5,PIP!

NG HANDBOOK
Reprinted from HYDROCARBON PROCESSTNG . Gulf Publishing Company . 01968 . $1 .25
PIPING HANDBOOK
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.
STRESS ANALYSIS 4
A Simplified Computer Program For Pipe Expansion Loop Design 5
Piping Design Method Beats Computer 10
Symmetrical Piping Arrangement Solves Two-Phase
Flow Distribution Problems 20
LAYOUT 24
Plant Layout And Piping Design For Minimum Cost Systems 25
What lnformation ls Essential For Good Piping Design 34
How To Design Yard Piping . . 39
Locate Tower Nozzles Quickly 49
Piping Of Pressure Relieving Devices 59
MATERIALS 66
U.S. vs British And European Piping Specifications 67
Which Material For Process Plant Piping? 73
EXPANSION 80
Find Best Pipe Expansion Loop Quickly 81
Expansion Joints: How To Select And Maintain Them 88
Spring Pipe Hanger Design Simplified 94
Piping Tierod Design Made Simple 96
THERMOWELLS 100
Procedures For The Piping Designer 101
Soecifications ., . .
lnstallation And Specifications . . 105
Selection Of Thermowell lnsertion Lengths 111
PRESSURE DROP AND VIBRATION 120
Simplified Utility Loop Balancing . . 121
Piping Design Stops Pulsation Flow 125
Find Line Pressure Drop By Nomograph 131
New Approach To Pipe Reactions 133
STEAM TRACING . 138
New Guide To Steam Tracing Design . .139

3
SS ANALYSIS
A Simplified Compufer Program for
Pipe Expansion Loop Design
Using a single input card with
terms and measurements common to
any drafting room, computer
computation and analysis has
5:1 time advantage over manual
methods
W. W. Shul!, and G. N. Bogel, Jr.
The Dow Chemical Co.. Ilouston
A conputnn pRoGRAM has been written that will de-
sign piping expansion loops with less cost and with less
elapsed time than ,existing rnanual methods. It requires a
single input card containing measurements common to
any drafting room.
Mqnuol l,lethod. A previous articlel recornurends a
manual method for piping loop design except for critical
lines (those with high or low operating temperatures and
pressures andfor force sensitive connected equipment)
and except for piping which conveys hazardous or flam-
nrable materials. These exclusions eliminate application
of the author's semi-graphical methodl from most of the
piping in a petrochemical plant and require that the pip-
ing designer both understand and have access to process
data. Even if process data were available, the hours re-
quired to segregate the hazardous senice and critical
piping for solution by a stress consultant or specialist and
the queue hours for the attention of the stress consultant
or specialist are additional factors which the authors
omitted.
The authors' make the claim that, for non-excluded
piping, their graphical approximations are obtained in a
fraction of the time it takes to prepare the data for com-
puter analysis. Readers will have to guess at the engineer-
ing and clock times used by the authors in arriving at
their conclusions. In our trial runs, assembling of data
took the same time and computation and analysis of re-
sults from computer and hand calculations had a five to
one time advantage in favor of the computer, besides hav-
ing the ability to better understand the effect of the vari-
ous alternates. It is probable that the computer programs
available to the authorst did have a complicated input for
solution to simple problems; and considering only over-all
time lapse, their claim is often true for an answer to any
one single problem which happens to fit a manual method
which the designer uses with sufficient frequency to main-
tain his speed and accuracy.
Effective use of computer programs also requires user
familiarity with their input requirements and their output
capability. This learning eflort is less than the eflort of
learning any equivalent manual method. Moreover. one
rnan can examine pipe layouts for a plant, input the loops
on a computer program input form, and get answers for
one to several hundred problems within 24 hours, and
in some offices within the hour. Well planned piping de-
sign jobs seldom need answers faster than 24 hours; but,
under planned conditions, the computer results can be
rnade available within minutes.
Resislonce ?o Computer Use. It has been our experi-
ence that people who resist using the computer as a tool
for the routine as well as the difficult tasks in design may
be described in two groups. The first group thinks that
computer answers are either beyond question or are not
subject to parametric study of input variables or modifi-
cation based on engineering judgment. This group has
5
A SIMPLIFIED COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR .. .

S AND B ENGINEERTNG SEPVICES PIPE LOOP OESIGN PROCRAX

{AINLINE PIPE LOOP DESIO -_sINGLE PLANE'2 TO 6 PIPE IEXAERS
rITH I TO 5 ELAOiS OR BENOS OF SAXE BENO RADIUS
IRITTEN BY T.I.SHULL ANO G.N.AOGEL' HOUSTON TEIASI ilAY T967'
PRL]GRA{ USFS FORNULAS ANO T BLES PPES€ilTEO IN TIPIPING OESIGN AND 105
ENGINEERINGI' THE GRINNELL COXPANYIINC't PFOVTO€NCEI RHOOE ISLANDT
usA. SECOND EOtTION. 196f,.
ALL SUBS FILOI PROCEOUPE AS DETAIL€O ON PAGES 52t5f OF CRINNELL too
INPUT STAFTING IITH NY XEXBER AND €NDING IITH ANY f,EiAER' lor
EACH XEXAEF HAS T'O JOINIS (TELD€O) IHICH ARE ANALYZED FOR to!
c lo:l
IHE LO.EST ANO HIGHESI JOINI NUXBERS ARE CONSIDEREO IO tsE THE to2z
LOCATION OF IHE TNNER{OST PAIR OF GUIDES OR THE LOCAION OF IOal
ANCHORS IF IHE lNPUT LENCIH TOUISIDE OF GUIOES' I 5 ZEKO. I O2a
iHE EXCEPTTON IO THIS RULE TS FOR TIO XETBEF ISINGLE ELBOI' I 0?5
JOINIS FOR IBICH THE PROGRAI TILL INCREIENT ONE f,EMBERS LENCTH
TO PROVIOE THE NECESSARY FLEXTBILTTY' lo2,
t 0t
c.rf,xoN o(6) t6(6).vl 6),x( r2 );Y( r2l.xL( r2r,r( l2l,rxl l2ltrY(12,,R(12)
r.s( r2t.Rxt t2),sT( t2), AAI 20 )
COTXON SIPTPI. TLA IXKTSAETAI XBARtYtsAR! XLP!YLPTPXYTP I XTPI Yt IMAX ICT'
IFX! FY t CONSIX!CONSIYTOA'THX !FST{AXTDEMT ILEN!ALTsI I O7
COHXON TLNCTXOFY.OLNG l06
coxf, oN tEx(5, t TRY( 5),BXl 5l.AY( 5),OXl 5l rAST (5' rBR'srtAXrKBD
COIXON KPFI TKSTI(FNDIKFSI!KLOOPt J!K'N.KXAi 23
OOUBLE PRECISION PIPEIO I lo
t.JI = OST TO.ENTROIO X OIRECTION 2a
Y(J) = DST to CENTROID Y DIRECTIoN 26 ttt
II IJI: LFNGIB OF SEGXENI
R(J) = X DIST FROY CENTFOIO
5(J) = Y OISI FROB CENTROIO
PXY = PROO OF INIER I A at2
PIX = COU OF IdTERIA ABOUI X 3t ttJ
PtY = xof, oF INIERIA ARoUT Y J2
CT = ExPANSION AT TEHP ll tr5
XLGTYLG = t ANO Y DIST FND FOINT TO END POINT C
PI = P1PE IOXENI OF TNTERIA
Sf,P = PIPF SECT TON XODULUS

CENTROIO OF STFAIGHT LtNE IN PLANE OF PROJECTION - COLN fa I l6

A = LENGTH B= x OR Y DISI EoN r c
COLNlarB, = A*A
( CENIRDTO OF BEND XK=FLEx.FACT'R=RADIUS OF aEND!X=DI5T TO AXISE0NS
c coaNo(xKrRrxt= t.57axxrx aR rlt
C PROD. OF INIEFIA LINE PARALLEL TO AN AXIS EON6 XL=LENGTH
C PLNXY(xL!x.Yr= xL t r: Y ]L
< PROO OF INTENIA AEND NEG IHEN AXIS I RADIAL OR ARC 32
( PENON(xKrR.x!Yl= xK +.lf7rFaRrR. xKI r.57 +R +x' Y I to a,
C PROD OF INTERIA EEND POS iHEN AXIS RADTAL AND AFC
( pBNOp(XK!R,r,y)= XXr.r37*R+R*R '
+ iKal.57tR*XrY 4a t20
C MOMENI OF INTERIA ST L'NE tN PLANE OF PROJ PARALLEL TO AXIS X 121
( PLMILNIxLTY) = XL aY:Y
C MOU OF INI SI LTNE PERPENDICULAR TO AXTS Y 5l tla
( ppxtLN(iL,xl = iL*xllxL/I2.. XL+X1X 52
C IDB OF tNT BEND FROM AItS Y
< p!taN (xxrRrxt = xK +to.r49aRrR+Rl. l.s7! xK tR tx.x t22
C PIPE SECIION NOOULUs DA = ACTUAL OTA. THK= THICXNESS IALL 55
s!( oA. rHKr sxx )=0. 25loarsMx*( DA+oa_2.4( DA.THK T+2.a(rHK.THKl )
. LAMBAOA XLAX F = RADIUS OF PIPE AEND 57 c
iL^{l THK. R. DA)=THK+R/l ( cA_rHK I *(DA-THxl +.2s) 5A
C FLFX. FA'TDA XLA = LAMNADA l4i
FF ( xL A l= I .65/ xL A
C STRESS INIENSIFICAIION FACTORT AETAS' FOF IELDED ELBOIS OR BENDS'
EEIAs( xLA l=0. 9/xLA*t O. 6667
C OIPE CROSS 5ECTION!L ICTAL AR-A
PAREAI DATIH('=3. I4 I 6IIHK:(OA_TBK I
c plpE ioH oF lNr 65
PMINTI OA'THK I=3. L 4I6*I DA-IHK)'+O3TIHK/4.
C XBAR DISTANCE
C D l5 DISI v= vAFIAELE B=tsEND RAOIUS
C XPRI--A NON-ZEEN ENIPY IN CDL 7A PRINTS VALUES TN CO{{ON
C LPRT--NON-ZERO ENIRY IN CI]L. 79 SHOYS LAST OF PIPE LODP5 USING
C HEADER CAFD ANO PR'GRAil TILL EXPECT A NEt HEAOER CARD'
C NPPI_-PFINIS STRESS A5 PtOF IEilBER LENGTH IS VARIED FOR OESIGN
C PROALEqS. ENIER IN COL. AO DIGIT 1 FOP STNESS EACB.5 FEFIT
C DIGIT 2 FOR STRE5S EACH I. FEEII
C DIGTT 3 FOR SIREsS EACH I.5 FEEI! ETC'
C 6UIOE INOICAIES OI5IAN'E IN X OR Y DIRECTION OUISIDE THE SECIION A AO tro
C OEFINED FY Ol-D6 . o=x l=Y DIHECTIoNS x=Ol 'D3'D5
C T€5I DAIA FROM GFINNELL SIJCOlO EDITION PAGE 52. 1CT FROM PAGE 9 A 72
c A6 F5.O Fs.O Fs.O F5.O Fs.O Fs.O F5.O F5.O F5.O F5.O F5.O rtF4.IIF4-IlF4. JI1
C tD DIA TH( ALiST CT tsND D DT D2 03 D5 06 GUIOEVARYLVARYA PRT
cP.52R1O.75.50 17675 996.50, {0. 24. 12. 14.
cP.5201o.75.50 17675 996.50.40. lO. 12. A. 2 lO.l4oOO
CP.52RGRINNELL ANsiER5: ANCHoRS x=2795rY:lA67LB5. END HOMFNIS=24f64'-23970 FT-LB
C FOR PROBLE{ P.52: MAi.HE'TD STRESS EET. JOINI 2 3 = 9O3OPS] t IOA'=29672
'
C {ANUAL-GRAPHICAL: 6REATESI STRAIcHT PtPE tS AI JOINI 2 = a7l4 Pst
c INEPIIA oF PIPE=212. !BAR=3a.63!YBAR=9.6oFT.
C sEcTloN MOOULUS=39.43 lxY=lO4s7. lx=941s. lY=21i69'

C RESULTS: XAX.BEND STRESS RET.JOINTS 2 A 3 = 9IA2 PSI

C 'OHPUTER
FOR PAOBLEM P.52: GREATEST JOINI SIREsS IS AT JOTNT 2 = A723 PSI
c INERTIA OF PIPE=2\?. XBAR=34.62'YBAR=9.59 Fr.
C sEaTloN HoDULUS=19.43 tXY=I0446. lX=9395. lY=2135'.
c
(ONT RL:2
rRITE (f,r r r5) 5J
lor RE-aD (rtl29, aA

to2 icITE (r, r30l NPACETAA

DO tOr J=rt 132

oo tor J=r53r2ll
lOa AlJl=0.0
READ I tr lf I I PIPEIO,DA!IHKTALIST.CT tAFAOtD!kFSr!FSTMAx.<SNDtsNDilAx
I TKDIRI OLNGT(PRIILPRTI NPRT
YFIIE (3! 1f2 I
IRITE (f, I IfJ} PIPEIDIOA'THXTALISTTCTTAFAOTDTKFSI'FSITAXtXSND.

l-Pipe expansion loop program. Note: Subroutines not included in the program listing solve step-by-step
Fig.
thE manual method illustrated in Lit. Cited 2, pages 52 and 53, using the functions duplicated as comment state-
ments in the mainline program listing. The comment statements reveal all the basic thought and method.

little knowledge of the difficulty of progran'ring a com- estimate the difficulty of communication r.vith the
puter to satisfy every possible need or whim of the user. computer. Both groups deter the economical emplo1'msn1
Its members reject the computer as a tool when the pro- of computers and thus restrain the development of the
gram's logic requires flexibility in the user's notion of engineering sciences from the precomputer art of apply-
input and output content. ing empirical relationships to approximate solutions for
The second group has some experience rvith either pro- -nvhich exact theoretical solutions exist. Fortunateln mem-
graming or using the computer; yet, its members over- bership in either of these groups need not be perrnanent!

6
 Pf,OBLE X I D El,lTlF lC AT lOil
T .?a,aat+.cnt, ,tF€ ,1/tC, ,4 , t , , t
LOOP ACTITAL PIPE ALLOY- c Itotu3 FIBST sE00ilD TAIND FOUNil FIFTII strTlt ltax. lBu IET
lDEl'lTlFlCA- 0wsl0E rlU_ IELE FACIOff OF PIPE LOOP r.ooP LOP LOOP LUn LooP L I ax- L.
ilot sTncss AT BEilD SEEIETT DE
PIPE
(PSt, OEB. E ltnurEJ, IETGTII LEUOTN LEXGrll IErt6TE LEXGTH LEI'IGIH .= BF
DITUETER Ir[cr{Esl
lrilcHEsl llIERs-01 IFEET} IFEETI ITEEI) (FEETI (FEEN IFEEN i= /0|'lD
iIJIDE
Er
a-
*E
t
2 fr 2 D ,t t7 !i ara P al g, at t 5 o tt o A e
I 6 7 1

TYPICAL LOOP LAYOUT

START AT ANY MEMBER,AND STOP
AT ANY MEMBER TO DEFINE LOOP
GEOMETRY - EETWEEN ANCHORS
OR GUIOES A + C = ENTRY IN NET LENGTH

Fig. 2-lnput card with data for problem shown on Fig. 5.

