Bergeron on Flute-Making

Author(s): Michael Wright

Source: The Galpin Society Journal, Vol. 29 (May, 1976), pp. 26-34
Published by: Galpin Society
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 MICHAELWRIGHT

Bergeron on Flute-Making

THE first edition of Manueldu Tourneur

by L.-E. Bergeronwas
publishedin two volumes,in 1792 and 1796 respectively.The
secondedition,alsoin two volumes,appearedin I816, 'revised,cor-
rected, and considerablyenlarged'by P. Hamelin-Bergeron,who
describesL.-E.Bergeronas his father-in-lawor step-father.In fact,
both names were pseudonymsfor Louis-Georges-Isaac Salivet, an
eminentlawyer.1,2
The book is intendedfor amateursandcontains,interalia,detailsof
manyworkshopprocedures (notexclusivelylathe-work)anda number
of specificexamplesof work.The sectionFlitesetflageolet appearsonly
in the secondedition,VolumeII, ChapterII, SectionII, pp. 43-52.
The plate, No. XI of Vol. II, reproducedhere (Plate I) on a
reducedscale,shows the instrumentsapproximatelyhalf-size.I have
no informationon Gallet,the artist,but NicolasLouisRousseau,the
engraver,is known to havebeenworkingin Parisaround1815.3The
four-keyedflute(fig. I) certainlyseemsto correspondto Parisianflutes
of aboutthat period(makingallowancefor the artist'sor engraver's
failureto reversethe image),especiallydown to the swivellingEf/D#
key; I shouldbe interestedto know of any flute which is found to
correspondcloselyto thatshown both in detailsand dimensions.
It seemsprobablethat Salivetdid not play the flute, which could
explainthe errorsin fingering.In view of the manyminorinconsist-
encies(to whichI havenot drawnattention)it is questionable whether
he madeanyflutes.He may merelyhaveobtaineda descriptionof the
work from a flute-makerandhaveincorporated thisin the book with
only minoralterations andadditions.Thiswouldexplainwhy he states
thatthe keysshouldbe bought,while elsewherein the book he gives
ampleinformationon the proceduresinvolvedin makingsuchpieces,
and why he describesthe use both of a custom-builtproportional
calipersand of a plug-gauge;the latteris quite redundantif one is
workingfromtheplatewherethegaugehasto bemadeby measurement
with the calipers,but would be the bestand most obviousmethodif
one was copyingan existingflute.
I havenot beenslavishlyliteralin my translationbut I haveavoided
the wholesalerecastingof passageswhich would be necessaryto
renderthe senseof some passagesin reallygood English.I havegiven
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the Frenchfor some words,which seem importantor interesting,in
brackets.I havebeenliteralin translating corpsdumilieuandavant-pate
becausetheseexpressionsseem to be interestingsurvivalsfrom the
daysof thethree-pieceflute.My reasonfor beingliteralovercoupe-vent
will be apparent,and I have left ligneandpointuntranslated as there
areno Englishequivalentswith exactlythe samemeaning.
The unitsof measurementare indeeda problem;by this time the
metrewasestablished andthepiedderoiwasno longeranofficiallyvalid
unit, but as the old units lingeredin common usage the pied was
increased slightlyso that3 piedsusuelsequalledI metre.Thesubdivisions
remainedas before:
i pied= 12 pouces(not to be confusedwith doigts)
1pouce= 12 lignes
1 ligne= 12points.4
Both the piedde roi and the piedusuelare greaterthan the English
foot; 3.280899feet = 3.0784piedsde roi = 3 piedsusuels= i metre.4
We cannotbe sure which systemof units was used in makingthe
plate,but probablyit was the laterone.

