning operation
other cases, the goal in welding is to provide a joint may be removed from the surface; by melting the
that has the same structure, strength, and other prop- surface area so that the surface films float to the
erties as the base metal so that the weld area itself surface of the molten material; or by fragmentation
would be undetectable. This goal is approached in as a result of plastic deformation of the base metal.
producing some pipe and high pressure vessels but Atomic closeness may be established by filling with a
usually requires elaborate precautions to prevent con- liquid metal, as in brazing and soldering, without
tamination, heat treatment of the entire weldment actually melting the joined metals; by elastically or
after welding, and thorough testing, usually by radio- plastically deforming the surfaces until contact is
graphy. In most cases, these procedures would not be established; or by actually destroying the surfaces by
practical or economical; consequently, some rein- melting and allowing molten base metal or melted
forcement of the welded area is provided by designing filler material to resolidify in contact with the
with reinforcing plates or gussets. unmelted base metal.
Often Replaces Bolting and Riveting. With the Welding may be accomplished as a result of any
exception of some of the special purpose techniques combination of conditions that establishes the two
in other areas, welding is in a greater period of growth essential elements of atomic cleanliness and atomic
than any of the other manufacturing procedures. closeness.
Welding has largely replaced riveting and bolting in FUSION BONDING
structural steel work for bridges and buildings. In the
manufacture of automobiles and home appliances Most important welding processes, particularly
from sheet metal, most of the joining of large shapes those in which high strengths are a principal goal,
is by welding, and in many cases these welds are not make use of fusion bonds in which the surfaces of the
even apparent in the finished product. A typical auto- pieces to be joined (parent or base metal) are com-
mobile, for example, has over 4,500 spot welds in pletely melted, as shown in Figure 9-1. Liquid metal
addition to other welding. then flows together to form the union, and cleanli-
ness is established as the impurities float to the sur-
BONDS face. No pressure is necessary, and the parts to be
joined need only be located and held in proper rela-
NATURE OF BONDING
tionship to each other.
Atomic Bonding Essential. Most welding defini-
tions include some reference to heat and pressure,
and in practice most welding processes do make use
of heat or pressure or both. However, neither of these
is theoretically necessary. If two perfectly matched
clean surfaces are brought together within suitable
atomic spacing, atomic bonds will automatically be es-
tablished between the surfaces, and the surfaces will,
in fact, be welded. The essential features are not so
easy to realize, however.
Atomic Cleanliness and Closeness. Atomic clean-
liness requires that atoms exposed on the surfaces
actually be the atoms of the materials to be joined.
CONCENTRATED HEAT PROVIDED TO MELT BOTH BASE
Even if this condition is set up on a surface, exposure AND fiLLER MATERIAL
to the atmosphere results in almost immediate forma-
tion of oxide or sulfide films on most metals. Figure 9-1
Atomic closeness requires that the distances between Fusion bond
atoms brought into contact be that at which atoms
are normally spaced in the crystalline structure of a Metallurgical Effects Like Casting. The resolidifi-
metal. Normally, when two surfaces are brought into cation of the metal results in a localized casting for
contact, this condition will occur only at a number of which the unmelted base metal serves as a mold. It
points because surfaces of even the best quality have can then be expected that the same metallurgical
a finite roughness of a much larger order than atomic changes and effects, such as grain-size variation and
distances. shrinkage, that occur in casting will occur in fusion
The Welding Process 97
welding. It is also implied that simply heating an dispersed before bonding can be effective. First, the
entire structure that is to be fusion bonded would not fragments tend to assume spherical shapes as their
be satisfactory because the entire structure would total energy is raised. With spherical shapes, they
reach the melting temperature at the same time. The disrupt a lower percentage of the surface areas to be
heat must be supplied locally to the area to be joined, allowing greater contact between exposed
melted, and the rate of heat input must be great base materials. This same type of spheroidization
enough to prevent overheating of the adjacent areas. accounts for the malleabilizing of cast iron and for
This requirement leads to some difficulties in welding the effect on the cementite particles in the prolonged
aluminum, copper, and other metals having very high heating of high carbon steels. The second heat effect
thermal conductivities. Hence, NDT for weldments is is that the solubility of oxygen in the base metals is
similar to that for castings. The same kinds of defects raised with increased temperature, and some dissocia-
are likely to be found and similar NDT methods may tion of the oxides occurs with the oxygen being
be effective. In most cases there is no advantage in in- diffused into the base metal.
specting the entire weldment because the weld defects
will be concentrated in the weld itself or in the heat af-
fected zone of the weld.
Filler Sometimes Added. In fusion welding, at
least the surface of the parts being welded is always
Q)Q)
melted, and this amount of molten metal may be
sufficient to form the weld. In the more used fusion-
P,e"",e pmvided 10 Ol"el
welding processes, however, additional molten metal ~Ie,;al and ;n«ea,"
canlact a'ea
(filler) is supplied, usually by continuously melting a
rod or wire. The use of filler is nearly always neces-
sary in welding sheet and structural shapes more than Heal p,"v;ded to weaken
male,;af and ;n«ea,"
3 millimeters (1/8 inch) in thickness and, in many chem;cal aclov;ly
FLUX FOR
(Granular
~
CLEANING
or liquid)
Joint Thickness Critical, to Strength. Figure 9-14
shows the importance of thickness to the strength of
a brazed joint. The low strength of very thin joints is
due to the formation of "capillary dams" caused by
uneven surfaces that prevent complete filling. This
fault can be overcome to some extent by use of
! / .
special techniques, such as application of ultrasonic
..~ vibration while brazing. The fact that the strength of
the joint can be higher than that of cast filler is due
to the differences in modulus of elasticity between
the filler and the base material. The filler metal is
FiLLER
prevented from yielding by the more rigid base metal;
the result is high shear stresses normal to the direc-
tion of the load in the filler material. These shear
BASE MATERIAL stresses generate tensile stresses in such direction that
when they are combined vectorially with the direct
Hoot pmv;ded to melt fill.,
tensile stresses caused by the load, a lower stress value
met.,;el end flux only ond
;ncreo>e chemicel oct;v;ty
is produced on the plane normal to the load than
would occur in a homogeneous material. When the
Figure 9-3 joint becomes thicker, there is less restraint in the
Flow bond center of the filler layer, the shear stresses are lower,
and their effect in compensating for direct load
Joint Defined by Temperature and Spacing. Three stresses is reduced.
different operations using flow bonds have been Brazing is frequently used to join parts together,
named: braze welding, brazing, and soldering. In particularly when one or more of those parts would be
braze welding, the filler material is a metal or alloy subject to changes from exposure to high temperature
having a melting point above 425° C (800° F) and a (above that needed for brazing). If the joint strength is
composition significantly different from the base critical or if leakage is a factor, NDT might well be
metal. In practice, the commonest alloys used as filler used to establish that the necessary joint quality ex-
are copper or silver based. Occasionally, pure copper ists. The worst possible fault (assuming the braze itself
is used for braze welding steel. The filler is usually in is complete) would be wide spacing, either total or par-
rod form, and the procedures are similar to those tial, due to poor preparation, angular geometry, or
employed in some fusion welding except that only wide positioning. Sloppy fit-up of joints can also cause
the filler material is melted. Fluxes are heated on the the molten braze filler to fail to completely fill the
joint surfaces for cleaning. Braze welding is used joint. Obviously, such conditions also produce joints of
mainly for joining and repairing cast iron and is being very low strength. Porosity and inclusions are other
replaced by fusion welding in many cases. The joint possible defects. In critical applications, either ultra-
strength is limited to that of the filler material in cast sonic or radiographic tests may be used to check the
form. joint quality. Radiography readily reveals unfilled
Brazing. The word brazing, when used alone, joints and porosity. However, unwetted and undif.
designates the use of filler materials similar to those fused joints can seldom be revealed by radiography. If
used in braze welding but applied to a close-fitting such conditions are suggested, ultrasonic techniques
joint by preplacement or by capillary action. Filler should be used; ultrasonic transmission characteristics
material may be rod, wire, foil, slug, or powder, and through a properly wetted and diffused joint are signi-
fluxes similar to those used in braze welding are ficantly different from those through an inadequate
necessary. Heat may be furnished by torch, furnace, joint.
or induction, and, in production quantities, by dip- Soldering. The third type of flow bonding, solder-
ping in molten salts, which may also provide the ing, actually includes application similar to both
fluxing action. braze welding and brazing. The essential difference is
The Welding Process 99
I
I
I PIECES BEING
,~ Fille, Melol Oi",ib,t;on --..
V5. , By Copillo,y Att,octlon JOINED
BASE
METAL
;::
G
tion, slag and oxides may not have time to float and cooled rapidly by the high thermal conductivity of the
may be trapped beneath the surface to appear as solid surrounding metal, and small grain size results.
inclusions in the completed weld. fUSED AND RESOLIDifiED fiLLER
Uniform Structure Possible. Ideally, it is possible MELTED AND RESOLIDifiED
AND BASE METAL (Ca"iog)
c:J
~
Filler May Reduce Problems. Fillers of com-
position different from that of the base metal are
often used to compensate for welding faults that
might otherwise be expected. The attempt is not SOLIDIFICATION BY SLIGHT SHRINKAGE
WELD METAL LIQUID
usually to use a filler that will exactly compensate for THE FORMATION OF AT THE WELD
COLUMNAR GRAINS SURFACE
the losses of the welding process but rather over-
compensate for improvement of certain properties. Figure 9-7
Thus, high nickel filler may be used in welding cast Solidification of a bead weld
iron to control grain growth and give ductility to the
weld area, and stainless steel filler may be used with
higher alloy content than the base material to insure
adequate corrosion resistance. Brazing and soldering
alloys are used principally to avoid high temperature
effects in the base metal.
The amount of alloying that occurs between base
metals and filler metals of different composition
depends on several factors, but chiefly on the actual
metals involved. Alloying is not essential to true
bonding, but at the high temperatures reached, diffu-
sion proceeds at a high rate, and for some metals
alloying will occur for some distance in both direc-
tions away from the original interface. Soft solders in BASE METAL - HOT ROLLeD AISI,O20
particular may produce brittle intermetallic com-
pounds that reduce ductility and lower strength. Figure 9-8
EFFECTS ON GRAIN SIZE AND STRUCTURE Grain structure in a fusion weld
ceed, and, for the metal heated near its melting temper- structures will be softer because of the reduced cooling
ature, the final grain size can be large. The metal rates.
heated only slightly above the transformation temper- Effects in Pressure Welding Reduced. Effects simi-
ature is effectively normalized and will have a small lar to those of fusion welding will be observed in
final grain size, which can be smaller than that of the pressure welding. With lower temperatures, and fre-
unheated base metal. Any heat-treat or cold-work quently higher thermal gradient, the heat-affected
hardening that existed in the area heated below the zone will be smaller. Shrinkage problems are reduced
transformation temperature will be subject to temper- because of little or no fusion and more uniformly
ing or recrystallization, depending on the actual tem- welded cross sections.
perature reached and the preweld condition. EFFECTS OF WELDING ON PROPERTIES
When ultrasonic inspection is being performed on a
weldment, it is important to recognize that the abrupt Post treatment Sometimes Is Valuable. In an ideal
change in grain size can often be detected. The ultra- weld, the composition of the weld zone could be
sonic signal reflected from this heat-affected zone may made like that of the base metal and, with proper
be misinterpreted in some cases as being lack of fusion heat treatment, the strength of the final weldment
or a variety of other discontinuities, depending on loca- would be unaffected in any way by the presence of
tion. the weld. In most practical situations; compositions
Multiple Cooling Rates. Again, depending on cannot be kept exactly the same, and heat treatment
cooling rates induced and compositions involved; for sufficient to establish completely uniform structures
the metal heated above the transformation temp- would be uneconomical, if not impossible. The result
erature, the cooling may be equivalent to that re- is that the strength of most welds is different from
quired for annealing, normalizing, or actually quench- that of the base metal. With no heat treatment of
ing to martensite, provided enough carbon is present. welded steel, the strength and hardness will vary from
Some of the latter nearly always occurs in unpre- that of annealed to that of quenched material. Ductil-
heated carbon steel weldments and, when combined ity will vary inversely with the strength. Many weld-
with the uneven shrinkage that may be present, can ments are at least normalized to obtain more uniform
result in brittle structures subject to cracking. Alloy properties and to relieve stresses.
rods or rods of different carbon content may be used Design Consideration Essential. The possible
for controlling some of the possible defects. Low presence of discontinuities and inclusions in a weld
carbon filler material is often used in welding higher may lead to reduced strengths for which considera-
carbon steels to avoid the formation of excessive tion must be given in weld design. The designer must
amounts of martensite. In the fusion zone where cool- either gamble on weld quality, require special inspec-
ing rates are high, the composition would be near the tion procedures to determine weld quality with possi-
I;. composition of the filler material. Even with rapid ble rewelding of some structures, or overdesign
r cooling, the structure would consist mainly of ferrite welded joints on the basis of lowest expected
. with sufficient ductility to shrink without cracking. strengths.
Structure Varies with Cooling Rate. In the base Changes May Adversely Mfect Corrosion Resis-
! material adjacent to the liquid metal, the cooling rate tance. Corrosion resistance of many welded metals is
would be somewhat less but still sufficiently rapid to likely to be affected adversely. As already pointed
form fine pearlite and some martensite. It must be out, composition and structural changes accompany
remembered that grain size and structure are two the usual conditions required to produce a weld. High
different considerations; in this region, grain size will temperatures lead to diffusion and precipitation
~ be large because of the long time at high temperature, effects that change the chemical characteristics of the
~ but structure will be fine because of the rapid cool- metal. Some stainless steels are subject to the forma-
tion of chromium carbide during welding and may
,
ring. At a greater distance from the molten zone but
still within the area raised above the transformation
.~ temperature, the cooling rate will be nearer that usual
lose much of their corrosion-resistant qualities with-
out proper subsequent heat treatment. Even with
:
.. with normalizing, and the resulting structure will be
protective procedures, such as inert gas shielding or
slag coverings, discoloration and surface oxidation
i." medium to coarse pearlite.
1
- _IT..J--- n_-;~e~l-
~
'(~
MULTIPLE
---
; -------
PASS
EDGE WELD
BUTT WELDS
e- -r~~jlE-~ ~)-
I BUTT PIPE WELD
COMPRESSION
stresses can exist. Figure 9-12 indicates the kind of
stress distribution to be expected from a longitudinal
butt weld between two plates.
T 0
0
Vi
(
Welding Processes 10
and Design
In the preceding chapter, the essential welding
requirements of atomic closeness and atomic cleanli-
ness were pointed out. It was noted, in the discussion
of bond types, that while not always essential for
welding, heat is an important part of most practical
processes. Heat is necessary for fusion, heat makes
metals become more plastic, and heat assists in ob-
taining cleanliness in many processes. The more im-
portant welding processes differ primarily in, and, in
fact, are usually named for the heat source.
An integral part of practical welding processes is
the method of obtaining and, of equal importance, of
maintaining cleanliness in the weld area. Not only is it
necessary to obtain atomic cleanliness for proper fu-
sion but also the heated metal, particularly during
fusion welding, must be protected from excessive
contamination from the atmosphere.
Forge Welding-a Pressure Bond. The process high production processes, the electric arc is used
called forge welding is named for the initial method more than oxyacetylene because of the greater heat
of heating in which the parts to be heated are placed input that may be obtained and the lower cost of
directly in the fire of a forge, a special type of electrical energy.
furnace. The parts, heated either locally or through- Other Gases Less Used. Other gases burning with
out, are then subjected to pressure (manual ham- oxygen are also used but to a much more limited
mering in the case of blacksmith in g) to produce the degree. Oxyhydrogen can provide a strongly reducing
weld. The blacksmithing art is still important, but flame without the soot associated with oxyacetylene
forge welding has been largely replaced by other and is used for welding aluminum and lead. Natural
methods. gas, propane, or butane, burned with oxygen, are
Localized Heat Most Common. The most impor- used for preheating and for brazing and soldering but
tant welding processes make use of localized heating. have limited temperatures, making them less useful
For fusion welding, this is a necessity to prevent than oxyacetylene for fusion welding.
excessive melting and to restrict the heat-affected
zone in the base metal. The temperature differential
in the weld area will depend not only on the rate of THE ELECTRIC ARC
heat input and the degree of localization but also on
the thermal properties of the base metal and the Practically all production welding today makes
geometry of the weldment. Heat sources differ in the use of electricity as an energy source. The first appli-
maximum temperature possibilities, the degree of cation was the electric arc, developed about 1880
concentration, and in the maximum practical amount (Figure 10-1) but restricted in use until the develop-
of energy that may be transferred. ment of coated electrodes. The electric arc is one of
Heat Source Influences Cleanliness. The choice
of a heat source may be governed by the contamin- CORE
WIRE
ating influence on the base metal. With some heat
sources, especially those of chemical nature, the at-
mosphere to which the weld is subjected is deter- MOLTEN GLOBULE
age drop in the arc and at the surfaces at which the high spring or air pressure. Before contact can take
arc terminates, are determined by the composition place, arcs with current on the order of 50,000 to
and length of the arc. With long arcs and highly 100,000 amperes are established. These high currents
conductive gases such as hydrogen, higher inputs are quickly heat the surfaces of the work to vaporization
required to maintain the arc. temperatures. The vapor holds the workpieces apart
The Work Frequently Serves as One Electrode. until the capacitor is nearly discharged, at which time
The arc usually exists between the work and a metal the pressure completes the contact against a thin film
rod, which may progressively melt and serve as filler of clean molten metal. Equipment costs are high and
material or may be nonconsumable. applications are limited, but percussive welding may
Some Metal Lost during Transfer. Welding arcs be used for joining widely dissimilar materials. Heat
with consumable electrodes transfer this metal in effects in the base material are limited in extent.
molten form to the weld pool on the work. Transfer Stud Welding. A further variation in the use of an
may be by fine metal spray or by relatively large arc for welding is in the process called stud welding,
globules and rivulets that may even short-circuit the developed in the shipbuilding industry for attaching
arc temporarily. The rate of electrode burn-off is steel studs to the steel deck of a ship. These studs are
almost directly proportional to the welding current then used for holding the wood overdeck. The stud is
for any given rod diameter. However, the range of supported in a special gun and forms the electrode in
currents that may be used with any electrode to much the same manner as the filler material in con-
obtain a balance between burn-off and heating of the ventional arc welding. It is then moved to the work
base metal is limited. From 10% to 30% of the melted until an arc is established, drawn back, then forced
rod is normally lost through vaporization and spat- into the work-after a short period of arc heating-
tering outside the molten pool. with sufficient pressure to cause some upsetting of
Gas Shielding Improves Quality. During transfer the end of the stud. The process is used primarily for
across the arc gap, the molten metal is shielded by attaching threaded fastening devices in applications
protective gases from oxidation and other reactions similar to that described above-.
with the arc atmosphere. These gases may be pro-
vided by the burning of coatings on the welding rod WELDING EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES
itself, by flux powders beneath which the arc burns,
or by a flow of shielding gas from an external source. Most of the basic shape-producing methods
tcertain
Straight Polarity-Welding Rod Negative.
welding rods., the polarity of the rod
With
with
make use of a relatively small number of equipmen~
types for each of the individual processes. For both
practical and economic reasons, the majority of weld-
respect to the work exerts a measurable influence on
ing processes make use of heat to establish the con-
I burn-off rate and the amount of spattering. When the ditions necessary for welding. Most heating means are
f rod is negative, the setup is called straight polarity. used at one time or another, so that the equipment
When the rod is positive, the setup is called reverse design varies over a wide range. Welding is still in an
polarity. Manufacturers designate the preferred polari- earlier stage of development than casting, forging,
ties for most rods.
pressworking, or machining, and new techniques with
Arc Welding Versatile and Important. Arc weld- associated equipment are constantly being developed.
ing has developed into the most versatile of all weld- At some future date, a higher degree of equipment
ing processes. Power supplies of almost unlimited standardization is likely, but at present, each new
capacity are available, and deposition rates in excess development adds another piece of specialized equip-
of 100 pounds per hour are used with the faster pro- ment.
cedures. Many production processes have been de-
r veloped, most with automatic regulation of current,
ARC-WELDING ELECTRODES
',rod feed, and speed of travel along the proper path.
With proper shielding, most metals and alloys may be Coatings Provide Protective Atmosphere. Early
~ arc welded. Products that are regularly arc welded welding rods were bare iron wires, with which it was
include tanks and other pressure vessels, structural difficult to maintain stable welding arcs: the deposit-
steel, large diameter steel pipes, ship hulls and fit- ed metal was frequently porous or contained oxides
,tings, large machinery frames, and aircraft structures. and other inclusions. Modem welding rods for manual
.,~ Percussive Welding. One other use of the electric use are usually heavily coated with constituents that
I arc is in percussive welding, a process more closely alleviate these problems.
associated with pressure than fusion methods and The first function of the coating is to provide a
f~,Usedonl~ for making butt joints between the flat gaseous shield that flushes away the atmospheric
'~nds of work pieces without filler material. The work- gases to prevent oxidation and other gaseous contami-
[pieces are connected to a large capacitor charged to nation of molten metal during transfer from the rod
[~pout 3,000 volts, then driven toward each other by and after deposition in the molten pool. The gaseous
108 Materials and Processes for NDT Technoloro.::
shield generally also. contains ionizing constituents structures, and welding of cross-country pipelines, do
that assist in ionizing the arc atmosphere by reducing not permit positioning of the work.
the effective ionization potential so that the arc may Even so, welding often proves to be far cheaper and
burn with lower applied voltage. Sodium salts are produces more reliable structures than other fabrica-
commonly used for direct-current welding rods. tion processes.
Potassium salts are used for alternating-current weld- Quality and Speed Improved with Modifica-
ing rods for which arcs are more difficult to maintain tions. When manual arc welding with stick rods can-
because the current passes through zero 120 times not provide welds of high enough quality or when the
each second (twice for each cycle of 60 hertz cur- nature of the work, especially the amount of welding
rent). to be done, permits higher setup and equipment costs
Slag Protects Hot Metal. In addition, the coating with reduced operating labor time, a number of
may provide slag-blanket forming materials, which modifications are available.
form a protective layer over the deposited weld Inert Gas Shield-Tungsten Electrode Welding of
metal. The insulating coating reduces the rate of cool- many modern metals and alloys, such as magnesium,
ing by heat loss to the atmosphere and protects the titanium, stainless steels, and others is done with gas
hot metal from atmospheric oxidation and gas tungsten-arc welding (Figure 10-2). In this process,
absorption at the higher ~emperatures at which gases first developed during World War II for welding mag-
are readily soluble in the metal. For welding on ver- nesium alloys, an arc is maintained between a noncon-
tical and overhead surfaces, special coatings with high sumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece, while
slag viscosities are needed to prevent the slag from shielding is provided by an inert gas or gas mixture,
running off the surface of the metal during the period most commonly argon or helium. Filler metal mayor
when the slag itself is molten. may not be added as the particular application re-
Coating May Add Filler. In high-depositon-rate quires. This method has been well developed and finds
rods for flat position welding, extremely heavy coat- many applications today, particularly for welding
ings may be employed to carry powdered iron or iron some of the difficult materials. In the past, this non-
oxide materials that combine with the deposited consumable process has been referred to as tungsten
metal to add to the deposition rate. Contact elec- inert gas welding.
trodes are designed with coatings that burn off slowly
enough to support the rod at a proper distance above
the work for good arc length with less operator skill
- SHIELDING
GAS
SHIELDING GAS
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding. A great amount of
automatic welding is performed by the gas tungsten-
Jr WIRE DRIVE
arc method becuase the non-consumable tungsten elec-
trode provides for a heat source with good stability.
Most automatic gas tungsten-art welding machines
are applied with electronic controls that automatically
move the electrode holder upward or downward to
maintain a constant arc length. The possible compact-
ness of the electrode holder permits use of the method
in locations where a human operator could not see or
manipulate. Much of the development work was per-
formed in submarines for successfully welding pipe in
inaccessible areas.
The method is widely used for pipe welding both in
the field and in the shop. In some cases, welds without
Figure 10-3
filler wire are produced-most on relatively thin sheet
Schematic diagram of gas metal-arc welding
metal products. In other cases, cold filler wire is fed in-
to the weld puddle or in still other cases, preheated
chemical inertness. However, the gas mixture has filler wire is fed to promote faster welding. Recently
considerable effect on the depth of penetration, the developed are pulsed-arc power supplies capable of pro-
contour of the weld surface, and the arc voltage. viding various pulse characteristics to the arc. Such
From 0.5% to 5% oxygen is sometimes added to controls impart high frequency agitation of the matter
improve the weld contour. Carhon dioxide gas is fre- puddle, in effect stirring the oxides and evolved gasses
quently used when welding mild steel; even then it is out of the weld.
difficult to avoid porosity in the weld. Weld quality As with any automatic process where the human ele-
may be improved by providing a small amount of dry ment is reduced, reliability and consistency tend to be
flux as a magnetic powder that either clings to the improved once the process is in operation. However,
rod as it emerges from the holder or is contained in because the operator no longer has the ability to in-
the center of hollow filler-wire. Similar improvement stantly compensate for observable errors, problems of
may be obtained by using two shielding gases: a small initial preparation and fit-up become more critical.
amount of inert gas such as argon or helium near the Automatic Welding Under Flux. A high produc-
rod and a larger flow of cheaper carbon dioxide sur- tion process in wide use today is submerged arc weld-
rounding the inert gas. ing (Figure 10-4). The power supply and feeding ar-
rangement are similar to those that would be used with
, AUTOMATIC WELDING gas metal-arc welding, but shielding is provided by a
Almost all electric arc processes except those using granular flux fed from a hopper to surround the arc
covered electrode wire are amenable to a certain completely. Part of the flux is fused by the heat of the
amount of automatic or machine control. Those using arc to provide a glassy slag blanket that protects the
gas metal-arc and/or flux core wire with gas shield are molten metal and the solidified weld as it cools. In
sometimes adapted for automatic operation. Usually a addition, the normally nonconductive flux becomes
constant voltage power supply and adjustment of cur- conductive when fused and permits very high current
rent flow permits the burn-off rate to maintain an ap-
proximately uniform arc length regardless of the rate
of wire feed.
