SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Focus: Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium

By: Prof. Nelson Garcia
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Focus: Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium
By: Prof. Nelson Garcia

Competencies:
1. Identify the factors affecting effective collision.
2. Determine which factor affects the rate of a given reaction.
3. Apply Le Chatelier’s principle to predict how the equilibrium conditions change when a
system is disturbed.

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

Some chemical reactions can proceed to completion, consuming all the limiting reactants and
converted to products. On the other hand, there are chemical reactions whose limiting reactants are not
fully converted to products but instead the conversion stops before the limiting reactant has been
consumed. The principles and concepts governing this type of reaction are explained by chemical
equilibrium.

How fast a chemical reaction takes place and the factors that affect the speed of reaction are
under the subject of chemical kinetics. The theories of reaction rate are likewise discussed in this course.

A. Chemical Equilibrium

Reactions occurring can be irreversible and reversible. Irreversible reactions occur when the
reactant is converted to a product while reversible reactions occur when the product revert to reactant.

Irreversible reaction is indicated by a single arrow as shown below:

C(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

Reversible reaction is indicated by a pair of arrows between the reactants and the products of the
chemical equation:

N2 (g) + H2 (g)  NH3 (g)

All irreversible reactions proceed to completion, favoring the formation of product. Reversible
reactions do not reach completion but attain a state wherein the rate of the formation of the product is
equal to the rate of the formation of the reactant. This dynamic state is said to have reached equilibrium.
When the reversible reaction reached equilibrium, the concentrations of the reactants and products no
longer change with time, unless disturbed.

A characteristic property describing the system when it reached equilibrium is the equilibrium
constant, Keq, of the system. It is a numerical value expressing the ratio of the products and reactants
raised to their respective coefficients. The concentration of the product and reactants in this expression
indicates equilibrium concentrations.

Consider the general reaction for the conversion of reactant to product, where r and p refers to
the stoichoimetric coefficients of the reactants and products respectively,

rReactant  pProduct, the equilibrium constant is expressed as

The equilibrium constant Keq can also be written as K p to denote that the units of the reactants
and products are those of pressure units.

The equilibrium expression in the formation of ammonia whose unit is mol/L can be written as:

When units are in terms of pressure, the expression is written as:

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Focus: Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium
By: Prof. Nelson Garcia
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In writing equilibrium expression for a particular reaction, only gases and aqueous solutions are
included while solids and liquids are excluded. Consider the following examples and how equilibrium
expression is written:

 CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)

 NiO(s) + CO(g)  Ni(s) + CO2(g)

 Ni(s) + 4CO(g)  Ni(CO)4(g)

LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE

In a reversible reaction, it is possible to shift the formation of the reactants or products by

disturbing the system, that is, to change the direction of the reaction. A French chemist named Henry-
Louis Le Chatelier had observed this phenomenon when a disturbance or stress is applied to a system
which is already at equilibrium, the system reacts in order to relieve the stress. The factors that affect
chemical equilibrium are:

 Changing the concentration of the reactants or products.

When the concentration of the reactant is increased, the direction of the reaction will shift
to the formation of the product. The formation of product is shifted in order to lessen the
concentration of the reactants. Similarly, when the concentration of the product is lessened, the
direction of the reaction will shift to the formation of the product. The system will react in a way to
attain equilibrium by forming the product that was removed. In summary, if the reaction system at
equilibrium is disturbed due to changes in the concentration of either the reactants or the
products, the system will have to compensate for the disturbances applied by shifting the
direction of the reaction.

Consider the reaction of hydrogen sulfide gas with oxygen gas whose product is solid
sulfur and water in the form of vapor.

2H2S(g) + O2(g)  2S(s) + 2H2O(g)

The addition of solids does not affect the direction of the reaction provided the total volume of the
system does not change. However, the addition of the hydrogen sulfide gas will proceed to the
right and will increase the amount of solid.

The addition or removal of water or other liquids alters the direction of the reaction. In
esterification reaction, removing the water results to the formation of the product.

CH3OH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)  CH3COOCH3(aq) + H2O(l)

 Changing the pressure: increasing the pressure results to lesser number of moles.