FlutesandFlageolet
The transverseflute,fig. I, consistsof four mainparts.The firstA,
with the embouchure,is calledthe head.The secondB is the middle
joint (corpsdu milieu).It hasfive holes,of which threegive the notes
G, A and B naturaland the two others,which are coveredby keys,
give B flatandG sharp.
The thirdpartC, the upperfoot (avant-pate), hasfourholes,giving
D, E andF naturalandthe key for F sharp.5The lastpartC, the foot,
hasthe key for E flator D sharp.
Thefirstof thesepartsis madein two piecesA, a,joinedby a hollow
cylindercalled the slide (pompe)E, used to alter the length of the
instrumentto raiseor lowerits pitchasrequired.It alsohasa spherical
cap or bung F to end the flute.Betweenthe capand the embouchure
is a corkbung which mustbe correctlypositioned.
The wood most commonlyusedfor makingflutesis Spanishbox-
wood, which is preferableto Frenchboxwood. West Indian6woods
suchasebonyor grenadillaarealsoused,andgive a purer,clearertone.
Choosequartered wood cut with the cleaver,not the saw, becausethe
cleaverfollowsexactlythe grainof the wood while the saw doesnot.
Similarlydo not choosewood with a twistedor wavy grainwhichis
morehandsomebut cannotbe rivenstraight.
Choosefourpiecesof equaldensityand,asfaraspossible,of the same

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colour and rough out the outside of each between centres leaving the
diameter and length greater than the finished size. Then bore through
them a cylindrical hole much smaller than that shown in the figure,
using a wooden collar-plate.
Although the wood should have been sound and well seasonedwhen
chosen it is best at this stage to put the pieces in a place shelteredfrom
sun and damp to let them settle.
When the roughed-out pieces are all perfectly dry, enlarge each
hole with appropriatetools held upright in a vice, passing the pieces
over them in turn, turning gently by hand and almost without pressing.
The tools, called reamers (perces)by instrument makers, are only
special taper-bits (louches7)which are made much longer than the
piece they are intended for, making them more convenient to use.
Their shapeis shown in fig. 3 which depictsa large reamerfor finishing
the flute, as describedbelow. The first reamer correspondsto the part
AB, the second to CD, the third to EF, and the fourth to GH, extended
by about half the length CB. Without this extension a reamer could
not enter the workpiece, whose bore is still cylindrical and therefore
narrower than it should be. Make these reamers slightly narrower
than the correspondingpart of the large reamer with which the bore
of the instrument will be finished.
These tools must be very sharp. If sharpeningreduces the diameter
they are still usable; as they are longer than necessaryat the wide end
as well as the other it sufficesto work the tool in up to the appropriate
position.
Now make the sockets and tenons which connect the four parts of
the instrument. The head A, which, as stated above, is in two parts,
has three sockets: two for the slide E and one for the tenon of the
middlejoint B. The latter has a tenon at each end and so has no socket.
The upper foot C has a socket facing the middle joint and a tenon
at the other end fitting into the socket in the foot.
Mount each piece on a conical mandrel like that shown in fig. 46,
plate 17, volume I,8 having the same diameter as the reamer. Leave a
bobbin rather wider then the flute joint, on which to place the cord.
Spareno pains in making these mandrelsbecauseif they do not run
perfectly true the outer surface will not be concentric with the bore
and the parts will be of uneven thickness,which will spoil the purity
of the sound and prevent the perfect alignment of the different parts
of the flute.
It is usual to mount the end of each socket with a ring of silver,
horn, or ivory. Silver is preferablebecause its purpose is not so much
to embellish the flute as to strengthenthe socket which always tends to