The Progrom. A computer Program in FORTRAN IV not less than the sum of bend radii (expressed in feet)
was written (Fig. 1), just to see if it could be done, to incorporated in the particular member.
solve expansion Ioop design based on a published manual o The number of a member whose length the program
method.2 The program does not require manual inter- allel
the
'-'i1" ex-
allow eto
solve hold anchors and move guides.
upon consultants. If the loop as input has too great an
anchor force or too great a stress, the program provides o The maximum permitted anchor force (pounds) and
the required flexibitity by increasing the length of a desig- the X or Y direction of this limitation.
nated member of the loop within user input limits. The o The piping length (
Iocations of guides normally are not altered because most pair of guides and
guides usually are mounted on supports whose locations axis of this additional
are subject to controls other than piping flexibility. contributes force because of thermal expansion.
Input Data. The entries for an individual piping loop An additional header card precedes a grouP of pipe
r"qri." a single card (Fig. 2-80 letters or digits maxi- loop entries. This card contains any desired alphabetic or
mum) containing the following information: numeric descriptive data desired in the output printout
(job title, user's name, accounting information, etc.).
. PiPe loop identification name or number.
o Outside diameter of the pipe and the wall thickness Whol The Progrom Solves. The program is capable
. There are no limitations on diameter or thick- of expansion to handle many possibilities of piping loop
l;:n"r) design but implemented for PurPoses of this documelta-
tion for the following frequently used single-plane loop
o An allowablestress range at bend and terminal joints types which have no external loads or restraints between
based upon code or connected equipment limitation anchors except guides:
(pounds/square inch).
o
U-shaped loop with unequal or equal legs plus up
o A value of C obtained from the following equation: to tangent members of unequal or equal length.
trrzo
(Terms correspond with Literature Cited 2 terms for
^ Expansion, in.,/100 ft. (E")
r-@ U-shaped examples.)
or from Literature Cited 2, page 9. This value combines o U-bend expansion loops similar to above. IJse our
the lineal therrnal expansion in inches from 70o F to the term "legs" instead of the Literature Cited 2 term "tan-
operating temperature with the tensile modrrlus of elas- gents" for the expansion U-bend examples in Literature
ticity at 70o F (pounds/inch). Cited 2.
o Radii of bends (inches)-a single bend radius is o Simple two member loop with one elbow.
applied to all bends.
o Z-shaped expansion loop.
o Lengths between corners of the loop members within
the innermost pair of guides (feet). A "corner" is de- o Hooked Z-shaped with up to one tangent rnember.
fined as the intersection of the center line extensions of
straight pipe members (however short) which connect to Progrom Tesis. The program has been tested with book
a 90" bend or square elbow. The input length must be problems' (Fig. 3) and with the examples from the

7
 PIPE LDOP FlPE IALL ALLOI FACTOR C RADIUS LENGTHS OF ME{AERS (TO CENTER OF CORNERSI D- IHICH ANCHOR FORCE LIXIT
rnFNt- n D THtak- qTRFsS a nFG-F oF FFNn Dl n2 Df nd n< nA xaY vAeV .=Nn- I -Y ,=v nlo
,
rNcHEs l-lellEs -_e5!_ !!!tsES- -EEEI- -EEEI- -EEqf- -EEEI- -EEEI- -EEE.M: EEE! qlqE PouNDs FoRcE
--__---
75O-......_o <nn -E6b>

SE qI_rnrNT . )> --E-

6330. A020. 63A0, 962- 7426.
JOINT 2 HAS GREATEST STRESS ANcHoR F0RCE IN X-DIREcTION = 2a03. ANcHoR FoRCF IN Y-DIRFCTION= 147O.

LENGTH OF sUM DF MEABERS COORDINATE OFFSET FEET MAXIMUM STRESS IS IN BEND LENGTH OUTSIOE AXIS DISTANCE
F' rrrn qtrH--Dl=D6 LENG.IHS - .ll-uI_1,f.-_THRU .r I AErEF{ rpiHiB r I O,|I
' ^Hp FEET AX I S
-- FEET FEFT X_AXIS Y-AXIS IN POUNDS/SO. INCH

MOMENT AT JOINT I = DIAGRAM OF PTPE LOOP MO{ENT AT JoINT a =

L4LOz.-

_J5_{EXBEF
rl "I_J6_
J7

ll
- --L-Lq-ottrrrr | o-ooo ffEL
MFMBER D2 MEMEER O4
-.+

| _J9__MEMRER D5__J r o_ |

LOOP O. K. FROM STRESS STANDPOINT

Fig. 3-Test problem based on book2 input data.

PIPE LOOP PIPE TALL I|.OI FACTOK C PAOIUS LENGTHS OF MEMBERS (TO CFNTER OF CORNERS) D- IHICH ANCHOR FORCE LIf,IT

lrlclEs rNe,BES __PS!_ !NS!ES- -EEE!- -EEEI- -EEEI- -EEEI- -EEEI- -EEE! !S! EEEI qgOE eQ!.Nqs FoRcE

j.o9B lm lMo-a-@lo4Lp4

7t96. l6la7. l30aa. 2154f,. 24642. I tq6. o- o.

JOINT 5 HA5 GREAIEST STRESS ANCHOR FORCE IN X_DIRECTI ON - I2N6. ANCHOR FORCE IN Y-DIRECTION=

LENGTH OF SUM OF MEMBERS COORDINATE OFFSET FEET MAXTMUM STRESS TS IN EEND LENGTH OUISIOE AXIS OISTANCE
FtLF PATH. LENGTHS J+-THPU J I 1NO 7 !@
-D.!=s. -JONIX_AXIS Y_AXT5
FEET IN POUNDS/SO.INCH FEET AX IS

MOMENT AT JOINI. DtaGRAM 0F PIPE LotP MOMENT AT JOINT IO =

J'

+ leooo rEL l. ro.o@ Er

MEMtsER D2 VEMEEi D4

/ l2.ooo FEET J3 I I o.o FEET

. . l-- EtBU N-E
- - - -- -A€G-INNIN5-:]Jl---::4EUBER-oJ:=:-:r+=l-
cuIDE = | I

-- I

F#T- JrL=-
I J9____MEMBER D5___JrO_l
--

THIS I OIIP OVERSTRESSEO

Fig. 4-1"r, problem based on Haque/Starczewskil input data.

L_-
 PIPE LOOP PIPE TALL ALLOI FACTOR C RAOIUS LENGTHS OF MEMBERS (TO CENTER OF CoRNERSI D- THICH ANcHoR FoRcE LIHTT

J!-C!ES I-NCHE5 --eS.!.- ------- !!g!ES- -E-EE.L- -ECtrI- -EEEI- LEEEI- -EEEJ- -EEEL lsi EEEI ggqE EgUNgS-FoRcE

t!Pu' OgL6.6fs O.'r0 -'5Oo. 35s.0 d.ooa r2.OO A.^0 a.OO a.OO 12.^O O.O 2 4.5O t e2OO.e
rtrH w^ovrNc xFMqFa I Fil.TH = a-6 FFEY. eToFss I< r.:Ao- I aq/ea IU - aM.Hno FnorFc y-6ro ,^A9.. w-DIp -
= -O
IITH VARYING HE{BER LENGTH = a.s FEET' STRESS IS 30O79. LBS/SO.IN.r ANCHOR FORCES X-DIR.= la3l.. y-DlR.=
YIT{ vAqvINA {EMBS I ENGrts = o O FFFr- rq FnR.FS y_DIor_ -O.
STREq( LA<'sO.IN.- ^Ncpno v_DtF._ _o.
'a^^1- '5ra.,.
IITH VARYING MEMBER LENGTB = 9.5 FEETr STRESS IS 26276. LAS/SO.IN.. ANCHOR FORCES X-DIR.= 1434.. Y-DIR.=
l.MHFo LE.Mg rO- pq"qr- -O.
!u+wYl!r: - s| 3lS2- ' : 12a6.€
IITH VARYING xEHtsER LENGTH = lO.s FEET. STRESS IS 23251. LBS/so.IN.r ANCHoR FORCES X-DIR.= lr57.r y-DIR.= -O.

-u Jl! JP
6473. 1456t. 12044. 19443. 21960, 21960. 1944a. 12044. 14561. 6473. o. o.
JOINT 6 HAS GREATEST STRESS ANCHOR FORCE IN X-OIRECTION = I045. ANCHOR FORCE IN Y-DIRECTIoN=

LENGTH OF SUM OF MEMDERS COORDINAIE OFFSET FEET MAXTMUN STRESS IS IN BENO LENGTH OUTSIOE AXIS DISTANCE
EL'rlo ptIB ot_DA til.-rs< Jot{ItL t THRU sl!'s 6 N0 , LOOp
FEET X-AXIS Y-AXTS IN POUNDS/SO. INCH FEET FEET AX T S
,rotu__

UOVENT AT JOINT I - DIAGRAM OF PIPE LOOP MOMENT AT JOINT IO =

aE. FOOr-POTJMIS Ar5-
-^r.oo

JI
I
I
I ! l.ooo Ef
MEMBER D4

,l
a tz.ooo FEEr J3 I I o. o FEET
ar u[Ytrac_:_I__---8ff8tre )2_l
CUTDE
^t
I I

tt l2.Qio FFEr Jll

| _J9_____MEMBER D5___J I O_ |

LOOP O. K. FRO! 5TRESS STANDPOTNT

Fig. S-Test problem based on Haque/Starczewskil input data.

Haquc/Starcze$.slii article (Figs. ,l ancl 5). In general,

About Ihe qa.rthors the agreement rvith answers gir-en b,v our program asree
'Wrr,lr,lrr \1r. Snur-r, is u, r,iril cnginecr u.ith the problems and examples \rithin + 2 perccnt.
utith tlte Cor.poro,ta Enginer:.ring antl Extrerle care \,vas necessary to make sure the problems
C onstruc tion Sertices of The Dou
r'r'ere the same and that the results u,ere identifiable. For
Cltenticol Co., HotLstott. He cletelops
qualitA tnctltods of ck:sign problem sctlu- the exarnple given at the botton'r of Page 204 in the
tions f or ci.-il, ntcclta.nicrLl, an.cl :--esscl I{aqLrc,/Starczervski article, our stress using long radius
disciplines. Mr. Sltull holtls a, B.S. cle- bencls and con-rputed intensification factor is in agreement,
gree in nkc/l.anisa1 engineering front but onr anchor force is lorver than tlte square corner
Lottisionct Stote Uni.uersitu rtnd, Itcts ,:l
don.e gradu.ote toork at Tulane, tlLe Lini- solution bv a factor of tu o. The anchor force for our
"( square corner solution of the sartre probleln agrees r.vith
uersity of Ho.ttston, and Georgle lVaslt-
ingtotr Uniuersity. He lm,s pS ,LJ(.al s c:t:- the force from the computer program mentioned in the
perience in tlrc Dotu Engirtcering Dr:pttttltt.emt in ci.-il ancl Haque/Starczeu,ski article and is nine percent lo',ver than
mcchanicctl engineering dr:si11tt. Hc is q, nttutttr:r of ASCE
NSPZ', and ACI.
their graphical method.
Square Corner Technique. The use by inclustry of the
G. N. Bocrr,, Jn. is a seuiol" engineer square corner technique with its conselvative answers
in the Corporate Engincering and Con- (sometines by a factor of two or more) is difficult to
struction Seruices of The Dous Chemicol understand because it tends to indicate problems rvhere
Co., Houston. His utork inrolr-es chenti-
cal engineering, systems dnalAsis f or there are none and results in tvasting investment and oper-
effecti"-e use of coinpllters in design ating capital for unnecessary expansion loops.
engineering, liaison f or lrcat erclTan!.ler Note: The mainline program (Fig. 1) with its sanple
tlesign practices and metltods witlt Heo,t output (Fig. 3) represents original u,.ork and is in no case
Transf er Researclt, Inc. Mr. Bogel ltolcls endorsed by our emplo),er or based on any program cllr-
a B.S. degree in chetnical enoineeri,ng
L -J|I from Teras A.&M. Uni"*ersity. He h,ns rently in use in our ofTice.
wollced Lil.ptocess det:eloptnent, pilot ancl production plant
supert:ision, pyocess and mccltanicctl design, and, project en- 1Ha.gu9, )'-n",Jll?"r",t*n r\,rethod Bcars com-
prrrer.'' FI; 16. No. -3. March l9ti7.
gineering. He is a metnber of AIChE, ACS, ACM, TSPE, 2 "Pipinq serond edirion, 1963. Grinncll Co.,
NSPE, Process Heat Exchu,nger Society, rntd the National -
Providence,
S ociety f or O ceo,nogro,pltu. Index!.ng Terms: Coefficients-6, Computers-10, Design-8, Diameter-6. Expan-
sions-6, L^engrh-6, Loops-9, Pipine-9. program,-i0, Radiui-6, Sr.*.F.-i,

9
Piping Design Method Beats Computer
Symmetrical, U-type PiPing looPs
can be analyzed for flexibilitY
using this new graPhical method.
lt can be done faster than the
time required to prePare the data
for computer analysis
M. S. Hoque, Engineering Consultant, EMMCON,
London and J. Storczewski, Woodall Duckham, Ltd',
Crawley, England
ple easy to follow method is used and no extr'aordinary
mathematical knowledge is required.
In structural design, the imposed force on the system
is specified and the deflection piping
design, the deflection is given by the
imposed deflection is determi rigor-
ous methods available which accu-
racy, but their involved computational intricacies demand
the attention of an engineering mathematician or an ex-
perienced pipe stress analYst.
A to use method is the only
less time consuming, easy
answer. One that would even win over the total time in-
volved to solve a problem on a comPuter, and at the sarire
time produce acceptable results and also satisfy the re-
quirements of the Code for Pressure Piping ASA 831.1
or British Standard Specification 3351-1961.
The authors present a method which can be used for
to
the solution'of 'lJ' type symmetrical expansion loops. It
procluces results reasonably accurate in almost a fraction
of the time it takes to Prepare the data for computer
analysis.
The total deflection in a piping system is usually known'
For example, if the pipe length of a symmetrical loop is
50 ft., i.e. 'U' length betrveen anchor points, the thermal
expansion 4 inch per 100 ft. of lincar length, then the
total deflection : 50/100(4) : 2 inches. The height and
width of the loop are generally detennined by the space
available. Oncc the shape of the loop is decided by the
layout engineer, forces, moments, and stresses can easily
be found using the graphs presented in this article.
It is suggested that the use of precise and analytical
methods and also comPuter analysis shor.rld be limited to
only critical and hazardous lines. Critical lines are those
involved with high or low operating temperatures and
pressures and/or the type of equiprnent to which they are
Connected. Hazardous lines are those concerned l'r'ith the
nature of fluid being conveyed, highlf inflammable etc.
Therefore, designers should segregate all critical and haz-
ardous lines rvhich demand the attention of a piping
stress consultant or specialist. For simpler, noncritical
lines an approxirnate calculation method is permitted by
the Code for Pressure Piping ASA B31'1. The Starczew-
ski/Haque stored energl'method is an approrimate solu-
tion and the analvsis produces safe results.
Allowqble Stress. It is recommended that the stress
obtained bv this method should be compared by the code
allor,r'able stress range S.1; rvhere
S,r : I ( 1.25 ,Sc + 0.25 Sr, )
S" : allorvable stress (S value ) in cold condition
S,, : allorvable stress (S value) in the hot condition
S" and S,, are to be taken from tables in the applicable sec-
tions of the code
f : stress-range reduction factor for cyclic conditions. IJse
a value of 1.0 for one cycle pcr day or less. Consult
ASA 831.1.
 2.0 1.8 r.6 1.4 t.2 r.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
SCALE P
?o
30
40
50

t00

Weight and other sustained external loadings shall not 200

exceed Sa.
300
400
Pipe supports qnd restrqints are not considered in the 500 a
flexibility calculation. It is assumed that the supports 5
which have not been considered in the analysis should rp00
be located and designed so as not to interfere with the
2p00
flexibility of the system. The reactions computed by this
method shall not exceed the limits which the attached 3p00
4,000
equipment can safely sustain. Equipment such as. pumps, 5p00
hrrbines and similar strain sensitive machines should re-
ceive the manufacturer's approval; and the piping system rop00
should be designed flexible enough to comply with their
recommendations.
Fig. l-Force graph (above) and moment graph (right) for
U-typ" pipe expansion loops.
SAMPLE PROBTE'VIS
The following data apply to all sample problems, un-
less otherwise stated.
Somple Problem l. For a simple 'IJ' type expansion
loop as shown in Fig. 3, check maximum stress in the
PipeSize:3in. loop, and if the calculated stress is much less than the
Schedule : 40 allowable, suggest a loop which will produce a maximum
Operating Temperature : 8600 F stress equal to or near Sa. Space does not permit the mod-
E : Young's Modulus (cold) : 27.9 (10") psi. ification of 11, but G can be modified.
Thermal Expansion : 7.37 in. per 100 ft. Given: 3 inch carbon steel line, Sch. 40, thermal ex-
1 : Moment of Inertia : 3.02 ina. pansion 2 in. per 100 ft., temp. 325oF.
Z : Section Modulus : 1.724 trf . Data:, I : 3.02 h.n; Z : 1.724 in.3; i : 1.78. Allow-
i: Stress intensification factor :
able Stress Sr : 18,000 psi (Power Piping).
1.78
Material : Carbon Steel
Code : Power Piping Solution:
Se : Allowable Stress : 16,800 psi.
B- w10
'H10 :_:1
Solution: Use Figures L and 2.
ll
 2.0 t.8 t.6 1.2 r.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
SCALE B

G10
o:7.-ro-1 z.
,) Td
50.u00
6o
- Total thermal expansion:+ (100) :2 inches.
=
too,ooo E
Note: B and a and other nomenclature have no con- ut
nections with similar symbols used in piping design books. =
o
These are used in this article just as symbols. =
Step 1. Determine Force Fe using Fig. 1 (Force graph).
Entei scale p with F : t then move vertically upwards
to the curye a : 1, and now move horizontally to the
right to the line 8o : 2 and then vertically move down
500,000

tJthe line FI : 10 ft. and horizontally from this point

to scale Fal I and read the value Faf I : 38-
The Force Fa : 38(I) : 38(3.02) : 114.76.
SaY Fa : 115 lb.

