Std X Experiment 1

Aim:. To study the different stages of mitosis using permanent slides.

Materials Required: Permanent slides of mitosis, microscope
Procedure: Permanent slides of mitosis showing different stages of mitosis was focused and
observed under 10X microscope.
Observations:
Mitosis is divided into two main stages:

 Karyokinesis or nuclear division.

 Cytokinesis or cytoplasmic division.

The following stages of karyokinesis are observed in the given permanent slides.

1. Prophase:
 The chromosomes begin to coil and become shorter and thicker.
 Each chromosome is in duplicated form and consists of two chromatids. The two
sister chromatids remain attached to the centromere.
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
 The centrosomes splits into two followed by duplication of centriole present in it.
The daughter centriole moves to opposite poles.
 Each centriole is surrounded by radiating rays called asters rays. The spindle
fibres appear between daughter centrioles.
2. Metaphase:
 The chromosomes further coil and become thicker and shorter.
 The chromosomes are arranged at equatorial plane. Each chromosome is attached
to spindle fibre at centromere.
3. Anaphase:
 The spindle fibres attached to the chromosome start contracting. This result in
splitting of centromeres and finally two chromatids of each chromosome
separates.
 The daughter chromosomes moves towards opposite poles bt the shortening of the
spindle fibres.
4. Telophase:
 Each daughter chromosome lengthens and becomes thinner. The daughter
chromosomes are transformed into thin thread like chromatin.
 Nuclear membrane reappears.
 Nucleolus reappears in each daughter nucleus.
 In animal cells, a furrow develops in the cell membrane.
 A cell plate is laid at the equatorial plane in a plant cell.

Cytokinesis:

 The furrow appeared during telophase stage in animal cell, deepens from periphery to the
centre and divides the cell into two daughter cells. (Centripetal cytokinesis)
 In plant cell, cell plate grows from the centre towards the periphery and finally divides
the cell into two daughter cells.(Centrifugal cytokinesis)
Diagrams (to be drawn on white sheet)
 Experiment 2

Aim: To study the phenomenon of diffusion in liquid.

Material required:
Crystals of potassium permanganate, beaker and water
Procedure:

 Crystals of potassium permanganate is added to the beaker containing water on one side.
 The crystal slowly dissolves and spread in water.

Observation:
The Crystals of potassium permanganate dissolves in water turning the water in the beaker
purple.
Inference:
The Crystals of potassium permanganate diffused uniformly in water. The movement of
molecules of potassium permanganate takes place from one corner to the region where they are
not present. The movement of molecules continues till these are uniformly distributed in the
solution. Thus solution turns purple.
Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

Diffusion of Potassium permanganate in water.

 Experiment 3

Aim: To demonstrate the phenomenon of osmosis using thistle funnel.

Material required:
Thistle funnel, cellophane paper, beaker, 20% sucrose solution, water and iron stand.
Procedure:

 The mouth of the thistle funnel is covered with cellophane paper and is tied securely.
 The thistle funnel is inverted in a beaker containing water and is fixed using iron stand as
shown in the diagram.
 20% sucrose solution is added to the thistle funnel.
 Initial level of the sucrose solution is marked on the stem of the thistle funnel.
 The entire experimental set up is kept aside for 4-5 hours.

Observation:
The level of sucrose solution rises in the thistle funnel. The level of water in the beaker drops.
Inference:
The concentration of water molecules in beaker is more than that in the thistle funnel. Water
molecules from beaker pass through the cellophane to enter in the thistle funnel. Sucrose
molecules from the thistle funnel cannot pass through the cellophane paper. Thus cellophane
paper acts like a semi permeable membrane, which allows only water molecules to pass through
it.
Precautions:
The sucrose solution should be poured carefully in order to avoid air bubble in the thistle funnel.
The initial level of the sucrose solution should be marked only after immersing the mouth of the
thistle funnel in beaker containing water.
Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)
 Experiment 4

Aim: To demonstrate the phenomenon of osmosis using potato osmoscope.

Material required: Potato, 30% sucrose solution, petridish, water, scalpel and alpins.
Procedure:

 Large sized potato is taken and peeled with the scalpel.