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be split by the forcingin of the tenon which is wound with waxed
threadto makeit airtight.
After fitting them carefullyfor size, glue thesemountson, as you
would thoseof a snuffbox, andleavethem to dry.Thenput the parts
backbetweencentresandgive the outsidethe shapeandsizeshownin
the figure.
Take careto make the diametersof the tenonssuch that they go
easilyinto the socketsso thatthey can be wound with waxed thread
to makethem fit firmly;makecirculargrooveson the tenon so that
the threaddoesnot slip.
Then cut the holes,as follows.Begin with the openholes,andfind
their positionsaccuratelyby tracinga line on eachjoint parallelto
the axisandmarkingon it the centreof eachhole in the positiongiven
by the figure.The holescoveredby keysarelikewiseplacedaccording
to the figure,but theirpositionon the circumferenceof the flute is
not critical;theirdistancesfromthelineon whichtheothersaremarked
are adjustedto suitthe lengthsof the keys (whichshouldbe obtained
in advance),becausethe end of the key-touchshouldcome to the
point shownon the figurefor easeof fingering.
As therearenow writtenrulesfor the positionsandspacingof these
holes, andeven the bestcraftsmenareonly guided by exemplars,we
havechosenone of thebestandhavetakenthe utmostcarein the mak-
ing of the plate.As canbe seenin the figure,the holesareunequalin
size andtheirdiametersareshown on the figurewith equalprecision.
However, althoughthe plate may be exact,paperalwaysstretches
more or less duringprintingand the effectis uneven,dependingon
the qualityof the paper,so we havethoughtit necessaryto drawtwo
lines, above and below fig. 2, showingthe exact sizesand spacingof
the holesin fractionsof an inch (lignesetpoints).The lower line gives
the exactlengthof eachjoint. The upperline givesthe exactdiameter
of eachhole andthe distancesbetweencentres.
The bore diametersat the bung, under the last key, and at the
bottom end, aremarkedon the section,fig. 2.
For makingall thesemeasurements with precision,we havedevised
the calipers,fig. 4. Thesecalipersconsistof two armsjoinedby a small
rivet at A. The two points d, e, are like those of internalcalipers
and as they can crossone another,the calipersmay
be used for internal
(maftre--a-danser9) and externalmeasurement. But the mainadvan-
tage of their constructionis theiraccuracy.
One armcarriesa graduatedsectorB at its upperend,andthe other
ends in a point or index, C. As the armsarejoined well below their
mid-pointsthe openingBC is much biggerthan de althoughalways
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proportionalto it. Consequentlywhenthe openingdeequalsone ligne,
BC equalsfour, five, or six, accordingto the proportionsof the
caliperarms.
Thus if the sectorB is markedoff at intervalseach corresponding
to an increaseof openingdeof one ligne, theseintervalscan easilybe
subdividedinto four,six, or even twelveparts,thusallowingaccurate
measurement of the smallestdimensions.
When the positionsof the centresof all the holes are found use
springcompassesto tracearoundeach a circleof the given diameter.
Then open them all to the samesize, smallerthan the smallesthole,
with a pointeddrill.Thenenlargeeachto its properdiameterusinga
conicalrose-cutter,fig. 5, withoutin any casecuttingto the line. As
a furtherprecautionuse a conicalgauge, fig. 6, markedat the exact
diameterof eachhole, enlargingeachhole untilthe appropriate mark
goes up to the hole but stays outside.
When the fluteis completedthe
holes are openedto theirexact diameterswith a penknife.This can
only be done by tryingthe fluteandby paringaway wood untilthe
soundis perfectlypureandclear.
If too muchwood hadbeenremovedat firstit wouldnot be possible
to put it back,which is why we advisethat the gauge markshould
stayoutside.
The holesshouldbe undercut,whichis done with a mountedrose-
cutter(fraisea queue)describedin vol. I, p. 86, andshownin fig. 12,
pl. ii of the samevolume.'0
Now put the slide together and assembleall the joints, having
woundthe tenonswith waxedthreadas alreadydescribed,so thatthe
open holes are all in line. Now finishthe bore by passingthe large
reamer,fig. 3, down it.
The shapeof this reamershouldbe exactlya truncatedcone cut at
right-anglesto its base,with a hollow insideformedas partof a circle
not concentricwith the outside,as shownin section,fig. 7.
The edgesof the reamershouldbe two straightlines,andshouldcut
perfectly.The backshouldbe highly polishedso as not to chafethe
wood, becausethe qualityof the instrumentdependsmainlyon the
smoothnessof the bore, whose sidesshouldpresentnot the slightest
obstacleto the passageof the air.
Fix this reameruprightin a vice by its tenon L and slip the flute
over it, headfirst.Then, grippingit with both hands,turnit gently,
almostwithout pushing,until it reachesthe line A which marksthe
exact diameterof the upperopening.As the diameterof the tool is
reducedin sharpening, this line approachesthe tenon; thatis why the
reamershouldbe madelongerthanseemsnecessary.

