Endogenic

Processes

Karen J. Meech,
Trish Doyle
Institute for Astronomy

Summary of Last lecture

O3
Speaker Background Intro
Trish Doyle
UH NASA Astrobiology Postdoctoral Fellow

Quick Intro
Class involvement
 What were the main points from
last Thursday s lecture?
(as a hint! it was entitled Contemporary Environmental Issues)

A Atmospheric chemistry affects habitability

B Gasses influence how planets look from afar
C Habitable worlds are complex systems
D All of the above

Summary of Last lecture

IR

O3
 Synopsis: Leading to
Other worlds

Two Physical Effects Earth is a Complex System

! Ozone Hole ! Interdisciplinary approach needed
!  UV creates and destroys O3 in atm ! Don’t understand all feedback
!  Natural balance disturbed by man- systems
made chemicals
! Models only as good as data
! Green House Effect
!  Energy has to get to Earth’s surface What are Implications for our “space
!  Heat (IR) is blocked by atm " ship”?
causes an increase in T

!  Venus – once had oceans

!  Runaway Greenhouse
!  Mars – once had liquid surface
water
!  Global cooling

Endogenic processes are:

A - Characterized by the absorption of heat

B - Related to an organism that generates
heat to maintain its body temperature
C - Derived or originate internally
D - Externally derived
 Processes Arising From
Within Earth From Outside
!  Tectonic – crustal deformation !  Impact cratering

!  Volcanism !  Micrometeorites

!  Aeolian – wind driven (atmospheric) (Regolith; Gardening)

!  Solar wind & cosmic rays
(Chemical processing)

Endogenic Exogenic

Which of these natural

phenomena are experienced
by the Hawaiian islands?

Tsunamis Tsunamis
Volcanic eruptions Volcanic eruptions
+ Earthquakes
Hawaii – Up to Magnitude 4 (Richter scale) during the past 2weeks

http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/seismic/tux/ (15 Jan 13)

Why are endogenic processes important?

Why does it matter what internal processes

are occurring within a planet?
 Why are endogenic processes
important?

Dust & gasses Heat & nutrients

Lava
&
heat

Good habitat?

Causes of Volcanism
!  Material melts inside Earth at
high T
!  Most materials expand upon
melting
!  Magma rises through cracks in
crust
!  Eruption type depends on:
!  Chemistry – viscosity, gas
content
!  Geometry
!  Planetary mass
!  Planetary atmosphere
 Volcanic Landforms
Cone volcano

Shield volcano Volcanic Rift

Mid Oceanic ridge Flood Basalt Sinuous Rille

http://www.iris.edu/seismon/ (15 Jan 2013)

 What causes the distribution of
earthquakes on Earth?

A - Tectonics
B - Plate tectonics
C - Volcanic activity
D - Random distribution

Seismic events > Magnitude 6 during

the past 100 years
 Major plate boundaries

Plate Tectonics

!  New theory (in 1915)

!  What mechanism?

Continental Drift - Alfred Wegener

 Plate Tectonics

!  New theory (in 1915)

!  What evidence?

Earth s Structure

Chaikun (1990) Skinner & Porter (1987)

Earth s Structure

Skinner & Porter (1987)

Earth s Structure

Skinner & Porter (1987)

 Earth s Structure

Chaikun (1990) Chaikun (1990)

Rheology – flow and deformation of matter

Convection Cells

Temperature
Surface

2
!2

T2
!1 > !2
1
T1 > T2

K
Deeper, hotter
 If I placed a hot, less dense
body (0) in unit 1, will it:

A - sink and become less dense

B - rise and become less dense
C - sink and become more dense
D - rise and become more dense

Convection Cells
Temperature
! = Density
T = Temperature

Surface

2
!1 > !2 !2

T1 > T2 T2

!  If !o < !1 " magma rises 1

!  Density decreases as it rises 0
K
!  T cools as it rises Deeper, hotter
!  If To > T2, !o < !2 " rise will continue
 Convection Cells