The automatic feature of this kind of welding is often
the result of experimentation and custom design to
provide proper coordination in the relative motion be-
DIRECTION OF TRAVEL .
tween the heat source and weldment. Sometimes, the
;, electrode holder is moved through a predetermined
i! path by control of a holding fixture that is clamped to
. the work. In other cases the arc may remain in a fixed
location and the weldment moved past it by action of
RECOVERABLE FLUX
the exterior of the part has little or no marking from cur. The boiling of the molten metal at the high
the electrodes. Uses of projection welding include the temperatures removes impurities that may be present,
joining of electrical contacts to relay and switch parts and the resulting weld may be of higher quality than
and the manufacturing of fencing in which the pro- the base metal. The high rate of heating restricts the
jections are inherent in the product where the wires heat-affected zone, and there is minimum distortion
cross. and alteration of physical properties. A ratio of fu-
Spot Welding an Important Assembly Pro- sion depth to width of as much as twenty is possible.
cess. Spot welding and its variations are among the The process uses high cost equipment, and the
most used joining processes in the manufacture of total amount of heat available is small. Electron-beam
high quantity goods, such as automobiles, home ap- welding is valuable for welding beryllium, molyb-
pliances, office equipment, and kitchenware. Dissimi- denum, zirconium, hafnium, and other refractory
lar metals and parts of different thicknesses may be metals difficult to weld by other methods.
joined. Little cleaning of the parts is necessary either
PLASMA ARC
before or after welding. The greatest limitations are
the initial cost of equipment, the experimentation For most gases, the stable molecular form at
sometimes necessary with new applications, and the room temperature contains two atoms, but the gas,
restrictions to joining relatively thin material except when ionized, becomes monatomic in form. A plasma
in the case of projection welding. is a gas that has been heated to such a temperature
that the gas is ionized. A reduction in temperature
results in the recombination of atoms to the molecu-
SPECIAL WELDING PROCESSES
lar form and the release of energy as heat. The gas
As in the case of sheet-metal forming, a number column in arc welding is ionized, but in this case, it is
of limited-use joining processes have been developed a relatively small, stationary quantity of gas that is
for special applications. These may be concerned with involved.
the welding of refractory or easily oxidized metals, of In the plasma-arc process, a stream of gas is ion-
metals that require extremely high rates of heat in- ized by heat as it is passed through an electric arc
put, or of heavy sections or may simply involve by one of the two methods shown in Figure 10-8.
special procedures that assist some otherwise con- Thermal expansion of the gas stream causes it to flow
ventional process. Most are of rather limited use be- at supersonic speeds as its diameter is restricted by
~ cause of the special equipment required, the restric- the magnetic properties of the arc. The drop in tem-
tion of sizes, the high cost involved, or being new, the peratures caused by contact with the relatively cool
, lack of widespread knowledge. work surface results in loss of ionization and the
release of large amounts of heat directly at the sur-
face to be heated. The process has a high intensity
r ELECTRON-BEAM WELDING
Energy for heating may be made available in and a high rate of heat transfer, which makes it
many forms. In the electron-beam gun (Figure useful for welding high conductivity metals such as
10-7), a stream of high energy electrons is focused aluminum.
electrically toward a spot on the surface to be heated. NEGATIVE
PLASMA fLAME
+ HIGH VOLTAGE DC
lOW VOLTAGE DC
iI:
VACUUM
WORK WORK
WORK
1 TRANSfeRRED ARC NONTRANSfERRED ARC
\I
Vibration Aids Cleaning. One of the principal
limitations on cold bonds is the excessive deforma-
FACEOXIDES f'
tion required to provide enough fragmentation of the
oxide layers on the contacting surfaces. Cold bonding
may be performed with less deformation by applying t~-+-~~~
STATIONARY BAR ROTATING BAR
high frequency mechanical energy in the process
called ultrasonic welding. The vibrations introduce Figure 10-9
shearing forces that assist in the fragmentation; as a Friction welding
result, more than 50% clean-metal contact may be
established.
~ RUNOFF TABS
Both spot and seam welds may be made, and the
widest use has been for metals difficult to join by ELECTRODE GUIDE
I I
I I
FRICTION WELDING I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I
In ultrasonic welding, mechanical energy is sup- I I
L_- --r-- ---f J
plied to facilitate fragmentation. In friction welding : : RESOLIDIFIED METAL
(Figure 10-9), mechanical energy is supplied not I
I
I
I
only to facilitate fragmentation but also to develop I
I
I
Progressive Cleaning and Welding. A uniform cov- design if the maximum permissible stresses are con-
ering layer of explosive material is detonated to pro- sidered and joint areas are increased where necessary.
duce a shock wave that progresses uniformly across Unitized Product. The single-piece concept is
the material to be welded. The materials to be welded used in many applications. For example, in much
are originally spaced a small distance apart. The shock welded pipe, the weld is undetectable without critical
wave from the explosion closes the gap in such a way examination; a drill or reamer shank is continuous
that surface impurities are pushed ahead and extreme- with the body of the tool, even though they are of
ly high pressures establish the contact of clean metal different materials. In modern welded structural steel
for welding. assemblies, the joints may be stressed as continua-
The greatest use for the procedure is in coating, tions of the beams involved, although strengthening
or cladding, structural metal with a more expensive plates are sometimes necessary. In many instances,
but more corrosion-resistant metal. The purpose may welding permits the single-piece concept to be applied
be to protect the metal from ordinary environmental to designs that would not otherwise be possible.
exposure or to prevent damage from more intense Assembly Fastening. The second concept of weld-
exposure such as in chemical process containers. ing is as an assembly means in competition with
mechanical fastenings. The welded assembly is gen-
DIFFUSION WELDING
erally permanent, but the individual parts retain their
Solid-state processes of joining metals were the identity, and the strength of the structure is frequent-
earliest used and antedate the fusion processes. Re- ly governed by the strength of the joints. The use of
vived interest in the principles of the solid-state pro- spot, seam, and projection welding is normally in this
cesses, however, has recurred in very recent years class. In many cases, not only are the mechanical
together with increased theoretical knowledge of fasteners eliminated but also preparation by drilling
solid-state bonding. The result is development of dif- or punching holes is unnecessary and gaskets are no
fusion welding. longer needed for sealing. Fitting of parts together
Pressure, Temperature, Time-Independent Vari- may be simplified because alignment of holes is not
ables. The process involves the establishment of a required. The parts may be merely positioned with
smooth, clean surface that must be maintained until proper relationship to each other.
the weld is accomplished. This often means protect- JOINTS
ing the surfaces in an inert gas environment for a few
seconds to a number of minutes. Low to moderate The terminology applied to the shapes of welded
pressure is applied to the surfaces to be joined at the joints is somewhat loose. The type of joint and the
same time the temperature is raised. The welding type of weld are two different considerations. Two
temperature is somewhat dependent on other con- flat plates, for example, may have their edges butted
ditions but usually falls someplace between the re- together, one may be lapped over the other, or they
crystallization temperature and the melting tempera- may be placed at right angles to each other. The
ture of the material. configuration adopted would be referred to as the
Present Use Limited. Diffusion welding does not type of joint. Although some joints are more con-
at present seem to be economically competitive with viently welded by some processes than by others, and
other processes when the other processes can produce some processes are restricted to certain types of
joints, the specification of a joint type does not
. satisfactory results. The main use to date has been in
welding new materials to avoid metallurgical, car- automatically specify the welding process or the man-
ner in which filler material is to be placed.
l. rosion, and physical problems sometimes associated Weld Type Usually Distinguished from Joint
j. with older welding techniques. The process has been
:~ used most for joining special alloys in aerospace and Type. The actual shape of the bonded area or the
.- atomic energy applications. cross-sectional shape of the filler material, frequently
governed by the preparation given the edges of the
ilL
part to be welded, is known as the type of weld. In
(;; WELDING DESIGN the lapped position, the plates might be joined by
Welding may fulfill either one of two basically building up fillets along the edges, filling in holes or
, different design concepts. As a basic shape-producing
.means, welding competes with other basic processes,
slots in one plate with weld metal, spot welding, or
seam welding. Frequently, a close connection exists
~ .especially forging and casting. The individual parts between the type of weld and the process that may
I making up a weldment are most frequently cut from be used. Either term, joint or weld, is sometimes used
~ rolled sections that are produced in high quantities at to refer to both the relative positions of the parts to
low cost. Ideally, the finished weldment may be be welded and the type of weld.
'thought of as an homogeneous structure equivalent to Figure 10-11 shows the weld types that may be
'a single part. Even with less than 100% joint efficien- produced by fusion welding. Following the name is
"cy, the single-piece concept may still be used in the drawing symbol for each type. Bead welds are
114 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
~ M
~~ FILLET ~ SQUARE GROOVE -H-
Figure 10-13
Tee joints
~
Other side
member of joint
(
'0 r-
BiD I
I L- ~ Arrow of
SQUARE GROOVE -tt- BEVEL GROOVE JL VEE GROOVE :::L welding symbol
V\ Arrow side
member of joint
~ J-GROOVE.JL
rtJh .
lJ-GROOVE
~'
-'L
Figure 10-14
Lap joints
Arrow side
Figure 10-11 of joint
Fusion-weld types
Arrow of
the amount of distortion encountered. A vee or bevel welding symbol
weld requires simpler preparation than a V- or J-weld
but results in greater distortion because much more
heat is present at the opening of the vee than at the
bottom. The heat difference is not so great in a
V-weld. Where access is available to both sides of the Figure 10-15
members, many groove welds are made in double Corner joints
form, especially for heavy members. Adequate pene- Arrow side
tration with square grooves is generally possible only olioin!
Arrow 01
by welding from both sides. The weld types shown welding symbol
also apply to braze welding, except that in this appli-
cation no melting of the base metal would occur, and
the dotted lines in the figure would be the extent of
fusion.
Configuration Determines Joint Type. Five basic
types of joints are used for welding. These are shown Figure 10-16
in Figures 10-12 through 10-16. The types of welds Edge joints
that may be used with each and the standard weld
symbols that apply are shown.
Other side
01 join!
Figure 10-12
Butt joints Elements in this
Basic weld symbol area remain as
or detail reference shown when tail
and arrow are
reversed
The Welding Symbol. Figure 10-17 illustrates the
elements of a welding symbol as recognized by the Figure 10-17
American Welding Society. The symbol is used on Elements of the weldjng symbol
Welding Processes and Design 115
drawings to designate the details of a weld. Any part were designed according to rules that permit freedom
of the symbol that is not needed for clarity may be in the joints as is generally assumed for bolting or
omitted. Figure 10-18 shows the manner in which the riveting. Large improvements in joint strength and
symbol would be used to describe a welded corner joint ductility have resulted from improved methods for
together with the result of following these specifica- preventing contamination of the weld metal and as
tions. The joint is to have a If4-inch unfinished fillet the metallurgical changes that take place in a weld
weld on the inside of the corner (opposite side) and a have become fully understood.
1/4-inch back weld on the outside (near, or arrow
side) that is to be ground flat. The shielded-metal WELD ABILITY
arc-welding process is to be used. It is to be a continu- Weldability Varies with Material. The relative ease
ous weld along the corner because no pitch or spacing with which a sound union may be produced between
is designated. two parts by welding is knows as the weldability of a
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS metal. A number of factors must be considered. Some
metals may be more easily contaminated than
It has been fully realized in recent years that weld- others. The contamination may consist of gross oxide
ing is a unique process and that all of the design rules inclusions or voids that would be very apparent in a
applied to other processes db not necessarily apply to cross section of the weld, or of microcontamination
that results in structural changes detectable only by
~1;'4 ~ examining the metallurgical structure. Gross defects
SMAW/V4 Q ~ not only reduce the actual cross section of the weld
but also introduce stress concentrations that are par-
ticularly harmful in a metal with low ductility. The
principal effect of structural changes is reduced duc-
tility. Contamination can be controlled by providing
the correct environment for the molten metal.
Hardenability. Especially important for steels is
consideration of the hardenability of the metal. It
will be remembered that this term is related to the
COMPLHED WELDJOINT
cooling rate necessary to form a structure of given
Figure 10-18 hardness in a steel. Again remembering that as hard-
Example of welding symbol use ness is increased, ductility decreases, the effect of
hardenability on weldability can be predicted. In all
welding. Welding started as a repair method and the important welding processes, the metal is heated
( developed from this, primarily as a substitute for near or above the melting temperature, and cracking
"'-other methods of joining. When it is used strictly as a or high residual stresses as the metal cools differen-
. joining method, particularly by spot welding, little tially can be prevented only by yielding of the metal
. trouble is experienced. However, when parts are fully in the weld area. With few exceptions, any element
i' joined to form rigid, one-piece structures, designers that is added to pure iron increases its hardenability
: have not always realized that such structures do not and therefore decreases its weldability by reducing
i: respond to loading in the same way as a bolted or ductility and increasing the possibility of cracks or
,.' .
nveted structure. Many structures must allow for high residual stresses. Therefore, increased welding
: yielding
v
or shifting in service that might be permitted
by a bolted structure but not by a weldment, unless
difficulty can be expected as carbon or alloy content
is increased in any steel. The major exception to this
:% ,thedesign were changed. nde is the addition of vanadium, which reduces
hardenability.
1'- Unit Structure-Special Consideration. A number
! of failures of welded ships and storage tanks have Thermal Conductivity. Another factor affecting
, been traced to cracks that can grow to a large size in a weldability is the thermal conductivity of the metal.
welded structurebut would be interrupted by a If a metal had infinitely high thermal conductivity, it
~1l11eChaniCally fastened
,
joint. Monolithic welded struc- could not be fusion welded at all because it could not
, tures have been found to be somewhat more notch be locally melted. Aluminum, for example, has such
',sensitive with a corresponding drop in impact high conductivity that high rates of heat input are
t strength, especially at low temperatures. required to prevent excessive melting of the base
kc On the other hand, designers have not always taken metal. On the other hand, stainless steels have low
full advantage of the potential joint strengths offered
" conductivity, which results in hot spots, and very
,by welding. Welding can produce rigid joints that high temperature gradients in the weld zone, which
~prove beam strengths. The material would be used results in increase of the stresses developed on cool-
un efficiently if a welded structural steel assembly ing.
116 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
Composition. . Composition can have other effects both sides of a joint, but the first side welded usually "'
than those on hardenability. Stainless steels may not will have the greatest effect. When a number of welds
be hardenable to martensite at all but may develop are to be made at a number of locations in a weld-
higher stress on cooling than carbon steels of equiva- ment, distortion may be controlled by choosing the
lent strength at room temperature because stainless proper sequence for making the welds.
steels have higher yield strengths at elevated tempera- Pre-Heat and Post-Heat Treatment. The most
tures. The chromium in stainless steel is especially universal solutions to the problems of stresses and
subject to oxidation, and chromium oxide does not distortion are pre- and post-heat treatment of weld-
separate out easily from the molten weld pool. Many ments. Pre-heat treatment does not eliminate shrink-
nonferrous alloy constituents are subject to segrega- age and yielding that lead to stresses, but by lowering
tion when cooled rapidly. the yield strength of the base metal, it provides a
Recrystallization. Heat produces other effects on greater volume through which the shrinkage may be
structure than those of quench hardening of steels. distributed, and by lowering the thermal gradients in
Material that has been cold worked is automatically the weld zone, it reduces the size of the stresses by
recrystallized during welding, usually for a consider- distributing them over greater areas. Post-heat treat-
able distance away from the actual weld. Most ment relieves stresses by permitting yielding to occur
aluminum alloys begin to recrystallize at about 1500 at reduced stress levels; it can also help restore a uni-
C (300° F) so that a weldment made from work- form structure with an improved grain size, particu-
hardened aluminum may actually be more ductile in larly in steel.
the heat-affected zone than in the unheated base When materials have sufficient ductility, correct
metal but only with an accompanying reduction of dimensions can be established by straightening. This
strength. Grain growth will follow recrystallization, may involve pressing operations in fixtures or local-
and even subsequent heat treatment cannot restore a ized heating with torches.
desirably small grain size in most nonferrous metals. The factors that lead to residual stresses and distor-
Corrosion Resistance. The corrosion resistance of tion generally have an adverse effect on the strength
stainless steels may be especially affected by welding. of welded metals. Inclusions or voids not only reduce
At low cooling rates, small amounts of carbon can area but also are stress concentration points. Compo-
combine with chromium and reduce the corrosion sition changes in the weld area may either increase or
resistance. Nearly all cooling rates will exist some- decrease strength with a corresponding change in
where in the weld area; consequently, corrosion resis- ductility. In some nonferrous alloys, brittle inter-
tance will likely be lowered in some spots. Post-heat metallic compounds may form that have a serious
treating of stainless steel weldments is nearly always effect on ductility.
required to restore maximum corrosion resistance- Weld Penetration. The efficiency of a fusion-
In addition to the structure effects, heat causes welded joint may depend on the amount of pen-
other changes. The surface of practically all metals is etration achieved. Although melting of the base metal
oxidized at welding temperatures. While surface oxi- is not absolutely necessary for bonding, and, in any
dation may not directly affect strength, it does affect case, proper bonding requires only that the surface of
appearance and may produce surface imperfections the base metal be melted, practical joint shapes can-
that lead to fatigue failures or serve as focal points for not generally be heated to melting only on the sur-
intergranular corrosion. face. To obtain proper bonding at the bottom of a
Distortion. Even when the residual stresses do not square-groove weld with most heat sources, it is
lead to actual failures, they cause other difficulties. necessary to melt a considerable amount of base
The dimensions of a weldment are usually different metal. Heat sources differ in their ability to pene-
before and after welding, and machining is nearly trate, that is, in the depth-to-width ratio of the
always necessary for close dimensional control. The molten zone that may be produced, dependent
machining itself may release residual stresses to cause largely on the degree of heat concentration.
further dimensional change. When close tolerances
must be held, stress relief prior to machining is usual-
ly required. WELD DEFECTS
A number of precautions and corrections can
alleviate the problems caused by stresses and distor- Many of the possible weld defects have been dis-
tions. If the amount of distortion can be predicted, cussed, or indicated, earlier in this and the previous
the parts to be welded may be purposely off-posi- chapter. The following discussion is for the purpose of
tioned before welding to compensate. This procedure summarizing those most important and most likely to
is somewhat like overbending sheet metal to com- require the use of NDT.
pensate for springback. Some automatic compensa- The general sources of weld defects include: impro-
tion will occur in a double-groove weld made from per design, poor joint preparation, defects in the par-
Welding Processes and Design 117
ent material, improper welding technique, faulty solid- SPECIFIED VEE GROVE ANGLE
on both the base metal and the weld metal. Some de- \_/
"
preciating faults, such as decreased strength of cold I,
1/ LANDWIDTH
rolled steel due to recrystallization of the base metal in
the heat affected zone, are inherent in the process and II ROOT OPENING
essentially become design problems. If the somewhat
broad assumption is made that the design is proper, Figure 10-19
many defects are the result of improper welding tech- Warpage, angular distortion of a butt joint produced with
nique. It follows then that an experienced, knowledge- a single vee preparation
able operator using care and good equipment should
turn out the work containing the fewest defects. Even
under the best of conditions, however, perfect results
should never be expected. There are too many possible
reasons for defects to occur. All critical welds require
nondestructive testing for assurance of quality or as a
means to enable repairs to be made.
T
SIZE
FUSION WELDING
When welding is used during the manufacture of con- 1
sumer products and for large structures, with the ex- INSUFFICIENT
THROAT
ception of resistance spot welding, a fusion arc weld-
ing process is most likely selected. The American
Welding Society categorizes weldment defects in three UNDERCUT OVERLAP
general classes:
1. those associated with drawing or dimensional re-
quirements /"
~
/ /
2. those associated with structural discontinuities / /
- in the weld itself / /
/ /
I 3. those associated with properties of weld metal or / /
/ /
! welded joint. '/ /
i
I DIMENSIONAL EFFECTS
Figure 10-20
Fillet welds.
Warping. Differential heating and cooling sets up
unequal stresses in the weld area that must be ab- Ideal top left with others showing typical defects
sorbed by position shift (warping), deformation (plastic
flow), or cracking if neither of the others can occur. Al- , /
though warping is inherent in the process, it can be
/
>< REINFORCEMENT NOT TO
EXCEED SPECIFICATION
minimized by proper welding control including joint
'\
~
preparation. When necessary, fixtures may be used
also to minimize distortion. In some cases, peening to
produce localized deformation or post-heating to equal-
~ tDouble
:i~re ~1
vee welds.
ize residual stresses may be needed to prevent crack- Ideal top with others showing typical defects
ing.
Weld Dimensions and Profile. Usually the unit
strength of weld material is weaker than the unit UNDERCIJT
If strength of the base material it joins. This is due not
only to the chemical composition normally used but
also to the possible defects it may contain as a finished
weld filler. When full strength is desired welds are
.~ made slightly oversize with a given shape. If the con- \
vexity is too large though, time and material are " !
P wasted and the chance of other defects is increased. I
I
? ..l,.
\
\
OVERLAP
Final Weldment Dimensions. All weldments are de- cess over which welding is performed, or almost cer-
signed to meet dimensions necessary to function pro- tainly when insufficient clearing has been performed
perly or unite with other parts. Welds, especially when on previous passes of multipass welds. In welds made
multiple, must be carefully controlled regarding spac- with an inert covering gas, inadequate fast flow or ex-
ing for overall dimensions to be within usable range. cess moisture in the gas can result in oxide and porosi-
Accumulation of weld size error affects overall dimen- ty formation. Figure 10-25 shows possible locations of
sions and even when balancing may cause poor quality slag in a multiple pass vee weld. In welds made by the
welds. fast tungsten-arc process, small bits of tungsten are
occasionally dislodged from the electrode and enter the
weld metal.
STRUCTURAL DISCONTINUITIES
,. . "I'
Porosity. The term porosity is used to describe
pockets or voids that are the result of the same kind of J
chemical reactions that cause similar defects in cast- \." -"/"1-FUSIONZONE
BOND LINE SLAG\t, . .~SCATTEREDSLAG
ings. Gases are produced or released at high tempera- .A"\-, //
tures and when unable to escape, remain in the solidi- '\ '\ (/ ROOT AREA SLAG
fied metal. They may be microscopic in size or exist as
large as liB-inch or more in diameter. It is seldom that Figure 10-25
porosity in welds can be eliminated completely but a Some types and locations of slag inclusions
few small, scattered pores may not create significant
harm except in the most critical applications. As Incomplete Fusion and Inadequate Joint Prepara-
shown in Figure 10-24, porosity may exist as uniform- tion. Incomplete fusion can occur in any location
ly scattered, clustered, or linear. where the base metal, or previous pass weld metal, has
not been brought up to fusion temperature. Inade-
quate joint penetration, when present, usually occurs
in the root area of the weld and is caused by similar rea-
f-- - - - - - ./ WELDZONE sons-sufficient heat for fusion does not reach the bot-
: 0 "'; '" '" ";- 0-'; ,-. -;; :; :0- 0- -;; "00-"-0 -. -0-
1-°_"-"..:'~"'.2°~"'O.. - - - -DO'" - - -Co", - - <2-
~ ~ ~o_o
"",00'"
tom of the groove. Either may be caused by welding
operator error but inadequate penetration may also be
caused by too close fit up or other improper joint pre-
UNIFORMLY SCATTERED
Tend to be uniform size for a given condition
paration or design. Other contributing factors are too
large electrode, too fast travel, or too low welding cur-
rent. Figure 10-26 and 10-27 show some examples of
poor fusion and penetration.
f- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
;'" 0 .:tg~ . : " '0
".~ '" .. '" <..> '" '" '" '" '" '"
~ -"- ~::. :':. ::.. - ",_o.~ ::. - E. - ~ - ~ ~
CLUSTERED
Often associated with some welding condition change
1 - --- ------
f
'<}:~.. g,ra"o~,r.,.:'So"'...:6,,';'Og.,'3"~'0~~,0
- -- - - ----
8s;!;"~.: d':i ",~'1. ~
LINEAR
Occurs most often in root pass of a multipass weld
Figure 10-24
Three types of weld porosity
Figure 10-26
Inclusions. The most common inclusions that ap- Incomplete fusion
pear in welds are slag, metal oxides, and non-metallic
solids that are entrapped during welding. They are to Undercut. Undercuts are the result of melting base
some degree associated with certain types of welding metal and not replacing it with weld metal, leaving a
but are most likely to be present when the weld metal notch or groove. When occurring on the last pass of a
temperature has not been high enough to permit their multiple pass weld, or with single pass welds, the
floating to the surface, when there is an undercut or re- groove if deep may be a serious defect that should not
Welding Processes and Design 119
LONGITUDINAL STAR
CRATER CRACK CRATER CRACK
Figure 10-29
Types of weld metal cracks
n
Cracking may occur during welding, during cooling, or
particularly with hard or brittle materials at some
later time. Weld cracks are most likely to occur when \, /J.-
weldments are of heavy sections creating a faster \, r; ""'"
~/
quenching action.