Step 2. Determine maximum moment in the bend using

Fig. 1 (Moment graph). The system is acceptable. The calculated Stress is less
Enter B scale with 13 : l. Move to curve d : 1 and than the allowable stress.
then horizontally on right to H : 70 ft. and vertically Step 4. Determine the flexible loop, rvhich will pro-
down to line F1 : 115 lb. From this point go horizon- duce a stress of 8,000 psi. Use Fig. 2.
tally to the moment scale to rcad BM, (Bending Mo- .s. 18.000
ment) : 6,300 lb.-in. 1_l_-
Stress ratio
sE _-2.i'6
b,5zu
Step 3. Calculate the maximum stress in the bend.
Find, y : 0.475 from Fig. 2 when a : 1 and F : 1'
U{ New y :0.475 (stress ratio) :0.475 (2.76) :1.312.
.S, : Expansion stress : ,, Enter Fig. 2 with new y : 1.312, move to 13 : l,
63oo then travel vertically dorrnrvards to read ne\v d : 0.25.
: ,r.rr)
r.72+', - 6.52opsi.
G
Since a : G: 0.25 (11) : 0.25 ( 10) - 2.5/ft.
,S, : 8,000 psi. S, ( S. i:0.25,

I
PIPING DESIGN METHOD BEATS COMPUTER Somple Problem 3. See Fig. 5.

oW4
' H 10 :0.4
T
I
H
A:-:
GO
H10-
:0
7.37
l'-n uo : 100 (55) : 4.05 in.
t.0
0.9 O: G/H
E 0.8 B=w/tt From Fig. 1, by interpolation, FalI :270.
P 0.7 :. F.q. : 270 (I) : 270 (3.02) : 815 tbs.
s06
u) 0.5 By computer Fe:6421bs.
at)
H
F
0.4
<n Somple Problem 4. See Fig .6.
6 0.3
F oW4
p:-:
z.
trJ '_H10
-
- 0.4
0.?
= GO :0
= H10
>-

oo: l-it100 (4) :0.295 in.

0.09
0.08
0.07
Find force from Fig. l, FalI : 20.
0.06 :' Fe - 20 (I) :20 (3.02) : 60.40lbs.
0.05 By computet Ft : 46.0 lbs.
t23456789
a=G/H From the above three cases, it is obvious that the result
by this method compared with computer analysis indicate
Fig. 2-Variation of bending mometrt and stress with beta and
alpha.
safe and reasonably accurate values; and for these shapes,
this method wins over computer analysis including data
preparation time.

Somple Problem 5. See Fig.

p:Y:
.H t,b/ - lo, tr - to.
7.

6:_:w10
H r0 : I
The suggested loop will have the following dimensions:
H - l0 f.t.,W - 10ft., G - 2.5 ft.,and U- 100 ft.
a:- G10
This new loop will produce a stress : 18,000 psi. H - --:1
10
Check stress: 7 .31
3:u
BM: 6300 lb.-in.
Calculated - -r55,-4.05in.
loo
Stress ratio
- 2.76 Find from Fig. 1, F^lI : 78.
BM (Stress ratio) - 6,300 (2.76) - 17,400 lb.-in. F.E: 78 (I) : 7A (3.02) : 236 ]bs.
BM 17'4oo M1
,, (1'78):lB,000Psi. - 12,000 lbs, in.
Z ,):
New stress -
,12a
in the bend. So- M;!-
z '' -- ':::?
Stress qil
7.12+
Somple Problem 2. Calculation of forces at the nozzles, (t.78) : 12,400 psi.
see Fig. 4. S,i : 16,800 psi. Sr ( S,r

The reactions and are within the allou,able

,:(+) -4/to_ 0.4
stresses
Iimits. The svstem is therefore adequately flexible.

a:l_/c \I :8,/10-0.8
\H/ Economic Loop Design. If the anchor forces are not the
t-al factors which dictate the design, then the loop can be
U, : 100
(55) :4.05 in. (Thermal expansion of 'U') quickly determined by the use of this method which will
produce maximum moments and stresses equal to its al-
From Fig. I find FalI : l2O. lowable limits. No trial and error method is needed. By
Fe - 120(I) : 120(3.02) : 362lbs. using Fig. 2 a great deal of labor can be saved. This also
"' eliminates a large amount of mathematical computations
Computer result : 252 lbs.
and reduces the chances of errors to a negligible degree.
Kellogg graphical : 368 lbs. The graph is self-explanatory and results are sufficiently
Fa : Force of pipe on anchor or nozzle, caused by accurate for most engineering purposes. The following
thermal expansion. example illustrates how Fig. 2 can be used efficiently.

t3
If the calculation, based on either the Starczewski/Haque
method or an analytical method, indicates that the
moments and stresses exceed the allowable limits, then
Fig. 2 can be used to predict the guide distance "G"
which would enable the shape to become flexible enough
and to yield moments and stresses equal to the allowable
limits.
U oo'

Sompte Probtem 6. A loop which has the ratio a : Fig. 3-Simple U-type expansion loop for Example l.
GIH :3 and p : IrylH: 5, and the solution indicates
the Bending Moment : 50,000 lbs. in. and Expansion
Stress : 30,000 psi. This exceeds allowable limits.
Allowable BM :25,000Ibs. in.
Allowable Sr : 15,000 psi'
Determine, U-tyP" symmetrical expansion loop to yield
the maximum moment and stress equal to the allowable
limits.

Solution, Step 1. Determine from Fig. 2 when a : 3

and p : 5. FolLw the arrows and read value of 1 : O.l7 Fig. 4-Calculation of forces on nozzle, Sample Problem 2'
which is the moment and stress factor on the left hand
vertical scale.
Since the allowable stress Sr : 15,000 psi. and the
calculated expansion stress SB : 30,000 psi' then the
ratio : 15,000/30,000 : 0.5.
Therefore, corrected y : 0.17 (0.S; : g.g8t. G:0
It is assumed that F : W lu : 5 remains unchanged'
Step 2. Determine new d.
Enter in Fig. 2 the corrected y : 0.085 on the vertical
Fig.'A-Figure for Sample Problem 3.
scale from the left hand side of the graph, and move
horizontally to the right to the curve F : 5 then move
vertically down to the e scale and read the new ot : 5.7.
Now summarize the new values as follows:
a: 5.7
B:5 Fig. 6-Figure for Sample Problem 4.
Expansion stress Sa : 15,000 Psi.
Bending Moment BM :50,000 (0.5) : 25,000, equals
the allowable moment.

Step 3. Determine the distance of the guide 'G'.

New a :5.7 : GIH when 11 remains as before.
Therefore, the distance of the guide G : 5.7 (H) . II
the 'G' is increased to 5.7 (H) then the new shape will
yield a stress of 15,000 psi. which is equal to allowable .rc'J l*-u=,0'
stress. U=55i

Fig. 7-Figure for Sample Problem 5.

Bosis For Method. This method assumes that the energy
is stored in a system because of bending, which is caused
by the deflection due to the thermal condition of the
piping material.
Energy stored : tY! (1) where, F : Force and X : Distance travelled by the
J2 force in the direction of the force 'F'.
It is accepted that when a piping system-is
Again: Also: Interndl energl' stored by the system is caused
subjected to deflection it stores energy, and that the by'
stored energy must be equal to the work done upon the
piPe'
e Compressive stresses
system :
y? o Tensile stresses
The work done by a force upon a piping
(2) o Bending moment.
t4
 PIPING DESIGN METHOD BEATS COMPUTER . Deflections 81, 82 and 8s are produced by elements
Lab, Rae and. cd respectively.
The system is confined between 2 anchor points.
Le: Teft hand side anchor
Ra : right hand side anchor.
E, lzl The following conditions apply in derivation:
f-i
ts-
Lq
---t R1
o That the whole system lies in one plane.

Fig. &-Basis for the method starts with this piping layout. That the system is treated with square corners inter-
sections.
That the system is composed of straight elements of
Go
-l pipe of uniform size and thickness.
I I

q. I o That the thermal expansion of a given element is ab-

sorbed by the elements orientated perpendicular to the
direction of the deflection.

'i-1
o That the effect of dead weight, wind etc. are neglected.
Fig. 9-The loop deforms from the cold to the hot position.
o That the clearance between guides and pipe is nil.
o That the compressive stresses within the element are
neglected.
[,--1 o That the flLxibility of the elbow caused by an oval
shape is neglected.

The three deflections in the horizontal plane are:

81 + 8, * 8, : 8o: total deflection
The total deflection 66 must be absorbed by the system
contained between the points a and fo which is tJle flexible
+ Fr
portion of the system, see Fig. 9.
The loop will deform from a cold condition to a hot
f--0.------!
l.--G6-------*j l.-Gf ---i condition, when the system is subjected to the operating
temperature, as shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 10-The forces and moments acting on the Fig. I loop
are shown. Fr : thrust acting on the loop at the point ,a,, see
Fig. 10.
Mo: bend'ng moment acting on the loop at the point
'a', see Figure 10.
Ifthe energy stored by compressive and tensile stresses From Fig. 9 it is evident that the slope at the point Go
are neglected then the total energy stored will be due to must be horizontal.
bending moment only.
IIence the change in the slope between point a and
See Figs. B, 9 and 10. point Gs is equal to zero.
Energy due to Bending Moment
M
: BM :
I+
(3)
i.e ll o'1"":o (6)
But d0 :
EI d* (4)
F o: Fo and Go- G1

Therefore, the equation will be transformed as follows: Mo: M6

Bending moment, BM at point X X - Me- FEU)

ur,:l*!ru:l+W) -
Slope and Bending Moment. The general relationship
e)

between slope andBM, is as follows:

:Jzn
fMzdx
(s)
dt: M,!:
EI
(8)
Deflection taken by the shape between (a) and (Gr) i.
equal to 8o/2 Therefore the total slope change between point a and
Fa6o/2:l-Znr)n point Go is:
f U, a* I G"
2 (5A)

Thermal stresses in symmetrical expansion loops are ll+l'" (s)

derived as follows: X: Pipe Iength in general,

r5
 .:llr#):". llr-#, *,), * ll*+* *)*,"
But the change in slope between a and. Go: Q

*{*"*o) +M,(H) -L#L * Y* - elnw)l:o

f +H+ w1 fu, r+twtl
*"1.
T):r"l;*-)
M,:Fo f H,+H(wt I T H2+H(w\ I
Lzrdffit ):'"tdc +TiTT)
H *W
M-- F,'" "2(G+H)+w (10)

Now refer Equation 1 to 5a,

Further,

'oouo
: ;*{ll -; o""f:' +ll w.- rot) *7'"*ll ,*"-'outo'f*""|

(II)

oruo:
4 # {rr ", (r-ffi *r)' ("" * " *[) - FoH r#T, (FoH, + FaHW)* r,, (F * L)\

EI 3o
: r, + w), I c+H+w/z - T(G+hl l, - H,
3 -
zz\
Tl
2Fo {,, ttr@+h+wF +w-l

2
EI
FoH2
3o
: ,o * rr'{ 212(G+H)+w) 2(G+H)+W
\,
I'
H
3
I-
'2
W

HW (H + 14/)2
-3-2 4(G+H)+2tr

H2 1 -L2
-)-Hl _
tl/
-L (#)'
t +2 p + p,
+al4l2P I (13)

:"[-f, * c-
Force, Moment, and Stress. The follou'ing units apply
rl in the formula below:
H
Modulus of elasticity : E (psi.)
Resisting force : F, : F" (lbs.)
Moment of inertia of the pipe : 1 (in.n)
, +2 + ' (#)' I Total thermal expansion between anchor points is in
-(+) LLL,)
't-H
W inches.
Height of the loop : Il (ft.)
Width of the loop : W (ft.)
Distance of first grride : G (ft.)
w t1/
of pipe : Z (in.')
+ Section modulus

w Er 60 H

+) . r*'(+
H
Stress intensification factor
where h : tRlr'
for the bend

See code for pressure piping ASA 831.1.

: i: 0.9 lh

Then the force is

r+28+p'
3 , 2
I (12)
-- 4aa4l29
where F - I,Y/H and, a : G/H.
B
2
1

4
+2p +
4 + 2B I ,,-,
t6
PIPING DESIGN METHOD BEATS COMPUTER The maimum stress can therefore be in a system either
at bend b or at the bend c.
It is suggested that the moment at point b and point
c be calculated, then take the largest moment of the two
to calculate the expansion stress SE in the loop.
Fig. ll-For round corners, tte M
width, height, and guide distances s,, -_ (i) ( 1e)

must be modified.
Fig. l2-Loop designations for round corners.
Fig. l3-Symmetrical loop
with guide G distance from
bend.
Loop Restroinls qnd Supporls. Design engineers should
make certain that the loop between the two guides is
made to function without any environmental obstructions
or restraints. Also that the system is fully supPorted and
no branch connections are made within the flexible por-
tion of the loop. It is not recommended to induce any
external loading upon the loop. The designers should
avoid locating rigid sections, such as large valves etc.,
within the loop. A good practice is to locate valves and
other rigid sections near the guide or between the anchor
and the guide.
Line Size Limits. This method provides engineers with
reactions and stresses that are reasonably accurate for
pipe up to 6 inches in diameter. Lines above 6 inches
in diameter can be safely analyzed by this method. How-
ever, the authqrs would like to point out that the results
thus obtained will be on the conservative side. Therefore,
where the system is dictated by the space, reactions and
stresses or economic limitations, a precise analysis should
be made.

Round Corners. Solutions to loops having round corners

can be solved as follows:
Fig. l4-Symmetrical loop o If the square corner solution gives reactions and
with guide very near to the
bend. stresses, which exceed acceptable limits,

o If the radius of the bend is more than 1.5 pipe diam-

eters,
o If the line is above six inches in diameter,
. Refer Figr,rres 11 and 12. Use Equations 20, 21,22, and
23, to modify the width (W) , height (I1), and guide
distance (G) respectively.
Use Figs. I and 2 to determine forces and moments.