In the formation of ammonia, increasing the pressure favors the formation of the product.
There are only two (2) moles of gaseous product in the said reaction while there are a total of four
(4) moles of gaseous reactants.

There is no effect of changing the pressure for a reaction whose total number of moles of
both reactants and products are the same. An example is the formation of hydrogen iodide gas
from the reaction of hydrogen gas and iodine gas.

H2 (g) + I2 (g)  2HI (g)

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 Change in temperature.

Exothermic reactions release heat; therefore the heat produced is part of the product.
Similarly for endothermic reactions that absorb heat, the heat in this reaction is part of the
reactant. For an exothermic reaction, increasing the temperature will direct the reaction towards
the formation of reactants (reverse direction) and the direction for an endothermic reaction when
heat is applied will favor the formation of the product (forward direction).

Adding substances that are not included or part of the reaction system will have no effect
on the direction of the reaction as long as the added substances do not affect the pressure of the
system and the substance does not react with any of the reactants or products. The addition of
catalyst has no effect on the system since the directions of both reactions are altered. The
catalyst only hastens the attainment of equilibrium.

B. CHEMICAL KINETICS

Chemical kinetics deals with the changes in the properties of chemical system in time. It is
concerned with how fast or how slow a chemical reaction takes place. When the reaction occurs entirely
in a single phase, it is said to be homogeneous and those reactions that occur partly or entirely at an
interface between phases is said to be heterogeneous.

The substance that can alter the rate of reaction is called a catalyst. The catalyst participates in
the chemical reaction but is not consumed in the process; it is regenerated after the reaction has come to
completion.

Chemical reaction either occurs as a single step or as a series of individual steps. The steps in a
chemical reaction are described in terms of molecularity. Molecularity indicates how many molecules or
chemical species participate in the reaction. When one molecule is consumed, it is said to be
unimolecular and bimolecular if there are two molecules or species that interact.

An example of reaction that occur as a single step is the reaction

ClNO2 (g) + NO (g)  NO2 (g) + ClNO (g)

The reaction for the decomposition of N2O5 to NO2 and NO3 occurs in a three (3) step
mechanism. The molecularity of the reaction for the decomposition is unimolecular for the first step and
both bimolecular for the second and third step.

First step: unimolecular N2O5  NO2 + NO3

Second step: bimolecular NO2 + NO3 → NO2 + NO + O2

Third step: bimolecular NO + NO3 → 2NO2

The rate of reaction of a particular chemical species is the rate of change of concentration of
reactants or product with time. The rate of reaction is influenced by the following factors:

 Nature of the reactants

Gold is not susceptible to oxidation whereas iron is very much affected by air. It is the
very nature of the reactant that determines whether it will be reactive regardless of
changes in its size or state.

 Particle size
Altering the size of the reactant exposes more of its surface area for further reaction. A
block of wood will take a longer time to be fully burned but if the block of wood is
chopped to smaller pieces, it will burn easily.

 Concentration of the reactants

In the hydrogen displacement reaction for an acid, a more concentrated acid will exhibit
a rapid bubbling reaction as compared to a very dilute acid.

 Temperature
As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the reactants increases resulting to
collisions that highly results to reaction. In general, a 10 o rise in temperature doubles
the reaction rate.

 Catalysts
The catalyst interacts with the reactants to provide an alternate path for the reactions to
occur resulting to faster reaction.

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Focus: Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium
By: Prof. Nelson Garcia
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A chemical reaction can be exothermic or endothermic. The figures below show the reaction
diagram for exothermic reactions and endothermic reactions respectively. For exothermic reaction, the
energy content of the product is less than the reactant; exothermic reactions release heat. For an
endothermic reaction, the energy content of the product is greater than its reactant. This is because
endothermic reactions absorb energy.

Figure taken from: www.kentchemistry.com/.../PEDiagrams.htm

The activation energy is the minimum energy needed by the reactants to initiate the reaction.
The activation energy can also be viewed as a barrier that the reactants need to overcome to become a
product. The activated complex, also known as the transition state, is the intermediate structure of a
molecule – structure that is between that of the starting molecule and of its product. The energy for the
activated complex is higher than the energy for both the reactants and products. The catalyst is able to
speed up reactions due to its ability to provide an alternate path for the reaction to occur. The alternate
path provides lower activation energy, allowing more of the reactant molecules to react.