, Cracks in the weld metal are primarily of three
Figure 10-30
types-transverse, longitudinal, and multiple star-
shaped crater cracks, all of which are pictured in Fig- Bond line crack extending into base metal
ure 10-29. Sometimes the cracks are highly visible,
sometimes magnification is required to see them, and
at other times they can be detected only by nondes-
I
J\
HEAT AFFECTED
tructive testing methods. '\",..~ ZONE
Crater cracks may be single or star-shaped multiple I ( I
, and form during shrinkage of the final weld pool. They I \
I)
I I
\ I
WELD CRACK
mat propagate into longitudinal cracks or they may - --- ,L ,---
appear any place along a weld where welding has been \, , '-- ~, J\. '--'" /
,stopped and restarted unless they are completely re- '--I-
FI~E ROOT CRACK -.-FINE TOE
~ CRACK
~elted in the process. Unless removed or fully re-
{melted, cracks in the root of a weld are likely to propa- Figure 10-31
;gate through all subsequent weld layers. Root and toe type cracks in base metal with fillet welds
120 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
Base Metal. Similar to weld metal tests, most tests BASIC SYMBOLS FOR NDT
for checking properties of base metal are destructive. In the interest of saving space and simplifying draw-
Code colors and other methods are used to identify ings and specifications, abbreviated symbols are ac-
that proper materials are being used. The inspector cepted and encouraged to describe standard nondes-
should also be fully aware at all times while performing tructive test procedures. The American Society for
nondestructive tests for weld quality that defects in Nondestructive Testing recognizes the following sym-
base material may be indicated. Defects such as de- bols:
picted in Figure 10-32 may have been missed in base
material that was previously not inspected. Welds de- Type of Test Symbol
posited over already existing defects can cause the Acoustic Emission AET
base metal defects to enlarge or extend into the weld Eddy Current ET
deposit. Such conditions found during weld inspec- Leak LT
tions often indicate the need for more complete inspec- Magnetic Particle MT
tion of the base material prior to welding on subse- Neutron Radiographic NRT
quent weldments. Penetrant PT
Radiographic RT
Ultrasonic UT
These symbols are used on a drawing with a testing
symbol very much like the welding symbol used to
G- specify welding types and procedures. As with the
I welding symbol, the placement of the basic test sym-
bol below the reference line means testing is to be per-
formed from the side to which the arrow points. Figure
NON-FUSED JOINT IN 'LAMINATION IN
10-33 shows the testing symbol which carries the tail
WELDED STEEL PIPE A ROLLED PLATE
only if some special reference is to be indicated and
may at times be combined with the welding symbol for
the same joint by carrying two reference lines.
TEST ALL-AROUND
>ARROWSIDE
OTHER SIDE ~ /\
MT + RT
~
~
---
CRACKS OR TEARS INCLUSION OF Figure 10-33
IN A CASTING SCALE IN A The testing symbol. (a) General form. (b) Combined with
STEEL FORGING
welding symbol to indicate that a vee groove butt weld is
Figure 10-32 to be both magnetic particle and radiographically
Some typical base material defects inspected from the opposite side.
Plastic Flow 11
.
122 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
lower temperature is limited to those materials Ductility Not Lost in Hot Working. When de-
classed as being ductile. formation work is performed above the recry-
Deformation Increases Probability of Defects. In stallization temperature, it is termed hot working
metals processing, deformation is fundamental and is because recrystallization proceeds along with strain
successfully performed on virtually every product at hardening. The net result, however, is not different
some time during the manufacturing cycle. However, from that which occurs when metal is cold worked,
improperly controlled, the multitude of manufacturing then heated above the recrystallization temperature.
processes that produce deformation can also produce a Hot working, therefore, permits continuous deforma-
multitude of defects. Both manufacturing and NDT tion instead of the cycle of cold working, recrystalliz-
personnel must be aware of the capabilities of materi- ing to regain ductility, and more cold working that
als to sustain deformation without the formation of un- would be required for large amounts of deformation
intended defects. They must also be alert in the early below the recrystallization temperature.
detection of defects caused by deformation and initiate EFFECTS OF FLOW RATE
corrective action in the manufacturing process to elim-
inate the causes. Recrystallization Requires Time. The changes
associated with recrystallization depend on finite
EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION movements of atoms within the material and on the
formation of new grain boundaries, which take finite
WORK HARDENING AND RECRYSTALLIZATION amounts of time. The actual time required will de-
It has been pointed out in Chapter 4 that when pend on the relation between the actual temperature
loads which exceed the elastic limit are applied to a and the recrystallization temperature as well as on the
metal, a permanent change of position is effected. rate of straining. However, some critical rate of strain-
The properties of the material change because of ing will exist, above which recrystallization cannot
redistribution of dislocations, change of grain size, proceed fast enough to prevent rupture. If deforma-
and other metallurgical effects. In general, the most tion proceeds too rapidly, it is possible, even above
pronounced of these changes of property are per- the recrystallization temperature, to develop cracks,
manent, and material is- said to be strain hardened, and the closer the working temperature approaches
cold worked, or work hardened. the recrystallization temperature, the more likely it is
Ductility Recoverable. The changes in properties for faults of this type to occur.
associated with work hardening are due to the A different type of strain-rate effect becomes evi-
strained and unstable position of atoms in the cry- dent at very high (ballistic) speeds; the failure can
stalline structure. The changes may be reversed by occur with little plastic flow regardless of the temper-
supplying energy in the form of heat. The atoms, by ature or the ductility a metal may show in a standard
the process called recrystallization. rearrange them- tensile test. However, this type of failure is of little
selves into an un strained condition similar to that concern to processing except in some new special-
which existed before strain hardening. The tempera- purpose processes involving high energy rate forming.
ture at which the rearrangement takes place is called
the recrystallization temperature and varies with DIRECTION EFFECTS
different metals (as shown in Table 11-1). Alignment of Crystals Develops Directional Prop-
TABLE 11-1 erties. Any deformation process causes different
Recrystallization temperatures for some common amounts of plastic flow in different directions. Metals
metals and alloys used in manufacturing are ordinarily polycrystalline
materials with more or less random orientation of the
Metals and Alloys crystals. In single crystals, a considerable difference in
Material °c OF properties along different planes usually exists, but in
175 a polycrystalline metal with random orientation of
Aluminum(pure) ....... 80 ..........
the crystals, the differences tend to average out. With
Aluminu alloys. . . . . .. 316 ........" 600
plastic deformation, crystal fractures, rotations, and
Copper (pure) ......... 120 .......... 250 reorientation lead to loss of randomness. As a result,
Copper alloys ......... 316 .......... 600
the properties become different in different direc-
Iron (pure) ........... 400 .......... 750 tions.
Lowcarbon steel. . . . .. 540 ........., 1000
Directional Effect May Be either Beneficial or
Magnesium(pure) . . . . .. 65 .......... 150
Harmful. In products such as drawn wire, this direc-
Magnesiumalloys. . . . .. 232 .......... 450
tionality is seldom harmful. The best properties, par-
Zinc ............... 10 . . . .. . .. .. 50
Tin ............... -4 25 ticularly strength, are developed parallel to the
..........
25 direction of drawing where they are most needed in
Lead............ ... -4 ..........
use. In rolled sheet metal, however, the loss of due-
Plastic Flow 123
tility perpendicular to the direction of rolling but in expense of properties perpendicular to the direction
the plane of the sheet, may cause secondary drawing of flow. Proper design of the product and the tooling,
or bending opera,tions to be difficult or impossible. particularly in forging, can take advantage of this
For some products, the difficulty may be overcome directionality, which persists even after heat treat-
by proper layout of the shape with respect to the ment.
direction of rolling, as shown in part A of Figure Results of Directionality on NDT. Since internal
11-1. For others, such as shown in part B of Figure faults are often flattened and elongated during heavy
11-1, the part may be oriented 45° with the direction working, the sensitivity of various NDT methods to
of rolling. Otherwise, the only solution may be detect defects lying in most probable orientations
recrystallization of the sheet to restore ductility lost must be considered. For example, it would be of ques-
not only because of directional effects but also be- tionable value to radiograph a highly reduced section
cause of cold working. The directionality developed such as that shown in Figure 11-2 through the short
by working is never completely eliminated because transverse direction. In some cases, grains elongated
even recrystallization grains are likely to have pre- in one direction can produce markedly different propo-
ferred orientations. gation characteristics of ultrasonic energy from one di-
GOOD POOR
rection to another. The results from other NDT meth-
ods can also be more or less critically affected by direc-
tionality.
I
'
I [J
[0 I
I
I
,
DIRECTIONOF ROLLING
PART A
- TEMPERATURE AND LOADING
SYSTEM EFFECTS
POOR BETTER
No Theory Fully Explains Plastic Flow. No single
theory explains all the phenomena observed in the
plastic flow and failure of metals. The following ex-
planation is based on several reasonable assumptions.
Elastic Failure Depends on Shear Stress. Plastic
DIRECTIONOF ROLLING
PART B
- flow occurs only when some critical shear stress is
exceeded in the material. This critical shear stress
becomes lower as temperature increases except
DOTTED LINES REPRESENT FUTURE BENDS perhaps at temperatures at which recrystallization or
Figure 11-1 crystal transformation take place. Its value also de-
i Directional effect of rolling on secondary operations pends on the degree of strain present in the struc-
f.
ture, and in the hot-working range, it depends on the
Directional Effects Also from Internal Faults. A rate of deformation. Strain hardening may be inter-
: second type of directional effect is illustrated in Fig- preted as an increase in the critical stress required for
. ure 11-2. Metal as normally cast will contain small plastic flow.
"',.quantities of foreign inclusions, such as scale, oxides, Fracture Failure Depends on Tensile Stress. Frac-
/i-.and insoluble,l compounds, and voids or pockets ture will occur only when some critical tension-stress
,i:caused by shrinkage and gas evolution during solidifi- value is exceeded in the material. This critical tension
,cation. During working, these defects are elongated in stress appears to be essentially a constant for a given
il"the direction of flow with resulting mechanical prop- material and temperature. It drops slightly as the
tLerty improvement in that direction, generally at the temperature is increased but is not affected by strain
hardening.
'II Deformation Processes Produce Low Tensile
Stresses. While the loading system encountered in
, most deformation processes is quite complicated, the
i. primary loads are usually compressive, and tensile
. stresses induced are secondary stresses and are often
,ir small compared to the compressive and shear stresses.
Consequently, much greater percentages of plastic
Figure 11-2 flow may be achieved in an extrusion operation, for
Directional effects from example, than can be achIeved in a tension test, even
elongation of inclusions and voids below the recrystallization temperature.
124 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
GRAIN SIZE and temperatures; the grain size of the final product
Raw Deformation Material Coarse Grained. For will depend on the place where processes stop.
any given metal or alloy, the grain size established on Importance to Nonferrous Materials. The phe-
solidification will be determined primarily by the nomena illustrated by this figure are of extreme
cooling rate. The rate will be determined by the mold importance because, for the majority of nonferrous
material, the superheat present in the liquid metal, metals, these are the only methods for grain-size con-
the specific heat of the m~tal, the section thickness of trol. For example, if improper heat treatment during
the casting, and the ratio of the metal mass to the recrystallization following cold work has permitted
mold mass. For most products that are to be used as excessive grain growth further cold work would be
castings, this ratio is small, and the castings have rela- necessary before grain refinement could be accom-
tively thin sections. Consequently, a desirably small plished, and this would not be possible if the final
grain size is established in most castings. However, shape had been established. To sum up, grain refine-
when it is intended that metal be subjected to some ment for metals that exist in only one crystalline
deformation process, it is still necessary to first cast form can be accomplished only by hot working, cold
the metal into an ingot. The most desirable forms for working, and recrystallization following strain. hard-
ingots are usually quite large with a heavy cross sec- ening, and grain growth will occur any time metals
tion and a large mass. Therefore, the cooling rate for are held at excessive temperatures for sufficient time.
ingots is quite slow compared to most other castings, Various techniques of ultrasonic testing have been
and the grain size developed in ingots is very large. developed to semi-quantitatively evaluate grain size.
For this reason, when ultrasonic testing is called for on
ingots and other coarse grained castings, lower fre-
quencies may be necessary. In some austenitic stain-
less steel castings, even the lowest practical frequen-
cies result in excessive noise from the large grain boun-
daries. Large grains can also cause diffraction effects
in radiographic testing that are undesirable. For best
strength and hardness properties for most uses, it is
desirable that the grain size be small.
Grain Size Refined Mechanically and Thermally. ~
~
z
Any working operation, either hot or cold, results in ~
crystal fractures, rotations, and realignments that 0
produce a small grain size as the material is strain
hardened. The actual effect that these grain-size
changes have on properties is hard to evaluate, how-
f-- WORK---j- ---J WORK 1
ever, because the major property changes are due to I HOT I HOLD I_COLD~T-HOL(j--
body-centered cubic iron. This means that the grain faults still exist in the maIn body of the ingot but
size of a steel casting may be refined by heat treat- during hot working have their effects minimized by
ment alone or that the grain size of a hot-worked the closing and welding of voids and the elongation of
product that is held at excessively high temperature inclusions. Ultrasonic testing is frequently used to lo-
following working may be refined by heat treatment. cate the optimum plane for cropping. The major voids
Note, however, that this refinement requires that the and inclusions are detected and the ingot is cropped at
metal be reheated' through the transformation a location which produces maximum yield with the
temperature range and also that strain hardening is least defects. The discontinuities that remain in the
not a requirement. In general, for ferrous metals, usable portion of the ingot may have no important ef-
refinement by transformation is much more effective fect on the final product, but in some cases may be the
than working or recrystallization. origin of a future failure.
HOLD AT HIGH TEMP
Major Deformation by Hot Working. Cold work-
ing is used primarily as a finishing process and usually
follows hot working that has been used to accomplish
the major portion of deformation. The ductility and
strength properties of the finished product can be
controlled to a rather wide degree by the amount of
cold working that is performed in the final stage.
~
~
z
Last Cold Work Effective. With any degree of
:;(
0 ~ i
I
HOLD AT CRITICAL TEMP
cold working, the material could be restored to the
original conditions of elastic limit and ductility by
recrystallization and could then be subjected again to
I cold deformation. The final strength and ductility
fCC BCC
will therefore depend on the amount of cold working
BCC TO---- fCC TO-
IRON IRON done after hot working or after the last recrystalliza-
INCREASING TEMP HOLD DECREASING TEMP tion treatment.
Figure 11-4
Example of Cold Deforming. The application of
these principles in practice may be understood by
Grain-size change with crystal transformation
in ferrous metals considering the manufacture of cold-finished steel
sheet. Nearly all such steel is first hot rolled to a
thickness of about 4 millimeters (5/32 inch). If cold
RELATIVE EFFECTS OF HOT AND COLD WORKING finished to 2 millimeter (0.080 inch) thickness by
repeated rolling passes with no intermediate heat
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
treatment, the resulting sheet would have high hard-
Hot-worked Metal Soft and Ductile. Material that ness and strength with minimum ductility and be
has been hot worked will generally exhibit maximum suitable only for products that could be finished with
o. ductility and minimum hardness and strength for a little or no further deformation operations.
particular composition. Possible exceptions may If an intermediate anneal were followed by only a
come from directional effects caused by grain orient- few cold-rolling passes, the resulting product would
1-' ation and fibering and effects that cooling from the have intermediate hardness, strength, and ductility
~ high temperature may have on the structure of the and be suitable for a limited amount of further cold-
~. material. Any effects of strain hardening will have working operations, such as shallow drawing or bend-
been continuously relieved by recrystallization at the ing with large radii.
" hot-working temperature. If, following the reduction to final thickness, the
Faults Minimized by Hot Work. Materials that are sheet were annealed, it would have minimum hard-
hot worked start as ingots having relatively large cross ness and strength but maximum ductility and would
. sections. As a casting, this shape and size results in be suitable for de~p drawing or other operations in-
r pronounced casting defects, such as ingot-type seg- volving large amounts of deformation. Any of these
I regation (composition differences within crystals), further deformation operations would add to the
,t voids (dendritic microporosity and macroporosity strength and hardness and reduce the ductility.
~ from gas evolution), shrinkage cavities, and inclusion Reduced Ductility Desirable for Most Machining.
:
, of metallic oxides, slag and other foreign matter.
Some of these faults are removed by cropping the
, ingot. Cropping involves the removal and discarding
When the products of deformation operations are to
be further processed by machining, cold finishing is
generally desirable, even though the hardness and
of as much as one-third of the top of the ingot where strength are not needed functionally in the product.
tthe largest shrinkage occurs. However, many of the The overall machinability of most metals is improved
126 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
with reduced ductility because of improved finish- decarburized shell. Subsequent heat treatment, which
ability. For this reason, much of the bar material to depends on carbon content, does not produce the
be finished by machining is cold rolled or cold drawn. desIred results on the surface, and hot-worked steel
The compressive stresses left on and near the surface that is to be hardened by heat treatment needs to
of most cold-worked material are of bOme benefit have sufficient material removed from the surface to
when the material is subjected to fatigue conditions get below the decarhurized layer. High carbon hot-
in service. Fatigue failures generally start at areas of rolled steels are usually at least 1/16-inch oversize in
high tensile stresses on the surface of parts, and the the raw-stock stage to permit surface removaL Decar-
residual surface compressive stress reduces the actual burized layers can severely limit the application of ed-
value of surface tensile stress due to applied loads. dy current tests. On the other hand, eddy current tech-
niques can be used under some conditions to provide a
FINISH AND ACCURACY measure of the thickness of decarburization, thus
assuring adequate removal.
Surface Qualities Affected by High Temperatures.
Limitations exist as to the surface finish and accuracy
PROCESS REQUIREMENTS
that may be obtained by hot working. Most metals
are subject to rapid oxidation at their hot-working Most cold working is performed at room tempera-
temperatures, which are often well above room temp- ture at which normal variations are unimportant and
erature. In addition to chemical damage, oxide forma- no specific temperature control is necessary. The
tion is frequently nonuniform, and scale may spall increased conduction and radiation rates at elevated
off, exposing new metal to oxygen contact. The sur- temperatures cause control to be much more diffi-
face finish and dimensional accuracy obtainable are cult. In some continuous working processes involving
largely determined by the rate of oxidation and the large amounts of deformation, the energy added by
tendency for spalling. Such surface conditions can ad- the process affects the temperature, and the main-
versely affect the application of some nondestructive tenance of correct temperatures depends on the
tests. Frequently, ultrasonic, penetrant, magnetic par- proper rate of working.
ticle, and eddy current tests cannot be adequately per- Lower Work Energy Required. In addition to the
formed without the removal of rough scale and oxides. maintenance of ductility by continuous recrystalli-
Effects on Low Melting Alloys Not Serious. For zation, one of the principal benefits of hot working is
aluminum and many other nonferrous alloys, the that metals are weaker at high temperatures and can
hot-working temperatures are low enough that oxida- be deformed with lower loads and less work. The
tion is not serious, and good finishes and close accu- lower loads result in lighter and more versatile equip-
racies may be held. For steels, hot-working tempera- ment than would be required for equivalent deforma-
tures are in the range of 950° to 1,300° C where tion performed cold.
oxidation is rapid. With the scale that forms at these Equipment Life Reduced by High Temperatures.
temperatures, it is not possible to obtain good fin- The dies, tools, and other equipment that come into
ishes or close dimensions. Tolerances are generally 0.4 contact with heated materials must be able to main-
millimeter (1/64 inch) or greater on hot-worked steel tain adequate hardness and strength. Hot-working
products. However, cold working of steel can produce tools, therefore, must frequently be made of heat-
finishes limited only by the rollers or dies used in the resisting alloys or be water cooled for satisfactory
process and tolerances of 0.025 millimeter are possi- life. Occasionally, nondestuctive tests are used to aid
ble. in determining when tooling repairs are needed or
Decarburization Changes Surface Composition. when the useful life of the tooling is being approached.
Steel in particular, because of its high working temp- Tooling failures can sometimes result in larger scale
erature, is subjected to selective oxidation. The car- machine failures, thus warranting the application of
bon burns at a higher rate than the iron to leave a NDT as a maintenance procedure.
126 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
with reduced ductility because of improved finish- decarburized shell. Subsequent heat treatment, which
ability. For this reason, much of the bar material to depends on carbon content, does not produce the
be finished by machining is cold rolled or cold drawn. desIred results on the surface, and hot-worked steel
The compressive stresses left on and near the surface that is to be hardened by heat treatment needs to
of most cold-worked material are of wme benefit have sufficient material removed from the surface to
when the material is subjected to fatigue conditions get below the decarhurized layer. High carbon hot-
in service. Fatigue failures generally start at areas of rolled steels are usually at least 1/16-inch oversize in
high tensile stresses on the surface of parts, and the the raw-stock stage to permit surface removal. Decar-
residual surface compressive stress reduces the actual burized layers can severely limit the application of ed-
value of surface tensile stress due to applied loads. dy current tests. On the other hand, eddy current tech-
niques can be used under some conditions to provide a
FINISH AND ACCURACY measure of the thickness of decarburization, thus
assuring adequate removal.
Surface Qualities Affected by High Temperatures.
Limitations exist as to the surface finish and accuracy
PROCESS REQUIREMENTS
that may be obtained by hot working. Most metals
are subject to rapid oxidation at their hot-working Most cold working is performed at room tempera-
temperatures, which are often well above room temp- ture at which normal variations are unimportant and
erature. In addition to chemical damage, oxide forma- no specific temperature control is necessary. The
tion is frequently nonuniform, and scale may spall increased conduction and radiation rates at elevated
off, exposing new metal to oxygen contact. The sur- temperatures cause control to be much more diffi-
face finish and dimensional accuracy obtainable are cult. In some continuous working processes involving
largely determined by the rate of oxidation and the large amounts of deformation, the energy added by
tendency for spalling. Such surface conditions can ad- the process affects the temperature, and the main-
versely affect the application of some nondestructive tenance of correct temperatures depends on the
tests. Frequently, ultrasonic, penetrant, magnetic par- proper rate of working.
ticle, and eddy current tests cannot be adequately per- Lower Work Energy Required. In addition to the
formed without the removal of rough scale and oxides. maintenance of ductility by continuous recrystalli-
Effects on Low Melting Alloys Not Serious. For zation, one of the principal benefits of hot working is
aluminum and many other nonferrous alloys, the that metals are weaker at high temperatures and can
hot-working temperatures are low enough that oxida- be deformed with lower loads and less work. The
tion is not serious, and good finishes and close accu- lower loads result in lighter and more versatile equip-
racies may be held. For steels, hot-working tempera- ment than would be required for equivalent deforma-
tures are in the range of 950° .to 1,300° C where tion performed cold.
oxidation is rapid. With the scale that forms at these Equipment Life Reduced by High Temperatures.
temperatures, it is not possible to obtain good fin- The dies, tools, and other equipment that come into
ishes or close dimensions. Tolerances are generally 0.4 contact with heated materials must be able to main-
millimeter (1/64 inch) or greater on hot-worked steel tain adequate hardness and strength. Hot-working
products. However, cold working of steel can produce tools, therefore, must frequently be made of heat-
finishes limited only by the rollers or dies used in the resisting alloys or be water cooled for satisfactory
process and tolerances of 0.025 millimeter are possi- life. Occasionally, nondestuctive tests are used to aid
ble. in determining when tooling repairs are needed or
Decarburization Changes Surface Composition. when the useful life of the tooling is being approached.
Steel in particular, because of its high working temp- Tooling failures can sometimes result in larger scale
erature, is subjected to selective oxidation. The car- machine failures, thus warranting the application of
bon burns at a higher rate than the iron to leave a NDT as a maintenance procedure.
Millwork, Forging, 12
and Powder
Metallurgy
~
)
~ 0 0 0'-
HOT ROLLING
MILLWORK
r;;- 0 0
TWO-HIGH, REVERSIBLE
IN A CONTINUOUS
0 0 0'- -~C~i~~'~
EXCEPTWHEN
OPERATION
0 :~:--,;---,:J 1
THREE-HIGH, REVERSIBLE BY TABLE
HEIGHT CHANGE
forces that squeeze the material and cause it to flow BAOUP ROLLS ADD SUPPORT TO CONTACT ROLLS
pressure to reduce the section thickness and elongate rolling. Scale-breaking rolls are followed by high pres-
the metal. The major portion of stress is compressive sure water or steam sprays for removal of scale. Both
and is in such direction that the effect on width the roughing and finishing operations are done in con-
dimensions is minor compared to the others. tinuous mills consisting of a number of strands in se-
Blooming Mill Reversible. At the blooming mill quence. Some hot-rolled strip is used directly as it
where the first deformation work is done on the comes from the hot-rolling mill for the making of fin-
material, the cast ingot is rolled back and forth be- ished goods such as railway cars, pressure vessels, and
tween rolls or continuously through sets of stands as boats. Most of the flat hot-rolled steel is further pro-
the rolls are brought closer together to control the cessed by cold rolling.
rate of reduction and establish new dimensions. Surface Oxidation a Problem. As pointed out earli-
Mechanical manipulators are used to turn the block, er, the mechanical properties of hot-worked material
or additional vertical rolls are used for making an are affected by the heat to which it is subjected. Work-
approximC!tely square cross section bloom or rectan- ing at high temperature permits maximum deforma-
gular slab that may be as much as 60 or 70 feet long. tion, but for those materials for which the working
Cast Ingot Defects Removed. As much as one-third temperature is above the oxidation temperature for
of the bloom may be cropped (cut away) to eliminate some of the constituents, burning and scale result, and
a major portion of the impurities, shrink, and poor adverse effects on finish occur. Before use as a product
quality metal originating in the ingot. Near-surface in the hot-rolled state, or before cold-finishing opera-
defects caused by ingot or rolling faults are removed tions are performed, surface cleaning is required.
during or following primary rolling by chipping, Cleaning is often done by immersing the material in
grinding, or scarfing (oxygen torch burning). These acid baths (pickling) that attack the scale at higher
long blooms are then sheared to lengths convenient to rates than the base metal.
handle and suitable for the anticipated final material Limited Accuracy in Hot Rolling. Because of
form.
differences in working temperatures affecting shrink-
Continuous Casting Eliminates Ingots. Increasing age, differences in oxidation depths, and more rapid
use is being made of continuous casting as a step in wear on the rolls, dimensions are more difficult to
steel making. Although the cost of changeover is high, hold in hot-rolling processes than when finishing is
the installation eliminates the making of ingots and done cold. Tolerances depend to some extent on the
their breakdown in the blooming mill. The continu- shape and the material. For hot-rolled round bars of
ous casting is made in a heavy slab or plate form that low carbon steel, they range from :t 0.1 millimeter
can be introduced directly into the hot-roll stands. (0.004 inch) for material up to 10 millimeters (0.4
Another advantage gained is the elimination of ingot inch) in diameter to :!: 1 millimeter (0.040 inch) for
cropping. bars 10 centimeters (4 inches) in diameter.