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 Thistool mustbe sharpened with greatcare;nevertouchthe outside
but pass a flat whetstonedown the inside, moving it obliquelyall
alongthe edge.
When making a flute of West Indian6wood such as ebony or
grenadilla,the hand may not be strong enough to turn it on the
reamer.To assistit, clampto the head of the flute a wooden collar,
fig. 8, madeof two semicircles A, B, one of whichendsin two handles
like those of a screw-platewhile the other is fastenedto it by bolts
C, D, and wing-nutsE. The diameterof the two semicirclesshould
be ratherlargerthan the outsidediameterof the flute which they
grip; line them insidewith a piece of white leatherto protectthe
surfaceof the flute againstbruisingand to preventthe collarfrom
slippingwhen turned.
Now the fourkeysandthe capat the end of the headmustbe fitted.
The latterpiecepresentsno difficulty;it is roughlya hemisphere joined
to a tenbn,asshownat F in figs. I, 2, andshouldbe madeof the same
materialas the mounts,andcan be decoratedat will. But the method
of making keys is entirely foreign to our art. Instrumentmakers
themselves havethemmadeby craftsmen who specializein suchworkso
we supposethatthe Amateurwho wishesto makea flutewill buybrass,
silver,or gold keys. Firstofferup eachkey to its hole and markthe
positionof the saddle,h, fig. I, on the flutewith a fine scriber.Then
removea little wood from thisarea,to the thicknessof the plate,and
fix the saddlewith two screwsshortenoughnot to reachthe bore.
Whenallthekeysarefitted,linetheunderside of eachwitha smallpiece
of buffleatherof mediumthickness,trimmedto the shapeof the key.
When thinningleather,alwayscut away the fleshside. Positioneach
scrapof leatherwith its fleshsideagainstthe righthole, coat the other
sidelightlywith fairlythickglue, thenpressthe thumbon the key for
a few seconds.
Next positionthe cork bung G in the top of the headas shownin
the figure.Forthisuse the pusher,fig. 9, whichis merelya boxwood
cylinderfor placingthe bung and for removingit for cleaningthe
bore.11
Now the fluteis almostfinishedand shouldgive notes reasonably
in tune but a little weak. To make the instrumentmore sonorous,
open the boreof the foot from the edge of the hole, using a reamer
whose smalland largediametersareshown in fig. 2. Then try all the
notesin turnandif any one is not in tuneopen the mouthof the hole
whichgivesit with a knife,asmentionedwhen describingthe piercing
of the holes.
So as not to interruptthe sequenceof operationswe supposedthat

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the Amateur would have obtained a ready-made slide, but as this
part presentsno great difficulty we think we should describehere the
method of making it.
This slide is just a tube of silver or brass whose inside matches the
bore exactly. That is why it must be fitted before the final reaming.
To make the tube, cut a parallelogram of metal whose length is
given at E, fig. 2. The width should be such that in bringing the edges
together we obtain a cylinder one ligne less in diameter than the
finished slide.
Silver-solder the two edges together by the method given on page
201, vol. I. De-scale and thoroughly clear the inside with pumice. Then
slip it onto a conical steel triblet, fig. Io, of exactly the same diameter
as the reamer at C. The part ab of the triblet is exactly the right shape
for the inside of the slide. Hammer very lightly over the whole
surfaceof the tube until it comes down to a. The bore is then perfectly
true and equal to that of the flute. Chuck the piece on a cylinder of
hard wood in the lathe, trim it to the length given in the figure and
turn the inside'2truly cylindrical.
The slides of some flutes are made of two tubes of brass or silver,
one of which slides over the other and fits within the thicknessof the
wood. This arrangementis perhaps more pleasing to the eye but it
does not make the flute better, and as it is harderto make than the one
describedwe have thought it best to keep to the latter.
Fig. 12 representsan old-fashioned flute. This has no slide like the
above, but is equipped with two alternativejoints (corpsde rechange),
figs. 13 and 14, which serve to shorten the instrument more or less by
substituting them for the middle joint. The one shown fitted gives
the greatest possible length. Otherwise, the flute is made as described
above, only the reamer must be passedthree times to fit the alternative
joints to the other parts.
Notice that this flute has only one key for D;13 the sharpsand flats
which were obtained by keys on the other flute are here made by
cross-fingering (croisement des doigts).
The piccolo (octavedeflate), fig. Is, is merely flute no. I reduced to
half-size. This has only one key like the flute in fig. 12 but has a slide
like that in fig. I.
The flageolet, fig. 16, is made in two parts, the head A carrying
the beak B and the window (lumiere)with the wind-cutter (coupe-vent)
C, and the body D with six holes, four above for the notes D, F, G, A,
and two below (shown as dotted circles) for E and B. These two parts
are first roughed out and bored separatelylike the partsof a flute; then
they are joined and finished outside and inside, using for the latter
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 : if