Surface

2
!2

T2

1
0
K
Deeper, hotter

Plate Boundaries

Mid Ocean ridges Subduction zones

(constructive) (destructive)
 Major Plate Boundaries

Destructive Constructive Destructive

Two Different Convergences

!  Ocean – Continent !  Continent – Continent

!  Results in volcanism !  Builds mountain ranges
Another Major Plate Boundary

Transform Constructive Destructive

Another Major Plate Boundary

Transform faults
(conservative)
!  Results in earthquakes
 Transform Fault
!  Slippages cm/yr
!  Motion release not
smooth
!  Few 106 yr – LA will
be an island near SFO

Additional volcanism
Hawaii
Hot spot Rifting

Static volcanism Rifting

(divergent)
Plate moves over hotspot,
leaving a trail
 Additional volcanism

Hot spot Rifting

A.  1 & 4
Which numbers
B.  2 & 3
represent divergent C.  3 & 4
plate boundaries? D.  3 & 5

1 2 3 4 5
 Which numbers represent
divergent plate boundaries?
D. 3 and 5
1 2 3 4 5

What is the Proof?

Magnetic reversals
 Proof of Sea Floor Spreading
!  Earth s B field
!  Dipolar
!  Originates in outer
core from plasma
motions
!  Extends 60,000 km

!  Fluctuations
!  0.1-0.7 Myr
!  Polarity reversal
(duration < 10,000 yrs)

Curie Temperatures Mineral Formula Tcurie (K)

Magnetite Fe3O4 851
Hematite Fe2O3 948
Iron Fe 1043
Nickel Ni 510

Above the
Curie Temperature

Below the
Curie Temperature

Magnetic field None Present

 Magnetic reversals

More Proof!

!  Polar Wandering
!  Records of direction and
magnitude kept since 1800s
!  Actual magnetic poles don’t
wander much
!  This apparent motion was
because plates were moving
 Volcanic Types
Mid Ocean Ridges & Rifts

Road
Subduction / Island arcs
Most explosive " natural disasters

Hot Spot Volcanism

 Super volcanos
Yellowstone

The main purpose of volcanic

eruptions is to:

A - Drive plate tectonics

B - Provide excellent photographic opportunities
C - Cool down the planet
D - Warm up the planet
 Volcanism
!  Means of Planetary cooling

!  Heat sources
!  Gravitational release of E:
accretion from collapse
!  Differentiation E release
!  Radioactive decay

!  Information from volcanos

!  Interior composition / structure
!  Atmospheric formation

Volcanism on planetary bodies

Lithospheric Lithospheric
Conduction Conduction
!"#$%&' Moon, Mercury Mars
!"#$%&'(%&# Venus
)*"#+%,-./0%,#
1!"#234&5#&5/&%,6/'#

Io
Plate Hot Spot Plate Hot Spot
Tectonics Volcanism Tectonics Volcanism
 Planetary Core Comparisons
Composition Active
!  Most Ni-Fe
!  Mars: Fe-S Extinct

Most volcanically
active: Extinct?
Io (Jupiter's moon)
Si-rich,
Dormant?
like on Earth? Active?

Tectonics
!  Controls many observable
features
!  Mountains
!  Ridges, faults
Ganymede faulting (Jupiter moon)
!  Signs of internal processes:
mantle convection & heat flow
!  Plays a role in habitability
!  Cycling of volatiles

Miranda faulting (Saturn Moon)

 Tectonics = Crustal movement

!  Earth: !  Tectonics
!  Mercury
Plate tectonics
!  Venus
!  Mars
!  Moons

Distance not to scale Freedman et al. (2008)

 Tectonics on
Mercury
!  No identifiable volcanic
landforms
!  Intercrater plains " like maria
!  Single plate system
!  Lobate scarps
!  Long cliffs – 100 s km
!  Heights 100m-3 km
!  Origins of scarps
!  Core 75% of planet diameter
!  Planetary shrinking

Mercury Extensional
Features

!  Features seen in floor

of Caloris basin
!  Troughs radiate from
materials filling in floor
after formation
!  Tectonic “cracks”
!  Impact crater ~40 km
diameter
Distance not to scale Freedman et al. (2008)

Venus
!  Cannot see to surface
!  Radar Images " tectonics
!  Shield volcanos
!  Few impact craters
!  Domes
!  Coronae (uplift regions)