 The tuber is then cut into a rectangular block.
 The central part of the potato is then scooped out to make a cavity in the centre almost up
to the bottom.
 The cavity is then filled with 30% sucrose solution.
 The initial level of the solution is marked with an alpin.
 This osmoscope is then placed in a petridish containing water.
 The set-up is left for 5-6 hours.

Observation:
The level of the sucrose solution rises in the osmoscope.
Inference:
The sucrose solution in the osmoscope is separated from pure water by means of potato tuber
cells. Each cell of potato has a cell wall which is permeable, and a plasma membrane, which is
semipermeable membrane. Water enters into the cell due to osmosis. Cell to cell osmosis of
water across the potato tuber cells result in the entry of water into the osmoscope. The level of
sucrose solution in the osmoscope rises.
Precautions:

 The base of the potato osmoscope should be thin.

 Potato should be completely peeled.
 The sucrose solution should be of higher concentration than the cell sap of the tuber cells.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

 Experiment 5

Aim: To show that water is conducted upwards through the xylem.

Material required:
Test tube, water, balsam plant, eosin solution, microscope.
Procedure:
A medium sized young balsam plant is uprooted, washed and placed in a beaker containing a
attain eosin solution in water.
The root should be completely submerged in the solution.
The set-up is kept aside for 3-4 hours.
The plant is taken out of the solution and washed in tap water.
The transverse section of the root and stem is made and examined under microscope.
The leaves veins and vein-lets are also examined.
Observation:
Xylems vessels will appear distinct from the rest, as they will be stained red by the dye.
The veins and vein-lets of the leaves will also appear red.
Inference:
Water is conducted in the plants through the xylem tissues.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

 Experiment 6

Aim: To show that plant transpires through leaves.

Material required:
Bell jar, potted plant, polythene bag, glass plate.
Procedure:

 A well-watered potted plant is taken.

 The pot is covered up to the stem with a polythene bag and is secured tightly with thread.
 The pot is kept on the glass plate and then covered with a bell jar.
 Grease the edges of the bell jar to make it airtight.
 The set-up is kept under the sunlight.

Observation:
Drops of water are found on the inner side of the bell jar. The droplets turn blue cobalt chloride
paper pink.
Inference:
Leaves of the potted plant lose water in the form of water vapour. The vapour condenses on the
inner surface of the bell jar.
Precautions:

 Grease the edges of the bell jar to avoid entry of moisture from outside.
 Cover the pot with polythene and tie tightly to avoid evaporation from the soil.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

Experiment to demonstrate stomatal transpiration.

 Experiment 7

Aim: To demonstrate unequal transpiration from the two surfaces of the leaves.
Material required:
A well-watered potted dicot plant, strips of dry cobalt chloride paper, glass slides, clips.
Procedure:

 A well-watered dicot plant is taken.

 Two strips of blue Cobalt chloride paper are taken. (Cobalt chloride paper will be blue in
color when it is dry and become pink when it absorbs moisture.)
 One strip of this dry blue cobalt chloride paper is kept on either surface of a healthy
dorsi-ventral leaf and are covered by glass slides with the help of clips.
 Now the whole experimental setup is kept under bright sunlight.
 Observe closely the changes which occur in cobalt chloride papers placed on both the
surfaces.

Observation:
Within few minutes we observe the cobalt chloride paper kept on the lower or ventral surface of
the leaf turns into deep pink color but the strip of cobalt chloride paper kept at the upper surface
remains unchanged or it takes longer time to change into pale pink color. The reason for this is
more stomata are present on the ventral or lower surface of a dicot leaf than the upper or dorsal
surface. Due to this more water vapor from the ventral surface is released than dorsal surface and
hence cobalt chloride paper kept at the lower surface changes into pink color immediately.
Inference:
More transpiration occurs through the lower surface of the leaves of this plant.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

 Experiment 8

Aim: To demonstrate the rate of transpiration using Ganong’s photometer.

Material required:
Leafy shoot, beaker, water, split cork, Vaseline, Ganong’s photometer and oil.
Procedure:

 The Ganong’s photometer is filled with water to make it free from air spaces.
 Vaseline is applied to the upper opening of the vertical tube meant for holding leafy
shoot.
 A fresh leafy shoot of a herbaceous plant is cut and taken.
 It is fixed in the vertical tube through a split cork.
 The bent capillary tube is dipped in a beaker containing colored water.
 Air bubble is introduced in the capillary tube. This can be done by lifting the bent tube
above the coloured water so that air is sucked in and dipping it again into the water.
 The initial position of the air bubble in the capillary tube is noted down.
 The entire experimental set-up is placed in the sunlight.