Billets Smaller Than Blooms. Blooms are fre-
quently reduced to billet size, maximum cross section COLD FINISHING
of 36 square inches, in a similar stand with reversing Properties Changed by Cold Working. While most
features, although some installations have been set up steel is shipped from the mill in the hot-rolled condi-
with a number of rolling stands in sequence so that tion, much of the material is cold finished by addi.
billets can be formed by continuous passage through tional rolling in the cold state or by drawing through
the series. dies. The forces set up by either procedure are similar
I Hammer Forging for Specials. Some demand and result in reduction of cross-sectional area. Ma-
. exists for small quantities of wrought materials in terials that are treated in this way must have suffi-
:large shapes not adaptable to rolling. These may be of cient ductility at the beginning, but that ductility is
ivariable section size, for example, a large steam tur- reduced as the hardness, yield strength, and tensile
!bine shaft, or sizes not ordinarily produced by the strength are increased as the deformation progresses.
trolling mill. In these cases, the ingot may be worked Flat Products. The flat products of a steel mill are
Ito the desired shape by a forging operation, usually called strip, sheet, plate, or bar, depending on the
lbetween flat-faced hammers. relative widths and thicknesses, and most are cold
Continuous Hot Rolling. Following the primary finished by rolling. For this work the rolling stands
,reduction operations in the blooming or slabbing mill, are of the four-high type illustrated in Figure 12-3 of
ithe sections are usually further rolled in some secon- the cluster type that performs the same function of
rdary operation, still at the mill. Plate, sheet, and rod permitting small diameter work rolls to be in contact
~shapes are in sufficient demand that many mills pro- with the material. Figure 12-4 shows typical arrange-
Iduce them in continuous mills. The material proceeds ments of stands for cold-rolling strip or sheet. The
tandem mill, with a higher initial investment, is a
Wirectly from one rolling stand to the next, with
~rOgreSSiVereduction and shaping of the cross section higher production method but has less flexibility than
and simultaneous elongation along the direction of the single-stand reversing mill. Power for reduction
~,I .
130 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
Figure 12-3
Arrangement of conventional four-high rolling stand Figure 12.5
may be supplied by the reels alone, by the rolls alone, Orawbench for cold reduction of bar or tubing
or by driving both the reels and the rolls. Sheet is TUBE AND PIPE MAKING
normally kept in tension as it passes through the
stands. The terms pipe and tube have no strict distinctions,
but in most common use, the term pipe refers to a
3 to 5 po"e. for
45% Iu 90% ..duet;on hollow product used to conduct fluids. Except for
some relatively thin-walled welded products, tubing is
generally seamless.
U
through which welding current is supplied, and
STEP 2
pressure rolls that maintain pressure in the weld area.
Because the material is heated only locally, the pres-
sure produces flash on both the inside and outside of "u" -ED BY PRESS
DIES
0
"O"-EDBYPRESSDIES
0
! material and is best operated continuously, a flying
STEP 4
, saw is required to cut the tubing to correct length.
f Resistance butt welding may be done in a mill, but
FORMING ROLLS WElDEDBYSUBMERGED-ARC
A PRESSURE
ROLLS OR OTHERWELDINGPROCESS
0
\~ BUTTWELDED
'{\\ I JOINT
, '. STEPS
Figure 12-8
Figure 12-9
Resistance welding of tubing
Electric welding of large pipe
because of the relatively light equipment needed, it
frequently is performed as a secondary operation in a
fabricator's plant.
Some Pipe Welded with Filler Metal.
sizes (from about 15 centimeters
unlimited
small quantities,
For large
[six inches] to an
upper limit) that are needed in relativ~ly
pipe may be manufactured by form-
OJ 11))
ing of plate or sheet and welding by any of the fusion Figure 12-10
processes. In practice, the submerged-arc method, Spiral weld pipe
132 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
Seamless Tubing. In practice, the term seamless eddy current testing utilizing encircling coils is fre-
tubing refers to a tubular product that is made with- quently applied. By such methods, seamless tubing
out welding. The most common method used for can be automatically inspected at rates up to several
steel involves piercing of round billets of relatively hundred feet per minute.
large cross section and short length, with subsequent Perfect Welds Difficult. It is possible to produce
deformation operations to control the final diameter, welded tubular products that effectively are "seam-
wall thickness, and length. Figure 12-11 shows the less." The weld area can have the same properties as
most common type of piercing mill used. The skew the rest of the pipe or tube and may in fact be
rollers both flatten and advance the billet with a undetectable after welding. However, this degree of
helical motion. High shear stresses are developed at: perfection might require heat treatment after welding
the center of the billet, at which point the material is and additional deformation or machining to produce
forced over a bullet-shaped mandrel. uniform thickness. In addition, it would be very diffi-
cult to produce perfect welds in higher alloy steels,
especially in heavy sections. Both radiographic and
ultrasonic tests are used for inspection of the welds in
pipe produced using a welding process. Fluoroscopic
techniques have been widely applied for rapid inspec-
tion of the welds. A few ultrasonic systems have been
designed to provide pipe weld inspection on-line. Some
small-diamteter seamless pipes are inspected by eddy
current methods that are capable of detecting not only
weld defects but defects in the stock material as well.
Figure 12-11
Roll piercing of round bar material EXTRUSION
Sizing of Seamless Tubing. Subsequent operations Figure 12-12 shows various extrusion methods.
include reeling and rotary rolling, which are similar to Tubing may be extruded by direct or indirect
methods with mandrels as shown. Indirect, or reverse,
piercing and permit the inside diameter to be further
enlarged with a reduction of wall thickness. Rolling extrusion requires lower loads but complicates handl-
between grooved rollers reduces both the outside and ing of the extruded shape. Lead-sheathed electrical
inside diameter with elongation along the axis of the cable is produced by extruding the lead around the
tube. Much seamless tubing is finished cold by rolling cable as it passes through the die.
or drawing through dies with the advantages of
y- ~
HOT BillET
Extrusion a High Energy Process. The high degree described are all performed almost exclusively in large
of deformation required for extrusion leads to a num- mills. Mill products usually represent only an inter-
ber of limitations. Most metals are ductile enough for mediate stage of manufacture with no specific fin-
extensive extrusion only at high temperatures. Even ished product in mind. Of the remaining deformation
then, the loads are very high and require large heavy operations, those performed primarily on flat sheet
equipment and large amounts of power. Die materials metal will be discussed in a separate chapter.
must be able to withstand the high loads and temp- Forging Is Three Dimensional. In mill operations,
eratures without excessive wear. This presents a par- the primary shape control is over the uniform cross-
ticularly serious problem with steel, which usually sectional shape of a product. In press operations on
must be heated to about 1,2QO° C to have sufficient sheet metal, the thickness of the metal is not directly
ductility for extrusion. controlled by the operation. Forging operations
Steel may be extruded hot with glass as a lubricant, exhibit three-dimensional control of the shape. For
but die life is short; the process is used primarily for most of these operations, the final shape of the
steel sections produced in such low quantity that the product is forged, and further finishing operations are
cost of special rolls could not be justified, and for necessary only because of accuracy limitations of the
some high alloy steels that are difficult to forge or process.
roll. Forging Dies May Be Open or Closed. The pur-
Used Extensively for Nonferrous Materials. The pose of forging is to confine the metal under suffi-
extrusion process is used primarily for forming shapes cient pressure to cause plastic flow. In open die forg-
of aluminum, copper, lead alloys, and plastics. In ing, the metal is alternately confined in different
fact, except for flat stock that may be more eco- directions with the final result that three-dimensional
nomically rolled, extrusion is the principal process control is gained. With closed impression dies, the
used for producing parts having uniform cross sec- work material is fully confined at least at the com-
tions from these materials. Many metals may be pletion of the operation in a manner similar to casting
extruded at room temperature. For lead, tin, and except for the state of the material. As in metal mold
zinc, this actually means hot working because the casting, draft angles are required, and there are similar
recrystallization temperatures are at or below room shape restrictions based on removing the part from
temperature, and some heating of the metal occurs as the die.
a result of deformation work energy being converted High Compressive Loads Required. The load
to heat. requirements for forging have led to several means for
Flexible Process but Limited to Uniform Cross applying the pressure. In those forging methods in
Sections. Theoretically, extruded parts have no size which the metal is worked throughout at the same
restrictions. In practice, the size of the equipment time, the flow can be produced by constant squeezing
limits the size of the extrusion that can be produced. pressure or by impact. Because of the large amounts
Dimensional tolerances depend on the material in- of work energy required and the need to exceed the
volved, the temperature, and the size of the extru- yield strength throughout the material at the same
sion. In hot extrusion, the die tends to expand as the time, these operations are frequently done hot, and
material passes through, resulting in a taper to the even then the equipment is massive compared to the
extruded part. The principal error is in straightness, size of the workpiece, particularly when constant
and most extrusions require straightening. This is pressure is supplied. For localized flow, the yield
accomplished automatically when the extrusion is strength must generally be exceeded only on small
cold finished by die drawing. areas at a time, either because of the progressive
The principal shape limitations are concerned with nature of some rolling-type operations or because of
maintaining uniform cross-sectional thicknesses. the need to reorient the workpiece periodically to
Otherwise, the extrusion process is quite flexible; odd present new areas to be loaded, as in hammer forging
and hollow shapes are possible that would be impossi- or rotary swaging.
ble or uneconomical to roll. As previously mentioned,
eddy current methods are most commonly applied to NDT OF FORGINGS
testing tubular products that are intended for high
pressure applications or high strength structural appli- Because large volumes of metal are deformed and
cations. moved during any forging process, the probability of
defect formation can be relatively high. Forgings done
FORGING AND ALLIED OPERATIONS at improper temperatures or excessive pressures can
exhibit a variety of defects, both surface and sub-sur-
With the exception of some tube-making opera- face. Because of the improvement in properties and
tions and some cold finish rolling and extrusion, controlled directionality offered by forgings, they are
.especially on ferrous metals, the operations so far often used in light-weight critical structures like air-
134 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
ROLLERS SPINDLE
craft and missiles. Even in less demanding applica-
tions, forging's are generally selected where high
strength and/or directionality is used to advantage.
With the capabilities of NDT to aid in the assurance
of high quality, safety, and reliability, forgings are fre-
quently inspected by various methods of NDT. Ultra-
sonic testing is used principally for detection of inter-
nal discontinuities, while magnetic particle and pene-
trant methods are used for detecting surface flaws. DIES AND DIE
BAC KERS
Since many forging defects can be tightly closed and in
many cases lie in unexpected orientations due to the Figure 12-13
large deformations typical in forgings, much care and Rotary swaging
attention to technique must be applied in NDT of forg-
ings. Forgings often present challenging NDT prob- tube, or wire stock so that it may be started through
lems because of the odd shapes and varying cross-sec- a die for a drawing operation. Rotary forging may be
tions commonly encountered. Personnel responsible done either hot or cold, in many cases the choice
for developing and directing NDT of forgings must being determined by the requirements of the drawing
have knowledge of the forging process in considerable operation that follows the forging. In addition to
detail if reliable inspection is expected. pointing of stock for drawing purposes, the process is
used for closing or necking of cylinders and for over-
all reduction of tubularproducts.
OPEN DIE FORGING
CLOSED DIE FORGING
Blacksmithing - A Manual Operation. When the
quantity of parts to be manufactured is small and the Gosed Dies Expensive. Most forging was done
cost of tooling must be kept low, blacksmith or with flat-faced hammers until just prior to the Civil
hammer forging may be used to alter the shape of the War when matched metal dies were developed. The
material. One of the simplest examples is the manu- process was first used in the production of firearms.
facture of a horseshoe from bar stock by using a With flat-faced hammers and simple grooving tools,
hammer and anvil with manual power and manipula- no particular connection exists between the tooling
tion. While the village blacksmith is no longer so and a specific product, and it is feasible to forge even
prevalent, this method still finds wide use industrially a single part. Matched metal dies, like patterns for
for the manufacture of special tools and low quantity castings, must be made for each shape to be forged
products that are often of an experimental nature. and become feasible only when the tooling invest-
Accuracy and shape of the product are greatly ment can be divided among a sufficiently large
dependent on the operator's skill. Because of the number of parts.
close association with the human element, duplica- Forging and Casting Competitive. To some
tion accuracy is limited, and large quantities can extent, forging and casting are competitive, even
where different materials are involved with each
seldom be economically produced. The manual opera-
tion of blacksmith forging can therefore be used only process. As a general rule, the tooling investment is
for relatively light work and is almost always per- higher for forging than for casting. Thus, the use of
formed hot. forging tends to be restricted to applications in which
Power Assist for Heavy Work. Hammer forging is the higher material properties of steel compared to
an extension of blacksmith forging for larger work- cast iron or the higher properties of wrought steel
pieces in which power is supplied by pneumatic, r.ompared to cast steel can be made use of in the
hydraulic, or mechanical hammers. The operator is design. Because forgings compete best in high
still responsible for positioning the work under the strength applications, most producers take particular
hammer but may lay special tools over the hammer care in raw material selection and inspection. In many
faces for producing some shapes. For very heavy cases, either forgings or castings may have adequate
work pieces, mechanical supports and handling devices properties, and one process has no clear economic
are frequently used as aids. advantage over the other.
Rotary Swaging. A rotary swaging machine, as Material Quality Improved. Proper design for
shown in Figure 12-13, is constructed like a straight forgings must capitalize on the improvement in prop-
roller bearing with the inner race replaced by a erties in certain directions that occurs with metal
powered spindle carrying shaped dies in slots. As the flow. Voids tend to close and be welded shut under
spindle rotates, the backs of the dies are forced the high heat and pressure, and inclusions are elongat-
inward as they pass each roller. Machines of this type ed to the degree that they have little effect on the
are used most frequently for reducing the ends of bar, strength in some directions.
Millwork, Forging, and Powder Metallurgy 135
Sequential Steps Necessary. In forging, a suitable be observed is that suitable material continues to be
quantity of metal is placed or held between the halves fed to the machines.
of the die while they are open, then forced to con-
form to the shape of the die by pressure from the dies
FORGING WITH PROGRESSIVE APPLICATION OF
themselves as they are closed. In drop and press forg- PRESSURE
ing, the dies are not completely closed until the In any closed die forging operation, it is necessary
forging is completed, with the consequence that, as to provide, either by~constantly applied pressure or
the dies are closed, the metal may be squeezed to the by impact, a great enough load that the compressive
parting line and be forced out of the die in some strength of the material is exceeded throughout the
places before the closing is completed. To overcome material for the forging to be completed. Even for
this difficulty, two steps are taken. For most forgings, forgings of a few pounds, this requires heavy, massive
some preshaping operations are used to insure that equipment. For a few particular shapes, processes
approximately the right quantity of metal is already have been developed by which the material is worked
at the proper place in the dies before they are closed. only locally with light loads being required, and the
These operations are frequently similar to open die or area being worked progresses by a rolling action to
hammer forging and include upsetting (enlarging the other parts of the workpiece.
cross section by pressure from the end), drawing (re- Roll Forging Progressively Reduces Cross Sec-
ducing the cross section of stock throughout), fuller- tion. Roll forging, illustrated in Figure 12-14, is
ing (reducing the cross section of stock between the particularly useful when a cylindrical part is to be
ends), edging (distributing the metal to the general elongated throughout part of its length. The drawn
contour of the finished stock), and blocking (shaping section may be tapered, but the process is not capable
to rough-finished form without detail). of upsetting or enlarging the original diameter. In
Excess Metal Insures Die Filling. Even with the operation, the heated workpiece is placed between
preshaping operations, it is necessary to provide some the first groove, and the rolls are energized to make
excess metal to insure that all parts of the final die one turn, after which the workpiece is moved to the
cavity are filled. The dies are constructed so that in next groove and the operation repeated.
the closed position a space is left at the parting line
through which this excess metal is forced into a
gutter. The excess metal, called flash, is actually part
of the forging and must be removed in a secondary
{I
operation, generally by trimming in a shearing type of
die.
[-+--
Steel Drop Forged - Nonferrous
Forged. Theoretically, any metal
Materials Press
with enough
--
ductility could -be either press forged or drop (im-
pact) forged. In practice, steel is almost exclusively
drop forged because of the large capacity presses that
would be required for press forging and because the Figure 12-14
die life would be shortened by th(;'. longer time of Roll forging
contact between the die and the heated steel. Most
I, nonferrous metals are press forged. The slow squeez- POWDER METALLURGY
t: ing
.
action in press forging appears to permit deeper
flow of the metal than in drop forging, and the dies The definition for the term powder metallurgy, as
, may have somewhat less draft. provided by the Committee for Powder Metallurgy of
the American Society for Metals, is "The art of
.
I, .. Fast and Accurate but High Setup Cost. Machine producing metal powders and objects shaped from
ti' noforging provides high production rates with little or
material loss and is thus close to an ideal process,
individual, mixed, or alloyed metal powders, with or
without the inclusion of nonmetallic constitutents,
~ providing that tolerances are acceptable, quantities by pressing or molding objects which may be simul-
~ are large enough to cover tooling costs, and the taneously or subsequently heated to produce a co-
'. deformation ratios are permissible. herent mass, either without fusion, or with the fusion
, Most common machine forged parts made in very of a low melting constituent only."
I Originally Developed as a Step in Refining. Ref-
. large quantities, such as bolts, rivets, nails, small gear
blanks, and great numbers of small automotive fit- erences to the granulation of gold and silver and
, tings, require very little inspection of any kind after subsequent shaping into solid shapes go back as far as
.
..' '. the process is in operation. Tool life is long and consis- 1574. It is also noteworthy that in the nineteenth
i ". tency of product is extremely good. One precaution to
"
..
.
century more metallic elements were produced in
136 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
harden readily and can be deformed with compara- density because each particle of material supplies a
tively low pressures. The metals that work harden force of its own. Rods of various cross-sectional
easily and that are also usually harder and stronger to shapes may be extruded with relatively uniform
begin with, such as the body-centered cubic struc- density throughout their length. Thin coatings of
tures of iron, tungsten, and vanadium, require much powdered materials may be applied to rigid backings
higher pressures to establish suitable contact areas. by rolling. This procedure is especially useful for
High Temperature Accelerates Bonding. Surface various bearing materials.
atoms will be rearranged both by plastic flow and by
mutual attraction with atoms of the adjacent surface.
Increasing temperature aids both of these mechanisms
by decreasing resistance to plastic flow and by in-
creasing the energy of the atom. Particles that have
been severely work hardened as a result of the plastic
flow may recrystallize at elevated temperatures, and
the new crystals may actually cross the original DOUBLE SINGLE PUNCHES DOUBLE MULTIPLE PUNCHES
Protective Atmosphere Desirable. Cold-pressed ganic materials, such as oils or waxes, may be
parts that are subsequently sintered may be heated in impregnated into porous metal products for purposes
conventional manner by being placed in ordinary of lubrication. An entirely different kind of product
furnaces or salt baths. In those cases where heat is can be produced by impregnating high melting temp-
supplied by convection or radiation, it is usually erature metals with low melting temperature metals.
necessary to provide a protective atmosphere of inert The principal use of this technique is in the pro-
or reducing gas to protect the part from corrosion or duction of cemented steels. A porous, skeleton iron
chemical change. compact, which may be produced from low cost iron
powder, is impregnated with molten copper. The
resulting product has better strength, ductility, and
SIZING AND POSTSINTERING TREATMENTS
machinability than conventional powder metallurgy
Properties Improved by Deformation. Because of parts and may be more readily plated or joined by
variations of density and other factors, shrinkage of brazing. Sintered iron has also been impregnated with
powder metallurgy products during sintering is dif- lead alloys to improve anti friction properties for use
ficult to control. Parts that require close tolerances as bearings.
must nearly always be finished by some dimensional Conventional film radiography and fluoroscopy have
treatment. Cold working may be used for minor been effectively utilized on metal/metal impregnations
changes of dimensions, but this procedure is limited to determine the adequacy of the impregnation. Most
by the lack of ductility common to powder metal- often, the material used to impregnate is of much dif-
lurgy. products. Repressing, sometimes referred to as ferent density than the host compacted material.
coining, improves the density, strength, and ductility Unimpregnated voids can be readily seen as can the ex-
of the material. Even with this process, it is seldom tent of migration of the impregnating metal.
that these properties are equal to those of a similar
material produced by fusion. Most commercial APPLICATION FOR POWDERED
deformation working is done by hot working or by METAL PRODUCTS
cold working with frequent interruptions for recry-
stallization. Powder metallurgy occupies two rather distinct
Conventional Heat Treatments Possible. Powder areas. It is a basic shape-producing method for prac-
metallurgy products may be heat treated in the same tically all metals, in direct competition with other
ways as other materials of similar chemical composi- methods. In addition, for many refractory (high melt-
tion, but the treatments are usually not as effective as ing point) materials, both metals and nonmetals, pow-
for the fusion-produced metals, mainly because of the der metallurgy is the only practical means of shape
porous structure restricting the heat conductivity. production. Tungsten is typical of the refractory
Many of the voids within powder metallurgy products metals; it has a melting point of 3,400° C, and no
are stress concentration points that not only limit satisfactory mold or crucible materials exist for using
service loads but also increase the stresses arising from conventional casting techniques at this temperature.
thermal gradients during heat treatment. The treat- Tantalum and molybdenum are similar. For some
ments include resintering for stabilization and other metals, possible to melt, impurities picked up
homogeneity, annealing for softness, grain refinement by the liquid from the containers would be undesir-
for improved ductility, and hardening for improved able, and powder metallurgy offers the most econom-
wear resistance. The hardening processes may be ical means of obtaining solid shapes.
Cemented Carbides an Important Powder Prod-
quench hardening of carbon steels, precipitation uct. Cemented carbides form one of the most impor-
hardening of nonferrous materials, or surface hard-
ening by carburizing, cyaniding, and nitriding. tant groups of materials that can be fabricated into
solid shapes by powder metallurgy only .The biggest
Machined When Necessary. The machinability of use is for cutting tools and cutting tool tips or inserts,
sintered materials is usually poor, but machining is but the cemented carbides are also used for small dies
sometimes necessary to provide final control of di- and some applications where wear resistance is impor-
mensions or to establish shapes that are not practical tant. The principal material used is tungsten carbide,
for the powder metallurgy process. With some types although titanium carbide and tantalum carbide are
of products, such as the cemented carbides, grinding also used. Some very useful production cutting tools
is the common finishing process both to control size are manufactured by using a strong, tough material as
and shape and, in many cases, to eliminate the surface a core and impregnating the surface with titanium car-
produced in the sintering process. The original sur- bide or another hard, wear resistant material.
faces may contain faults or inclusions damaging to Sintered Bearings. A further area in which powder
use of the product. metallurgy produces products not practical by other
Properties Improved by Impregnation. One im- means is in the manufacture of materials with con-
portant finishing step is that of impregnation. Inor- trolled low density. One of the first mass-produced
Millwork, Forging, and Powder Metallurgy 139
powder metallurgy products was sintered porous far, powder metallurgy is in a somewhat noncompeti-
bronze bearings. Mter cold pressing, sintering, and tive position so far as the specific products are
sizing, the bearings are impregnated with oil, which in concerned. Competition exists between cemented
service is made available for lubrication. Although not carbides and other cutting tools, but cemented car-
true fluid film bearings, they provide long service bides can be fabricated only by powder metallurgy.
with low maintenance. Porous materials are also For many of the other products made of most metals,
useful as filters. more direct competition exists between powder
Unusual Alloys Formed by Powder Metallur- metallurgy and other methods strictly as processes
gy. Composite electrical materials form a group where the final products may be identical. In this
similar to the cemented carbides. Tungsten and other area, powder metallurgy has a number of advantages
refractory metals in combination with silver, nickel, and disadvantages. In many cases, the powder metal
graphite, or copper find wide application as electrical product is completely finished with no material loss,
contacts and commutator brushes; powder metallurgy as a result of the process. Production rates are high;
not only provides a means for producing the combi- finishes and tolerances are good. Powder metallurgy is
nation but also provides the finished shape for the particularly useful for shapes with two parallel faces
parts. Many of the currently used permanent magnet but a complex cylindrical contour in the other dimen-
materials are produced by powder metallurgy. sions.