!  Evidence for Volcanos

!  High SO2 content
!  Lightening; radio emission
 Cone volcanos Lava Flows

Volcanic rift Sinuous rille

Venus Tectonics
!  Earth s Twin?
!  Similar size, mass, density
!  No plate tectonics
!  Atm T too high to allow
subduction
!  "T not large enough
!  Features
!  1600 volcanic/tectonic
!  No long volcano chains
!  No evidence of subduction
!  No rifts like MOR
Distance not to scale Freedman et al. (2008)

Lunar Tectonics

!  Wrinkle ridges
!  Cooling – like on Mercury
!  Graben (cracks)
!  Tensional stresses
 3D - Volcanic
Landforms on Moon

Distance not to scale Freedman et al. (2008)

 Mars Tectonic Features

Vallis Marineris

Cerberus Fossae
!  Rifts & Graben
!  Extensional features – cracks

The Great Canyon – Vallis Marineris

Grand Canyon like scale

Tithonium Chasma 175x30x2km

Mars Canyons – 3D
 Olympus Mons
!  Largest Solar System
volcano
 Mars Volcanism
!  2 volcanic regions
!  Tharsis, Elysium
!  8000 km in diam
(25% of planet)
!  Broad topographic
rise

!  Origins
!  Thick lithosphere
!  Mantle convective
upwellings
!  Hot spot volcano
!  Evidence for no plate
tectonics on Mars

Calderas
 Elysium Mons

Mars: Pavonis Mons

!  Mars Express image 5/23/06

!  12 km high central shield volcano, 59 km lava tubes
 Apollinaris Patera

!  Mars Express image

!  Ancient 5 km high shield volcano N of Gusev crater

Syrtis Mons

Elysium Lava
Tubes
 Mars Tectonics
!  Massive evidence
!  Mostly from uplift
!  Fe-S core expands upon cooling
!  No compressional features
!  Valles Marineris
!  Tharsis uplift

!  History
!  Late bombardment 3.5 Gy
!  Tectonic crust fracture
!  Volcanic emplacement
!  Uplift in Tharsis – extension
!  Recent volcanism

Outer Solar System Volcanos

Io
Triton
Enceladus

Titan
Distance not to scale Freedman et al. (2008)
Outer Solar System Volcanos
!  Io
!  Most volcanically active
body in Solar System
!  Plumes 300 km over
horizon
!  E source – friction from
tidal stretching
Volcanic Fire curtains
Active region 25 km long, 1 km high
!  Triton
!  Cryovolcanism
!  Nitrogen plumes
!  E source – solar heat:
subsurface vaporization
(like a comet)
Magma T: 1700-2000K
Earth magma T: 1500K
 Titan Volcanic
Activity?
!  Possible hot spot
!  warmer than the local
surroundings
!  Composition
!  On Earth – volcanoes are
made from silicate-magma
!  On Io – magma enriched in
sulfur
!  These may be due to
methane magma

Enceladus
Distance not to scale Freedman et al. (2008)

Cometary Volcanos
– Tempel 1?
!  Pyroclastic flow
!  Refractory material (rocks,
debris) suspended in a hot
gas flow
!  Forms characteristic delta
!  Steep front edge
!  Particle size sorting "
flow features
 Which of these is the strongest
indicator of plate tectonics?

A - The presence of volcanos

B - Craters
C - Fractures
D - Ridges of high ground
E - Trenches

Conclusions
!  Volcanic processes are a result of escaping heat
!  Tectonics are a result of heating, cooling and
subsequent crustal movement
!  Both create characteristic landforms
!  Markers of interior processes
!  Plate tectonics is a special form of tectonics
!  Specifically refers to motion of plates
!  Found only on Earth
 Question for next class!

i.e. the point of the previous lecture.

Finish the following sentence by filling

in the blanks!
(to date) Plate tectonics (a) unique to Earth &
(b) important for creating a habitable environment

A - (a) is; (b) is not

B - (a) is; (b) is
C - (a) is not; (b) is
D - (a) is not; (b) is not
 Supplementary slides

The concepts were covered during class,

but these slides have a bit more text,
which may be useful to refer back to later.

Just for
interest!