Observation:
The air bubble in the capillary tube moves towards the shoot.
Inference:
The leafy shoot lose water through transpiration, which sets up the suction force. This suction
force pulls up water and causes leafy shoot to absorb water from the vertical tube. As a result
water is pulled up from the beaker through the capillary tube. The air bubble also moves along
with the water in the capillary tube. The distance moved by the air bubble can be read on the
capillary tube. The reading denotes the volume of water lost in a given time. The air bubble can
be brought back to initial position by releasing some water from the reservoir.
Precautions:
The entire apparatus should be airtight.
The leafy shoot should be cut obliquely to increase surface for water absorption.
The leafy shoot should be cut under water to prevent air bubble entering the shoot, which will
block the passage of water.
Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

Experiment to measure the rate of water uptake/transpiration by a leafy shoot using Ganong’s
photometer.
 Experiment 9

Aim: To test the given leaf for the presence of starch.

Material required:
Water bath, beaker, test tube, methylated spirit, iodine solution, petridish, dropper, watch glass,
forceps, potted plant with broad leaves, tripod stand and wire gauge.
Procedure:

 A potted plant with broad leaves is taken and kept in the sunlight for five to six hours.
 A leaf is plucked from the experimental plant and is boiled in water for 10 minutes. This
kills the leaf cells.
 The leaf is then boiled in methylated spirit over the water bath till it becomes pale.
Methylated spirit dissolves chlorophyll and turns green. The leaf turns pale and brittle.
 The leaf is then put in hot water to make it soft and permeable.
 The leaf is spread in a petridish and two-three drops of iodine solution is added over it.
 Observe it after 5 minutes.

Observation:
The leaf turns blue-black on adding iodine solution.
Inference:
The leaves of potted plant synthesize glucose during photosynthesis which is stored in the form
of starch. When starch reacts with iodine solution it turns blue-black. If there is no starch present,
the leaf turns brown with the iodine solution.
Precautions:

 Expose plant to at least 5-6 hours of sunlight.

 Boil leaf in methylated spirit till it completely turns pale.
 Wash bleached leaf in hot water thoroughly.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

 Experiment 10

Aim: To show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.

Material required:
Potted plant with broad leaves, light screen, water bath, beaker, test tube, methylated spirit,
iodine solution, petridish, dropper, watch glass, forceps, tripod stand, and wire gauge.
Procedure:

 A potted plant is taken and destarched by keeping it in darkness for two days.
Destarching is done to ensure that starch present in leaves is formed only during the
experiment.
 The light screen is fixed on one of the leaf. A light screen has a lid with the design cut in
the centre. A black paper with design cut in the centre can also be used.
 The set-up is kept in the sunlight for 5-6 hours.
 The experimental leaf is plucked and tested for the presence of starch.

Observation:
The part of the leaf which receives sunlight through the design of the light screen/ black paper
turns blue black while rest of the part covered with the screen turns brown.
Inference:
The part of the leaf covered by the design of the light screen receives sunlight and undergoes
photosynthesis. The starch present in this part react with iodine and turns blue-black. The part
covered with the screen does not receive sunlight and no photosynthesis occurs in this region. As
no starch is formed, it turns brown on adding iodine.
Precautions:

 Test one of the leaves from the destarched plant to check for the absence of starch.
 Expose plant to at least 5-6 hours of sunlight.
 Boil leaf in methylated spirit till it completely turns pale.
 Wash bleached leaf in hot water thoroughly.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

Experiment to show sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.

 Experiment 11

Aim: To show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

Material required:
Potted plant with variegated leaves (coleus), water bath, beaker, test tube, methylated spirit,
iodine solution, petridish, dropper, watch glass, forceps, tripod stand and wire gauge.
Procedure:

 A potted plant with variegated leaves is destarched by keeping it in darkness for two
days.
 The plant is placed in sunlight for few hours.
 A leaf is plucked and its outline is traced. The green and the non-green area are marked
with an outline.
 The experimental leaf is then tested for starch using iodine.