Fig. l5-A two-plane loop configuration. Assumption:

R : radius of all the bends which must be the same.
I{: height of the loop which must be equal on both
sides.
Er s^ l- G : distance of the guides which must be equal on
n'-
^
" t_
3456H3 I p L+2tt+t2
(lbs. )
both sides.

l
1
I
, Z 4a*4*2F
Is (15) W:u+1.57R(K/3) (20)

From equation (10) the following forroula is derived. H-h+t.s7R(K/3) (21)

H+W H-h+1.57R(K/6) (22)

Mo: FoH
2(G+H) +W C:e*1.57R(K/6) I 2q\
1-rB K:1.65/h -flexibility factor, K) (24)
' Fo It T; (lbs.-ft. t ( 16) 1,
)-, +-O rf R)
'
Note that Fo : F^ rvhere h- r2..' ; i: thickness of pipe; r: mean radius ol

pipe: R: radius of the bend,

M": Mo- Fr(H) (lbs.-ft.) (17)
Note: For force calculation use modified Height (H) of the
ln general:
loop. For moment calculation use original Height (II) of the
Stress : M /Z ( 1B) ioop'.

t7
 For Figs. 13, t4, and 15, u: W - 2R; h: H - 2R; Fwi
g:G_R.
Symmetrical Loop. Refer to Figs. 12 and 13. Modify
W, H, and G as follows:
For W, use Equation 20.
Eor H, use Equation 21. Fig. lLA U.loop configuration
For G, use Equation 23.
with equal legs.

Symmetrical Loop. Refer to Fig. 14. Note that the

guide is very near the bend.
For W, use Equation 20.
For H, use Equation 21.
Since the guide is at or near the bend, G:0.

Two-Plane Loop. Refer to Fig. 15.

For W, use Equation 20.
For H, use Equation 21.
For G, use Equation 23.
U-Loop With Equal Legs. Refer to Fig' 16.
u:W-2R.
h:H-R.
For W, use Equation 20. Fig. 17-A twb-plane loop configuration with the Y leg longer
For 11, use Equation 22. than fitting to fitting.
G :0.
Two-Pliane Loo,p With Y-Leg Longer Than Fitting
to Fitting.
w:W-2R
hr: Ht - 2R
hr: H, - 2R
g:G_R
For W, use Equation 20.
H:.: Ht * Hz.
For G, use Equation 23. Fig. 18-A two-plane loop with equal legs.

Two-Plane Loop With Equal Legs.

u: IU - 2R.
hr: H, - R.
Hr: H, - 2R.
For W, use Equation 20.
For IIr, use Equation 22.
For H2, use Equation 21.
H: Hr]- Hr.
G :0.
U-Loop with Equal Legs and Single Tangent. Refer Fig. 19-A UJoop corfiguration with equal legs and single
tangent.
to Fig. 19 and solve the same as Fig. 16.

Grophicol vs. Computer Solufions. The following ex-

amples are givento illustrate the results obtained by this a:GfH : 12110 : 1.2;B : WIH : B/10 : 0.8;
method and by the computer.
8o : (2.261100) (180) : 4.06 in.
Example. Given: 4 in. pipe, schedule 40; radius of
bend : 0.5 ft.; operating temperature : 3500 F.; mate- From Fig. 1, Force Graph, FII : r : 86
rial : ASTM 106 GR. B; thermal expansion : 2.26 Force : r(I) :86(7.23) : 620
in./100 ft.; allowable stress : 22,500 psi.; code : Power
Piping; moment of inertia : I : 7.23 (in.a); section From Fig. 1, Moment Graph, BM : 27,100 lb.lin.
modulus : Z' : 3.22 (n.3); stress intensification tac-
tor:i:1.95. stress : +# (1.95) : 16,450 psi.

t8
PIPING DESIGN METHOD BEATS COMPUTER
. . ized staff members to spend their valuable time only on
the analysis of critical and hazardous lines. Alsq it will
help site engineers design and incorporate a loop in a rack
piping system, or in a long transmission line, without seek-
ing help from the design office.
Furthe4 the method will help project engineers esti-
mate piping flexibility in the proposal stage of the project.

Symbols used:
,s/ Allowable Stress (psi.)
E Modulus of Elasticity (psi.)
I Moment of Inertia (in.u)
Z Section Modulus (in.3)
F Force (lbs.)
Fig. 20-An example configuration calculated by the graphical Fx Force component in the direction of axis.
and computer methods. M Moment (lb./ft.)
i Stress intensification factor.

Fig.21-A square corner configuration calculated by graphical

and computer methods.

About the quthors

M. S. HIQUB is an engineering consul-
Moment Max. stress tant as so ciated.with EMM CO N, L ondon.
Force, at guide at bi:nd, Remarks He specializes in pipe stress analysi,s,
Method lbs. Ib./in. psi. piping lo,gout, and fleribilitg analgsi,s
i,n th,e lal1out stage. Mr. Haque receiued
square corner
Graphical 620 27,100 16,450
solution a diploma in mechanical and electrical
engineet"ing from Dehri Technical In-
Computer 6t7 2 7,000 t6,47s stitute of India. He is an o,ssociate
.t;?.?;,:to"* nzember of ASME, Institute of Engi-
neering Designers, Institute of Plant
Engineers, Associate Fellou; of the In-
Example. Given: 6 in. pipe, schedule 40. stitute of Petroleum, and Associate of the Institute of Fuel.
He has had 16 gears enperience as a senior designer and
All other data as in example above. piping analyst usith such, firms as Wellman Smith Ou;en
8o : 4.06 in., I : Z: 28.1, 8.50, i: 2.27 Eng. Co., Mattheu Hall & Co., Ltd., McKee Head Wright-
son, Ltd., and Constructors Joh.n Brou.tn, Ltd., all in London.
From Fig. 1, Force Graph, r : 86, r(I) : 86(28.1) : He also has fi,ae years fi,eld eupet'ience on construction jobs
2,410 lbs. in Ind:ia.
From Fig. 1, Moment Graph BM : 90,200 lb. in. J. St-q.nczowsKr 'is an engineet'wi,th
Stress : 90,200 18.5(2.27) : 24,550 Woodall-Duckham, Ltd,, Crawley, Eng-
land. He o,ttended the Polislt Techruical
College in England and completed a
Force, Moment Stress, B.Sc, mecltanical course at London Urvi-
Method lbs. lb./in. psi. Remarks oersity. He has done graduate work in
Graphical 2,4tO 90,200 21,550 sq. corner soln. fluid dgnamics, mathematics, and
nuclear energA. Mr. Starczeu.tski has
Computer 2,179 90,500 20,122 sq. corner soln had, enperience in heat enchanger de-
sign, pressure aessel design, u-telding
equipment dea elopment, special pu,t'pose
In conclusion, the authors feel that the introduction of machine design and, other process equi,pment design. He h,as
this time saving piping flexibility analysis method will help uorked, u.titlt, such firms as Constructors John Brown, Ltd.,
piping design engineers solve most of the simpler config- and, Caird & Raynet", Ltd,. both in London,
urations. This will allow consultants and highly special-

T9
Symmetrical Piping Arrangement Solves
Two-Phase Flow Distribution Problems

The secret to two-phase distribution

in branched piping systems is strict
adherence to symmetrical piping and an
evenly dispersed liquid flow pattern
Fig. l-Shows slug flow; G:0.0085 lblsec; L: 0.38 lb,/sec.*
John L. Greene
The Fluor Corp., Ltd., Houston
A rnequrNT ENcrNEEnrNc problem is designing
branched piping systems for flow distribution, mist or
dispersed flow, and an over-all low pressure drop. Con-
trolling flow patterns, liquid distribution, flow distribu-
tion, and optimizing pressure drop need to be considered.
Fig. 2-Shows plug flow; G:0.00421 lb,/sec; L:0.38 lblsec.*
Recognizing flow polterns in two-phase flow is the
first part of the problem.1,3 In a two-phase system, when
gas flows at various rates, demonstrative types of flow
patterns are developed. In general, these flows are de-
scribed as bubble, plug, stratified, wavy, slug, annular,
and spray, mist, or dispersed. Slug formation, plug flow,
wavy flow, and stratified flow are shown in Figures l, 2,
3. and 4, respectively. For this discussion, slug flow is
defined as a mixture of liquid and gas that has a varying Fig. 3-Shows wave florv; G : 0.0083 tblsec; L : 0.38 lb,/sec.*
density with respect to time. Therefore, the term slug flow
will also include plug flow and will border on annular
and bubble flow.
fn engineering design the flow pattern must be deter-
mined in every two-phase application. fn a service where
pressure fluctuations cannot be tolerated, there can be no
slug formation. For example, slug flow downstream of a
distillation column will cause pressure fluctuations and
unstable operation, or downstream of catalytic reactors Fig. 4-Shows stratffied flow; G : 0.0081 lblsec; L :0.38 lb/
it can cause catalyst attrition. sec.'

Liquid Distribution. When two phases flow through the * Water and air at atmospheric conditions and in a 2-inch
same pipe, the gas flows faster than the liquid. In a OD horizontal pipe.'

20
 ll ,'=T,'
The problem of two-phase flow distribution in manifold
piping arrangements is frequently encountered in large
plants, particularly around air coolers, parallel exchang-
ers, etc.
(I) ELBOW PERPENDICULAR (2) ELBOW PARALLEL (3) TEE 8 CAP The simplest solution to flow distribution is to provide
TO HEADER TO HEADER TO HEADER
(GOOD) (POOR) (ACoEPTABLE)
a block valve in each branch line. From the standpoints
of valve and of pressure drop costs this is often unattrac-
Fig. S-Shows liquid distribution into a header: (1) elbow tive. Therefore, the pressure drops through the system
perpendicular to header (good); (2) elbow parallel to header must be depended upon to distribute the flow. As is shown
(poor); (3) tee and cap to header (acceptable). in Figure 6, if valves are not provided in each branch line
of two-phase flow, then the layout should be symmetrical.
For comparison the preferred layouts for single-phase
flow are shown in Figure 7. The selection depends upon
the importance and duty of each service. Friction loss in
the fittings was determined by using Bernoulli's Theorem
(Velocity head method) and velocity head coefficients
from the literature.5,6 To determine the pressure drop in
two-phase flow when there is less gas by weight than
Iiquid, two-phase flow correlations should be used.2

(I) THBEE PASS (2) TWO PASS Applicotions. Savings can be realized in optimum over-
design of heaters, heat exchangers, etc. In large systems
Fis. &-Shows symmetrical piping in two-phase flow: (1) three horsepower usage from pumps and compressors can be
pass and (2) two pass.
reduced.
With this knowledge of how to minimize pressure losses
in manifolds, plot plans can be laid out more efficiently.
The preferred piping layout creates fewer plot plan
changes and shorter pipe runs.
Slug flow causes pressure fluctuations in the system.
Elimination of slug flow helps stabilize the unit. Slug flow
can also cause major problems such as catalyst attrition.
Therefore, catalyst life can be increased. Minimizing pres-
(I)
sure drops and equalizing liquid and flow distribution
GOOD DISTRIBUTION (2) FAIR DISTRIEUTION (3) POOR DISTRIBUTION
will increase yields and decrease capital and operating cost.
FiS. Iayouts for single-pass flow in
two d distribution, (2) fair distri- Exomple Problem. Distribution into and out of a 16-
buti
section air cooler with 5.3 pounds per square inch pres-
sure drop (16-6' nozzles) and with the following flow:

smooth turn the iiquid has a tendency to follow the out- LIQUID IN OUT
side wall. The elbow or turn should be perpendicular to
the manifold, as is shown in Figure 5. If thii is not possi- Flow lb/hr. 484,000 652,000
ble, a tee and cap or a mixing length after the turn may Specific Gravity @ Tem-
be used. perature & Pressure 0.670 0.678
Temperature oF 277 150
The liquid must be distributed into heat exchangers,
air coolers and other types of equiprnent. Often it is
Viscositl, Cp. 0.310 0.412
necessary to rotate an elbow to the shell of an exchanger
in order to distribute the liquid on the baffling ,.r.a.rg"- VAPOR IN OUT
ment. Tees and caps or mixing'lengths are also used on Flow lb/hr. 533,000 365.000
the inlets to heat exchangers. On the outlet, liquid dis- Molecular weight 8.49 5.99
tribution is not usually important. Viscosity Cp. 0.01132 0.0099
The severity of the operation and the duty (size of
heat release) of the service as selected to provide liquid Three cases r,vill be considered to determine the best
distribution are determined by an economic balance. piping layout. Economics prevents putting valves in each
Therefore, each case must be looked at individually. of the 16 sections.

Flow distribution in monifold piping systems is a Cqse. l. One header with 16 ]aterals on the inlet and
function of pressure losses through each lateral system. outlet is shorvn in Figure B.

2t
 ST RATI FI ED

Flow Pattern. From Baker's1,2 two-phase flow corre- 8 SECTIONS

16-6.. LATERALS SPACED AT
lations the type of flow is determined aIter each lateral
Fig. 8-Shows single 24-irch headers with 6-inch laterals
take-ofl and is shown in Figure 8. The flow patterns go (example problem-Case I).
from mist to annular to slug to stratified flow. This flow
pattern change is not acceptable.
Pressure Drop. The pressure drop calculations are a
trial and error procedure to determine the exact distribu-
tion. Using Bernoulli's Theorem and velocity head coeffi-
cients from the literature5,6,7 the initial pressure and flow
distributions (assuming equal distribution) are as follows
for the first and sixteenth pass:
Fig. 9-Shows tapered (24 x 8-inch) headers with 6-inch
laterals (example problem-Case II).
o First Branch System: AP1 : 10.46 psi including
cooler loss

o Sixteenth Branch System. APro : 8.24 psi including

cooler loss
.'. Percent flow not distributed : 4.89 percent

On a service with a large duty this 4.89 percent of mal-

distribution of flow is not acceptable. Case I is not a
good system.

Cose ll. One tapered header with 16 laterals on the inlet

and outlet is shown in Figure 9. Fig. l0-Shows semi-symmetrical manifold piping layout
Flow Pattern. From Baker's1'2 two-phase flow correla- (example problem-Case III).
tions the type of flow is determined to be in mist flow the
total length of the header on both the inlet and the outlet. Cose lil. A semi-symmetrical manifold piping system is
Pressure Drop. The pressure losses were calculated the shown in Figure 10.
same way as Case I only the expansion and contraction Flow Patterns: AII of the piping is designed so that
losses were considered. only mist flow is encountered. All turns into headers have
' First Branch System: aP,:1i.86 psi including to be rotated corectly so that the liquid is evenly dis-
tributed.
cooler loss
o Sixteenth Branch System: APre : 9.55 psi including Pressure Drop. The pressure losses were calculated as
cooler loss in Case I.
.'. Percent flow not distributed : 4.64 percent o First Branch : 9.34 psi including
System: AP,
On a service with a large duty this 4.64 percent of mal- cooler loss
distribution of flow is not acceptable. There is 8.73 per- o Fourth Branch System: APr:9.97 psi including
cent rnore pressure drop than in Case I and the tapered cooler loss
header is expensive. Case II is not a good system.
Percent flow not distributed : 1.96 percent
In Case III the florv is in the dispersed legion throughout
the system. The flou, distribution is the best that can be
economically justified. This is good piping la.vout.