Powder Metallurgy May Compete Economically
with Other Processes. In the applications noted so
l
Pressworking of 13
Sheet M eta I
Applied Loads Cause Material Failure. Presswork- ning. and other forming operations may also require
ing operations, whether shearing or deformation, NDT to assure freedom from defects that can result
involve the failure of the metal by controlled loading. from the large deformations that such operations pro-
In shearing operations, the metal is loaded in a man- duce. Ultrasonic, penetrant, and eddy current tests are
ner to cause fracture. In bending, drawing, and other generally most suitable for detecting tears and cracks
deformation operations, the metal is loaded past the that can result from irregularities in the materials or
elastic limit to cause plastic flow only, usually by processes used.
application of tension or bending loads. Unlike most SHEARING
forging operations in which the metal is totally con-
fined, the final thickness of the metal depends on the Shearing Is a Cutting Operation. The term shear-
original thickness and the nature of the operation. ing, as used in pressworking, applies specifically to
Special Tools - High Cost. The majority of press- the operation of loading to fracture with opposed
working operations requires special tooling. In most edges. Shear stress applies to an internal load con-
cases, the cutting or forming tools are attached to a
standardized die set that is mounted in the press.
Figure 13-1 shows a simple die set for shearing a round
hole or producing a round disc.
Tooling Aligned in Die Set. When mounted in a
press, the punch shoe is attached to the ram of the
press and the die shoe to the bolster plate, which is
the fixed member corresponding to the anvil of a
forging press. The guide posts insure proper alignment DIE SHOE
of the punch and die and simplify the setup because ~ BLANK
the entire die set may be removed from the press and
replaced later without any critical adjustments to be Figure 13-1
made. In some complex dies, there may be confusion Simple die set
as to which is the die and which is the punch; in dition tending to slide one plane on another, and
normal use, however, the tool member with a recess, various amounts of shear stress occur with practically
hole, or depression is called the die, and the punch is all loading systems. In a shearing operation, material
the member that enters the hole or depression of the is actually loaded by a combination of compressive
die. In most cases, stock feeding and handling prob- and bending loads, and the internal stress condition is
lems are simplified by mounting the punch on the top quite complex. Of real importance is the fact that
and the die on the bottom of the die set. when the external loads become great enough, the
Limitations of NDT Applications. Most products internal stresses will exceed critical values for the
using sheet metal seldom require extensive NDT of the material and rupture will occur. The rupture mayor
sheet metal components. For example, while large may not be preceded by plastic flow, depending on
quantities of sheet metal are used in aircraft, most of the properties of the particular material.
the NDT performed on aircraft during manufacturing Shearing Used for a Variety of Purposes. A num-
is devoted to sub-structure like frames, beams, and ber of different shearing operations exist with some
spars or heavier structures like landing gear and en- confusion in names. One of the many ways of classi-
gine components. There are exceptions to this state- fying these operations is by the process purpose. The
ment, however, and at some time the NDT specialist is purpose may be to produce an external shape, which
likely to be asked to provide inspection of sheet metal. may either be a finished shape or be the raw material
While sheet metal inspections are most likely to oc- for some other operation; to remove part of the
cur during the service lifetime of the structure to which material or cut it in such a way that an opening or
the sheet metal is integral, some thin metals are used indentation is produced; or to remove material that
in rockets, some ordnance devices, marine and trans- was necessarily left on the part from some other
portation structures, and pressure vessels. Therefore, operation. Shearing operations may be grouped as
some knowledge of the common manufacturing pro- follows:
cesses for sheet metals will be needed if inspection and
Stock preparation and blank-producing operations
NDT is called for. One example of an important appli-
cation of NDT to thin metals is in thickness control Shearing
and measurement. Ultrasonic and eddy current meth- Slitting
ods can both provide highly accurate means for thick- Cutoff
ness measurement, and are particularly useful where Parting
access is limited to only one surface of a thin metal Dinking
structure. Products made from bending, drawing, spin- Blanking
Pressworking Df Sheet Metal 143
DVR ~~ ,'I'~
011
fS~
Q(". ~"
<"ss
'
'\
\
"'
~
/"vGSS/t- ','to
'" <" \ oP
1-11 '%.~\'1. '-
/
~ 90°
, --- \\ 1- '!J.
c:J.;;'
C>
\\
\\
<>
'i
C>
\\
\\
7 \ 'I
I
DIVIDERS
TOP VIEW
12
1 L- 1
ROTARY SLITTING
MANDRELS Figure 13-4
SIDE VIEW
Distortion during bending
the operation is performed, the high tensile stresses
Figure 13-3 on the outside of the bend cause thinning of the
Slitting metal. The degree of thinning will depend on the
144 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
r
h
L
FLANGE
Spinning - Versatile, Low Cost, but Low Quanti- a short time. This feature has led to the use of the
ty, Process. One of the oldest production methods term high energy rate forming (HERF).
for cylindrical drawn shapes is spinning, shown in Explosive Forming. Most highly developed of
Figure 13-7. Prior to the manufacture of auto- these methods is explosive forming, shown in Figure
mobiles and other consumer goods in mass quantities 13-8. Two general methods have been used. In the
after 1900, spinning was the predominant method for first, sheet metal structures are sized or formed by
forming deep-drawn shapes and is still used to a
EXPLOSIVE
considerable extent when low quantities are pro-
duced. Most spinning is done cold, but for heavy
materials or materials without sufficient ductility at
room temperature, elevated temperatures are used.
Typical parts include pressure tank ends, kitchenware
of a special design and in special metals, and many
WORK
experimental parts that will, in production, be pro- BLANK
~ VACUUM
duced by conventional deep drawing in steel dies.
~
EXPLOSIVE
SPINNING
LATHE CHUCK
SPINDLE
'-- FOLLOW
BLOCK
VACUUM
WORK BLANK
Figure 13-8
Figure 13-7
Explosive forming
Spinning
drawing; high explosives detonated in air or in water
Tooling is generally low cost and, for light gage at some predetermined distance from the workpiece
ductile materials, wood is the most common form are used. Pressures as high as 4 million psi are devel-
material. Shapes produced may be shallow or deep, oped by the explosion, which creates a shock wave in
and bulging operations are possible with special set- the fluid medium that transmits the energy to the
ups. Nearly all metals may be spun, most of them workpiece. In the second method, a closed die is used,
cold. Limitations include the operation time involved and lower pressures of about 40,000 psi are
and the skill required of the operator because the developed by slower burning propellants or gas mix-
spinning tool is held and manipulated manually tures. This system is particularly useful for bulging
except in highly automatic setups where the process operations. In either case, a number of advantages
loses its low tooling cost advantage. Usually some exist when the process is compared to conventional
thinning of the metal occurs. The problems of wrink- press forming. The capital investment is low com-
ling and tearing are present as in conventional draw- pared to conventional press equipment, tooling is
ing operations, particularly with thinner materials. simple and inexpensive, and sizes can be shaped that
would be impractical with conventional equipment;
the principal restriction is long production time so
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN SHEET METAL
that the processes cannot be economically used for
FORMING
quantity production. There has been some indication
Most new developments in this area have at least that greater amounts of deformation may be achieved
two features in common. Like the processes just dis- by explosive forming than by conventional press
cussed, most are low tooling cost methods, useful for forming.
low production quantities, and most make use of a Electrical Energy Methods. Similar methods are
. single forming surface instead of matching dies. All of based on the sudden release of electrical energy
'them use nonconventional energy sources, usually stored in banks of condensers. In one method, a spark
is created between two electrodes while they are sub-
i;some system that releases large amounts of energy in
146 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
merged in water or air near the workpiece. In a piece, which sets up fields that interact with the coil
second method, a high current discharged through a fields to create high forces. With properly designed
relatively small diameter wire results in vaporization coils, tubular shapes may be expanded into a die or
of the wire. In either case, a shock wave is created compressed onto a mandrel or various inserts. Flat
that transfers energy to the workpiece. workpieces may be forced into a shallow drawing die.
One of the newest methods involves the release of One of the principal uses has been in assembly of
stored electrical energy through a coil near the work- tubular components with end fittings. The system has
piece, as shown in Figure 13-9. The rapidly created been called either electromagnetic forming or induc-
magnetic field induces eddy currents within a con- tive-repulsive forming. It does not appear to be
ductive (though not necessarily ferromagnetic) work- limited to low production as are most other high
energy rate techniques.
~~~~
Yl W","O
1~~
Figure 13-9
Electromagnetic forming
Machining 14
Fundamentals
quantities by some other process. On the other h<md, Machining-Localized Force Energy. To shape a
many parts are given their general shapes by some product by material removal in machining, a fracture
high quantity deformation process and machined failure must be caused at the desired location. Load-
only on selected surfaces where high accuracies are ing of the material by relative motion of the tool
needed. Internal threads, for example, are seldom causes plastic deformation of the material both be-
produced by any means other than machining, and fore and after the chip formation. All materials, how-
small holes in pressworked parts are machined follow- ever brittle they may seem, undergo some plastic
ing the pressworking operations. deformation in the machining process. In machining,
Tool Applies Controlled Loading to Cause Material the energy is in the form of a localized force that
Failure. Machining, as well as forging and presswork- causes plastic deformation and fracture to produce a
mg, is based on the fact that one material can be chip.
harder and stronger than another. If the harder one is CHIP FORMATION
properly shaped, it can be called a tool; when the tool
is brought into contact with a weaker workpiece with Some controversy exists over the theory that best
sufficient force, failure results in the workpiece. All explains the formation of a chip in metal cutting. The
deformation operations are based on the proper con- following, whether or not it is completely correct, is
trol of this failure. The loading is controlled in ma- one of the more generally believed theories that ser-
chining so as to produce 'only localized failure in the ves a good purpose in helping provide a better under-
workpiece, which results in the removal of material in standing for tool design and use.
the form of chips without significant deformation in The Tool Is Simply a Loading Device. First, let it
other parts of the workpiece. be understood that a cutting tool is merely a device
Processes Differ Primarily in Energy Use. To for applying external loads to the work material. If a
understand better what is involved in machining, it tool is strong enough that it will not fail and the work
might be well to consider what is involved in some of is rigid enough to resist deflection away from the
the other fabrication processes and then see how ma- tool, a chip will be produced by a relative motion
chining differs. between the two, regardless of the shape of the cut-
Casting-Heat Energy. In casting, energy is added ting tool edge in contact with the work. Although
in the form of heat so that the internal structure of any shape of edge may cause a chip to be formed,
the metal is changed and it becomes liquid. In this certain shapes will be more efficient in use of work
state, the metal is forced by pressure, which may con- energy than others and will exhibit less tendency to
sist of only the force of gravity, into a shaped cavity set up forces of such magnitude that the tool or work
where it is allowed to solidify. The shape changing is will be damaged.
therefore accomplished with the metal in such condi- Forces Are Created by Tool Motion. Figure 14-1
tion that the energy form is primarily that of heat, shows a single-point tool moving into the work and
and little energy in the form of force is required. subjecting it to compressive loading. The load may be
broken down into two forces: a force perpendicular
Welding-Heat and Force Energy. Welding involves to the tool face, which is called the normal force; and
placing the metal in a molten or near-molten condi-
tion, again by the addition of heat, and affecting a
union by fusion, which may involve pressure. Neither
of these processes changes the shape of the metal
while it is in its solid and strong state.
Deformation Processes-Mainly Force Energy over
Large Areas. In forging, bending, drawing, rolling and
extruding operations, advantage is taken of the prop-
erty of metals to deform plastically. In forging, roll-
ing, and extrusion, pressure loading is applied so that
the primary stresses produced in the metal are com-
pression. In drawing operations, metal is pulled or
drawn through a controlling die with a complex stress.
y'~~
distribution involving tension and compression at the TOOl fA" R
point of metal flow. The forces used to produce FACE
The force required to form the chip is in such direc- with superior properties and the need for operating at
tion, as indicated in Figure 14-1 and 14-2, that it not higher cutting speeds to increase production. The
only deforms the material of the chip but also applies principal difference between the tool materials in
high pressure to the newly created work surface that common use is in their ability to maintain hardness
passes under the tool. With some materials this defor- and strength at elevated temperatures. Some of the
mation action may result in fine surface cracks. tool materials with their principal characteristics are
Although machining is not normally a heat depen- as follows:
dent process, evidence of its presence is usually quite Carbon Tool Steel. A plain high carbon steel con-
clear. Immediately after machining a part will feel taining from 0.9% to 1.2% carbon. Machinable in its
warm, or hot, depending on the amount of material re- annealed condition. Heat treat hardened and tempered
moved or there may even be considerable radiant heat after machined or forged to shape. Little used as a cut-
from the part or chips. In many chips, red heat can be ting tool material except for some special low use tools.
observed at the tool tip as it cuts, and in nearly all High Speed Steel (HSS). An alloy steel that main-
cases chips will show discoloration from being exposed tains cutting hardness and strength to about 550°C
to air at room temperature. Except for certain nonfer- (lOOO°F), approximately twice that of carbon tool
rous materials, grinding displays sparks of burning steel. Used for many drills, reamers, milling cutters,
materials. as a result of cutting action. and other cutting tools where the cutting speed has
In many cases such as grinding or other high cutting relatively small effect on the overall manufacturing
speed operations, very high localized temperatures ap- cost.
proaching the melting temperature of the work materi- Cast Nonferrous Alloys. Alloys that are not nor-
al may be generated. High temperature gradients can mally machinable except by grinding. As a cutting tool
set up thermal stresses sufficient to cause small sur- it is used to some degree for machining cast iron and
face cracks that could be harmful. For critical parts in- malleable iron because of its high abrasion resistance.
spection by NDT may be required to detect these de- More commonly used as a structural material or coat-
fects and determine their frequency. It should be noted ing because of its chemical and abrasion resistance.
that these defects are often disguised by smear metal Cemented Carbides. A powder metallurgy product
wiped over the surface by the machining operation- of tungsten, titanium, and/or tantalum carbides com-
even during some of the finest grinding work. bined in various mixtures with cobalt or nickel to pro-
duce a variety of hardness and strength properties.
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS The single most important industrial cutting tool
group, in present day manufacturing. Used most as a
Tool materials have always played an important cutting tool tip or insert. Withstands temperatures
part in the economy of the world. In the earliest days over 1100°C (2000°F).
of history, stone was the principal tool material. As Ceramics or Cermets. Another powder metallurgy
late as the nineteenth century, the American Indian product, the most successful of which has been made of
used flint for arrow points, spear heads, knives, and almost pure aluminum oxide. Less shock resistant
other types of cutting edges. Even today some prim- than most of the cemented carbides but economical to
itive peoples use stone as one of the main tool ma- use for removal of large amounts of material with unin-
terials. During the Bronze Age, copper alloys took the terrupted cuts or for machining some hard materials
place of stone in the more civilized areas. With the that would otherwise require grinding.
discovery of iron and steel, a tool material was found Diamonds. The hardest material known to man but
that has been used for hundreds of years and was brittle and subject to failure from thermal shock. Used
added to only after the Industrial Revolution and the in single crystal or sintered polycrystal form for ma-
development of mass-production principles called for chining low tensile strength materials (aluminum, sin-
tool materials that could operate at higher speeds. tered bronze, graphite, and some plastics) with high
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, a num- speed, shallow cuts producing hard quality finishes.
ber of new tool materials have been developed, and Coated Tool Materials. Strong, shock resistant tool
most of them play some part in current manufactur- bodies coated with hard, wear resistant materials. An
ing. example is titanium carbide impregnated into the sur-
Strength at Elevated Temperatures-an Important face of high speed steel to take advantage of the values
Characteristic. The requirements for a satisfactory of each.
cutting tool material are that it be harder and strong-
er than the material it is to cut, that it be abrasion ABRASIVES
resistant to reduce wear, and that it be able to main-
tain these properties at the temperatures to which it The above mentioned tool materials are used for
will be exposed when cutting. The latter requirement single point tools or for multipoint tools in which the
has become increasingly important during recent cutting edges are carefully related to each other.
years because of the development of work materials Another group of materials known as abrasive are used
as wheels, sticks, or stones, or in free form. In use each Milhg. There are a great, variety of nziEiing m c ~
abrasive grain as it makes cantact with the work cuts chines which like the drill p e s s e m @ y apecid muIti-
by exactly the same mechanismas would a single point edge eu-s. Except for same special production type
cutting tool. The random shape ofthe grains togetha milling machines, this e q ~ p m m premita
t multi-
with their random orientation c r e a k s a multitude of tion f w and the aktms perfarm their principal
cut;ting conditi~nswhich continually vary as tool wear cutting on their periphery edges.
occurs.
Aluminum Oxide. A hard strong grain, much larger
i h n when used in a ceramic cuttipg tad, used fox the
vast majority of grinding toals and applications.
S i b Oxide. Harder and sharper grains than du-
mhum oxide but more brittle so they break easier in
f
.
-
@ rq&, --+
use. U a d hrge~yfor tool grinding work and for grind- lmL '\ ~ L L I ~ G Mtul~e
TURNINa
ing low strength materiala.
Diamond. Tha same material used for single point TOO r ,-.
tools but in this case crushed, graded, and usually sup-
ported by a metal or ceramic back up matmid. Used to @-
h,p$zj6 m\
a great extent for M s h W d h g some of the harder
Cutting tools.
Boron Cubic Nitride. A relativa newcomer (1969).
This materid approaches the hardnesa of the diarnond.
. PLANING
FEEDMOTDN
CUTTING h4OTlON-
---
SHAPING GRtNDING
&~!33np0~d lnq
MOl S AfB~jla[sA
dnws eidurls pus KQt!qeslen y ~ m
aqqpeur urocryaol v -rdw.s-yuej:, l m u o z ~ o ~
w1 ans!d
le-Io
~1gur8
A.sTx-sptndla&ill press that can be set up with Figure 54-12
a variafr 07 twb,far a series of saqmflal operatlQns Plain vertfcal mllllng machine. Shown fitted wlth
ahell end-mllllng cutter and fixturs designed for
job.shop production,
cise numerical information, but are more often rela- Finish Not Always Predictable. While surface
tive to some standard. finish depends on many variables and in many cases
on the particular combination of all the variables,
FINISH especially when vibration is encountered, it is possible
To have real meaning, any measurement of finish to make some general statements about the effect of
would have to be made with all the variables that the more important factors. Table 14-1 shows the
might affect finish under strict control, and the values most likely effect on surface finish caused by increas-
obtained would be reliable only for a particular set of ing the more important machining variables from
machining conditions. The relative finishability of dif- some standard set of conditions. The predicted results
ferent materials has somewhat more reliability. For are intended to be qualitative only and even then
example, brass normally finishes better than steel apply only if one variable at a time is changed.
under any given set of conditions. TABLE 14-1
Waviness-Broad Uniform Variations. The geo- Relation of machining variables to surface finish
metry of any surface is affected to different degrees Finish Effect with
by different factors. The gross conformance of a sur- Variable Increase of Variable
face to its intended or theoretical shape is controlled
by the accuracy of the machine tool motions, by Cutting speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Improvement
vibrations or deflections of the machine tool or work- Feed Deterioration(degree
piece, and by deformations that may occur as the dependent on nose shape)
result of temperature change or the release of residual Depth of cut. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deterioration
stresses. The term waviness is used to describe those True rake angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Improvement
variations of conformance that are relatively widely Relief angle Little effect
spaced or large in size. Noseradius lmprovement
Roughness-Fine Uniform Variations. The term Work hardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Improvement
roughness is used to refer to the relatively finely
spaced surface irregularities, the height, width, and There are major exceptions when vibration is con-
direction of which establish the predominant surface sidered. Changing almost any condition can often
pattern. These irregularities are superimposed on the stop vibration, even when the change is in the direc-
waviness. Roughness may be due to higher frequency tion that would otherwise produce a poorer finish.
vibrations, to feed marks occurring as a result of the Further exceptions occur at feed rates and depths of
combination of tool shape and machine tool relative cut near zero. With either of these variables at very
motions, or to the particles of built-up edge that have low values, finish is frequently poor, especially as
escaped under the cutting edge and been smeared on tools become dull. With a very small depth of cut or
the finished surface. feed and a worn tool, the rake angle is decreased with
Lay-Direction of Tool Mark Pattern. The lay of a increased forces and greater tendency for built-up
surface is the direction of the predominant surface edge.
pattern. Lay is determined primarily by the direction Some compromise is frequently involved among
of the cutting motion used to machine the surface finish, tool life, and machining time. Decreasing the
and may be single direction, circular, or random in depth of cut or feed may improve finish, but either
nature. change would increase machining time. Increasing
The exact classification of many surface irregulari- cutting speed almost universally decreases tool life.
ties frequently depends on the method of measure- Increasing the rake angle may make the tool subject
ment. Most surface-finish measuring instruments may to edge chipping or fracture failure or may induce
be adjusted to respond only to variations of less than chatter.
some particular width so that feed marks, low fre-
quency vibration, or chatter mayor may not be NUMERICAL CONTROL
recorded in the measurement. Measurements of both
waviness and surface roughness will generally be dif- Numerical control (N/C) systems are auxiliary ma-
ferent when measured in different direction because chine control equipment that may be applied to almost
of the effect of the lay. any kind of mechanical device which can function by
Imperfections Usually Random. Any surface may repeating a certain cycle of operation. This relatively
contain, in addition to roughness and waviness, ran- new development is especially important in the manu-
domly distributed flaws or imperfections. These facturing field because it can be applied to most ma-
are most often due to inherent faults, such as inclu- chine tool types and some other machine equipment
sions or voids in the material, that are exposed only such as punches, welding equipment, cutting torches,
when the outside surface is machined away. Scratches and even drafting machines.
or marks caused by mishandling also fall in this cate- Greatest Value for Small to Medium Quantities.
gory. Although it would be possible to retrofit a standard
Machining Fundamentals 155
machine with NIC, the results obtained would be very EOB CHANNELS
0
economical to use N/C equipment on relatively small ~
quantity lots, only occasionally exceeding one or two
hundred pieces.
The major benefits received from N/C include reduc- CHARACTER -~------ --5
tion of the human element relation to the product with (Line) ""
u
y
resulting improvement of consistency requiring less in-
spection. The reason for its value in small lot sizes is b
I (
based on the short set up time, particularly when the
7
program has already been prepared for previous runs. '"
The equipment can therefore be shifted from one pro- 0
duct part to another by changing the tape and avail- I
able tools with very little time loss. 9
Figure 14-15
A conttnuaus path numerically controlled lathe.
tape reader and controls are shown at the left.
PLASTIC PROCESSING
introduced into an open die, and the forming pressure part removed, although' partial cooling is sometimes
is applied by the closing of the dies. Transfer molding beneficial to the dimensional stability of the product.
is essentially cold chamber die casting, and injection The setting time varies from a few seconds to several
molding is quite like hot chamber die casting. In fact, minutes, depending on material, temperature, heating
the equipment used for these processes is usually method, and section thicknesses. It is possible to
similar in appearance. Extrusion of plastics is directly compression mold thermoplastics; but, after the
comparable to the extrusion of metals. pressure and heating portion of the cycle, the mold
Plastic Type Limits Processing. Many of the must be cooled before removal of the part.
procedures have been developed because of the Advantages and Limitations of Compression
nature of the plastic groups, particularly because of Molding. Compared with other molding techniques,
the difference between thermosetting and thermo- a number of advantages and limitations are associated
plastic materials. While the initial treatment of these with compression molding. Size restrictions are rela-
two types is similar, and both soften during initial tively few, and the largest molded articles are gener-
heating, this ductile stage of thermosetting plastics is ally made by this method. There is no waste material
of limited duration, and the setting reaction proceeds and little erosion of the dies because the material
with time, particularly at elevated temperature. does not flow under high pressure from outside the
Thermoplastic materials, however, may be held in the mold. Because of the short, multidirectional flow of
softened condition for prolonged periods of time material within the mold, distortions and internal
with little or no chemical change. stresses within the mold may be minimized. On the
other hand, undercuts and small holes are not practi-
cal, and the nature of the process requires that the
COMPRESSION MOLDING shape of the article be such that the two halves of the
Mold Closing Provides Pressure. The oldest and mold can fit telescopically together to insure filling.
simplest of plastic molding processes is compression The high pressures required, together with the low
molding, shown in Figure 15-1. Material in powder, viscosity of most thermosetting materials in the
granule, pill, or preformed shape is first introduced plastic state, result in filling clearances between mold
into the mold, followed by the application of pres- parts even when they are on the order of 0.025
sure and heat. With thermosetting plastics, for which millimeter (0.001 inch). Thus, not only will removal
the process is normally used, the first effect of the of flash from the part be required but also cleaning of
heat is to soften the material to a thermoplastic stage the mold parts between successive cycles will fre-
quently be necessary.
~
~m~~;~~.
GRANULES
CLOSED DIE MOLDING
By far, the most important molding processes
used are those that introduce the plastic into closed
-"'~' dies by some external pressure system. The principal
FLASH (vimm;ng difference between these methods and the die casting
'equ;,ed)
FLASH-TYPE MOLD
used in the foundry is the softened plastic condition
DIMENSION AND DENSITY CONTROL of the material rather than the liquid state of the
WASTE MATERIAL
metals. Because of the similarities, the terminology is
mostly1he same as that used in the foundry.
Transfer Molding - Thermosetting Plastics. The
variations are due principally to the differences be-
tween thermoplastics and thermosetting materials.