Observation:
The green part of the leaf turns blue-black while the non-green part turns brown.
Inference:
The green part contains chlorophyll and undergoes photosynthesis. It turns blue-black when
iodine is added as it contains starch. The non-green part is without chlorophyll and does not
undergo photosynthesis. It turns brown on adding iodine as no starch is present.
Precautions:

 Test one of the leaves from destarched plant to check for the absence of photosynthesis.
 Mark green and non green area clearly in outline.
 Expose plant to at least 5-6 hours of sunlight.
 Boil leaf in methylated spirit till it completely turns pale.
 Wash bleached leaf in hot water thoroughly.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

 Experiment 12

Aim: To show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

Material required:
Water bath, beaker, test tube, methylated spirit, iodine solution, potassium hydroxide solution,
cork, watch glass, forceps, potted plant with broad leaves, tripod stand, and wire gauge and wide
mouth bottle.
Procedure:

 A potted plant with broad leaves is taken and destarched by keeping in darkness for two
days.
 Small amount of potassium hydroxide is taken in wide moth bottle.
 Apical half of the leaf is inserted in the wide moth bottle through the split cork.
 The set-up is placed in the sunlight for few hours.
 The experimental leaf is plucked and tested for starch using iodine.

Observation:
The apical part of the leaf placed inside the wide mouth bottle turns brown while the other half
outside the bottle turns blue-black.
Inference:
Potassium hydroxide solution in wide mouth bottle absorbs carbon di oxide. Thus apical part of
the leaf cannot undergo photosynthesis. It turns brown with iodine. Other half outside the bottle
receives carbon dioxide and undergoes photosynthesis. It turns blue black with iodine.
Precautions:

 Test one of the leaves from destarched plant to check for the absence of photosynthesis.
 Make entire set-up airtight by applying Vaseline.
 Expose plant to at least 4-5 hours of sunlight.
 Boil leaf in methylated spirit till it completely turns pale.
 Wash bleached leaf in hot water thoroughly.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

 Experiment 13

Aim: To show that oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis.

Material required:
Hydrilla plant, beaker, test tube, short stemmed funnel and water.
Procedure:

 Hydrilla plant is placed in a beaker containing water.

 The plant is covered by inverting a short-stemmed funnel over it.
 A test tube full of water is inverted over the stem of the funnel.
 The set-up is placed in the sunlight for few hours.

Observation:
Bubbles of gas rises in the test tube and collects upwards. Water is displaced downwards. The
test tube is allowed to be filled with the gas. The test tube is then removed and the gas is tested
with the glowing splinter. The glowing splinter burst into flames confirming the presence of
oxygen gas.
Inference:
Hydrilla is an aquatic plant, which carries out photosynthesis. During photosynthesis oxygen is
evolved.
Precautions:

 The stem of the funnel should be below water in the beaker.

 The apparatus should not be disturbed once the process starts.
 Cut ends of the Hydrilla should be facing towards the stem of the funnel.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

 Experiment 14

Aim: To study the structure of Human Heart.

Material required: Chart and model of human heart.
Observation:
The Heart is a critical muscle that pumps blood through three sections of the circulatory system:
pulmonary (lungs and heart), systemic (body systems) and the coronary (vessels that serve
heart). Coronary circulation that is essential to the heart carries blood from the main artery that
comes from the heart.
Heart Structure

1. The Pericardium: This is a unique membrane and lubricates the heart in the pericardial space
to avoid friction.
2. The Heart Wall: The heart wall consists of three layers:Epicardium, Myocardium and
Endocardium

3. Chambers of the Heart: There are four chambers of the heart viz. Left atrium, Right atrium,
Left ventricle and Right ventricle

4. Blood Vessels: The blood vessels are the tubes that deliver blood to all parts of a body. There
are three types of blood vessels: Veins, Arteries and capillaries.

5. Valves: These are the fibrous flaps of tissues that are present in cardiac chambers between the
veins. They ensure unidirectional flow and prevent backflow of blood.