Severe damage;
loss of life over large areas

Serious damage;
loss of life

Moderate damage
Some structures break
Minor damage
No damage
Not felt by many people

http://www.sdgs.usd.edu/publications/maps/earthquakes/rscale.htm (15 Jan 13)

 Just for
interest!

Skinner & Porter (1987)

Refraction & reflection of primary (P) waves.

Secondary (S) waves can only travel through solid mediums.

Just for
interest!

Skinner & Porter (1987)

Variation in seismic-wave velocity within the Earth

mark boundaries between different layers and phase transitions.
(P waves travel slower in the presence of melts
and S waves cannot travel through liquid).
 Curie Temperatures Mineral Formula Tcurie (K)
Magnetite Fe3O4 851
!  Ferromagnetic rocks Hematite Fe2O3 948
!  Exhibit B field w/o Iron Fe 1043
external field Nickel Ni 510
!  At high T: thermal E of
electrons resists
alignment by B field
!  Cooling through Curie T
– B field freezes in
!  MOR Spreading
!  Earth s B field frozen in
!  Discovered in 1960 s
(Vine & Matthews)

Types of Volcanism
!  Mid Ocean Ridges (MOR) &
Rifts
!  Discharge from spreading centers
!  Hydrothermal vents
!  Interesting chemistry

!  Rift systems
!  Iceland
!  Africa
 Iceland

!  Located on MOR
!  Surtsey Island
!  Eruptions 1963-1967
!  30 km S of iceland
!  Studies for biological colonization
Thingvellir

!  Subduction / Island arcs

!  Associated with subduction
!  Material melts
!  Most explosive " natural disasters
!  Explosive arc volcano eruptions
!  Varied " responsible for largest disasters
!  Mt St. Helens
!  Pinatubo Philippines 6/15/91 small
eruption
!  Krakatau Indonesia 1/1883, Tambora 1815 –
largest historical Earth eruptions
!  Tsunami kills 36,000 in Java
!  50 MTons SO2 into atm
!  Dust in atm 2 yrs
!  Change Atmospheric
transmission
!  Climate effects

!  Spots are stationary Hot Spot Volcanism

!  Mantle plumes
!  Plates slide over the hot spot
!  Massive topographic uplift "
shield volcano
!  Hawaii-Emperor chain
!  Meiji
75-80 Myr
!  Bend 43 Myr ago
 Hawaiian Volcanos
!  Mauna Loa
!  40,000 km3
!  Last erupted in 1984
!  Magma chamber is 4 km
thick, extending to 6 km deep
!  Magma fed from 60 km below
!  Mauna Kea
!  Began 800,000 yr ago
!  Most recent 3500 (dormant)
!  Loihi
!  28 km SW Kilauea
!  969 m below sea level
!  Surface in few x 104 yr

Super Volcanos

!  Extremely large volcanic output

!  Largest in last 20 million years – Toba (Indonesia)
!  Eruption lasted two weeks
!  Created an ash layer 3 m deep in India
!  Created a cauldera (lake) ~80 km long
 A Supervolcano
– Yellowstone
!  Historical
!  One of the world s largest super
volcanos – a hotspot
!  2 of the largest N America eruptions in Pinutubo pyroclastic surge
last few million yrs
!  There will be another eruption –
although not likely in our lifetime
!  Pyroclastic surges
!  Pressure supporting ash column
drops – avalanche
!  Vel > vsound
!  Mt. St Helens radius – 17 km,
Yellowstone – 80 km
!  Death toll likely ~87,000

Yellowstone Eruptions
!  Ash cloud – death 500,000
!  Model fallout in few days reaches
Europe
!  Ash triggers rain " mud flows
(lahars)
!  Release of F, S " H2SO4
aerosols into upper atm
Yellowstone ash fall 630,000 yr ago !  Remain for years
!  Opaque to visible radiation
!  Climate change
!  Greenland cores – Toba eruption
– 2x109 tons H2SO4
!  Decrease cooling by 12oC for a
few years (snow in summer)
!  Tropics down by 15oC " no
monsoon
!  Lg crater lower left – 230 km diam, 85 km crater inside
!  Filled with fluid material (embaying ejecta of sm crater)
!  Lg crater filled to rim with smooth plains volcanic material
!  Lobate scarp formed later – cross cutting both craters
!  Ejecta from large crater at top came later