Two (2) theories that explain how reaction rates are affected by concentration and temperature
are the collision theory and the activated complex or transition state theory.

 Collision Theory

Collision between reactant molecules must occur for reaction to occur. This explains
how concentrations affect reaction rate; more reactant molecules are present at high
concentrations and there is a bigger chance for these to collide with one another.

Similarly, increasing the temperature also increases the kinetic energy of the molecule,
leading to faster moving molecules and in turn leads to harder collision.

 Activated Complex Theory

Collisions among gases occur and yet it is possible that no reaction takes place. The
activated complex theory explains that the maximum energy resulting from such
collision is capable of producing the product once an intermediate species is formed.
The intermediate species is termed as activated complex. At this state, the molecule is
between the process of breaking the old bonds and at the same time forming new
bonds.

The formation of the activated complex is the result not only due to the collisions
between molecules possessing high energy, but the collision must also be effective –
the orientation of the colliding molecules must be correct as well.

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Focus: Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium
By: Prof. Nelson Garcia
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The empirical relationship that describes the observed rate of reaction in terms of the
concentration of the chemical species in the over-all order reaction is the rate law or rate equation. The
rate of reaction is proportional to the concentration of the reactants raised to a certain power, termed as
order. The order of the reaction is determined by experiment and is not related to the coefficient of the
balanced chemical equation. Consider the decomposition of substance A to substance X; 2A → X 2.

If the reaction is first order, the rate law is written as rA = -k [A]

While for a second order reaction, the rate law is written as rA = -k [A]2

For a zero order reaction, the rate law is simply equal to k, rA = -k

The negative sign denotes the disappearance of substance A. The reaction rate constant k, is a
property of the reacting system; k links the concentration of all the involved species in the reaction.

For the reaction 2A + B + C → D + E

If the order of reaction with A, B and C are first, second and zero order respectively, the rate law is written
as rA = -k[A][B]2 . The over-all order of the reaction is simply the sum of the order of the reactants and in
this case, the over-all order is three (3).

Half-life and Equation for Order of Reaction

The half-life (t1/2) of a reaction refers to the time it takes for the concentration to reach half its
initial value. The half-life is a characteristic of a given order of reaction and it is expressed in units of
time.

From the rate law, the rate constant, the reaction rate and the concentration of the reactants at
some particular time can be determined. The equation for a given order of reaction relating changes in
concentration with time and its half-life is summarized below:

Order Equation Half-life

First

Second

Zero

Legend:
[A]initial = initial concentration of the reactant, moles per liter (M)
[A]final = final concentration of the reactant, moles per liter (M)
t = time
(t1/2) = half-life
k refers to the reaction rate constant

The effect of temperature on the reaction rate constant was given by Arrhenius. It relates the
reaction rate constant at a particular temperature with a new reaction rate constant at a different
temperature. The equation is

Legend:
k1 = reaction rate constant for temperature T1.
k2= reaction rate constant for temperature T2.
T1. =initial temperature
T2 =new temperature
Ea = activation energy
R = universal gas constant

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Focus: Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium
By: Prof. Nelson Garcia
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PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

1. The values for the activation energy of the given reactions are given in the table below. Which
among the given reaction will not require a catalyst?

Reaction Activation energy (kJ/mol)

2A → X 1.8 x 107
X2 → 2Y 42.0 x 103
Q → M 4.0 x 105
2X → M 10.0 x 104

a. Q → M c. X2 → 2Y
b. 2A → X d. 2X → M

2. Which among the following factors have a profound effect on the reaction rate constant?
a. Concentration c. Temperature
b. Pressure d. Volume

3 In the synthesis of ammonia, which of the following will increase the formation of product?

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)  2NH3 (g) ΔHo = - 92kJ/mol

a. Add the catalyst c. Increase the pressure

b. Heat the system d. Decrease the pressure

4. Which among the following statement is correct for an endothermic reaction?

a. The rate of reaction increases with time.
b. The rate of reaction decreases with time.
c. The energy content of the reactant is less than the product.
d. The energy content of the reactant is greater than the product.