LITERATURE CITED

Indqirrg Tere: Ctrmputations-l0, Design-4,8, Distribution-7, Fluid Flow-4,7,

Layout-4,6. Liquid Phase-5, Piping-9, Vapor Phase-5.
22
NOTES

23
LAYOUT
 Plont Loyout qnd Piping Design
for i,tinimum Cost Systems
Afier process ond equipment ronditions
ore sel, plont loyout con be the lorgest
single cost sover in HPI plonts. Line sizes
ond pressure drops depend on pipe lengrh
ond configurotion. Use these guides io
moximum plping system economy
Robert Kern, The M. W. Kellogg Co., New York
PrprNc EcoNoMy is closely related to three areas of
plant design:
o Equipment layout
o Piping design
a. Line sizing and flow slntems
b. Piping layout, and
o Piping details
These areas are interdependent; without an economical
Plonl Loyout qnd Piping Economy. Plant layout can
in refinery and petrochem-
be the biggest single cost saver
ical plant design, after process and equipment design
posibilities have been exhausted. Savings can be rcalized
not only in piping but also in the cost of pumping com-
pression and utility cost. Often a layout can eliminate
equipment (for example, pumps with well arranged
standbys).
The most important document issued to the layout
engineer is the process flow diagram (PFD). This has
to be evaluated for an economical plant arrangement.
From a layout standpoint, three types of lines can be
distinguished.
Main Process Flow Lines. First, lines which represent
the main process flow. Such streams pass through
furnaces, reactors and dryers, then they continue as
tower bottom and feed inlet to the next tower, often
with exchangers and pumps between them. These lines
will be the shortest if towers are arranged in process
flow sequence as close to each other as equipment sizes
and access space permits. With smaller interconnecting
lines, towers can be located further apart without much
increase in piping cost il other economies can thus be
realized. For example: the grouping of condensers be-
tween two towers can result in a shortening of cooling
water lines; a conrmon steam line can be designed for
grouped reboilers. Grouped condensers and reflux drums
will permit a common supporting structure. Figure 1
shows an example of alternative tower arrangements.
Many configurations are possible and justified if shorten-
ing of these process lines is the ultimate result.
Process flow is not always a simple straight through
flow but can split into two or three streams, as is oftL
done with a number of distillation columns. Subsidiary
circuits to process flow must also be considered such as
the refrigeration circuits in ammonia or ethylene units.
are generally large diameter lines and should have pref-
erence over the first group which are wually smaller
process lines.
Feed and Product Lines. The third group of lines are
25
PLANT LAYOUT AND PIPING DESIGN an optirnum location for minimum Prp-"--ttlt' For ex-
- changer, drum, and pump locations the following general
-'., classifications can be n ade:

Exchongers.
o Exchangers which are next to towers use short pipe
runs. These are thermosyphon reboilers and condensers'
Short reboiler and overhead lines are essential for both
economy and reliable oPeration'
o Exchangers which should be close to other process
equipment. For example, exchangers in closed pump cir-
crits srch as some reflux circuits. In the case of a bot-
tom-draw-off-exchanger-pump, flow exchangers should
be close to the tower or drum to give short suction lines'

runs.
Fig. 1-Alternative tower arrangements can shorten main
process flow lines. o Exchangers located between Process equipment -and
the unit li-it .ut be located at one end of the plant'
Such exchangers are, for example, product coolers'
MAII{TEMI'CE
ROAI)

Drums.
. Drum location when it must be next to a tower or ex-
changer. For example, when a tower bottom flows by
grarriiy into a collecii.rig d.rrm, the drum should be under
or next to the tower. A reflux drum should be next to
the condenser. Compressor suction drums and knock-out
drums should be close to the comPressor'
. Most process and utility drums serve as seParators,
,..rrg" trrd reflux drums and should be arranged in
process flow sequence.
o Storage drums or tanks, Iocated within a unit usuaHy
are given secondary consideration and are located as
space permits mostly at the peripheries of the unit'

Pumps.
Fig. 2-Exchanger location for minimum pipe runs'
o Pumps have one general rule: put them close to and
below their point of suction.
the feed. lines and the usually small diameter product So far, our discussion has dealt w'ith the bases of
Iines. These lines can be minimized if they start at equip- economical process unit piping, rvithout mentioning speci-
ment close to that battery limit where feed and pro'duct fications, site information and project design data' con-
lines terminate. struction, oPeration, and maintenance.

Specifications describe the client's requirements or con'

tlactor companies standards for all sections of plant de-
y concern econofil)" maln-
and sPecial requirements.
ign should read them. De-
ments.
tailed discussion here is unnecessary.
Location For Minimum Pipe Runs. For plant layout,
in addition to tower sequence, every equipment item has Site and Project Desrgn Data. The unit has to be

26
located on a given site. Soil conditions, existing access
roads, pipe lines, connections to the unit, even prevailing
wind can have its affect on the economy of the plant
and piping layout.
Construction. A plant arrangement should also be dis-
cussed with the Construction Department. They know
available crane and construction clearances, access width
and location requirements, and difficult construction
points. Expense can rise rapidly with poor access to
equipment or difficult-to-erect piping. In some cases, in-
creased structural and piping cost to facilitate construc-
tion is more than oflset by the saving in construction cost.
Operation and Maintenance. An engineering com-
pany's reputation can be enhanced or injured after a
plant has been built and operated. Beside performance
and production costs, the plant layout and piping design
can influence maintenance and, operating costs.
It is essential to have road access to exchanger'bundle
removal, tower tray removal, to pumps, catalyst loading
and removal, crane access to compressors, etc. It is ad-
visable to study plant and piping layout from this stand-
point.
Also, it is essential to have convenient and adequate
access to points of operations and instrument adjustment.
Grouped, lined up manifolds and functional locations of
control valves help to maintain economy of operation. It
is here where all details of piping design gains much
importance.
In short, economical design is provided by good access
to the unit as a whole and to points of operation and
maintenance. Beside this, it should be rgmembered that
roads and access space spread the unit apart and adds
to the length and cost of piping.
The Plot Plon. Figure 3 shows an estimate plan of the
feed gas compressor area of a 200,000 long tons per year
ethylene unit. Main pipe runs are also shown. This area
(and the whole plot plan) has been developed with the
principles outlined so far. It is an "In-Line-Layout" with
equipment in process flow sequence. The large diameter
gas lines directly interconnect process equipment. On the
complete plot plan, equipment (including compressors)
are arranged on both sides of a central yard in process
flow sequence. Pumps are located at their point of suc-
tion and are lined up under the yard. To every line of
equipment, a parallel road is arranged for convenient con-
struction and maintenance access.
For economical plot arrangements, many equipment
groupings can be adopted. Two obvious groupings are:
furnaces and reactors. Small furnaces, however, are often
placed in several locations as process flow dictates. For
safety and economy, these furnaces should be located at
the periphery of the process unit.
Another often employed equipment grouping is housed
compressors. Economy is achieved here by the common
building and maintenance facilities; also, by the opera-
tion of the grouped compressors.
On Figure 3, the feed gas compressor has been sepa-
rated from the refrigeration compressors. Saving in
piping and construction cost justified two compressor
houses. Also, centrifugal compressors require less atten-
tion from operating personnel.
Some layout systems use similar equipment groupings
more extensively. Several towers car, be lined up fairly
close to each other on one side of the yard providing
common interconnecting platforms. Piping economy is
usually sacrificed for convenient access to manholes, valv-
ing and instmments on the towers. F.xchangers can a.lso
be grouped on the other side of the yard and a common
gantry crane provided for convenient maintenance. In
such cases, tower overhead and other process lines to ex-
changers cross the yard, increasing pipe length and the
number of fittings.
In the case of piled foundations, the plot arrangement
should also be discussed with a structural expert. Often
by regrouping equipment, a number of piles can be
saved, which can often more than pay for increased pip-
ing cost.
Economy-of Ycrrd Piping. The main arterial system of
a plant is the yard piping. It is here where long,process
lines are located interconnecting distant equiprnent, and
lines entering and leaving the unit. Also, utility headers
are located in the yard supplying steam, air, gas, and
water to process equipment. Here are located all relief
and blow down headers. Often instrument lines and elec-
trical supply conduits are also supported on the yard
steel.
Figure 4, shows those critical dimensions which will
influence piping cost from a yard piping layout stand-
point. These dimensions depend on the over-all plant
layout and should be carefully considered when the plot
is arranged.
Dimension A is the total length of the yard and is
goverened by the amount and size of equipment, struc-
tures and buildings arranged along both sides of the yard.
If, with good layout practices, the same amount and size
of equipment can be arranged on a shorter yard length,
yard piping cost can be considerably reduced. Equip-
ment in pairs, stacked exchangers, exchangers under ele-
vated drums, drums or exchangers supported on towers,
two vessels combined into one, closely located towers with
common platforms, drums supported on exchangers,
process equipment located under the yard are only a
few examples which help shorten the yard length. These
arrangements, of course, shorten not only process lines
interconnecting equipment directly or in the yard, but
also shorten those lines which pass through this area and
utilityheaders serving this area.
Equipment not associated with but arranged along the
yard increase yard piping cost unnecessarily. A control
house located along the yard, for example, will increase
yard piping cost because all lines must pass by without
really being associated with the relatively long control
house.
The careful selection of dimension B and C (Figure 4)
can minimize pipe length between the yard and process
equipment and pipe length interconnecting equipment
on opposite sides of the yard. Not more than necessary
yard height (Dimension D and E) will minimize vertical
pipe runs.
When changing direction, change elevation is an old
rule in piping design. This happens with all lines con-
necting to yard piping. Ilowever, some large diameter
Iines can make a flat turn when entering at the edge of
the yard.
So far, process plant layout has been developed. In
the following a classification is presented for the most
27
 FROM
FURNACE

PROCESS EQUI PMENT

-l
___-______==_

>'-- I
I
---

Fig. 3-Part of ethylene utrit Plot plan showing direct routing of piping'

LIiIES WITH BOTH E]IDS HIGHER

THATI TOP YARO EANK I-OCATED
O}I THE HIGHER LEVEI.

LII{ES WITH ONE EI{D

EELOW AIIID OTHER
EiID ABOVE YARD CAII FLAT.BE}ID AT ED6E OF
BE LOCATED ON EITHER YARD.FOR LARGE LI}IES
YARD ELEVATIOiI

ETO
PIPI}IG
P0ssrELE

EL. lO0'

ACCESS 10 G PSOCESS LI}'IES Y'ITH BOTH ENDS LOWEF THAN -

ALTERNATE PUiTP SUCTIOil
CONTROL,VALVES
PUMPS VALVES rOU YINO AANT lgg 1-oCATEO ON THE LOWER LEVEL

Fig. +-1r,"al cross'scction of yard piping showing geueral pipe runs'

28
 common equipment elevations, also highlighting the com-
parative cost involved.
LIOUID NEAfi
-EotLtNG
Cost ond Equipment Elevqlions. Towers, drums and po[{T
exchangers can be elevated for the following reasons:

-(l-}1ffi
EQUIPITEiII
ELEVAITOT

r D VYITH 2 ORSE STRAIGHT RUII

With
choose a
denser is
floor can
and construction, maintenance and operation access im-
proved. Vertical pumps usually give a minimum height
from grade to equipment because their suction inlet noz-
zle is below grade.
If for some reason equipment is elevated higher than
the required NPSH, a reduction in line size and pump
differential is often possible.
o Thermosyphon Reboiler Circuits. The driving force in
a reboiler circuit is the static head difference between
the head of the liquid draw-off line, and that of the
liquid-vapor mixture in the return Iine minus friction
loss. For horizontal reboilers at grade, an increase in driv-
ing force requires greater elevation of the tower or drum.
Line sizes can be reduced because higher friction loss
can be allowed. By decreasing the vertical legs of reboiler
qipil-S the driving force will also decrease, consequently,
the line size of the system will have to be increised io
provide lower friction losses.
o Liquid FIow Measurement. The requirement of accu-
rate liquid flow measurement can also elevate process
equipment (see Figure 5). If liquid is near the boiling
point, a static head is required in the front of.the conl
trol valve to overcome pipe friction losses and avoid
flushing in the line. Minimum equipment elevation, ori-
fice range and minimum line size will result if the orifice
is as close_ to the equipment as possible, and up to the
control valve the piping has only one elbow.
rD flTH I ELEOY
'60)
Fig. LPut control valve close to process equipment for econ.
omy and reliability of operation.
o Gravity FIow. Requirements often elevate process
equipment. The-size and elevation of associated equip-
ment; size and arrangement of interconnecting piping;
clearances for structural membersl headroom and access
to valves and instruments will influence the final eleva-
tion of process equipment.
. Grade Location. The most economical and common
location of process equipment is at grade. Supporting
structures and platforms are not required. Construction
is easy. Most valves and instruments can be made acces-
sible from grade. Operation and maintenance is conven-
ient.
- Elevated equipment with associated structures, plat-
forms, handling beams etc., means cost increase. irr-.e*r-
eral design areas.
In layout and design, the first attempt should be to
eliminate structures, extra supporting columns and extra
platforms. Smaller equipment can be supported on tow-
ers, on yard columns, or structures for larger equipment.
The second attempt can be to combine two or three
qrripment. Some equip-
le over-all plant layout,
be more than a possible

Piping Design for Leqst Cost

A pRocr.ss lrxrl should he cbsignecl for a milrirnurn
of or.er-all (ost, \\.hic[r is not neccssarily a nrinimrutr of
PiPing cost (or a nrininrurn cost in other r:quiprnent
grorr;rs) . This can be achievcd [rr, a t.losel), coorclinatecl
over-lrll clesign and accurate cost conrl;arisoir betrveen ol_
ternatir.e soltrtions.
Economy of Piping Design. Line sizes give a readily
available basis for comparison. Ifowever, accurate cost
depends on weight, type of material, insuiation and con-
struction. Consequently, pipe lines for economical com-
parison are better represented with an in-place dollar
figure per unit length, than with line size, schedule and
material alone. Special attention should be given to alloy
lines, high pressure piping, and large diameter of carbon
steel piping. For rough comparison, irr-placc piping cost
is about double carbon steel piping ruatt:rial ..rri., "
At an early stage of plant layorrt. line sizes at.e not
available. Two items of process data from the process
FIow Diagram (PFD) S for rough line
size cornllarison: flou,inC Irressurc differ_
ences betrveen t\{'o vessels lr.r florv quanti_
ties or higher available ces for fiiction
losses will result in smaller diameter lines. For suction and
discharge to pumps, only quantities should be compared
for the feel of line size.
For line size calculations, The M. W. Kellogg Co. uses
economical pressure drops. This is a most direct approach

29
 stlaiglrt luns oI piping. that
PLANT TAYOUT AND PIPING DESIGN
there is a rnuch highel rifice
than ivith a pitot tube. orter
straight ru., of pipe wit Pitot
tube.

Reboiler Piping. Two types of thermosyphon reboilers

are used: vertical ar-rd horizontal'
A vertical reboiler has very little piping and its length
determines the height of the torver skirt. Supports at
grade are sa.r'ed but supPorts on the tou'er have to be
added.
Fig. l-The hydraulic slide rule is used for fast florv calcula- Many tolvers have a bottorn drau'-ofl pump, and
tions. NPSH r-equirements usually elevate the torver higher
than that tt," reboiler's miuirnum. This increases the
"f
static hcacls in the vertical legs, also the driving force in
the circuit. With the increasecl torver lieight, it is rtorth-
rvhile to check the reboiler circuit for reducing the liquid
and the return line size.
Symmetrical piping arrangement betu'cen the drarv-ofl
and reboiler inlef nozzlcs, similarly betrveen the reboiler
outlet and return connection on the tower, is preferred
flow conditions exist.
It is helpful to know a few general rules rvhen esti- for equal flow in the reboiler circuit' Nonsymmetrical
and associated fittings' arrangements may also be accepted for a rnore economical
rnating or ialculating line sizes
or mole flexible PiPing design.
Valves and check valves are generally line size' Maxi-
murn control valve size is line size' In most cascs, control Overheqd Lines. Scveral variations exist for overhead
valves are one size smaller than line size' When a larger reflux circuits. A condenser can be eievated above the
pressure clrop is available, control l'alves can be trvo or reflux drum. The reflux drum can be elevated but the
ihree sizes snraller than line size' condenscr is at grade' Thcse arlangenlents can be ad-
Sometin'res it is feasible to coDrPaIe piping cost and jaccnt or so-eruhat remote from ttre torver' The sin-iplest
overhead line is shorvn on Fig' 2, sketch A'
Littlc pressure drop is usually ar''ailable in these lines
and longer overhcacl fnes rvith more elborvs quicklr' result
in increised line size (see sketch B)'
valve assembly.
Orifice Runs. Because of metering accuracl'' olifice
straigl-rt runs.
can be madc
straight runs
cs and .shorter

About the outhor

gineer.