Transfer molding, used with the latter and shown in
S TRAIGHT-PLUNGER-TYPE LANDED-PLUNGER-TYPE
Figure 15-2, is like cold chamber die casting in all
MOLD MOLD important respects. A predetermined quantity of
DENSITY CONTROL DIMENSION CONTROL
VARIABLE DIMENSION VARIABLE DENSITY molding compound, always including some excess, is
introduced into the transfer chamber. This material is
Figure 15-1 usually preformed and may be preheated. Sufficient
Compression mold types heat is supplied to the material in the transfer
chamber to bring the plastic to the softened state.
in which the particles coalesce and flow under pres- Pressure is applied to force, or "transfer," the charge
sure to fill the mold cavity. With prolonged applica- to the die cavity. Additional heat is supplied to the
tion of heat, the thermosetting reaction takes place, die for the thermosetting reaction. The excess ma-
and the material becomes permanently rigid. The terial in the transfer chamber and the sprue and
mold may be opened while still hot and the finished runner system also set, resulting in a cull that must be
Miscellaneous Processes 159
removed at the completion of the cycle. This cull is injected on the next cycle without the cull losses
scrap because the thermosetting reaction may not be normally expected in transfer molding of thermoset-
reversed. ting plastics.
PlUNGER Some injection molding of thermosetting ma-
terials is done, but precise temperature and time
controls are necessary to prevent premature setting of
the material in the injection chamber. When used for
these materials, the process is known as jet, flow, or
offset molding.
CASTING
With the exception of acrylic rod and sheet
materials, which are cast against glass, and some
MOLD CAVITY
protective coatings applied by dipping, casting of
CUll plastics is primarily a low tooling cost procedure
restricted to thermosetting resins and used for low
production of jewelry, novelty items, laboratory
specimens, and similar parts. Polyesters, epoxies, and
phenolics are most frequently used in syrupy or
liquid form, with hardening promoted by chemical
catalysts or by prolonged heating at low tempera-
tures.
to thermosetting materials because of both the nature Reinforced Plastics Convenient. The success of
of the processing used and the higher strengths "fiberglass" boats, automobile bodies, and similar
available. Phenolics, polyesters, melamines, and large shapes attests to the value of reinforced plastics.
epoxies predominate. The simplicity of tooling and equipment required
In nearly all variations of the process, the filler (even for amateur home building projects) makes the
and resin are brought together in the process itself, contact method ideal for low quantity production
and the thickness of the molded parts is established and permits rapid design changes when desired.
more by the placement of the filler material than by Strength and shock resistance are generally quite high
mold pressures. but depend primarily on the type and proportion of
Contact Layup - Filler, Resin. The simplest filler material.
procedure is contact layup, in which successive layers POSTFORMING
of manually placed filler material are brushed or Secondary Operations by Many Methods. Two
sprayed with resin as they are applied to the mold, general classes of operations are performed on plastics
which may have either a concave or a convex shape. after the initial shape has been produced by one of
The mold may be of almost any material that can be the methods already discussed. Conventional material
properly shaped, including wood, plaster, concrete, removal processes, including sawing, shearing, dink-
metal, or plastic, and there are almost no size limita- ing, and blanking, are possible with any plastic but are
tions. The resins used may incorporate catalysts that most frequently used for the preparation of sheet
promote setting at room temperatures, or heating stock prior to a further hot-forming operation. Ma-
may be required. In either case, because no pressure is chining is possible but is generally practical for small
applied, the ratio of resin to filler must be high to quantities only, and other processes are usually
insure complete saturation of the fibers. One of the cheaper for large quantities. Cutting speeds for ther-
more interesting applications involves the use of glass moplastics must be kept low to prevent heating and
filaments, coated with resin, that are wound on softening of the material.
mandrels into the shape of spheres or cylinders. With Thermoplastics Often Reheated to Soften. The
proper winding techniques, the filaments may be widest use of postforming operations is made on
orientated to make most efficient use of the longi- thermoplastics in sheet form that are heated and
tudinal strength of the fibers; tensile strengths up to made to conform to a single surface mold or pattern
1,000 MPa (150,000 psi) have been reported for by pressure or vacuum. Variations are based primarily
structures produced by this method. on the method of applying pressure and include
Contact Layup Variations. The commonest draping, where gravity only is used; drawing and
variations of the contact layup method, vacuum bag stretch forming, which are identical to the same
molding, expanded bag molding, and autoclave mold- operations performed on metal; blow-dieing, which is
ing, are all methods for developing some pressure on a combined drawing and air-bulging operation; and
the surface of the molding to permit a lower resin-to- vacuum forming, which is similar to vacuum molding
filler ratio. Vacuum bag molding is identical with the of reinforced plastics except that no external film is
contact layup method except that a sheet of vinyl used. Some small, relatively flat items, such as brush
plastic film is placed over the mold after the layers handles and buttons, are shaped by forging heated
are built up and the mold evacuated to cause atmos- sheet stock in closed dies.
pheric pressure to be applied. In the expanded bag DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
process, pressures up to 0.35 MPa (50 psi) may be
provided by blowing up a bag that conforms to and is Plastics and Metals Often Competitive. The
held in contact with the molding. The autoclave choice of plastic materials involves the same consider-
method is similar to the expanded bag method except ations that apply in choosing metals to fulfill a need.
that heat and pressure are supplied by steam in a In fact, the two classes of materials are frequently in
closed chamber. direct competition with each other. A number of
Compression Process for Sheet Material. In a different materials will usually satisfy the functional
direct variation of compression molding, matched requirements of a part or product, and the choice
metal dies are used to form reinforced products. This depends primarily on the economics of manufac-
process is used most for flat sheet manufactured for turing for which the material, fabrication, and finish-
table and counter tops but is also used for curved ing costs must all be considered. Many plastics require
shapes, such as chairs, trays, and sinks. For the curved no finishing at all. Often a single plastic molding can
shapes, filler materials are generally preformed before replace an assembly of parts made of metal with
molding. The use of matched metal dies is the only resulting cost decrease, although the material cost
way to produce good finishes on both sides of the alone may be higher.
finished part, and the high pressures used permit as Properties of Metals Usually Higher. The stabili-
much as 90% filler and result in higher strengths than ty of properties and the durability of the appearance
would otherwise be possible. of plastics are usually poorer than those of metals.
Miscellaneous Processes 161
They are generally better for thermosetting materials bonds of these types are established, the positive and
than for thermoplastics, but the thermosetting plas- negative charges of most atoms are not completely
tics are usually slower to process and more expensive. neutralized, and Van der Waals' forces provide addi-
The dimensional stability for plastics ranges from tional bonding between the atoms. While not strictly
poor to excellent. The low rigidity and thermal an adherence phenomenon, mechanical interlocking
conductivity, when compared to metals, may be may take part in the action of some adhesives, al-
either advantages or disadvantages, depending on the though this action appears to be secondary to true
application. adhesion.
Plastic strengths are generally lower than metal Solvents Used with Some Adhesives. As in weld-
strengths. Most plastics have tensile strengths below ing of metals, the proper performance of an adhesive
10,000 psi, but some of the reinforced materials have requires that intimate contact be established between
extremely high strength-to-weight ratios, at higher the adhesive and the surfaces to be joined. Different
cost. Many plastic articles compete successfully with means are used to provide closeness. An adhesive can
metals only through the use of metal inserts for be applied as a solution in a volatile liquid. Evapora-
bearings, threads, and fastenings. tion of the solvent is necessary for the adhesive to
Most plastics excel in corrosion resistance to develop the desired properties, and, as evaporation
ordinary environments. This is true to the extent that proceeds, the adhesive proper is drawn to the bare
many metals are coated with plastic films for protec- material surfaces. Adhesives of this type are useful for
tion. porous materials, such as wood, paper, and fabrics,
ADHESIVE BONDING into which the vapors can penetrate. For nonporous
materials, extremely long drying times may be re-
The elements of an adhesive bond are shown in quired because the edge of the joint is the only area
Figure 15-4. An adhesive is most commonly con- exposed for evaporation.
sidered to be a material with some "tackiness" or Pressure or Heat. or Both. Needed for Some Adhe-
"stickiness," and the animal glues used almost ex- sives. Some relatively new materials are normally
clusively up to the current century met this require- solid but become liquid with application of pressure,
ment. Modem adhesives, however, have wide range in then resolidify when the pressure is released. Other
this respect. Contact cements have sufficient tacki- adhesives are purely thermoplastic in nature, soften-
ness that bonding with considerable strength occurs ing or liquifying from heat and hardening on cooling.
immediately, under only moderate pressure. Some Thermosetting Plastic Resins Used for Metals. The
thermosetting plastic compounds have little or no most important adhesives for the bonding of metals
tackiness as applied and develop strength only after are thermosetting compounds applied as liquids,
the setting reaction has been promoted by heat, pres- pastes, or powders, then polymerized in place through
sure, or chemical reaction with the parts held in the action of catalysts, heat, or pressure. The materials
place. most used include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, and urea
Bonding Mechanisms Complex. No clear distinc- resins.
In addition to the increasing importance of the tradi-
tion can be made between the terms glue, cement,
and adhesive. Common to all of them, however, is the tional uses of adhesives in the manufacture of plywood
property of adherence to a surface, and this property and in the assembly of wood parts, there is consider-
is not essentially different from the metallic bond able growth in the use of adhesives in the bonding of
metal structures. These uses are becoming more impor-
established between metallic surfaces brought into
close contact. At least four mechanisms may be tant as higher strength materials are developed. Adhe-
responsible for adherence. Electrostatic bonds and sives with tensile strengths above 70 MPa (10,000 psi)
covalent bonds result from the sharing of electrons by and shear strengths above 30 MPa (4,000 psi) are avail-
different atoms and account for the formation of able for bonding metals. Many new applications of
most common chemical compounds. Even after joining of dissimilar metals, such as rubber to metal,
OXIDES USUALLY REMAIN ON
are appearing. .
LAMINATES
A number of cornpasites are put together in the form
of h d n a k a . Mast &en thege me designedin the form
of either fht or mrvd sheets tbat have very high
stength-wdght ratim and on the basis of weight may
be able to r e p h e steel in many applications. As is true
of many new developments in mated& and processes,
needs of the aerospace industry have initiated the ne-
w s a ry research ~~ctivikies for these materials,.
Aluminum~Boron. The sketch shown in Figure 15-6
displays a ky$d laminated type composite. Boron, a
high melting temperature, hard, str-, non-metdie,
in fiber form is enclosedin a unidirectionalposition in a
diffusion bonded dumjnum matrix. This core is them Flgura 156
Polyester and fibergjass are used in constructing this
88n,dwiched between kwo sheeh of duminum alloy. A
boat (cawfesy Fore and Aft)
simcture of this kinda n ba light in weight, but stmng
and rigid, suitable for many applimtions in aerospace
uses. Problems tbt a d d exist are the alignment, Honeycombb, Applications req- lightweight
spacing, and bredcage of the rehfwchg fihers and but strong sheetst flat to moderaMy curved, where id-
bonding of the interlaminar foils. Zosahle apace pwmita use of more khan a &OX *hi&-
ness, can &en be satisfied by use of honeycomb. Hon-
eytromb derives ihs strength horn a structural design
compoaed of a cellular care of light materid encased
between two lightweight sheets*Each element is thin,
CRC?SS.SECTMNOF COMPOSITE
light., and relatively weak, bit the combination be-
(50% BQRON FILAMENT IN ALUMINUM MATRIX) comes strong md rigidprovidmg the bondsr am sound.
Figwe 15-7 shows a simple honeycomb s h c t u e of
Flgure 15-5 fibergha and gapbite. Manufacturing &&a with
Alumlnum~4or~n
composite:
Flgwe 15-f0
Old Concept - New Development. The oldest,
most succemfd, versatile, and middy uwd of the new
Bridge struotures often appear to be all concrete. removal p m a w s b ebctdcd disc- machining,
Both the columns and beams are internally reinforced
om a b m d m ~ , early is 1763, it
to carry any tension laods-usuaIly the tension
shown that metals were eroded by spark &&ages.
component af a bending load, EMtric am have been used b same extent for cub
ting opmtiom in connection with welding fox mme
METAL REM~YALPROCESSFS time. P m d i d application ta the controlled shaping
Discussions of the processes to be covered here are of me* is much more recent, however, dthougb
often titled nontraditimal or norrcunuentwnal ma- patents were applied fur ia the 1930s.The m e s s in
chining. They am c e f k i d y nontraditional because its cuwent form dates from about I950 in this
they have all been developed since about 1950. comhy and a few year8 earlier In Rumia.
Erccept for the in'trductbn of new tool m a t e d , Bs& EI&cd Vdbge wtes Ionized Current
more saphisticated d m , and tnore highly powered Path The EDM is based on Ehe fact that if an dw-
machines, traditional machining has undergone no M c f p e n t i d ex& between two conductive sut-
fundamental changes in the last century, The new faces and the surfaces am brought toward web other,
procesm likewise are nmconvention@ when com- a dimharp will occur when the gap Is small ennugh
pared t o conventional machining for they do not that the potential can caw a breakdown irr the
necessarily use a high strength tool to awe material medium between the two s&m. Tfre temperature
failure by applying hmvy localized loads to the work- developed in the gap at the pint of discharge will be
piece. d f i d e n t to ionize common liqpids or so tkat
Mmt Etmnomidly Fwskble Olly for Specid they h t s o M e highly cmdu&h. It is this ionized
Meeds. None of m e new methods can m e n t l y COI- that in the welding pr'ocea pmit9 a welding
compete ecommically with c~nvmtionrtlm-g arc to be m a h h h d at csnsiderable length, even ma
h r shaping low and maderate strength materiala short peri& of zero vdtage when alternating cumt
when &s surface to be machined is readily M b l e is used. The condition of maintained ionbation is
and L cormposed of planes, cyLindmkcones, or other desirable for welding hut m n o t be tolerated fur
simple geumetsic &apes. However, it is only under conkolled shaping, as the discharge would h d to
qxx5d CirrmmaWcea that mkrhis with hardnm remain at one p h so long as a low conductive path
above about 60 Rockwell C cau be machined with were present.
single-pint cutting took, and even then tual life is fnkmitibnt I X m t m a t Re@mL For EDM,
Uely to be quite d~cryt.In addition, while few &apes the el&rrdes are separated by a dieledric Fgdru-
are 1bm1ukIy i m w l e ta machine, many are w b a n oil. The elements of the electrid circuitry we
especidIy diff~oultand particular1J u n e m d a l in shown in Figure 16-11,A capadtor ruxo;sa the e k
mdl quantities. It is toward solving these two prob W e s is chaxged by a direcbcunent power supply.
lam* high m W prapertks and difficult s h a p ~ , With the de~trode;eg e m & by about 0.025 milli-
that m o t of thew new prwwes are dhected. As meter (0.001 in&)d a discharge will occur when the
with some of the newer low tooling cost pnmworking voltage reaches 25 to 100 volts, depending on the
pmwses, the a e x v m ~industries b v e been the exact nature of the dielectdc and the materials of fie
b g w t wrs of these new p r o c e ~ ~ ~ . &&odes. The ementiat element of the process is the
Fbmeimest Re- to as CIliplesSt *wg. k t that the diacha~gewill occur at the point where
Thae pmmsw we d e d machining for wveml ma- the dwtrodes are close& togethe. Whem the d&
mm. They dl remove m a w , most of them slowly charge &odd be defined 2261 an arc OX a spark is a
and in s d amount$ althou#~not neaessatily In matter of =me debate, but the fact ~~ thak
chip form. Ma& of the machines wed d l have the d runaunts of material are moved from both
appearance and general design fea- of conven- eleetrod~,pmbub1y hugely as the d t of d c e
t i o l d m~hineb& hmLlW lll~t v v i d e vaporization caused by the hi& temperature devel-
166 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
materials that could easily be cut by machining. must be greater, particularly in cavity shaping, and
Materials are as easy to shape in a hardened state as tool design is more critical to obtain proper flow of
they are in an annealed condition. the electrolyte between the tool and the work. In
Slow Removal Process. The process has one dra w- addition, as much as 160 horsepower per cubic inch
back in addition to relatively high equipment cost per minute of metal removal is required. This is about
and the problem of electrode wear discussed pre- four times that required by EDM, and more than one
viously. An inverse relationship exists between the hundred times that needed by most conventional
quality of the surface finish produced and the cutting machining. On the other hand, tools do not wear, and
rate. Surface finishes as good as 10 micro inches are the metal removal rate is much greater than with
obtainable, but only with metal removal rates on the EDM.
order of 0.005 cubic centimeter (0.0003 cubic inch)
per minute. Maximum metal removal rates at present
are about 5 cubic centimeters (0.3 cubic inch) per
minute, but when this rate is achieved, surface finish
quality measures about 500 micro inches.
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is somewhat
newer than EDM but has grown rapidly in the past
few years. It offers great potential for the future, WORK
Depth control is reasonably good, but straight vertical (fine). The cutting rate and finish produced both
sides or sharp corners cannot be achieved in the cavi- depend on the size of the abrasive. With SOO-grit
ty produced. abrasive, finishes as fine as 10 microinches may be
Variations in circulation of the etchant, variations of attained. Tolerances as close as 0.01 millinieter
temperature, or differences in the material being (0.0005 inch) are possible on size and contour with
worked upon may cause variable rates of chemical ac- fine abrasives.
tion. NDT by ultrasonic tests may therefore be Best for Hard, Brittle Materials. Unlike conven-
necessary on critical parts to check possible thickness tional machining, which works only with material
variations. below a certain hardness, and EDM or ECM, which
work with any conductive material, ultrasonic ma-
ULTRASONIC MACHINING chining is best suited to materials that are both hard
and brittle. However, the work material need not be a
A Mechanical Forming Process. The term ultra- metal or otherwise conductive. The process has been
sonic machining is used to denote an abrasive machin- used for engraving, slicing, drilling, and cavity sinking
ing process used for cutting hard materials by pro- on hardened steel, gem stones, cemented carbides,
jecting tiny abrasive particles at the work surface at ferrites, aluminum oxide, glass, and other ceramics.
high velocities. Figure 15-14 shows the details of the Not Competitive with Usable Conventional
process. The abrasive is carried in a liquid flowing
between the shaped tool and the workpiece. The tool Methods. Metal removal rate is presently the princi-
is made to oscillate along its axis at a frequency of pal drawback, being only about 0.3 cubic millimeter.
(0.02 cubic inch) per minute. It could possibly be
about 20,000 hertz.
increased considerably with better transducers, but
the process is likely to remain in the special-purpose
category .
melted and vaporized with relatively small heating of ultrasonic tests. The rate of production is normally
the adjacent materid. The arcs are being used for quits slow and the cost is high.
some straight-line cutting operations, where control is
airnple and tolerance requirements are not too high.
GROSS SEPARATION PRQCESBES
Some experimental work has been done in lathe turn-
ing, udng a plasma arc as a cutting tool.
The following processes are "miscellaneous"only be-
DEPOSITION PROCESSES cause they do not fit well in any of the established cat*
Of t h e more traditional processes, both welding gories of casting, welding, deformation, or machining
processes using filler material and casting invalve the discussed previously. For many ~pplicationsthey are
deposition of molten material. The material is forced in direct competition with awing and shearing for
to conform to the desired shape by pressum provided both straight line and contour cutting.
by gravity, external pressure, or surface tension. One
newer process of the same general type degasits ma- TORCH CUTTING
terial in controlled ernall amounts ahd permits a shape
to be built up. Another new process is a variation of This separation process depends on keeping the ma-
powder metallurgy that allows more complex shapes terial being cut above its kihdling t e m p e r a b (800°C
to be produced and does not require conventional or 1500 OF for pure iron) and supplying a stream of oxy-
dies. gen to promote fast oxidation. High temperature in the
cutting zone is aided by the e x o t h d c reaction of
burning materid.
This process may be descrikd as the reverse of Process Limited Mostly to Steeh. Conditions for
ECM, When a direct current is passed between two cutting are eady obtained with pure iron and low alloy
electxodes immersed in the proper electrolyte, ma- steels but are different with many other metals. Re
terial is removed from the mode and deposited on d d exothermic reaction andlor increased thermal
the cathode. This action is the basis of electroplattng, conductivity reduce the practicality of using the pro-
which will be discussed later. For ele&oforrnin& cess with cast iron, high alloy ste& including stainless
however, coatings of much greater thickness, up to f O and most nonferrous alloys.
millheters (318 inch), are built up. Easily M e c h m h d Figure 15-15shows a d m -
E l e c t r i d Conductance of Pahtern GsentiaI. For bed setup for cutting a atraight line mrt in steeI plate.
the production of an electroformed park, a master, or Oxyacekylene flames are used to bring the steel t o
pattern, must first be produced with external shape kindling temperature, then pure oxygen is supplied
and dimensions corresponding to the interior shape through a centrd orifice in the torch tip to bum a slot
desired in the work. The pattern must have a aon- though the steel as the carriage moves along as its
ducting surfam. If made of a nonconducting material, guide, The torch path may also be established by nu-
it must be coated with a conducting £ilm of metal ar merical control or may be guided by a line reader fol-
gmphite. The pattern is then placed in t h e electrolyte lowing the lines on a part drawing.
and the metal deposited to the required thickness.
For certain shapes, the part may be stripped from the
pattern and the pattern reused. Other shapes may
require that the pattern be removed chemically nr, if
made of a low melting point material, by melting.
Complex Shapes and Miniature Parts Possible.
The process has a number of advantages. It is possible
sible to produce complex Intend contours with close
dimensional control and surface finis he^ as good as 8
micminches. Because of these properties, electro-
forming is used in making high hequmcy wave guides
and venhvis for nozzles and flow measurement. Parts
may be made much thinner than by most conven-
tional processes. It is pssible to deposit mod metals
by the process. Parts with different metals an the
interior and exterior surfaces may also be produced.
On the other hand, wall thickness is diff~cultto
keep uniform so that exterior shapes and dimensions
may llot be controlled accurately. As with chemical Figure 15-15
milling, critical parts may d lfor thickness checks by Qxyacstylene cutting
Miscellaneous Processes 169.
The process is very versatile, may be equipped with High Speed Rubbing Creates Heat. Localized heat
multiple torches for higher production, and produces is created in the workpiece by contact with the edge of
accuracies similar to those obtained by sawing. This a fast moving blade or disc. Edge speeds are in the
sheet may be cut singly or stacked. Steel over 5 feet in range of 3000 to 7500 meters per minute (15000-25000
thickness has been cut by this process and scarfing, re- fpm). The tool may be smooth edged but usually has
moval of defects in large casting and forgings, is com- notches or teeth that help remove softened metal from
monly practiced by use of flame cutting. the kerf.
Arc Cutting Possible. Use of a steel wire electrode The process is used mostly for cutoff work on bars
fed at high speed with gas shielding and very high cur- and structural shapes in steel mill and warehouse oper-
rents can also be used for cutting. Thickness of cut is ations. It may also be useful occasionally for cutting
much more limited than with the torch method, but steel that is too hard to be cut by conventional means.
materials difficult to cut with flame can be parted with
the arc.
FRICTION SAWING
Friction sawing has limited but important use. This
process also is used most for cutting steel.
Surface Finishing 16
CASEHARDENING OF STEELS heating the material abpve its critical temperature and
Casehardening Results in a Hard, Shell-like Surface. holding it in the presence of excess carbon. Tempera-
Some product applications require surface proper- tures used are usually between 8500 C and 9300 C,
ties of hardness and strength to resist penetration with the choice most dependent on the desired rate
under high pressure and to provide maximum wear of penetration, the desired surface carbon content,
qualities. Where through hardness and the maximum and the permissible grain growth in the material.
strength associated with it are not necessary, it may Penetration is dependent upon both the temperature
be more economical to gain the needed surface quali- and time, with variation of case depth from 0.25 to
ties by a casehardening process. Casehardening in- 1.0 millimeter (0.010 to 0.040 inch) possible in the
volves a change of surface properties to produce a first 2 hours by varying the temperature between the
hard, wear-resistant shell about a tough, fracture- two extremes. The rate of penetration slows down as
resistant core. This is usually accomplished by a the depth increases, as shown in Figure 16-1, so that
for large depths, relatively long periods of time are
change of surface material chemistry. With some
necessary.
materials, a similar condition can be produced by a
phase change of material already present. Carbon May Be Supplied from a Gas, Liquid, or
Solid Environment. The excess carbon for diffusion
Multiple Benefits from Casehardening. Casehard-
is supplied from a carbon-rich environment in solid,
ening may be more satisfactory than through harden-
liquid, or gas form. Parts to be carburized may be
ing in those cases where a low cost, low carbon steel
packed in carbon or other carbonaceous material in
with a hard shell may be used instead of a higher cost,
high carbon or alloy steel needed for through harden-
ing. The process is much less likely to cause warping
or cracking and the product, because of its soft,
ductile core, is less subject to brittle failure than a 50
FLAME HARDENING
Surface Must Be Heated above Transformation
Temperature. Another casehardening process that
does not require a change of composition in the CLEANING
surface material is flame hardening. This method can
(AROL-"E
900 HARDEN
u Few, if any, shaping and sizing processes produce
0
750 products that are usable without some type of clean-
w
oc ing unless special precautions are taken. Hot working,
:::J
f- 600 heat treating, and welding cause oxidation and scale
«
~
Cl.