5. What relationship is exhibited by the rate of reaction with the concentration of the reactants?
a. Direct proportionality.
b. Inversely proportionality.
c. None, it depends on the nature of the reactants.
d. None, it depends on the temperature of the system.

6. In the given reaction for the production of sulfuric acid by the contact process, which reaction is
affected by temperature?
a. S(g)+ O2 (g)  SO2(g) c. SO3(g) + 3H2O(l)  H2SO4 (i)
b. SO2(g) + O2(g)  SO3(g) d. H2SO4 SO3(l) + 3H2O(l)  H2SO4 (i)

7. The values for the molecular speed of a given molecule are given in the table below. Which
among the given molecule will most likely to form a product when collision occur?

Molecule Speed (m/s)

A 3.0 x 105
Q 2.0 x 106
M 4.0 x 107
X 10.0 x 105

a. Molecules A and Q c. Molecules X and M

b. Molecules Q and M d. Molecules A and X

8. What is the rate law expression for a zero order reaction whose initial concentration is maximum?
a. Rate law is equal to zero.
b. Rate law is equal to the reaction rate constant.
c. Rate law is less than the reaction rate constant.
d. Rate law is greater than the reaction rate constant.

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9. What does a value of Keq = 100 imply for a certain reversible reaction?
a. The reaction is exothermic. c. There are more products formed.
b. The reaction is endothermic. d. There are more reactants formed.

10. What statement exemplifies the activated complex theory?

a. Reacting molecules should first be excited.
b. Collision is a prerequisite for the formation of product.
c. The existence of an intermediate species forms the product.
d. The reacting molecules should possess the required energy.

11. Given the rate constant of a particular reaction, which among the following will need to be heated
to speed up the rate of reaction?

Reaction Rate constant (M/s)

2A → X 3.85 x 10-5
X2 → 2Y 8.25 x 10-2
Q → M 0.85 x 10-3
2X → M 8.50 x 10-4

a. Q → M c. 2X → M
b. 2A → X d. X2 → 2Y

12. Which of the following statement is correct about chemical equilibrium?

a. Initial concentration affects the equilibrium constant.
b. The rates of forward and reverse reactions are the same.
c. Final concentration of reactants and products are equal.
d. The pressure of the system no longer changes with time.

13. In a displacement reaction of the hydrogen by a metal, which among the following concentration
of acid will give a faster reaction?
a. 1M c. 6M
b. 3M d. 12M

14. Which among the following are not included when writing equilibrium expression?
a. Aqueous solution c. Solids and liquids
b. Liquids and gases d. Solids and gases

15. What is the equilibrium expression for the given reaction?

SrCO3 (g)  SrO (s) + CO2 (g)

a. K = [CO2] / [SrCO3] c. K = {[SrO] + [CO2]} / [SrCO3]

b. K = [SrO][CO2] / [SrCO3] d. K = [SrCO3] / {[SrO] + [CO2]}

16 Consider the reaction 2A (g)  X2 (g) whose equilibrium concentrations are as follows: [A] = 0.1M
and [X2] = 0.8M. What is the equilibrium constant?
a. 0.125 c. 8
b. 0.156 d. 80

17. Which of the following processes exhibit equilibrium?

a. The oxidation of iron forming rust.
b. Dissolution of sugar in 100mL water.
c. Dissolution of sugar in 100mL kerosene.
d. Evaporation and condensation of water in closed vessel.

18. A certain reaction is carried out at constant pressure. It was found out that the reaction is
reversible and endothermic. Which of the following will increase the yield of the product?
a. Increasing the pressure. c. Increasing the temperature.
b. Decreasing the pressure. d. Decreasing the temperature.

19. In general, the rate of reaction increases as the temperature increases. Which of the following
scenario exemplify the given statement?
a. The rusting of iron in winter. c. The spoiling of food during summer.
b. The evaporation of water at 20oC. d. The condensation of water at 100oC.

20. Which of the given statement is correct about the Arrhenius equation for a given reaction?
a. The activation energy increases as temperature increases.
b. The reaction rate constant changes as the slope increases.
c. The reaction rate constant changes as temperature increases.
d. The slope of a reaction will change when the temperature is changed.