30
 CONDEN SER
REFLUX
DRUI,4
SKETCi] A SKETCH 8
THE SIIIPLES'i REI\4OTE CONDENSER LOCATION INCREASES
OVERHEAD tINi LENGTH,NUIIBER 0F FITTINGS AND PIPE DIAMETER. STATIC HEAD BACK PRESSURE (Dll\ilENSlON X).
Fig, 2-Typical overhead piping arrangements.
as much as possible for a direct gas flowg and equipment
in the circuit should be in process flow sequence.
Because of the ever present vibration problems at
reciprocating compressors, pipe supports have a very im-
portant role in piping design. Supports independent of
any other foundation or structure is almost mandatory.
Pipe systems "nailed down" close to grade is a much
preferred arrangement. If badly desighed compressor
piping has to be corrected after startup of the plant it
can become very expensive.
Compressors are used in process plants for transporting
gases. With constant gas inlet and outlet conditions, the
compressor size and cost on one hand and the cost of
driving force on the other depends on the volume of gas
compressed; the compression ratio between inlet and
outlet pressure; (and temperatures: and material of
construction).
Pressure differential is composed of friction loases in
equipment (furnace, exchangers, and reactors), control
devices, and piping. Consequently, plant Iayout and
piping design has an effect on the compressor's driving
cost; and sometimes on its size.
The selection of an optimum pipe size is also more
involved. With increased line sizes, the cost
increases but pressure drop and utility cost
TABLE I Pipe Size Selection for Vqrious poyout Times
-Alloy
ap
Llne Slze psl
9.75
10"
SKETCH C SKETCH D
LINE
PIPING CONFIGURATION AFFECTS PRESSURE DROP AND
The yearly utility cost per unit pressure drop can be
calculated. Multiplied by the time of amortization (num-
ber of years) gives the cost of utilities for the period of
capital payout. Pipe cost plus utility cost gives the total
cost of compression for the calculated period and process
conditions.
The example on Table 1 is a tabulation for comparing
line sizes, pressure drops, alloy piping cost and utility
cost for a portion of a centrifugal compressor circuit. This
example shows that for a two-year payout time, a l2-inclr
line is the most economical. For five years, any line'from
12 to 16 inches is economical, and a 16-inch line should
be selected. For 10 years, a 16-inch line will be the most
economical.
For maintaining these calculated economies, line sizes
should be calculated, at least, with a good preliminary
layout.
Optimum pressure drops and sizes can be established
for all equipment groups in the compressor circuit.2
Table 1 assumed that the compressor works well within
its capacity and pressure range. fn border line cases, the
cost difference between the price of smaller or larger
compressor will also enter an over-all cost comparison.
of piping
decreases. Pump Gircuits. Centrifugal pumps are used in process
PAYOUT TIME WITH YEARLY UTILITY COST OF I pst ap : gS50
l0 YearE
Total Cost Total Cost
col. 3 & ,1 Uttltty Cost col.3&6 Uttltty Cost
$ $ $ s
PTANT LAYOUT AND PIPING DESIGN larger than the gives unit
preisure drops will give
iconomical pr-rn ds to the
header are otle than the
pump nozzle.3

Reqcfor Piping. In connection with reactor-furnace

piping it should be remembered that it is usually the
most expensive alloy piping in a process unit (because of
high temperatures and pressure) and it is olten part of a
compressor circuit.

PI.AIFOR',I

and reactor design. IJnder such circumstances, piping lav-

out economy depends on the ingenuity of the designer,
oRooo who can scrutinize his layout and eliminate every unneces-
r[J o
sary fitting, flange, and field weld, establish optimum
equipmeni locations and interconnect a piping system with
5 a minimum of pipe length and fittings.
Fig. 3 shows some extensive valving in reactor piping
and gives an idea how much piping and valving cost
can be saved. with line size reduction. It pays to recalcu-
late and check line pressure drops with an exact piping
layout. It also pays to investigate the pressure drop dis-
tribution in the entire compressor circuit' Decreased
E LE VAT ION
pressure drop in other equipment groups (exchangers,
lrlr.r""r, reactors) can help in decreasing alloy line and
Fig. LPiping and valving between reactor and furnaces' associated valve sizes and still hold the over-all pressure
differential constant.
units for transporting liquid. Sizes are established as for
With large expensive piping, the smallest detail can
compressors. Piping and over-all economy for very large run into thousands of dollars. Here is where care in
notecl for com- detailed design pays large dividends. Details of piping
-u"hir,"t can be sinrilarll' evaluated asmight not be justi- design have been discussed in several articles of Hvoxo-
pressors. Time consuming calculations
fied with smaller than average pumPs. cARBoN Pnocrssrwc eNo Pernor-EUM RETINT:n.a-10
Very small pumPs, in-line or vertical Pumps, are usually A last remark to the reader. Piping economy is ex-
adjacent to thiir suction vessel. With many PumPs taking tremely complex. About each paragraph heading in this
srction from the same vessel (crude Iractionator, for ex- article an entirely separate report could be written. IIow-
ample) adjacen ible with onlY four
ever, for writing technical reasons, ideas in this report have
o, si* prr-pr. T dium or large sized
been simplified, classified, itemized and organized what
p.r*p., .oud u. It is advantageous
d to all tlre PumPs is believed in a logical sequence. In their application,
and Lconomical these principles are not so orderly and cannot be sep-
in the plant for convenient operation and maintenance'
This is achieved r'r'ith an "In-Line" plot layout' Too arated. Many factors influence an optimum solution and
many dead ended access roads between process equipment design ideas have to be related simultaneously. The more
will lengthen the Yard bank' penetrating an analysis becomes, the more likely it will
Suction piping should be designed without loops or lead to a most economical piping design solution'
pockets. Tho sultion line is generally one or two sizes ACKNO\\'I.EDGMENT
The author to \t'. J. H' Baker and Mr' O' H' Hoeg-
expresses his thanks
U".g lo" the suigestions and hclp rcceivcd -during- the prcp:ration^ of the
TABLE 2-Economico! Unit Pressure Drops for Pump Dischorge -uir,..ipt a.d to* M.- J. Lundgrcn for the design shown on Figurc 3'
Line Sizing
LITERATURE CITED
l Mendel, O. Chemical Etgiteeritg' Vol. 68, \{ay 15, 1961' P' 190'
, i.t.i*ir, F. W. HydrccZrbon iocessing €l Petroletm Refircr, YoL 43'
Ap pst Per 100 Ft.
No. 6, June 1964, P. 153.
";'g.l;",
n. u. g Happel, J. Chemical Etgiteeritg, Vol' 60, No' 1, Jan
1953. P.180.
'"; S"rd], V. L. and Romain, D- H1'drocarbon Processitg I Petroleum Re'
finer,Yol.43, No.6, June 1964, P. 116'
'"iil"l.k"it, L. R. i"irnl"r* Ii"fit"t, Yol' 39, No' 7,.Julv 1960' P' -127' -.
"ih;;;: 7. w. Hvdrn"otbot Processing I Pettoleun Reftet' Yol' 44'
No. 2. Febrorv 1965. P. 153.
";'xi." n- l'lriiltuu [cIaer, Vol. 37' No. 3, March 1958, P' 136'
Optimum Friction "ii;;;; R. Pctrnlcu,r Il,f,ner, Vot. 39. No' 2, Februarv.1960' P' 137'
'fttriltuu
Losses For
25,7 R:
-i. n.6n.'. vot.39. No' 12, Dcc. 1960, P' 139'- --
Extended Payout Tiine
"-K;;;:
.-f Hldrocatbotr !'rtressing I Peuoleum Refiter' YoL '10' DIo' 5'
"rri, P,
May 1961, 195.

32
NOTES

33

PPOJECT
DESlON
DITA
Fig.
Whot lnformqtion ls Essentiql
for Good piping Design?
Three moior source documents
ore essenriol for good piping design:
Engineering Flow Diogroms,
Nomenclolure, Equipment Elevotions
R. W. Judson, The M. W. Kellogg Co., New York
Trre PrprNa ANar-vrrcer, ENoTNBBn is the key infor-
mation center for the piping designer. He produces three
major piping source documents (Engineering Flow Dia-
grarns, Nomenclature and Equipment Elevations). There-
fore he must realize that when he puts down a symbol
or writes a note on his flow sheets, he gives specific in-
structions to the piping designer. These instructions must
be clear, logical, concise and necessary. A.y extraneous
information which does not pertain to the operability of
the design itself does not belong on the flow sheet, be-
cause it limits the designer's concePt of the arrangement
ho is able to provide. Essentially tfie Engineering FIow
Diagrams must contain a schematic representation of the
lines themselves. They must incorporate all arrangements
critical to the operability of the hydraulic design. Further,
34
ANALYT|CAL
s€cTtoN
l-Piping Division organization and flow of information.
each and every piece of control or indicating hardware
must be incorporated.
Some information essential to layout and production
design does not appear on the flow diagrams. In essence,
this information consists of equipment elevations, pipe
wall thicknesses, and insulation specifications which are
required for the individual line. This information is pro-
vided to the designer in the equipment elevation sum-
mary and on the nomenclature. Every line incorporated
on the engineering flow diagram is identified and any
emergency or special conditions which relate to this line
are tagged with the same identification number and
spelled out in the nomenclature or in the elevation in-
formation. Basically this co-ordination between the three
source documents results in a detailed identification of
every line on the Engineering Flow Diagrams. Without it
a chaotic arrangement of information would exist with
no logical system available for finding the information
required.
To fully understand the requirements imposed on the
detailed design, it is necessary to understand what infor-
mation is required of the Piping Division, the scope of the
information they receive, and how much information they
actually place on tho flow diagrams themselves. The
piping designer must have enough information to design
accurately and yet not be hampered by too much infor-
 P/P/N6
D/V/S/ON

,2QODUC7/ON
SECTlON

PLOT i LA4OUT /IlZTEQ/AL

STUD/ES CEQU/S/7/OM/NG

Fr'BP/CAT/ON

to4-C
CONSTzUCT/ON
Fig. 2-Portion of typical Process Flow Diagram.

mation, which would restrict his optimization of the

piping arrangements.

Flow of lnformqtion. To understand any major break-

vision itself.
Engineer on each ncru project
ic docunrents rvhich pror.ide hirn
turn out his three rnajor piping
diagranls' r'tolllenclatures and
equipment erevations).

Process data sheets supplement the PFD ancl give

physical data related to process equiprnent; (vapo. li-
quid proportions of tower trays, physical data, safety
factors for pumps, detailed furnace florv conditions, etc.).
From the fnstrument Division: The process Control
Diagram (PCD) shows the instrumentation of the plant.
See Fig. 3.
From the Specification Group; Specifications which
Fig. L-Portion of typical Process Control Diagram.
give detailed design requirements concerning piping de-
sign, valving, safety, operation and maintenance.
o Specifications which give minimum wall thickness,
schedule and insulation requirements.
o Specifications which glve a clearly marked print of

35
ESSENTIALS FOR GOOD PIPING DESIGN .. . a list of some of the r.najol t1'pical symbols as used in the
PFD showing special piping materials (glass lined
piping alloy piping, high pressure piping, corrosion
allowances, etc.)
From Project Engineering: Engineering design data
which gives specific requirements for all utility and auxil-
iary syslems which are normally not shown on the PFD'
Applicorion. With this information in his possession, the
Piping Analytical Engineer analyzes the entire process
design and expands this design on his Engineering Flow
Diagrams. In addition he designs the necessary utility and
auxiliary systems which are required to support the
process flow.
In fulfilling this responsibility, the engineer decides on
the necessary valving to fulfill the specifications and proc-
ess requirements, includes all instruments dictated by the
PCD, sizes all lines, and insures realistic pressure drops.
He further indicates on evefy line the material specifica-
tion and the specification break points. To suit these
specifications he determines wall thickness, and schema-
tically represents an accurate picture of the number oI
lines required which may have been a single flow line
on the process flow sheet. Fig. 4 is an example of a de-
veloped engineering flow diagram for the same area that
was depicted on the process flow diagranr in Fig' 2 and
process control diagram in Fig. 3.
Loyoui. All the information designed and specified by
the Piping Analytical Engineer is contained in the three
basic source documents. These are then transmitted with-
in the Piping Division to the Layout Section and the
Production Section. The Plant Layout Section analyzes
its arrangement of equipment on the plot with the engi-
neer's design as a basic guideline and further performs
layout studies of the critical areas as indicated on the
flow sheets. The Production Section receives the plot
plan, layout studies and the source documents from the
Piping Analytical Section, and proceeds to design the
individual key plans of areas and isometrics of individual
lines. Once this has been completed, eve4r piece of ma-
terial is taken off the isometrics and transmitted to the
Material Control Section which writes the material requi-
sitions, issues the isometrics to the shop (where job fabri-
cation is necessary) and arranges with procurement for
the shipment of material to the construction site. Here
the isometrics, flow sheets and nomenclature are used as
a road map in the fabrication and erection of the piping
system.
Flow Diogrom Symbols. Since the engineering flow
diagrams are the source document for all production
work to be done at later stages of the job, the symbols
which are contained in these flow diagrams must convey
a distinct, accurate, and concise description of the re-
quirements established by the engineer. The Engineering
Flow Diagram sl,rnbols are the key working tool for the
piping design function. Since every firm engaged in
the process industry operates through a flow sheet as
a base document, each has adopted a different method
of maintaining their own piping symbols. Thus, 'we will
not go into any extensive listing of symbols. (Fig. 5 is
36
illustrations) .
It can be noted from an investigation of the sample
engineering flow diagrams that the major symbols in-
cluded are those for piping and valves. The only fitting
symbols which generally appear on an engineering flow
diagram are the symbols for reducers, which indicate a
change in line size, and the symbol of a cap, which in-
dicates a header where the Engineer has decided a dead-
end is allowable.
Instrumentation, being an essential part of the chem-
ical process, is fairly well defined in basic sgnbol lan-
guage. The reader is referred to the "Basic Instrumen-
tation S),rnbols RP5" of the Instrument Society of
America. The syrnbols recommended in this publication
are generally accepted for notation on the engineering
flow diagrams. These instrumentation spnbols must show
if the instrument would actually control an automatic
control valve in the process stream. Thus, we can see
the need for showing the location of the instrumentation'
The critical locations are indicated on the engineering
flow diagrams as required. The board mounting instru-
ments are generally so indicated that key operating in-
formation can be readily available to the personnel in
the control house.
flardware and Instrumentation. In essence, flow sheet
syrnbols fall into two major categories' The first being
tLe symbols for the hardware iterns such as regular valves
(gate, globe, check, plug, lubricated plug, etc-) and
special valves (control valves or relief valves). The sec-
ond classification, the instrumentation sr'mbols, falls into
three categories: temperature, pressure, and flow indi-
cators. Properly used and properly indicated on the flow
sheets, these symbols can tell the entire control and hard-
ware arrangement requirements for the plant.
Engineering Flow Diograms. From the information en-
tering his section, the Piping Analytical Engineer puts
together a set of Engineering Flow Diagrams- In com-
piling these diagrams he duplicates the flow requirements
of the process as indicated on the PFD and converts a
single process flow diagram into from 5 to 10 engineering
flow diagrams which are Process-oriented. The process-
oriented engineering flow diagrams are separated fron.r
the auxiliary and utility systems by both a numbered
sequence of drarvings and by mantler of presentation. f'he
process diagrams are in schematic form showing actual
arrangenlents and denoting special considerations such
as gravity flow wherever necessary. Whereas, the auxiliary
and utility flow diagrarrs are laid out acconding to plot
plan arrangement.
In addition to the information found on the process
flow sheet, these process-oriented engineering flow dia-
grams contain the start-up conditions required by the
unit, the normal operating conditions and considerations
for shutdown. They further specify the valving and pip-
ing necessary for the pump sparing arrangements. The
exchanger arrangement, i.e., number of shells, number of
shell and tube inlet and outlet connections, is also shown
schematically on the flow sheets. Any critical arrange-
ments of piping where the Engineer has to specify the
exact arrangement in order to obtain proper operation
should also be shown.
The auxiliary and utility flow diagrams on the other
 hand have no preliminary design but
are designed completely by the Piping
Analytical Engineer. His basis of de-
sign is simply supporting the process
flow stream itself and his auxiliary and
utility sptems must meet this require-
ment. Ilere tho engineer must be more
conscious of physical layout as his
auxiliary and utility header sizes are a
direct function of flow quantity as the
various pieces of equipment are fed. lot-E
The entire set of process, auxiliary and
utility flow diagrams, constitute major
source documents from which the pip-
ing designer details his design of the
over-all plant.