IN

N I N

'44

Asg

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 operation the reamer,fig. 17, which differs from that in fig. 8 only in
size.
The holes are cut in the positions given on the line below the figure.
Their exact diametersare given on the same line; notice that they are
all equal except the middle one which gives G.
Now the lower part, the body, is finished and it remains to fashion
the top of the head and the window; proceed as follows.
Turn a cylindrical, or rather very slightly tapered, bung of wood
whose colour contrastswith that of the instrument, of the length ab,
fig. 16. Try it in the head and fit it for size so as to be airtight. Then
withdraw it and make a slot inside the flageolet in the part where it
fitted. The slot, D in fig. I8,'4 does not go beyond the tangent to the
circularbore and extends a little below b, fig. 16, the end of the bung.
Make a flat along the bung of the same width as the slot. Before putting
it back in and fixing it, it is necessaryto make the window and wind-
cutter C. Make two very small holes with an awl working from the
outside of the instrumentat b, that is, a little above the end of the slot.
Then make a transverseoblong opening at this point, perpendicular
to the outer surface, of the size shown in the figure. For this use a
well-sharpenedgraver whose edge is precisely the same width as the
opening should be.
The same tool is used to make the bevel called the wind-cutter
which adjoinsthis opening. This bevel faces the middle of the channel
formed between the slot and the flat on the bung, and so divides the
stream of air from the channel. (Hence its name, 'wind-cutter'.)
Throughout this operation it is necessary to use the graver with
great care and to cut away very little wood at a time, for fear of
causing splits and damaging the edge between the bevel and the
bottom of the slot, because the neatnessof this edge greatly influences
the purity of the instrument'stone.
Then glue the bung in place, making the flat along it correspondto
the slot in the bore, to form the channel through which air, having
been divided by the edge of the wind-cutter, enters the body of the
instrument.
When the glue is really dry, carve the undersideof the beak, remov-
ing part of the outside of the instrumentand much of the width of the
bung, using files and rasps.As far as possible follow the shape given in
the figure. We say 'as far as possible' because this curve is not strictly
the only one permissible;the point is that one should be able to grip
the end of the beak between the lips.
Flageolets are often made of ebony, grenadilla, or other precious
wood, and it is usual to garnish the beak, the end, and the sockets

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joiningthetwo parts,withivory.To do this,roughout the outside
of eachpieceseparately, stickon ringsof ivoryof sufficient
lengthand
thicknessin thepositionsshown,andturnornamental mouldings on
themasyoupleasewhenfinishingtheflageolet.
Theunderside of thebeakis carvedin thesameway,withthesame
filesandrasps,asif it werenotcasedin ivory.
NOTES
I CatalogueGinlraldes LivresImprimisde la Bibliothhque Nationale,Paris,
I94I; art.Salivet.
2 NouvelleBiographie GinCale,ed. FirminDidotFreres,Hoeffer,Paris,1864;
art.Salivet.
3 E. B&nezit,Dictionnaire critiqueet documentairedes Peintres,Sculpteurs,
Dessinateurset Graveurs,LibrarieGriind,196o; artRousseau.
4 Doursther,Dictionnaire Universeldes Poidset Mesures..., Paris,1840,
arts.Motre,Pouce,Ligne,Point.
5 Sic.:openhole gives Fo, key F?.
6 Boisdes les: this epithetusuallymeans WestIndianratherthan merely
foreign,but (black)ebonycomesfromMauritius,the E. IndiesandAfrica;see
C. Holtzapffel,Turning andMechanical London,1843,vol. I, p. 83.
Manipulation,
7 Louche:lit. ladle,but this is not what is known in Englishas a spoon-bit.
8 Redrawnhere as fig. i; the lathe envisagedhad fixed centresand the
work was drivenby a cordwrappedroundthe bobbin.

FIG. I

9 Socalledbecause
thefeetareturnedoutwards.
Io Redrawn hereasfig.2; thedetachable
cuttingheadcanbesliddownthe
bore,andthenthehandlecanbeinserted,throughtheholein theflute,intoit,
to turnit.

FIG. 2

i1 The pusherappearsto be markedso that, when the bung is correctly

placedandthe pusherplacedagainstit frombelow, the markisjust visibleat
the upperedge of the embouchurehole. Forthe correctpositionof the bung
see A. Baines,Woodwind andtheirHistory,London,1957, 53.
Instruments
12 Sic.:outside
mustbe intended. p.
13 Sic.:D# or is meant.
E7shows a
14 This drawing flageoletwhose windwayis formedentirelyby
cuttingawaythe bung.
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