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21. The rusting of iron can be prevented by adding a small amount of chromium. Which of the
following statement gives a plausible explanation?
a. The nature of the metal is altered.
b. The melting point of the metal is altered.
c. The particle size of the metal decreased.
d. The chromium serves as catalyst to prevent the corrosion.

22. Reactant A has an initial concentration of 5M. After three (3) hours, its concentration was reduced
to 2.5M. In another experiment, the concentration of reactant A was increased to 20M and after
three (3) hours, the concentration was found to be 10M. What is the order of the reaction?
a. Zero order c. Second order
b. First order d. The data given is incomplete.

23. Consider the reaction A(aq)  X(aq). The color of A is red while that of X is blue. At equilibrium,
the resulting color of the solution is orange. What will be the color of the solution if an
appreciable amount of X is added?
a. Red c. Orange
b. Blue d. No color change is observed.

24. What happens to the half-life of a first order reaction when the initial concentration is increased?
a. The half-life increases. c. There is no change in its half-life.
b. The half-life decreases. d. It depends on the reacting system.

25. A set of data was obtained from a given reaction and was plotted on a graph. The Y-axis
represents the concentration of the reactant whereas the X-axis represents time. If a negative
slope is produced from the graph, what is the order of the reaction?
a. Zero order. c. Second order.
b. First order. d. Cannot be determined.

PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

1. The values for the molecular speed of a given molecule are given in the table below. When
collisions between these molecules occur, which among the given molecule will need a catalyst in
order to form a product?

Molecule Speed (m/s)

Y 3.0 x 104
Q 2.0 x 105
A 4.0 x 106
X 10.0 x 105

a. Molecules Y and Q c. Molecules Y and A

b. Molecules A and Q d. Molecules Q and X

2. The half-life of A is 10hours and that of B is 20hours. Which statement is CORRECT?

a. Mass of A = Mass of B after 30hours c. A decays faster than B
b. Mass of A = Mass of B after 600hours d. B decays faster than A

3. Which among the given reaction is NOT reversible?

a. Reaction of N2 with H2 forming NH3. c. Reaction of SO3 with O2 forming SO3.
b. Reaction of NO with O2 forming NO2. d. Reaction of iron with O2 forming Fe2O3.

4. Which among the following is needed by reacting molecules to overcome in order for products to
be formed?
a. Kinetic energy c. Activation energy
b. Potential energy d. Heats of reaction mixtures

5. Consider two (2) blocks of wood having the same mass and volume. One was chopped to smaller
sizes while the other was not chopped. Which of the following statement CORRECTLY describes
why the chopped wood burns faster?
a. The density of the chopped wood decreased.
b. The density of the unchopped wood increased.
c. The chopped wood has more surface area exposed than the unchopped wood.
d. The unchopped wood has more surface area exposed than the chopped wood.

6. What is the equilibrium expression for the given reaction?

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O3 (g)  O2 (g)

a. K = [O3]2 [O2]3 c. K = 2[O3] 3[O2]

b. K = [O2]3 / [O3]2 d. K = 2[O3] + 3[O2]

7. For a chemical reaction, which conditions will result to the formation of product?
a. Low kinetic energy and more collision among molecules.
b. High kinetic energy and more collision among molecules.
c. Low kinetic energy and proper orientation among molecules.
d. High kinetic energy and proper orientation among molecules.

8. What factor explains the evidence of chemical reaction when magnesium ribbon reacts with 1M
HCl whereas no evidence of chemical reaction can be seen when copper wire is reacted with
3MHCl?
a. The nature of the reactant. c. The particle size of the reactant.
b. The nature of the acid used. d. The concentration of the acid used.

9. The reaction 2X(g)  Q2(g) was found to be endothermic. What happens when the reaction is
heated?
a. There will be more reactants formed. c. The reaction will no longer continue.
b. There will be more products formed. d. The reaction will come to completion.

10. For the given reaction A(g) + 2B(g) → 2C(g) + D(g)

The order of reaction for A and B are second and first order respectively. What is the rate law
and over-all order of the reaction?

a. r = -k [A][B]2; over-all third order c. r = -k [A][B]2; over-all second order

b. r = -k [A]2[B]; over-all third order d. r = -k [A]2[B] ; over-all second order

11. The table below shows the reversible reaction given its K eq. What is the arrangement as to
increasing products formation?