Nomenclqiure. As previously stated,

of the design data presented on
some
the engineering flow diagrams must be
recorded in the nomenclature. Each ,o tot.F
and every line tagged with a number
on the flow sheet must be Iisted in
numerical order in the nomenclature.
On the average size job there are
approximately 1500 lines under con-
sideration. This presents a tedious task
for the Piping Analytical Engineer,
but is information which is absolutely
necessary downstream in the Produc-
tion Section where the pipe is actually
being designed. The nomenclature it-
self includes the sizes of the line, the l

specification which dictates its ma- I

t
terial of construction, the wall thick-
$h l

ness, and the flowing media in the ;

line. In addition, the nomenclature i
I

provides a road map consisting of the I

a

Engineering Flow Diagram number -a

and the equipment or line number at Fig. 4-Portion of typical Engineering Flow Dagram.
both terminals for every line. The
routing of the line is given in the direction of flow in a
For many of these items listed above there is no source
other than the nomenclature itselt and for all items the
only document tieing all requirements together to the
proper re system. This entire system
has an that it limits the Designet's
isometr important for many reasons,
but mainly for clarity. The nomenclature also becomes
the over-all cross reference index betwen the flow sheets
for the schematic representation of the hydraulic desigrr
and the isometrics which are the hardware representation
of the piping arrangements. Thus, the nomenclature
seryes as the overall map identifying the various pieces
of piping associated with their respective lines.
Equipment Elevotions. Equipment elevations as estab-
lished by the Piping Analytical Section give the Designer
detailed information restricting or freeing his design. AII
main pieces of equipment have their elevation set and
critical circuits pointed out (for instance, where grav-
ity flow is necessary). This gravity flow requirement,
for example, might require the location of the condenser
to be above or below the reflux drum with which it is
associated. This type of information ddfinitely restricts
the designer and is one of his primary considerations in
commencing his design.
Some of the major elevation requirements center
around:
o Pump NPSH which sets fractionator tower eleva-
tions based on the bottoms line conditions going to the
pump. The bottoms line is normally associated with an
eqilibrium liquid. If there is not enough head pressure
to offset the friction in the lines, the pump will receive
a liquid vapor mixture resulting in cavitation.
o Reboiler circuits which again may set tower eleva-
tions. A thermosyphon reboiler requires enough liquid

37
ESSENTIALS FOR GOOD PIPING DESIGN Flow Diogrqms qnd Piping Design. Once the designer
has received all the information, in final design quality,
he proceeds to actually run individual lines and specify
P/PE L/NE their exact location. The designer has received the sche-
/NSTPUMENT LlNE matic flow sheets, the equipment elevations and nomen-
+ 6A7E VALVE, clature. He now knows what lines are critical, which
piece of equipment has definite elevation requirements
-- 6LO6E VALVE
+ and the size, schedule, t)?e of material and all technical

&
C/./ECE VALVE
{ information about the lines he has to run. At this time,
CONTPOL VALVE he has also received a final plot plan which locates in
@ PEL/EF VALVE plan view every piece of equipment.
WELO AAP With all this information at hand, the designer sketches
+
-
PEDUCEP the most economical arrangement of piping without inter-
fering with lines he has run already or lines he intends
//NE s/zE oc/FlcE EUN
<> /N€PEASED &/F/CE zUN to run. He proceeds from the larger size lines and the
most expensive alloys down to the less expensive, smaller
? /.|YPE STPAINEQ
carbon steel lines. With this priority in mind he completes
C /NS7qUUEN 7 LOC/4LLY AIOUNTED his over-all layout and begins to draw individual isomet-

e
4
lNS TPUMENT EOAPD AIOUNTED
AIOTOP DC.VEN PIJMP
5 TUPE/NE DQ/U€N PU*IP
o aNtr Br'T7EPY Lt l/7
tPt /5O LB, P@CESS SPEC/F/CA7/ON
3Pt 5OO LE, PPOCESS SP€6/F/6AT/ON
Fig. .LEngineering Flow Diagram symbols.
static head to provide driving force so that the reboiler
will work properly. This head determiaes-thrcirculation
ratio and the amount of vapor returned to the tower,
thereby setting the entire tower gradient. Reboiler cir-
cuits in conjunction with pump NPSH consideration set
the tower elevation.
o A flashing liquid must have enough static head to
oflset the friction loss in the lines, and the total loss
through an orifice. In this case the vessel from which the
liquid is being drawn and the location of the orifice flange
itself must be specified, either by definite elevation or
by a relative elevation.
rics of each and every line. As the isometric is drawn,
the material required for this line is summarized. This
summary is then compiled and entered on requisition
sheets. The designer, as he is summarizing tJre material,
further indicates whether there is a shop or field fabri-
cation requir6ment. This is one of the major breaks in
the summarization and requisition compilation. On the
. shop fabricated material the designer indicates the break-
points for the shop such that the shop will cut and bevel
or provide mating flanges so the fabrication can then be
assembled in the field. The drawings, material, nomen-
clature, and the flow sheets are all then sent to the field,
where the field construction force accePts the design in-
formation, finds the proper pieces of piping and assembles
them to the design isometrics. This completes the job.
Jhe_efficiency with which the entire system works de-
- pends upon ihErn-itiation phase, that phase lying in the
hands of the Piping Analytical Engineer. Every change
the engineer makes from his base design is compounded
tenfold downstrearn as so many other operations depend
on his design. The Analytical design is the "Bible" and
must be correct the first time. The correctness, thorough.
ness, and efficiency of the design released by the Analyti-
cal Engineer determines the effiicency of the piping design
and influences, significantly, the efficiency and quality of
JL JL
the final over-all plant.

o Gravity flow which determines the relative elevations

of related pieces of equipmen! and most probably would
determine the exact elevations of the pieces of equipment
themselves.
Thus, it
can be seen that the equipment elevations as
specified by the Analytical Engineer determine the critical
arrangements in the vertical direction for the Piping De-
signer. Once-these elevations have been taken into con-
sideration by the designe,r, he is then free to arrange the
other equipment, which is not involved with the critical
circuits, in the mdst economical arrangement he can
visualize. Therefore, it becomes extremely important for
the Analytical Engineer to specify every elevation which
is critical, but not to overspecify to the point where he
is restricting economical design.
38
About ihe quthor
R-q.v W. JuosoN is Piping Diuision engi-
neer utith The M. W. Kellogg Co., New
York. X[r. Judson is responsible lor plant
lagout, and arualytical and producti.on de-
sign of piping systems f or all petroleum
and cltemical plants built by the company
in tlrc trTestenr, Hemispltere, He joined
Kellogg i,n 1957 and u.tas f ormerly a
pro.iect inanager. He holds a degree 'in
ciuil engineet"ing from the Uniuersity of
Michigan, He is a registered p,r'ofessional engi,neer in the
State of Neus York and is a member of AICLE.
 How to Design Yard Piping
Use this method to quickly and systematically
design yard piping and save piping costs
Roberl Kern
New York City
MINIMUM COST YARD pfpfNC is a direct result
of precise engineering design. This method shows how
to save piping dollars and gives a step-by-step evalua-
tion procedure. fmportant sections are:
o IIow to evaluate flow diagrams and other data
o IIow to analyze yard piping design
o IIow to economize yard piping.
Examples of yard piping design hightlight all these
factors and show details of the best yard piping at mini-
mum cost.
The main arterial system of a plant is in the yard
piping. It is here where long process lines are located
interconnecting distant equipment, and lines entering
and leaving the unit. Also, utility headers are located
in the yard supplying steam, air, gas and water
to process equipment. Ilere are located all relief and
blow down headers. Often instrument lines and electri-
cal supply conduit are also supported on the yard steel.
lnformqtion Required. Data essential for yard piping
design are:
Specifications. Usually, only a few items included in
the job specifications affect yard piping design. Such
items are: minimum headroom over roads, under over-
head pipe lines, or steel beamsl access, headroom and
handling requirements to equipment arranged under the
yard; ladder, catwalk and platform requirements to
valves, relief valves, orifice flanges and instruments Io-
cated in the yard; details affecting piping and struc-
tures, operating and safety requirements.
Project desrgn data and site maps give required or
existing conditions inside'and outside the unit limits.
These are: required location of cooling water mains,
below or above grade; required locatioh of furnaces,
control and switch house; location of utility and process
lines entering and leaving unit limits; main pipe runs
'outside the unit; Iocation of storage tanks relative to
process units; also blending, loading, filling station, and
cooling tower locationl and site grade level variations.
Plot Plan. The relationship between plant units,
equipment, buildings and yard piping is shown on the
plot plan. Position of incoming and outgoing lines can
be seen. Major structures, Iocation of buildings and all
equipment is shown. Roads crossing the yard or located
under the yard steel are indicated.
Flow Diagrams. Process flow diagrams show essential
process lines interconnecting process equipment, Me-
chanical flow diagrams (developed from process flow
diagrams) indicate the complete flow systems necessary
for plant operation; also, pipe sizes, valving, manifolds,
all piping details and instrumentation. Utility flow dia-
grams show the number and size of water, steam, con-
densate, gas, air, etc. headers, also all equipment sup-
plied by these headers with necessary valving and piping
details.
Figure 1 shows a plot plan and process flow diagram.
With this two drawings an assessment can be made re-
garding which portions of process lines will be located
in the yard and which lines will interconnect directly
nozzles on adjacent or nearby process equipment. Heavy
lines on the flow diagram indicate piping assumed to be
located in the yard. These lines are also shown on the
plot plan to give a visual idea of yard space require-
ment.
A mechanical flow diagram is similarly evaluated.
Greater number of lines can be drawn on the plot which
gives a more accurate estimate of required yard width.
In addition to process lines, utility flow diagrams will
show individual service lines and utility headers. Utility
mains generally run the whole length of the yard. These
39
Ftow diauavn and Vlol planohow\ngryoeae
linee in *te yard

I ,r)
a
[r tl
h
a
$l\ \
di! Pl
+e fl[ q 0

s# PPoc€ts

trtr
LIN€ S
(, conrRil HoU.tE
d
FIGURE l-The first step in
yard piping design is careful
ta
\ rir \
study of plot plan and flow dia-
gram. Notice that the heary lines
on the flow diagram have been
/'tof PUN located in the yard piping rack.

40
 Various yerd ViVing errangements

A. oEAo ENo tARo. uNEs EilrER B. ,lrR.ltGflf ntuu€ Y*?O.I/NES c4rl

AttD /FAyE o{E €ilo 0P yARo, €ilr€R 4ilO ttlyE M4 Et t oF lw vtPO.

-1
I
1
t_l

I
I
ffi
r-l

c t-sttapeo yieo- uttgir qN ENrGe lilo

lEAttE MPru 4il0 €7451 # 7,{E PtOf LElrc av 7//PEe sDes oF ruE ,Utli

l-l
L_l

_J

E, u-"uaii YAR,, L/il€c au tNr€P o |-l

lND t€AyE ttt php s/Et 0F r,tE PCor Li
U il
I l'i!i: I
n
--.-- Li
---
G, ar*ra ysiD P{trile
I lxRy t4&€ ?//€Hpra Puiln

FIGLiRE 2-In these typical yard piping arrange-

ments, notice how a complex piping arrangement can
be broken down into a combination of several of the
E co,qerulnal/ OF f |uo 7-stAEo yARO, more simple arrangements.

41
 GeneYal Vipe line €wanqewtenf
{'
on e onb)level yaYd
IETWUNES PpcEts alttly RMS' HEAYY UilES
k4ttto th(Et LINIS t/AtE5 .(cootttv? MrER,

,TN'^.F"
cmlrls.
IN€S

s I5
\

/Nr.rrQa4Eil| l,tN€t

GPOAP tN€.t WtrH EXPANS.ar{

LOOPS. HaTTES| 4ilo lAPG€sr
L/NE oaf,toE/ cotoe'r
L/Ne NS/DE:.

FIGURE 3-Important points in this typical line position arrangement of yard

piping are: healy lines over columns, utility lines near the center, and horizontal
expansion loops with hot lines on the outside of the loops.

lines should also be taken into account for estimating
additional space requirement.
How to Anotyze Yord Piping. The plant layout
termines the main yard piping runs. Figure 2 shows yard
piping layouts resulting from various plant arrange-
ments. Smaller plants have usually the simplest yard
piping as shown on sketch A and B. On sketch A proc-
plant arrangement, site conditions, customer's require-
ment and above all plant economy.
Some pipe lines arranged in the yard need special con-
de- sideration. Consequently, the designer must also know
what type of lines are arranged in the yard. These lines
are classified as follows:
Process lines: (a) which interconnect nozzles on proc-

ess and utility lines enter and leave the same end of the
plot. Sketch B is a frequently adopted layout often with
utility lines entering at one end and process lines at the
opposite end of the yard, Layout conditions sometimes
result in an Z shaped yard as shown on sketch C. Larger
plants will have a more involved yard piping'as shown
on sketch D, E, and F. Sketch G shows yard piping ar-
rangernent of a very large plant. This layout can be
considered as the combination of several simpler yard
piping arrangements.
Of course, the shape of yard is not chosen when
doing plant layout. The yard is the result of over-all
ess equipment more than 20 feet apart (closer process
equipment can be directly interconnected with pipe
lines) ; (b) product lines rvhich run from vessels, ex-
changers or more often from pumps to the unit limits,
to storage or header arrangement outside the plant; (c)
crude or other charge lines which enter the unit and
usually run in the yard before connecting to exchangers,
furnaces or to other process equipment, e.g., holding
drums or booster pumps.
Relief line headers, individual relief lines, blow dorvn
lines and flare lines should be self-draining from all
relief valve outlets to the knock-out drum, flare stack

42
 Spacing ol yard Viping
Table I - ?iVe linee witho uf Planqee ...
NO\E: t. rHls rAaulAr/o/t ls 6AsED oN rtE 2. F2R tNsuArEo UNES ADD fil,taunoil
F ot to///NG R€ U r/oA/.tH/P : filtcKflEss EgTa rABuLAr€o VALU€S :

0, . o-iT f '.i;,1;; r
fD
3 Ar
^
t I
^,r*,
J. R€HEHBER rue 3n GAp BErw€€N L/NFI w,fEN C//KK/N6 LATE4AI- THERHAL MoyE/t/E/yr,t
OF AD.IECFNT P/PE.', FOR EXCESS|YE UTERALHOYETIE/'ITS /NCREAS€ 6AP ACCORD/IIGIY,
=
P/PE
S/ZF I /1, Z z'tz J 4 6 I to /Z /4 /6 t8 20 ?4 P/PE
S/ZE
24 tslt /6 l5 /6/2 t7 tz.9 /8rz /glz zole zt/t 22 ?3 24 Z5 ,1 b
q