450 formation from high temperature in the presence of
~ oxygen. For the same reason, castings usually are
~ 200 coated with scale or oxides. If made in sand molds,
they may have sand grains fused or adhering to the
20
T'10' +- surface. Residue from coolants, lubricants, and other
processing materials is common on many manu-
Figure 16-2
factured parts. In addition to greasy films from proc-
Heating cycle for casehardening by carburizing
essing, protective coatings of greases, oils, or waxes
are frequently used intentionally to prevent rust or
corrosion on parts that are stored for some period of
time before being put to use. Even if parts are clean
at the completion of manufacturing, they seldom
be used only on steels that contain sufficient carbon remain that way for long. After only short storage
to be hardenable by standard heat-treating proce- periods, corrosion and dust from atmospheric expos-
dures. The case is produced by selectively heating ure necessitate cleaning for best condition or to
part or all of the surface with special high capacity permit further processing.
gas burners or oxyacetylene torches at a rate suf- When using NDT such as penetrant testing and ul-
ficiently high that only a small depth from the sur- trasonic testing, good precleaning may be necessary to
face goes above the critical temperature. Following get accurate results and postcleaning is often needed
immediately behind the torch is a water quenching to leave the surface in suitable condition. In some ap-
head that floods the surface to reduce the temper- plications, such as on stainless steels and nickel based
ature fast enough to produce a martensitic structure. alloys, ultrasonic coolants and penetrant materials
As in the case of carburizing, the surface may be then must be made of only certain material so that the NDT
reheated to temper it for toughness improvement. materials are not one of the causes of a stress corrosion
The depth of hardness is controlled by the temper- failure.
ature to which the metal is raised, by the rate of Cleaning sometimes has finish improvement asso-
heating, and by the time that passes before quench- ciated with it. Some shape-producing methods
ing. produce unsatisfactory surface characteristics such as
174 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
sharp corners, burrs, and tool marks, which may vents, such as trichloretholene, that are free of this
affect the function, handling ease, ffi1dappearance of fault are sometimes substituted.
the product. Some cleaning processes at least partially Conditioned Water Usually Inexpensive. One of
blend together surface irregularities to produce uni- the most economical cleaning materials is water.
form light reflection. Improvement of surface quali- However, it is seldom used alone even if the contam-
ties may be accomplished by removal of high spots by
inant is fully water soluble because the impurity of
cutting or by plastic flow as cleaning is performed. the water itself may contaminate the work surface.
Depending on its use, water is treated with various
CHOICE OF CLEANING METHOD acids and alkalies to suit the job being performed.
Proper Pickling Can Selectively Remove Iron
As indicated by the list at the head of this section,
Oxides. Water containing sulfuric acid in a concen-
many different cleaning methods are available. The
tration from about 10% to 25% and at a temperature
one most suitable for any particular situation is
of approximately 650 C is commonly used in a process
dependent upon a number of factors. Cost is, of
called pickling for removal of surface oxides or scale
course, always a strong consideration, but the reason
on iron and steel. The work is immersed in the
for cleaning is bound to affect the choice. Conveni-
ence in handling, improvement in appearance, elimi- solution contained in large tanks for a predetermined
nation of foreign material that may affect function, period of time after which it is rinsed to stop the
chemical action.
or establishment of a chemically clean surface as an
Improper control of the timing, temperature, or
intermediate step in processing might all call for dif-
ferent methods. Consideration must be given to the Goncentration in the pickling bath is likely to result in
pitting of the surface because of uneven chemical
starting conditions and to the degree of improvement
desired or required. Methods suitable for some ma- reaction. Most pickling baths are treated with chemic
cal inhibitors that decrease the chemical effect of the
terials are not at all satisfactory for use on other
acid on the base metal but have little effect on the
kinds of material.
rate at which the oxides are attacked.
Cleaning and Corrosion Protection Sometimes
Associated. Some cleaning methods provide multiple Many Water Additives Are Proprietary Mixtures.
benefits. As pointed out previously, cleaning and Many of the common cleaning liquids are made up
finish improvement are often combined. Probably of of approximately 95% water containing alkaline
even greater importance is the combination of cor- cleaners such as caustic soda, sodium carbonate, sili-
rosion protection with finish improvement, although cates, phosphates, and borates. The proportions are
corrosion protection is more often a second step that varied for different purposes and are available under
involves coating an already cleaned surface with some different brand names for particular applications.
other material.
Application Dependent on Material and Pur-
pose. Liquid cleaners may be applied in a number of
LIQUID AND VAPOR BATHS ways. Degreasing, particularly on small parts, is fre-
Liquid and Vapor Solvents Common. The most quently done with a vapor bath. This does an excel-
lent job of removing the grease but has the disad-
widely used cleaning methods make use of a cleaning
medium in liquid or vapor form. These methods vantage of not being able to remove chips and other
depend on a solvent or chemical action between the kinds of dirt that might be present. Vapor degreasing
is usually done in a special tank that is heated at the
surface contaminants and the cleaning material. Many
cleaning methods and a variety of materials are avail- bottom to vaporize the solvent and cooled at the top
able for choice, depending on the base material to be to condense the solvent. Cold work suspended in the
cleaned, the contaminant to be removed, the impor- vapor causes condensation of the solvent, which
tance and degree of cleanliness, and the quantity to dissolves the grease and drips back into the bottom of
be treated. the tank. The difference in volatility between the
Petroleum Solvents Good for Greases and Oils. solvent and the greases permits the vapor to remain
Among the more common cleaning jobs required is unchanged ,"nd to do a uniform cleaning job.
the removal of grease and oil deposited during manu- Mechanical Work Frequently Combined with
facturing or intentionally coated on the work to Chemical Action. Spraying, brushing, and dipping
provide protection. One of the most efficient ways to methods are also used with liquid cleaners. In nearly
remove this material is by use of solvents that dissolve all cases, mechanical work to cause surface film
the grease and oil but have no effect on the base breakdown and particle movement is combined with
metal. Petroleum derivatives such as Stoddard solvent chemical and solvent action. The mechanical work
and kerosene are common for this purpose, but as may be agitation of the product as in dipping, move-
they introduce some danger of fire, chlorinated sol- ment of the cleaning agent as in spraying, or use of a
Surface Finishing 175
third element as in rubbing or brushing. In some ing. The blasting method using this medium is com-
applications, sonic or ultrasonic vibrations are applied monly known as liquid honing.
to either the solution or the workpieces to speed the
cleaning action. Chemical activity is increased with ABRASIVE BARREL FINISHING
higher temperatures and optimum concentration of
the cleaning agent, both of which must in some cases A Low Cost Cleaning and Finishing Method. When
be controlled closely for efficient action. large numbers of small parts that do not need to have
Important That Chemicals Be Removed. Washing sharp detail or accurate dimensions require cleaning,
and rinsing away of the cleaning liquids is usually the rotating barrel method may be very economical.
necessary to prevent films and spots. Fast drying of Names used are: Barrel finishing, rolling, tumbling,
water solutions on iron and steel products is some- and rattling. They are all similar but various media
times needed to prevent the formation of rust. If the may be combined with the work as indicated in Figure
product mass is large enough, heat picked up from 16-3. High polish may be produced by tumbling with
the cleaning bath may be sufficient to cause fast pieces of leather to wipe the surfaces smooth as in a
.
drying; otherwise, air blasts or external heat sources strop honing operation. In some cases a number of
may be required. hours may be required to produce the desired results
but since the finishing machines do not have to be
BLASTING tended by operators, the unit cost may be extremely
low.
Blasting Provides Large Mechanical Action. The Machines with a vibratory motion and loaded with
term blasting is used to refer to all of those cleaning abrasive media are also used for similar type cleaning
methods in which the cleaning medium is accelerated
to high velocity and impinged against the surface to
be cleaned. The high velocity may be provided by air
and finishing work.
--- -- ---
~
or water directed through a nozzle or by mechanical '~:~', SOA
DETERGENTS .:,:6
means with a revolving slinger. The cleaning agent
'O'O\:S .
may. be either dry or wet solid media such as sand, // ' '::' ",:6\ /. /
abrasive, steel grit, or shot, or may be liquid or vapor
/ /
/
"
",-
.00"
"." 0 ,
' /.
/.
A precaution regarding surface defect detection supply metal to the electrolyte in a reverse plating
should be kept in mind. Any method of surface clean- process. Material will be removed faster from the high
ing involving abrasion or rubbing may smear the sur- spots of the surface than from the depressions and
face material in such a way as to disguise or cover over will thereby increase the average smoothness. The
surface defects and prevent their detection by usual cost of the process is prohibitive for very rough
methods. Careful selection of a method may be neces- surfaces because larger amounts of metal must be
sary, or in some cases, such drastic methods as etching removed to improve surface finish than would be
may be needed. Machining, inlcuding fine grinding, necessary for the same degree of improvement by
also has similar effects to a lesser degree but should be mechanical polishing. Electropolishing is economical
remembered when small defects could be serious re- only for improving a surface that is already good or
garding service life of the part under consideration. for polishing complex and irregular shapes, the sur-
Penetrant tests are most severely affected and can be faces of which are not accessible to mechanical
rendered practically useless if defect openings have polishing and buffing equipment.
been smeared.
COATINGS
POLISHING
Many products, in particular those exposed to
The term polishing may be interpreted to mean view and those subject to change by the environment
any non precision procedure providing a glossy surface with which they are in contact, need some type of
but is most commonly used to refer to a surface- coating for improved appearance or for protection
finishing process using a flexible abrasive wheel. The from chemical attack. All newly created surfaces are
wheels may be constructed of felt or rubber with an subject to corrosion, although the rate of occurrence
abrasive band, of multiple coated abrasive discs, of varies greatly with the material, the environment, and
leaves of coated abrasive, of felt or fabric to which the conditions. For all practical purposes, some ma-
loose abrasive is added as needed, or of abrasives in a terials are highly corrosion resistant because the
rubber matrix. products of corrosion resist further corrosion. For
Polishing Is a Surface Blending Process. These example, a newly machined surface on an aluminum
wheels differ from grinding wheels only by being alloy will immediately be attacked by oxygen in the
flexible, which enables them to apply uniform pres- air. The initial aluminum oxide coating protects the
sure to the work surface and permits them to con- remaining metal and practically stops corrosion unless
form to the surface shape. an environmental change occurs. Corrosion rates are
Polishing is usually done offhand except when the closely dependent on environment. Rates increase
quantity is large. The process may have several objec- with rise of temperature and greater concentration of
tives. Interest may be only in finish improvement for the attacking chemical.
appearance. The surface finish may be important as Corrosion Deteriorates Appearance and Proper-
an underlay for plating, which has only limited ability ties. The need for corrosion protection for main-
to improve surface quality over that of the surface on tenance of appearance is obvious. Unless protected,
which it is placed. Polishing may also be important as an object made of bright steel will begin to show rust
a means of improving fatigue resistance for products in a few hours of exposure to ordinary atmosphere.
subject to this kind of failure. In addition to change of appearance, loss of actual
material, change of dimensions, and decrease of
BUFFING strength, corrosion may be the cause of eventual loss
of service or failure of a product. Material that must
About the only difference between buffing and
carry loads in structural applications, especially when
polishing is that, for buffing, a fine abrasive carried in
the loads are cyclic in nature, may fail with fatigue if
wax or a similar substance is charged on the surface
corrosion is allowed to take place. Corrosion occurs
of a flexible wheel. The obejctives are similar. With more readily in highly stressed material where it
finer abrasive, buffing produces higher quality finish attacks grain boundaries in such a way as to form
and luster but removes only minor amounts of metal. points of stress concentration that may be nuclei for
With both polishing and buffing, particularly of the fatigue failure.
softer metals, plastic flow permits filling of pores, Corrosion Reduced by Proper Design. The cor-
scratches, and other surface flaws to improve both ap- rections for corrosion problems include choice of
pearance and resistance to corrosion. materials that resist attack from the environment to
which they are exposed, selection or control of the
ELECfROPOLlSHING environment to minimize corrosion effects, and the
use of selective corrosion by placing materials with
If a workpiece is suspended in an electrolyte and greater susceptibility to corrosion near those to be
connected to the anode in an electrical circuit, it will protected. The latter is illustrated by the use of
Surface Finishing 177
magnesium rods in hot water tanks. The magnesium is slipping is required because they provide a very low co-
the target for corrosion; as long as it is present, efficient of friction.
corrosion of the steel walls of the tank is insig-
nificant. Another correction for corrosion, when the PREPARATION FOR COATINGS
others are impractical, is the coating of the surfaces Adhesion Associated with Cleanliness. The ability
needing protection with a material that excludes the
environmental elements that are harmful. of an organic film to adhere to a metal surface (adhe-
sion) is dependent to a large degree on the cleanliness
Thickness of coatings may be important for many of the metal surface. However, some materials hold to-
reasons. If the objective is improvement of appear- gether tighter on a surface that has been slightly
ance, uniformity of coating may be required, or lacking roughened by some process such as sand blasting,
that some minimum value may have to be surpassed to while others may require chemical treatment of the
provide the appearance of uniformity. Life of a coating base metal for formation of an oxide or phosphate film
is usually also closely associated with uniformity and for satisfactory adhesion.
depth of coating layer. Many coatings are inherently Cleaning by one or more of the methods discussed
porous to some degree and resistance to corrosion is earlier in this chapter is usually essential before any
likely to require thickness sufficient to resist penetra- kind of coating should be applied. In practically every
tion of liquids and gases. For those reasons manufac- case a clean dry surface is necessary for coating adhe-
turing specifications frequently list minimum thick- sion. Whether or not a combination cleaning and
ness for coatings and a NDT measurement is usually smoothing operation should be used depends some-
the only way to know when that specification is being what on the previous processing as well as on the de-
met. Although other methods are possible, gaging sired final finish. Some coatings, such as the heavier
with eddy current methods is common. plastics, can hide large faults and surface imperfec-
Many Coatings Improve Appearance. In addition tions, but others, such as finishing lacquers and metal-
to stabilizing appearance by resisting corrosion, coat- lic platings, improve finish quality to only a very small
ings are often very valuable for providing color con- degree. With the latter, scratches, surface faults, and
trol, change in appearance, and variety, which may be even tool marks can continue to show on the final sur-
important to sales appeal. Some coatings, such' as face although the coating tends to blend and soften
fillers, paint, and others with substantial body, their appearance.
improve surface smoothness by filling pores and cavi-
ties. Some coating materials can provide uniform
appearance for products made as assemblies of differ-
ent materials.
Some Coatings Improve Properties. Coatings of PAINTS, VARNISHES, AND ENAMELS
various types may be used to change or improve Painting is a generic term that has come to mean the
surface properties. Casehardening of steel has been application of almost any kind of organic coating by
discussed earlier, and although it is a surface proper- any method.
ty-changing method, in most of its forms, case- Paint. As originally defined and as used most at
hardening does not consist of the addition of a present, paint is a mixture of pigment in a drying oil.
coating. . Color and opacity are supplied by the pigment. The oil
Wear Resistance by Plating. Hardness and wear serves as a carrier for the pigment and in addition cre-
resistance can, however, be provided on a surface by ates a tough continuous film as it dries.
plating with hard metals. Chromium plating of gages Varnish Is Normally Clear. Varnish is a combi-
subject to abrasion is frequently used to increase their nation of natural or synthetic resins and drying oil,
wear life. Coatings of plastic materials and asphaltic sometimes containing volatile solvents as well. The
mixtures are sometimes placed on surfaces to provide material dries by a chemical reaction in the drying oil
sound deadening. The additional benefit of protec- to a clear or slightly amber-colored film. A solution
tion from corrosion is usually acquired at the same of resin in a volatile solvent without the drying oil is
time. called spirit, or shellac, varnish.
Increase or Decrease of Coefficient of Friction. Pigment in Varnish Creates Enamel. Enamel is a
Friction characteristics of a surface can be varied in mixture of pigment in varnish. The resins in the
either direction by application of a coating. Rubber varnish cause the material to dry to a smoother,
and some other plastic materials may be applied for harder, and glossier surface than produced by ordin-
increase of friction characteristics. An example would ary paints. Some enamels are made with thermoset-
be the special compounds applied to the floorboards ting resins that must be baked for complete dryness.
or bottom of small boats to decrease the chance of These baking enamels provide a toughness and dur-
slipping. Other plastic materials, the fluorocarbons ability not usually available with the ordinary paints
being good examples, are applied to surfaces where and enamels.
178 Materiala and Procesm for NDT ~ o l o g y
LACQUERS
Lacqueis Easily Removed The term lacquer i6n
used to refer to hishes consisting of t h e m p b t i c
materials dissolved in fast drying solvents. One corn-
rnon combination k cellulose nitrate dissolved in
butyl acetate. Present-day lacquers are strictly air
drying and form £iIms very quickly after being a p
plied, u W y by spraying. No chemical change occurs
during the hardening sf lacqua, consequentIy, the
dry film can be redissolved in the thinner. Cellulose
acetate is u s d in place of cellulose nitrate in some
lacquers b e c a w it is nanfl amable. Vinyls, chlori-
nated hydrocarbons, acrylics, and ather synthetic
themoplastic resins are also used in the manufacture
of lacquers.
I=ommon Because of Fast Drying, Clear lacqum
are wed t o some extent as protective films on such
mataids as polished brass, but the majority are pig-
m t e b and used as color coah. The pigmented lac- Figure 16.4
quers are eometimes called lacquer enamels. Lacquers Paint spraying in a boath where exhaust
are widely used for coating rmnufacturd products air draws the waste palnt and fumes away
because of their ease of application and speed of from the aperator through filters to clean the air
wing.
Spray painting of automobile bodies and other large
objects that are conveyorbedis often done automtic-
ORGANIC COATING APPLICATION
ally with a number of apray heade, some stationary
Paint-type materids are applied by dip, brush, and and same movable, adjusbd t.a spray a uniform layer
spray d over the entire object.
Minimum Labr Cqst by Dipping. Dipping Zs corn- In many cases spray application of penetrant matmi-
rnon for applying protective coatings ta forgings and als b the faatest and best way of obtaining uniform
castings to prevent rust d u h g storage and processing cbvwage. Spraying dds partidarly on p h s cmtain-
and to swve as primers fof the h a l W. Many ing retmses and corners difficult to contact with a
other products made in large quantities aIso are. brush.
finished by dipping. Dip application is limited to parts Unifmm Coating by Electrmtatic Sprayhg. For
that do not have recesses, pockets, or shapes that wilI electroshtic spraying the paint partides are sprayed
hold the Liquid paint ar prevent its flowing to an even through a high ~ 0 l b g 8 electrostatic field. Each paint
soab. p d c l e takes on an electric charge from the field and is
Bmhing Costly, Brush painting is slow and used attractad toward the grounded article to be painkd.
little in manufacturing work except on large, heavy, This method provides better efficiency of paint uee
or add-shaped pmh that cannot be moved or manipu- than ordinary spraying, but even more important,
lated in a spray-paint area. Bmhing md ltollhg are causes the coating t o diatribuh it& more evenly over
commonly used far coating st~ucturdsurfaces. such as the entire object. Electrostatic force can d m be used
walls and milins of buildings. Brushing does provide to pull off drips or team that form by gravity dong the
efficient use of coating material, as practically none is bottom edges of newly painted objects.
wasted, and the mechanical rubbing of a brush or Heat Of- Used to Sped Drying, As indicated
roller provides some cleaning action that may provide previously, organic coating is often done in free air.
better adhesion. Some solvents and vehicles are st,volatile that drying
Speed and Quality by Spraying. By far the great- is accomplished almost immediately, Others require
et amount of organic coatings are applied indus- several days for drying, and still others require ele-
lxially by spraying. This method is used most with vated tempraturea for necessary polymerization to
iacauers and fast drying enamels. The h o d drying W e place- Heat fw drying and speeding chemical
time causes parts to become dust free very quick1y po reaction may be provided by various types of ovens.
that they can be moved away from the spray area and Some ovens are batch types in which racks of parks
advantage can be taken of this fast application are placed for specific periods of time. Others are
method. Spraying is done in booths designed for this continuous types built over conveyor systems &tit,
purpose where adequate ventilation carries fumes and regulate the h e of expasure by the len@ of oven
spmy particles away from the opmtitnr (Figure 16-41. and the speed of conveyor operation.
Surface Finishing 179
DC
in the presence of zinc dust, becomes coated with POWER SUPPLY
zinc.
Tin plating and terne plating, the latter using a
mixture of approximately four parts lead to one part
tin, are also done by hot dipping.
ELECfROPLATING
Coatings of many metals can be deposited on other
metals, and on nonmetals when suitably prepared, by
electroplating. The objectives of plating are to pro-
vide protection against corrosion, to improve appear-
ance, to establish wear- and abrasion-resistant sur- PLATING METAL (Anode) WORK (Cathode)
faces, to add material for dimensional increase, and to
serve as an intermediate step of multiple coating. Figure 16-5
Some of the most common metals deposited in this Electroplating
way are copper, nickel, chromium, cadmium, zinc,
tin, silver, and gold. The majority are used to provide blue-white color coating over the softer, tarnishable
some kind of corrosion protection, but appearance nickel.
also plays a strong part in their use. Many Problems Even Though a Common Process.
Complex Electrical and Chemical System. Figure Some problems exist with electroplating. Deposit
16.5 is a schematic diagram of a simple plating setup. on irregular shapes may vary widely in thickness.
When direct-current power of high enough voltage is Projections and exposed surfaces may plate readily,
applied to two electrodes immersed in a water solu- but recesses, corners, and holes can sometimes be
tion of metallic salt, current will flow through the coated only by using specially located electrodes or
circuit causing changes at the electrodes. At the nega- electrodes shape<;lto conform to the workpiece shape.
tive electrode, or cathode (the work), excess electrons Electroplating can be costly because it involves pay-
supplied from the power source neutralize Qositively ment for considerable electric power and the metal
charged metallic ions in the salt solution to cause plated and lost. Because plating thicknesses are
dissolved metal to be deposited in the solid state. At usually very small, the coating has little hiding power.
the positive electrode, or anode (plating metal), metal
goes into solution to replace that removed at the
CHEMICAL CONVERSIONS
other electrode. The rate of deposition and the prop-
erties of the plated material are dependent on the A relatively simple and often fully satisfactory
metals being worked with, the current density, the method for protection from corrosion is by con-
solution temperature, and other factors. version of some of the surface material to a chemical
Coating Thickness Usually Low. Thickness of composition that resists attack from the environment.
plating is usually low, in the range of 2.5 microns to These converted metal surfaces consist of relatively
0.025 millimeter (0.0001 to 0.001 inch). Chromium thin (seldom more than 0.025 millimeter, or 0.001
applied for appearance only may be used in a thick- inch thick) inorganic films that are formed by chem-
ness of only about one-tenth these amounts, but ical reaction with the base material. One important
when used to provide wear resistance and to build up feature of the conversion process is that the coatings
dimensions, as on gages, may be applied in thickness have little effect on the product dimensions. How-
as much as 0.25 millimeter (0.010 inch). ever, when severe conditions are to be encountered,
When plating thickness is a critical consideration, the converted surface may be only partial protection,
measurement and control may be established with and coatings of entirely different types may be
NDT. Both eddy current methods and radiation back applied over them.
scatter are useful.
ANODIZING
Multiple Metals for Maximum Properties. Layers
of different metals are sometimes plated for maxi- Aluminum, magnesium, and zinc can be treated
mum properties. For example, an object such as a electrically in a suitable electrolyte to produce a
steel bumper for an automobile may first be copper corrosion-resistant oxide coating. The metal being
plated to provide good adhesion and coverage of the treated is connected to the anode in the circuit,
steel and to facilitate buffing to a smooth surface which provides the name anodizing for-the process.
necessary for high quality final finish. Nickel is then Aluminum is commonly treated by anodizing that
plated over the copper to serve as the principal cor- pI:oduces- an' oxide' film thicker than, but similar to,
rosion protection. Finally, chromium is plated over that formed naturally with exposure to air. Anodizing
the nickel to serve as a hard, wear-resistant, bright, of zinc has very limited use. The coating produced on
Surface Finishing 181
magnesium is not as protective as that formed on corrosion film forms. Contact with either highly
aluminum but does provide some protective value and aerated water films or immersion in stagnant water
substantially increases protection when used in containing little oxygen causes even corrosion and
combination with paint coatings. pitting. The corrosion products of zinc are less dense
Purposely Created Oxide Better Than Naturally than the base material so that heavy corrosion not
Formed Oxide. Because of their greater thickness only destroys the product appearance but also may
and abrasion resistance, anodic films offer much cause malfunctions by binding moving parts.
better protection against corrosion and mechanical Chromium Salts Improve Corrosion Resistance and
injury than do the thin natural films. Aluminum is Paintability. Corrosion of zinc can be substantially
usually treated in a sulfuric acid electrolyte that slowed by the production of chromium salts on its
slowly dissolves the outside at the same time it is surface. The corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys
converting the base metal to produce a porous coat- can be increased by immersion or anodic treatment in
ing. The coating can be impregnated with various acid baths containing dichromates. Chromate treat-
materials to improve corrosion resistance. It also ment of both zinc and magnesium improves corrosion
serves as a good paint base and can be colored in itself resistance but is used also to improve adhesion of
by use of dyes. paint.
The usual commercial anodizing methods used on PHOSPHATE COATINGS
aluminum cause formation of billions per square inch
of aluminum oxide cells which grow above the original Used Mainly as a Paint Base. Phosphate coatings,
metal surface and at the same time extend below that used mostly on steel, result from a chemical reaction
original surface. Each of those cells has a pore in its of phosphoric acid with the metal to form a non-
center that extends to a solid barrier layer near the bot- metallic coating that is essentially phosphate salts.
tom of the cell as pictured in Figure 16-6. These numer- The coating is produced by immersing small items or
ous pores permit impregnation of the surface with vari- spraying large items with the phosphating solution.
ous desirable materials but they are also a source of Phosphate surfaces may be used alone for corrosion
problems for penetrant testing of anodized aluminum resistance, but their most common application is as a
surfaces. The penetrant can enter the pores to such an base for paint coatings. Two of the most common
extent that an extremely high background is produced. application methods are called parkerizing and bond-
Special care to interpretation of results may be neces- erizing.
sary. CHEMICAL OXIDE COATINGS
Checking for cracks is often called for because alumi-
num oxide is brittle and subject to cracking particular- A number of proprietary blacking processes, used
ly if deformation of the material occurs after anodiz- mainly on steel, produce attractive black oxide coat-
ing. ings. Most of the processes involve the immersing of
steel in a caustic soda solution, heated to about
1500 C (3000 F) and made strongly oxidizing by the
CHROMATE COATINGS addition of nitrites or nitrates. Corrosion resistance is
Zinc Dimensions Increase with Corrosion. Zinc is rather poor unless improved by application of oil,
usually considered to have relatively good corrosion lacquer, or wax. As in the case of most of the other
resistance. This is true when the exposure is to chemical conversion procedures, this procecbre also
normal outdoor atmosphere where a relatively thin finds use as a base for paint finishes.