Reaction Keq
A. 2X(g)  Q2(g) 6.3 x 10-5
B. M2(g)  2G(g) 0.52 x 10-2
C. X(g) + Y(g)  M(g) 4.8 x 10-4
D. G2(g)  M(g) + X2(g) 7.7 x 10-5

a. B, C, A, D c. D, A, B, C
b. A, D, C, B d. B, C, D, A

12. For the given reaction, what changes will favor the formation of the reactant?

HBr (g))  H2 (g) + Br2 (g)

a. Increasing the pressure. c. Decreasing the amount of the reactants.

b. Decreasing the volume. d. Decreasing the amount of the products.

13. The enthalpy change in an exothermic reaction is -45kJ and its activation energy is 155kJ. What
will be the activation energy if the reaction was reversed?
a. 45 kJ c. +110 kJ
b. -155 kJ d. +200 kJ

14. The reaction of A with Y proceeds only when the temperature is raised. The addition of
substance X promotes the reaction even at room temperature. Which of the following statement
describes the effect of substance X?
a. Substance X increased the enthalpy change of the reaction.
b. Substance X increased the activation energy of the reaction.
c. Substance X decreased the enthalpy change of the reaction.
d. Substance X decreased the activation energy of the reaction.

15. Which of the following reaction is NOT affected by changes in pressure?

a. O3(g)  O2(g) c. N2(g) + O2(g)  NO(g)
b. H2O(g)  H2O(l) d. CO(g) + O2(g)  CO2(g)

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16 Consider the reaction X(aq) + Y(aq)  Z(s) + Q(aq) whose equilibrium concentrations are
as follows: [X] = 0.1M, [Y] = 0.5M, Z = 0.5g and [Q] = 0.2M. What is the equilibrium constant of
the given reaction?
a. 0.25 c. 2.00
b. 0.50 d. 4.00

17. Which of the following reactions exhibit equilibrium?

a. Combustion of methane c. Reaction of acids and bases.
b. Dissolution of water and salt. d. Reaction of alcohol and acid.

18. How will the yield of product increase for an exothermic and reversible reaction?
a. Add a catalyst. c. Cool the system.
b. Heat the system. d. Alter the pressure.

19. Which of the following statement best explain why increasing the concentration of the reactants
increases the rate of the reaction?
a. The probability of collision increases.
b. There is the presence of domino effect.
c. There is a change in the activation energy.
d. The reactants are experiencing an increase in pressure.

20. Which among the given processes/reactions produce a more stable product?
a. Combustion of alcohol. c. Equilibrium reactions.
b. Evaporation of water. d. Endothermic reactions.

21. One of the safety concerns in a starch milling industries is the possibility of explosion. What
factors contribute to this observed danger?
a. Particle size and temperature.
b. Particle size and nature of the reactants.
c. Temperature and presence of dusts as catalysts.
d. Nature of the reactants and presence of dusts as catalysts.

22. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen gas can be hastened by the
addition of catalyst. Which of the following observation describes the effect when a catalyst is
added to the hydrogen peroxide?
a. The addition of iron fillings darkened the solution.
b. The addition of sodium chloride crystals form precipitate.
c. The addition of calcium carbonate made the solution cloudy.
d. The addition of manganese (IV) oxide produced lots of bubbles.

23. Consider the reaction X2(aq)  2Y(aq). The color of X2 is yellow at acidic solution while that of
Y is blue at basic solution. What color is observed when Y is added to the solution at
equilibrium?
a. Blue c. It depends on the pH.
b. Yellow d. No change is observed.

24. The half-life of a certain reaction, second order is 2hours. What is observed if the initial
concentration of the reaction was increased?
a. The half-life will decrease.
b. The half-life will increase.
c. The half-life does not change.
d. The reaction will come to completion immediately.

25. A set of data was obtained from a given reaction and was plotted on a graph. The Y-axis
represents the concentration of the reactant in a log scale whereas the X-axis represents time.
Which of the following statement best describe the observation when the initial concentration was
changed?
a. The reaction order is first order and the half-life increases.
b. The reaction order is first order and the half-life decreases.
c. The reaction order is first order and there is no change in half-life.
d. There is no change in half-life whether the reaction order is first or second.

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