 Atrioventricular valves are present in every ventricle and atrium. The valve between the
ventricle and right atrium is the tricuspid valve, and the one which is found between the
left ventricle and atrium is known as the mitral valve.
 Semilunar valves are present in the large arteries and ventricles. An aortic valve is
present between the aorta and left ventricle, and a pulmonary valve exists between the
pulmonary artery and right ventricle.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

Structure of Human Heart

 Experiment 15

Aim: To study the structure of human brain.

Material required: Chart and model of human brain.
Observation:
Human brain is protected by cranium (brain box). Protective membranes called meninges cover
the brain. Meninges consist of following three layers: Durameter, Arachnoid and Piameter.

The Main Parts of the Brain

A human brain is composed of three main visible parts- Cerebrum, Cerebellum and Medulla
oblongata.

 Cerebrum controls the conscious and unconscious mind, intelligence, memory, reason,
etc.
 Cerebellum maintains the balance of the body.
 Medulla oblongata controls involuntary actions like heartbeat, breathing , peristalsis, etc.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

Parts of human brain

Structure of Human Brain

 Experiment 16

Aim: To the various parts of Human eye.

Material required: Model and chart of human eye.
Observation:
Eye structure

The human eye is the most complicated sense organ in the human body, with a several parts
fixed together form a spherical structure. The structure of a human eye can be broadly classified
into External structure and internal structure.

External structure of eye

The walls of the eyeball is composed of three concentric layers:

 Outer Sclerotic Layer or Sclera

 The Choroid layer
 The innermost Retina

Internal structure of eye

The internal structure of the eye includes the following parts: Lens, Retina, Optic nerve,
Aqueous Humor, Vitreous Humor

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

Internal structure of Human eye.

 Experiment 17

Aim: To study the various structure of Human Ear.

Material required: Model and chart of human ear.
Observation:
Anatomically Human ear mainly consists of 3 parts

1. The Outer Ear consists of the projecting part pinna (also called ‘auricle’) and the passage
auditory canal leading to the ear drum (or tympanum).
2. The Middle Ear contains three tiny bones collectively called ear ossicles- malleus, incus
and stapes or hammer, anvil and stirrup in common terms and an Eustachian tube which
connects the cavity of the middle ear with the throat.
3. The Inner Ear or the membranous labyrinth has two man parts- the cochlea and the
semicircular canals.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)

Structure of human ear.

 Experiment 18

Aim: To identify and locate the adrenal, pancreas, thyroid and pituitary glands in human body.

Material required:
Model and chart of human endocrine glands.
Observation:

The main endocrine glands include :

 Pituitary gland, pineal gland and hypothalamus – head

 Thyroid gland and parathyroid glands – neck and upper chest
 Pancreas and adrenal glands (on top of kidney) – upper abdomen
 Ovaries (female) and testes (male) – pelvis and perineum

Hormones at glance (draw the table on the white sheet):

Endocrine glands Hormones secreted

1. ADRENAL
i. Adrenal Cortex i. Mineralocorticosteroids (aldosterone)
ii. Glucocorticoids (cortisol, corticosterone)
iii. Sex corticoids (adrenal androgens)

ii. Adrenal medulla Adrenalin

2. PANCREAS (Islets of Langerhans)

i. Beta cells Insulin

ii. Alpha cells Glucagon

iii. Delta cells Somatostatin

3. THYROID Thyroxin

4. PITUITARY
i. Anterior pituitary i. Growth Hormone (Somatotropin; GH)
ii. Prolactin
iii. Adreno-corticotropic hormone (ACTH)
iv. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
v. Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH)
vi. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

ii. Posterior pituitary i. Vasopressin (ADH)

ii. Oxytocin
 Experiment 19

Aim: To study the human urinary system.

Material required: Model and chart of human urinary system.
Observation:
Human urinary system consists of the following parts:

 Kidneys. A pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the ribs toward the middle of
the back.

 The ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

 Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen.

 Sphincter muscles. These circular muscles help keep urine from leaking by closing
tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.

 Nerves in the bladder. The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the
bladder.

 Urethra. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body.

 Blood Vessels:
Renal Artery: It carries oxygenated blood with urea from aorta to kidney.
Renal Vein: It carries deoxygenated blood without urea from kidney to inferior vena
cava.

Diagram (to be drawn on white sheet)