Inspection 17
Final Inspection. Inspection performed at final of defective parts in a lot that would be willingly
inspection may include a great variety of work. Visual accepted. Ideally, a sampling plan would accept all
inspection for appearance (paint, labels, cleanliness) good lots and reject all bad lots of parts.
and completeness (all parts, instruction books, parts Most Economical Sample Size a Compromise. The
list) is nearly always part of the job. Tests for func- ideal, however, can be reached only when the sample
tion, which are sometimes necessary on mechanical size becomes 100% and is, in addition, performed
goods, may involve elaborate testing procedures without fault. As shown in Figure 17-1, ideal results
requiring much time and adding considerable cost to are approached when the sample size is increased;
the overall manufacturing operation. Testing of most consequently the best sample size is always a com-
aircraft in the final stages wouJd fall in this category. promise based on the relative values of improved
When the amount of final inspection is large, re- reliability versus greater inspection costs. Acceptance
duced in-process inspection may be permitted, al- sampling plans are essential when inspection cost is
though this will depend on a number of factors, high and the cost for replacing defectives is low, when
including the relation of inspection cost to processing the sampling plan is more efficient than 100% inspec-
cost and the cost of replacing bad parts in the final tion, and in every case when the inspection procedure
assembly. is destructive.
Nondestructive Testing. The vast majority of in- Always Some Risk of Nonrepresentative Sample.
spection performed on manufactured goods is nondes- The operating characteristic curve shown in Figure
tructive in nature but most measurements of dimen- 17-2 is a single sampling plan requiring an attribute
sions, geometry, appearance, completeness, and the (quality that is either wholly present or absent) of
like do not fit the usual concept of NDT. NDT usually
involves indirect tests that are in some way related to 1.0
the use of various sampling plans. These may be used LOT FRACTION DEFECTIVE
chance that a lot with 4% defectives might be ac- symbol for standard deviation, which is a measure of
cepted. Sampling plans of this type therefore must be the dispersion of the measured values.) Similarly,
designed to be acceptable to both the producer and 95.46% of measured values would be expected to fall
the consumer. within 12a limits, and 68.26% within :t1o.
Chart Constructed from Process History. The con-
PROCESS CONTROL CHARTS struction of a quality control chart usually follows
Need Variables Instead of Attributes. Another the following kind of procedure. First, the process is
valuable use of statistical mathematics in inspection is examined to ascertain that it is normal and that all
for the construction of control charts with limit lines. assignable causes have been eliminated so that its
Inspection values plotted on the chart will rarely fall operation is stable within the limits of chance varia-
outside these lines except when an assignable cause tion. Next, an historical record is made by plotting,
exists. In other words, the variation of points inside the mean values of a number of samples, the size
the control limits can be from chance causes alone. frequency, and selection of which have been carefully
The data collected for construction of process control predetermined after consideration of the process
charts is in the form of variables rather than attri- characteristics. These values are placed on two charts,
butes. Data collection is therefore more costly, but in one for averages and one for ranges, and limits cal-
most cases considerably more information can be culated for each (Figure 17-4). If the limits used are
made available from analysis of the data. ::!:30,not more than 0.2% of any plotted points would
Assumptions Do Not Destroy Value. In the be expected to fall outside these lines. Therefore,
making of control charts, some assumptions are
1.0
I
0.9 I
I
I
I
0.8 I
I
I
I
0.7 I
I
uz I
I
SAMPLE SIZE N = 200
~ C =4
I
~ 0.6
u
I
1
« 1
0 : ,
~
:J
0.5 I
I
~ I
I
I
I
0&: 0.4 I I
I
I
I -3.,.. -2 cr -.,.. X cr 2cr 3cr
0.3 I
I
I I--- 68.26%
95.46%
-.J
I
I I. .1
0.2 I 99.76%
I I.
I
0.1
I P2
---1----------- ' Figure 17-3
I I Distribution under a normal curve
I I
I I
O.L
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06
whenever a point does fall outside, the process is
0.08 0.09 0.10
critically examined for an assignable cause.
As the process continues, current samples are
Figure 17-2 plotted and compared with past history to determine
Operating characteristic curve that the process remains in control. In most
made, which, although they may not be entirely true, processes, the mean is controllable by adjustment of
can usually be approximated closely enough that the the process, but the range can be changed only by
system will work. One of the important assumptions finding and eliminating assignable causes.
is that variation of the quality being inspected will Charts Best for Long Runs. Although process
follow a known frequency distribution. Most often it control charts can be useful for short-run operations
is assumed that the frequency distribution follows a under some conditions, their greatest value is in con-
normal curve, as shown in Figure 17-3. In a normal tinuing operations in which a minimum number of
distribution, 99.73% of the measured values from an changes may contribute to variability. The infor-
entire population will probably fall within the limits mation that can be gathered from control charts can
of 13a from the arithmetical mean. (Sigma is the be useful for several purposes. It may be used for
Inspection 187
J
control chart are, of course, useful also for inspection
acceptance, and often provide more information than
would be available from data collected for inspection
alone. ~., ~'H'~~d
A+8tC+I>+E:t
PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
COMMON REFERENCE POINT MEASUREMENT
This section of inspection is concerned primarily
with dimensions, shapes, finishes, dimensional toler- Figure 17-5
ances, and the dimensional relationships, together with Accumulation of dimensional error
188 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
individual dimensions should receive first considera- dimensions and thereby eliminates the need for
tion regarding the holding of tolerances. calculation by production personnel. However, it
Drawings and Procedures Should Agree. Drawing tends to clutter up the drawings because of its
dimensions should always agree as closely as possible sometimes greater space requirement and the increase
with manufacturing and inspection procedures to of significant numbers.
minimize the need for calculations by machine opera- Understood Tqlerances - Local Agreements. The
tors and production personnel. When changes in a majority of dimensions on drawings are not critical
process cause changes in measurement procedures, and are usually shown without tolerances indicated.
action should be taken to correct the working draw- However, to prevent complete loss of control, these
ings to fit the new methods. are usually treated to have understood tolerances that
may vary in different plants but are usually in the
TOLERANCES range of :1:0.010to :1:0.015 inch.
Tolerances Should Fit Product and Process Need.
SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT VARIATION
Although it is possible by use of sufficient time and
care to work as closely to a given dimension as is Variation in dimensional measurement comes from
desired, it is impossible to manufacture to an exact a number of sources. Some are common enough that
size. Regardless of the accuracy displayed, it is always they should be given consideration in the majority of
possible to choose a finer measuring method that can measuring and inspection procedures. Among these
show discrepancies in the dimension. As working to are parallax, temperature effects, pressure effects, and
higher accuracies costs more in money, time, and human error.
equipment, it is most economical and practical that Parallax Is an Apparent Displacement. The illu-
dimensions should be permitted to vary within the sion created by parallax is shown in Figure 17-7. If
widest limits for which they can still function prop- the hand swinging over the scale is viewed from Point
erly. This variation is permitted by the use of toler- A, directly in front, measurement 5 would be ob-
ances added to dimensions in such a way that they served. If, however, the eye were moved to position
indicate the permissible variation. Theoretically at B, the hand in the same position would indicate a
least, the designer applies dimensional tolerances as reading of 6. This is the illusion that makes it difficult
wide as can be safely used. One of the inspector's jobs to read a clock correctly when viewing it from an
is to determine whether the product is made within angle.
these manufacturing limits. Any measuring or indicating device that has a finite
Basic Dimensions Displayed as First Goal. Manu- thickness between the indicating member and the
facturing tolerances may be shown in different ways, reading scale or the work will display an error caused
as indicated in Figure 17-6. If a dimension is ap- by parallax if used incorrectly. Many meters are
proached in a definite direction by the manufacturing constructed with mirrors underneath the indicating
process used, and greater chance of error exists on hand so that, to obtain a single view of the hand, the
one side of the basic dimension than on the other, eye must be positioned in the only spot where a
unilateral tolerances are usually displayed, using the correct reading can be directly read. Many meters and
dimension that would be reached first as the basic instruments used for NDT are so equipped.
dimension. When no reason exists for error on one SCALE
side of the basic dimension more than on the other, 11~~1~~?~1
bilateral tolerances permitting variation in both direc- 1/
tions are used. The third method shows both limiting /
/,f,I HAND
/ I
/ I
/ I
T-+OOI / I
// I
~ I J:~1 /
/ I
I
BILATERAL TOLERANCES / I
B/ A
TOP VIEW
, ]I~
UNILATERAL TOLERANCES
~
~ "
'\.
4 565C.</«
HAND
>
(J
~
LIMITING DIMENSIONS
1.247
I --.L
!
Figure 17-6 Figure 17-7
Methods of showing dimensional limits Parallax
Inspection 189
Temperature Effects Often Present. It is well tures over a part being checked may also cause read-
known that temperature variation causes changes of ings to vary in different locations when no difference in
dimension in materials, causing them to grow larger the tested attribute really exists.
with increased temperature and smaller with de- For critical dimensions, particularly those of small
creased temperature. Different materials are affected size when the percent error will be large, care should be
to different degrees by temperature changes or in taken to see that the product being tested and any
other words, have different coefficients of thermal comparison standards are at the same temperature
expansion. Many of the manufacturing processes level.
cause temperature changes in the work and in the Pressure Springs or Deforms Work and Equip-
gaging and measuring equipment or are concerned ment. For most dimensional measurement, some
with different materials such that measurement prob- element of the measuring device must make contact
lems caused by temperature are significant. with the work surfaces. The effect of the contact
The coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is pressure depends on the strength and rigidity of both
approximately 0.0000117 unit per unit per 0 C the work and the measuring tool and on the loads
(0.0000065 unit per unit per 0 F). It would not be applied. Most measuring devices are constructed to
unusual for a steel disc being machined to use light pressures that only break through oil and
150 millimeter (6-inch) diameter to have its tempera- dirt films on the surfaces, as contact is often only at a
ture increased during the machining work to 1200 C point or along a line until deformation causes suf-
(2000 F) above standard temperature of 200 C (680 ficient bearing area to carry the applied load. It must
F). If measured while still hot with a gage calibrated be remembered that load can be carried only by a
for use at standard temperature, an error of about reaction of bending or deformation; consequently,
0.21 millimeter (0.008 inch) would be measurable on light and repeatable contact pressures are a necessity
the disc when cooled to standard temperature. to accurate dimensional measurement.
120 X 1.17 X 10-5 X 150 = 0.21 mm Human Element a Large Variable. One of the
(200 X 6.5 X 10-6 X 6 = 0.0078 in.) most difficult problems to deal with in inspection, as
well as in all the other phases of manufacturing, is
Aluminum, for which the coefficient of expansion
error caused by the human element. Inspection pro-
is approximately 0.0000216 unit per unit per 0 C
cedures making use of any of the human senses (sight,
(0.000012 unit per unit pero F), would under the
same conditions be expanded almost twice as much hearing, smell, taste, or touch) are subject to some
and upon cooling would show an error of more than variation with any individual and usually to large
0.38 millimeter (0.014 inch). variation between individuals. Sight and touch in
particular are frequently used as part of a measuring
120 X 21.6 X 10-6 X 150 = 0.389 mm system. At any time great reliability is required, the
(2000 X 12 X 10-6 X 6 = 0.0144 in.) procedure should be designed to minimize the effects
When using a steel measure or gage on a steel of the human element.
workpiece, little error would be caused if both were
at the same temperature (dependent somewhat upon BASIS FOR MEASUREMENT
the gage design). However, in the case of the gage and Measurement of various attributes may be either
the work being of different materials, such as a steel comparative or absolute. In many cases knowledge of
gage on an aluminum part, exact measurement can be the value of a dimension or other quality is unim-
made only when both are at standard temperature. portant, and interest is focused on measurement of
For example, if the above aluminum disc and steel the difference from some standard.
gage were both at only 200 C ( 360 F ) above standard Many kinds of gaging apparatus are designed to
temperature, the error in measurement would be show only the nearness or faTness of a measurement
almost 0.03 millimeter or more than 0.001 inch. from a predetermined standard.
20 X 21.6 X 10-6 X 150 = 0.0648 mm Other gaging equipment sets the limits within
20 X 11.7 X 10-6 X 150 = 0.0351 mm which a dimension must fall to be acceptable and also
0.0648 - 0.0351 = 0.0297 mm does not assign any real value to the measurement.
A third type of measurement provides knowledge
(36 X 12 X 10-6 X 6 = 0.00259 in.) regarding the real or absolute value of a measurement
(36 X 6.5 X 10-6 X 6 = 0.00140 in.) by comparing the measurement with a known stand-
(0.00259 - 0.00140 = 0.00119 in.) ard.
Temperature also affects resistivity of material and Comparison with Standards May Be Converted to
changes flow of electric current. Therefore, eddy cur- Absolute. The differential measurements described
rent results may be affected to the point that tempera- in the preceding paragraphs can be converted to
ture readings should also be recorded when tempera- absolute values by addition or subtraction of the
tures are different from normal. Non-uniform tempera- reading with the standard if its absolute value is
190 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
known. All absolute measurements use zero as a defined as exactly 25.4 millimeters. The meter and
reference point. the inch are therefore primary measurement stand-
Metric and English Measuring Systems. Two ards to which all length measurements are related.
measuring systems are commonly used throughout Length Measurement Standardized by Gage
the world. These are the metric and the English Blocks. The use of uniform length measUrement
systems, with the metric being more widespread but throughout the country is made possible by the use
the English being more important to manufacturing of secondary standards in the form of gage blocks
in the United States until the current time. The that are used in three ways. Master gage blocks, the
metric system is universally used in most scientific most accurate obtainable (guaranteed to be accurate
applications but, for manufacturing in the United within :1:0.000002 inch per inch of length), are used
States, has been limited to a few specialities, mostly only for checking other gage block sets so that their
items that are related in some way to products accuracy may be retained. Other sets of gage blocks,
manufactured abroad. which may be of less original accuracy, are used as
The Metric System Soon to Be Worldwide. Eng- references and inspection blocks for the manufacture,
land is currently in the middle of an official change calibration, and setting of various measuring devices.
from the old system to a metric system similar to that A third use applies blocks directly to precision meas-
used in most of the world. The United States is not as uring work in shop operations. The more gage blocks
far along in a similar change to the international are used, the more important it becomes that they be
system of units, which is a simplified form of the frequently checked against other blocks to detect
metric system, but there is little doubt the change inaccuracies from wear and abuse.
will continue and accelerate.
Various Size and Quality Sets. Gage blocks may
United States Changeover Beginning. Some
be obtained in sets containing as few as five to more
primary schools in the United States are introducing
than one hundred individual blocks. They are used by
the new system to students. A few factories have
selecting blocks of such size as needed and wrung
already changed to metric units, and others are
together to make up a desired dimension. Wringing in
studying the problems, both functional and eco-
this case implies the use of a twisting sliding motion
nomic, connected with the change. There are some between the blocks that places their extremely flat
incompatibilities to be ironed out, and there are
bound to be difficulties for those familiar with the and smooth faces so close together that they adhere
to each other and can be built up to larger dimensions
English system becoming comfortable with a replace-
ment. . without inaccuracy caused by added space between
the contacts.
New System to Be Simpler to Use. The inter-
Special Gages and Masters for Production Con-
national system of units (SI) simplifies calculations
trol. A tertiary measuring standard is used in manu-
because of the multiple of ten relationship. Although
facturing in the form of gages and measuring devices
some measurements will eventually be performed
designed for specific purposes, and in the form of
completely with the new units, some will require a
master work parts that can be used for comparative
long period for the change, and all during the transi- measuremen ts.
tion will require conversion at times. This text has
been written with dual units to help with familiariza-
tion of the relationship, but an attempt has been INSPECTION EQUIPMENT
made to emphasize the new system to encourage its The equipment to be described in this section is
use. As an aid to conversion, some tables showing the primarily for dimensional measurement. It employs
relationships between the two systems are available in some type of comparison, with the principal differ-
the appendix. ence being in the degree of reference to an absolute
Length Standard Definitions. Length measure- standard. The steel rule, for example, has a built-in
ment standards are essential in order that units of reference to zero. A dial indicator has no built-in
measure have any meaning. All length measurements reference and is used mostly for differential measure-
are related to the standard meter, which at one time ments, but it can be used for absolute measurement
was the distance between two marks on gold buttons by establishing proper reference. The spring caliper
placed on a platinum-irridium bar stored in Paris, may be used as a gage to establish a dimensional limit,
France. Since the year 1960, a standard meter has or it can be used to transfer a dimension from a work
been defined as being 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of surface to some measuring device. Measuring tools
light emitted from krypton-86. In 1866, the Congress may be classified as direct-reading devices, compara-
of the United States defined a legal yard as being tors, or limit gages.
3600/3937 of the length of a meter. From this Direct-reading devices provide the widest range of
definition, 1 inch turns out to be slightly more than measurement of any of the measuring tools but are
25.4 millimeters. More recently, the inch has been slower to use than the other types. In general, they
Inspection 191
require greater skill from the user and are therefore Figure 17-9,with the nuah scale divided into inches
mare subject to human error. and subdivided into 1/10and 1/40(0.025) inch. The
Steel Rules for Ri?lativeIy R o w Measure vernier scale, which slides along adjacent to the mairl
ment. Among the most common of the dire& scale, has henty-fiva divisions in the length equal to
reading inspection devices are steel rulw m d their twenty-four divisions of the main scde and ffirnhhes
variations. &eel rules are made in all dzes, from ones the witness M e for reading a measurement. Each
a fraction of an inch long hat must be held in spedal d i d o n on the Yernier &ale is 0.001 inch shorter than
holders, up ta those several feetin length. They may be the similar divisions on the main scale, so that for
dib~tatedin different ways, depending on the use for each 0.001 inch of movement between the two, a
which they were Intended, and strmetimes are cali- Merent line on the vernier sale d l line up with
brated with four different ~ & 8 nn the sane rule. one af the marks an the main wale. A measurement
Most common for use ih the United Stakes are reading is accnnrplbhed by first weadb the full
calibrations showing 1/64,3/32, 1/16,and 1/8inch, inches, adding tenths of an inah exposed More tbe
dthough in some applications, divisions in hun- zero of the vernier scale, adding 0.025 inch for each
dredths are of value. Steel rdw showing com- e x p ~ ~subdivkion,
d and finally adding the number
binations of English and metric units or all metric indicated by the mark on the vernier h t is in dosest
units are also available. . ahgnmellt with one of the marks on the main sale.
Good quality steel rules are machine divided wikh
the calibration marks accurately placed, but ordi-
narily cannot he expected to be usad witti acfiurwie8 Micromebr Nomendatwe, The micrometer cali-
closer than sbout 40.5 millimeter or 11/64hch. per, ur "mike," &own in Figure 17-10is one of $he
Variations of the Sted Rule for Improved Ac- mast common measuring ircstruments used in the
curacy, The steel rule has a. number of variations, manufacturing field. For a precision tool, its
including the hooked rule that can be held over a constructian is rdatiVe1y simple. A U+hped frame
corn&, d i p e r r u l e s that have a fixed and a sliding supports a hardened steel button called an anuil on
jaw to permit setting and eskr reading, and degth tbe inside of one end and a eJecve, barrel or"hub
rules #at can reach into recesses. Some of t h e e ruIes contaking a threaded nut on the opposite end. The
are ehown in Figure 17-8. threadd nut supports threads on a spindle that
V d e r Caliper and Heigkt Gam &mila. Vernier extends through the sleeve and frame so that i t 8 flat
calipers are vmiations of the &eel rule that can h end can be paired with the anvil t o serve aa; the
measuring dement. The opposib end a£ the spindle is
Figure 17-8
Sted rules'
FIXED
I W K
Figure 17-17
Flxed gages
Fixed Gage Tolerances Reduce Working m e .
Gages, like any other manufactured articles, must be
made t o tolerances permitting some dimensional
variation. These tolerances, naturally, must be srnaller
than the tolerances for the manufactured part on
which the gage is to be used, and are usually held to
Figure 17-16 between 10% and 20% of the part tolerance.
Work measurement with an opflcal flat Gages must also be designed with some wear
dlowmce so that they w-UJ not accept bad parb after
wkch is set to a limit of a dimension to establish a a short period of use. The wear allowance used is
maximum or minimum value or t o both limits to variable, depending on the conditions of gage use, the
enclose the tolerance range. This type of gage meas- precision of the product being inspected, and the gage
ures attributes only and provides very little infor- life desired. In h g e opemiions, it is common for two
mation regarding ab~01ut.emeasmment. F M gages sets of gages to be used, One set, cdled working
are fast to use and require little skill to produce gages, is made to the a b v e tolerrtncm and is wed by
196 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
the machine eperators to check the product as it is will reflect light to produce a polished appearance. A
being manufactured. The other set, inspection gages, random pattern of even smaller tool marks, such as
are made to approximately one-balf this tolerance, to might be made in a superfinishing operation, will not
reduce the chance of rejecting good parts. reflect light as well but will measure better, although
Where nnny gages of the same type are used, appearing to be of lower quality finish.
master gages are sometimes constructed. with toler- Finish and Dimensions Closely Related. A close
ances 10% of the working gage tolerance for checking relationship exists between surface finish and linear
the gages themselves. measurement. Most measuring procedures involve the
use of tools or instruments that physically contact
SURFACE FINISH the work surface and touch only on the high spots or
In addition to conformance to a general geometric peaks. A bearing surface might lose these peaks very
pattern, many applications require that a surface have quickly in use, and the large change of dimension that
high quality finish. would occur with a rough surface would cause the
Surface Variations of Different Frequency and original measurement to be meaningless. Good sur-
Type. Three kinds of irregularities may occur on a face finish is certainly called for whenever close tol-
surface. The one most evident is roughness, a term erances are required.
used to describe surface irregularities that are rela-
tively close together. Surface roughness is usually a SURF ACE FINISH MEASUREMENT
result of machining or other processing procedure The roughness of a surface is made up ot two qual-
that produces finely spaced irregularities. ities - the height and depth of irregularities, and the
A second surface fault is waviness, which refers to spacing between these. Most measurement methods
irregularities of 'wider spacing than those termed take both into consideration to some degree without
roughness. Waviness may be the result of warping, actually defining their relationship.
deflection, or springing while the workpiece is being Lay - the Direction of the Principal Marks or
worked upon, or the result of a tool movement Scratches. Most surfaces also will show different
pattern while the workpiece is being cut. roughness measurements and characteristics in dif-
The third fault is an irregularlity called a flaw or ferent directions. Measurements across the lay will in
imperfection, which is relatively infrequent and usual- general be much higher than those with the lay. Lay
ly randomly located. Flaws consist of such things as is the direction of the predominant surface pattern.
scratches, holes, ridges, and cracks. For example, a measurement across the lay on a piece
Surface Quality May Affect Function. The turned in a lathe would be taken parallel to the work-
quality of some surfaces can play an important part piece axis.
in their function. Both flat and rotating bearing Surface Comparison by a Variety of Meth-
surfaces must usually be relatively smooth to func- ods. Some surface quality measurements depend
tion properly and often have their maximum rough- upon comparison with standard samples displaying
ness quality specified on their drawings. measured and known roughness. Visual comparison is
Surface Marks Affect Fatigue Strength. Materials sometimes satisfactory but often may not be too
that are likely to be highly stressed in service, particu- accurate because of the effect of dirt, corrosion, and
larly by repeated or reversed load applications, may irregularity of pattern on appearance. Accuracy of
need good quality surface finish to reduce chances for the comparison can be considerably improved by
fatigue failure. Any surface irregularity or discon- scraping a fingernail across the surfaces, adding a
tinuity may be a point of stress concentration that sense of feel. A visual method of comparing optical
can serve as a source of fatigue failure. As a pre- projection through a plastic film that has been
caution, the highly polished wing surfaces for high pressed against the surfaces is also available. A film
performance aircraft are frequently covered with a softened by solvent takes on the surface irregularities
plastic coating for protection against nicks and and by its refraction effect on the projected light rays
scratches during manufacture because any marks on causes a third-dimension effect on the screen, making
the surface might be a source of wing failure during accurate comparisons possible.
flight. Electrical Instruments Most Common.' The
Appearance Important to Saleability. The effect majority of accurate surface quality measurements
of surface finish on appearance alone should not be are made with instruments that trace the work sur-
discounted. It is often the case that appearance is the face with a stylus, which in traveling over the hill5
only factor available for making a decision as to and valleys disturbs an electrical circuit to make a
whether or not to purchase a product. It should be reading possible. With some instruments, a pen is
noted, however, that finish quality and light reflective actuated to draw a magnified profile of the surface' on
ability are not necessarily synonymous. A newly fin-, a moving tape, in addition to a meter reading showing
ished clean surface with small, regularly spaced tool the average value of the surface traced. Other instru-
marks, particularly those made in a grinding process, ments show only the meter reading.
Inspection 197