/< uj
20 /34 /4 /4 /4y', s'a /6'4 /7t /8/2 /9k ZO ?/ ?2 23 7 7 /'tz
sq
/8 /?k /3 /3 ts/t /4 /4lz ts,t /6lz /7/z /?Lz /9 20 Z/ 7/i 7 7 Z q
/6 //1, /2 /2 /24 /3 /3/, /4b /5y'2 u'a /7* /8 /9 I & 7r'2 74 z't, N
\
/4 /02 t/ ttL t? /2re tsh l4lz /5b /54 /7 I e/, 822 I -? 3
\
E2
/2 /0 toh /01, // t, /2h /3La /5 /6 /0 /0 9lz 9 9 7t/z 4
/o
$
/0 9 e4 9lz /0 /0 toh rth /2r, /4 /2lz //y', to/a
/0lz
q//- 9b
/U
9 6 s
I I I &lz 9 9 y/2 9/z 9ltz /< /4 /Z
/z /lrz
/0t/z
// l/z
I t\
/3". /J /3 /zt/? /zh
6 7 7 7z 8 E E/2 8/4 /7 /5 /5 t4 /2b /2 tt4 //h /0 s!
/54 /5',4 /5 /q la HA /1 /+
4 6 6 6lz 6l'z 7 74 /9',a B4 /74 /<b /4//, rsA /3 /2t/z tzt/" /2 /2
lU
at /y i8 /7 /6 /6 /5h /)r2 /572
? J,2 6 6 5 5/z 2l/tz tt ZO
/q /7b /6 /< /4 /4 /.? /.? /?k /4 \9
c<

r/, Z/ ?0 /d /72 /7 /7 /brz /brz (rr

2//z sh 6 ?4 ?3 ?2 2n /8b /7 /6 /5 /4 /4 /4 /3/2 /6 l\a

2 5 a 5r, (b ?5 ?32
24 2rk
?2'/2 Z /t/2
/oh
zo4
/p
/9
/7
/9
/5
/8Yz
t6
/8 /8
/5
/7/z
t.dL /8 ts=
/rz 4t4 5 28 27 26 25 24,/z
?3%
23'.6
?2 ?nk
22/z z/
/a
72 ZU'2
/8
ZU
/7 /7
/972
/6
/9
/6
/9
/522 ?0
\
JO Z' Z5 Z/',/z 264 25',4 212 Z3 2?',/z ?? ?2 2/ ltz
4lz 33 3/ ?9 2t 24,, ?<tA ?4 22U ?/ /q /, t al/. Z4
P/PE I P/P€
s/zE ?4 20 /8 /6 /4 /? /0 6 4 3 2h 2 /'/z s/zE
/F FLAN6€5 ARE /N UNES LlSTED HTRE UsE BOTTO|4 Fl6UR€S

EAb 2-?ipe lineo witlnFlang.* or tineeize

valvee (up toaOrbe rafing)..,
N)fE, l.rqls rABuAiloN ts BAS€D oil rHE 2. U A,tE 0Fttl/ilsuu|Eo DUA/F AilD Ul/lilSAtA-
Fo t t o tylilG R€/4
rto :
lEq4a4il6€t&lrilsuurEo quNE usE
TMuur€o lAtus:
,r..r,I:-l ^15/t/P

c.g*g*l .- -, r------T^ a

r
,r.'a.
ffia .oroi^rro rrru* o.D..,-l-?r'
. r---.4lE
-ii----T !^
3, roR /nsuerEo /-/ttls AND FtAN1Es ADD /NSuLAr/oN r1/cKtyE,tsEs ro rAauLAr€D yAl(/€,t:

0.0., q
D= C+x+y - ?*?rJ'+xry, 4204
0,o.. D,

FIGURE 4-Use this chart

for determining line spacing in
yard piping racks for bare
lines with and without flanges
and insulated lines.

tArEpAt T//ERtlAt r'/0/E/.1Etv/$ tr 1aac€ilr flfts, F* xc,tt/yE UTERAL hot/€tv€Nr /ila?ElsE

GAp 4CCoRbNGty.

43
Tynol e-ro*-eedion of yerd

SKETCH JHOil/T/G
Typ/cAt P/ArFa?Hs
0N v4QO ,tr€EL,

U//E WIH O,yt

6Et0u 4//0 2r/tR
ASOY€ YARD
L/A/E ilITH SOTH
EilO' HIiIIER THN
.OP YARD EANK
AlTTRNATE

YIY^' *0")--- l/NE

fv0.r
Hlrt 00///
UWFR fHA,t/
Mfrotl y4p9 6111p

FIGURE S-Typical cross-section of yard piping showing critical dimensions which affect piping cost, Notice tJre arrange-
ment for platforms for access to valves in the upper right hand corner.

or to a point at the plant limit. A pocketed relief line
system is more expensive, because usually an extra con-
densatepot is required with instruments, valves and
pumps. To eliminate pockets some relief line headers
must be placed at a higher elevation above the main
yard usually on a tee support on the extended yard col-
umn. However, on some noncondensing gas systems self-
drainage is not so essential. Relief lines can be in great
numbers with some large diameters and occasionally
high temperatures.
Utility lines in the yard can be put in two groups:
(a) utility headers serving equipment in the whole plant.
Such lines are: low and high pressure steam lines, steam
condensate, plant air, and instrument air lines. If re-
quested cooling water and hot return, service and fire
water can also be arranged in the yard. (b) Utility lines
serving individually one or two equipment items or a
group of similar equipment (furnaces, compressors) in
the plant. Such lines are: boiler feed water, fire steam,
compressor starting air, various fuel oil lines, lubricat-
ing oil, cooling oil, fuel gas, inert gas, and chemical
treating lines.
44
Steam headers should drain to the steam separator
for more effective condensate collection. Branch connec-
tions to steam l-readers usually connect to the top to
avoid excessive condensate drainage to equipment.
Instruurent lines and electrical cables are often sup-
ported in the 1.ard and extra space should be provided
for them. The best instrument line arrangement elimi-
nates almost all elevation changes betu,een the plant and
the control room. This can be easily achier.ed rvhen in-
strument lines are supported outside the yard column
on a suitable elevation.
All these lines have been listed in detail to emphasize
the large number of process and utility lines rvhich are
usually located in the yard. Now, hor.v to arrange these
pipe lines in the yard?
Line Location. Figure 3 shou.s one level yar-d piping.
Regardless of service, hearry lines (very large diameter
lines, large lines full of liquid) are placed over or near
the yard columns. (Centrally loaded column and re-
duced bending moment on the beam
will result in a light structural de-
siga.) Next to these lines are placed
all process lines and relief lines.
Utility lines are in the center portion
of the yard. A general sequence of
utility lines is also shown on Figure 3.
Under position in the yard de- 47o5 Fl
pends on the number and size of
branch connections. If the majority
of similar size branches connect to 7l.5FZ
the header from the right, it is more
economical to place it in the right
half of the yard.
It is advantageous, from a suPPort
standpoint, to group hot lines re- FIGURE LThis is a typical elevation for yard piping intersection. Notice that
the 14-foot elevation of the lateral rack permits turning up or down at the inter-
quiring expansion loops as shown in section.
Figure 3. Loops elevated horizontally
over the yard is the most common
adopted design, having the hottest
and largest diameter line outside.
Line guides, Iine stops, and anchor
points are usually also required along
a hot line somewhere in the yard.
Pipe expansion forces, at some of
these points, will affect yard sup-
port design.
Those process lines which inter-
connect eiluipment on the same side
of the yard should be near the edges
of the yard bank; lines which inter.
connect equipment located on both
sides of the yard should be closer to
the utility lines and can be placed FIGURE 7-In sketch A, a flat turn is more economical if line sequence can be
either side of the yard. Position of kept the same in both directions. Sketch B shows the need for an elevation change
when line sequence changes after the turn.
product lines is influenced by their
routing after leaving the plant limit.
Right (left) turning lines should be
on the right (left) hand side of the yard. Utility lines Generally those process lines should be located in the
serving individually one or two equipment items should top bank which interconnect two nozzles elevated higher
be on the same side of the yard as the equipment to than the top yard bank. Process lines with one end lower
which they connect. than the bottom yard elevation can run either in the
If, because of the large number of lines, two yard top or the bottom bank. If both ends of a process line
bank elevations are required, generally all utiliry lines are lower than the bottom yard elevation the line should
are placed in the top bank and all process lines in the be located in the bottom bank.
bottom bank. Obviously, exceptions always can be made The elevation of a line can also be influenced by
to the elevation of individual utility or process lines. valves and instruments in the line. Often a more con-
Line sequence arrangement will be similar to the se- venient access platforrn can be provided for valves ar-
quence already discussed for the one level yard. Line ranged in the top yard bank. The preferred location of
spacing in the yard is shown and explained on Figure 4. lines with orifice runs is near the edge of the yard with
Yard in Elevation. Figure 5 shows tlpical yard sec- orifice flanges taeat a yard column for more convenient
tion with main elevations. Elevation of yard piping is portable ladder access.
determined by the highest requirement of the following: The sketch on Figure 5, upper right corner, shows
(a) headroom over a main road; (b) headroom for ac- platform and walkway arrangements to valves, relief
cess to equipment under the yard, and.; (c) headroom
valves and irstruments located in the yard.
under lines interconnecting the yard and equipment out-
side the yard. The size of steel beam supporting yard When pumps are affanged under the yard often one
piping should also be taken into account when consider- or two slots are required along the yard usually over
ing headroom. the pump discharge nozzle for process, steam and other

45
utility lines connecting Irom the yard to the pumps and
drivers.
Economy of Yord Piping. Pipe economy depends pri-
marily on the length of lines arranged in the yard. Fit-
tings, valves and instruments are relatively few in the
yard compared to pipe length.
Figure 5 also shows those critical dimensions which
will influence piping cost from a yard piping layout
standpoint. These dimensions depend . on the over-all
plant layout and should be carefully considered when
the plot is arranged.
Dimension A is the total length of yard and is gov-
erned by the number and size of equipment, structures
and buildings arranged along both sides of the yard. On
an average, about 10 feet of yard length is required per
process equipment (exchanger, drum, tower, unhoused
compressors, etc.) A control house located along the
yard, for example, will increase yard piping cost because
all lines must pass by without really being associated
with the relatively long control house.
It with good layout practices, the same number and
size of equipment can be arranged on a shorter yard
length, yard piping cost can be considerably reduced.
A 7- to 8-foot average length Per process'equipment is
not unusual in a well arranged plant. Equipment in
pairs, stacked exchangers, exchangers under elevated
drums, drums or exchangers supported on towers, two
vessels combined into one, closely located towers with
common platforms, drums supported on exchangers,
process equipment located under the yard are only a
few examples which help shortening the yard. These ar-
rangements, of course, shorten not only process lines in-
terconnecting equipment directly or in the yard, but also
shorten those lines which pass through this area and
utility headers serving this area.
The careful selection of dimension B and C (Figure
5) can minimize pipe length between the yard and proc-
ess equipment and pipe length interconnecting equip-
ment on opposite sides of the yard. C is usually 6 to 7
feet. Not more than necessary yard height (Dimension
D and E) will minimize vertical pipe lengths.
When changing direction change elevation-is an old
rule in piping design. This happens with all lines con-
necting to yard piping. Ilowever, some large diameter
lines can make a flat turn when entering the yard. Such
About the Author
Robert Kern studied mechanical engi-
neering at the Royal Joseph Technical
University, Budapest, Hungary, where
he received his engineering degree in
1946. He left Hungary in 1948 and
w€nt to England where he joined an
intemational engineering - construction
firm to work in plant layout, piping
design and design coordination. Kern
has been in the United States since
March 1958.
lines should be placed at the edge of the yard. Any
other spot will block excessive space in the yard.
Figure 6 shows commonly used elevations for main
yard heights at a yard piping intersection. Note that the
14-foot elevation of the lateral yard perrrits turning up
or down at the intersection. It is important to elevate
lateral pipe banks between the two elevations of main
yard.
Elevation difference between main yard bank and
laterally connecting pipe lines is about 2 to 2/2 f.eet.
This gives an elevation diflerence of 4 to 5 feet between
two main yard banks.
If a building (control house, pump house) is located
under the yard main piping elevations will be higher
than without a building. Clearances in the building,
pitching of the roof, steel structures and pipe line clear-
ances will affect the height of the yard.
Elevation difference is not required if a flat turn can
be made within the'yard. Line sequence in this case
must be identical before and after the turn as shown on
Figure 7, sketch A. Ilowever, varying line sequence in
the two directions introduces an elevation difference and
an additional elbow in each line as shown on Figure 7,
sketch B.
Ycrd Piping Supports. The width of yard is influenced
by two conditions: (a) the number of lines, instrument,
electrical lines and space for future lines in the yard, or
(b) space requirement for equipment arranged under
the yard.
The number of lines can be estimated by marking up
the yard on a print of the plot plan, with the help of
flow diagrams, showing all lines located in the yard.
Adding the number of lines (rr) ,p to 18 inches diam-
eter in the densest section of the yard the total width
(W, ft) will be as follows:
Wt:(f XnXS) +A(feet)
Where f : safety factor-(f : 1.5 if the lines have
been laid out on the plot with the help of process flow
diagrams. f : 1.2 if the lines have been laid out with
the help of fully detailed mechanical flow diagrams).
S in feet is the estimated average spacing between
lines, usually S : 1 foot. If lines in the yard are smaller
than 10 inches the value of S : 0.75 foot.
(a) for
A in feet is the additional width required:
lines larger than 18 inches, (b) for future lines, (c) for
instrument lines (about 2 to 3 feet) and sometimes, (d)
for electrical cables (about 2 to 3 feet) if these are also
supported on the yard steel, e for one or two slots for
pump discharge and driver utility lines (about 18
inches or 3 feet).
The total width of yard W1 can be between 20 and
60 feet. If W is bigger than 30 feet usually tt/z or 2
yard banls will be required. The upper limit of yard
steel span is 32 feet.
Space requirement for. equipment plus access below
the yard can also influence the width of yard' For a
single row of pumps and 8 to 10 feet access to the
pumps about 20 to 24 f.eet yard span is required depend-
 TyVlal yqrd piVing eu??orfe
Wifh auailable ffal wi d+1.1 amd
divueneions of ?par4

ror LlYt+ltAEtc moru il/2 htnEuttous hl Fer WtirCa sterc,

ht
Als
FEc.r OF
,t ltloar I Aff Uo
:ttntsvEZ I zumty€i| AeHncl
/o /0 I I
zo- 24 Jo- sl 20-2* .t ?
2c-s2 38'12 ?8-3z, f / 3
2E -t+ 3C- 42 2o-2* ? k-t rt 6
r? -47 4S-ds 2o -27 r (r) 2 4
{0-44 le -12 28-s2 i tr) /t 7
9{- 63 c/- 6? zg-32 r (c) 2 .r
FTGURE LFrom these data, total available width of these typical yard piping
support bents can be determined.

ing on the length of the pumps. fn case of a double estimated. The most commonly used yard piping zup
will be required. ports are Types 2, 3, 4 and 5.
typical yard steel
_ fn almost all plants spacing between yard support
Ie yard width to bents is about 16 to 20 feet. Neverless consideiation
e table of dimen- should be given to (a) line sizes: smaller lines have to
sions. This tabulation can be used for selecting a type be more frequently supported than large diameter lines;
of yard support after the total required width fias been (b) liquid filled lines require a shorter span than gas
47
Yard ?t?in g 1un cli
o v1 wi th e*chan
^aott
FIGURE 9-In this example of yard piping layout, notice how the elevations have been governed by headroom requrre-
ments over the North-Souih road. This elevation also sets the height of the first platform of the exchanger supporting struc-
ture.
lines; (c) Iine temperature: very hot lines span shorter
distances than cold ones of same size and wall thickness;
(d) insulation: heavily insulated small diameter Iines
with cold temperatures must be supported at relatively
short intervals; (e) Space requirement for equipment
at grade and under the yard can sometimes also influ-
ence the spacing between yard bents.
Exomple. Figure 9 shows a yard piping junction with
an adjacent exchanger supporting structure. The yard
elevations have been governed by headroom require-
ment over the north-south access road. The top of north-
south yard set also the height of the first platform of
the exchanger supporting structure because lines had to
cross below the first platform to the top bank of the
north-south yard.
48
ger gl ru clure
€tEailo( LooK/NG
^/oP.H
.4
All lines from the exchanger structure to the yard
dropped along the east side of the structure. A siot has
been left open in the yard adjacent to the exchanger
structure for lines r,r''hich connect to the lower north-
south yard or to pumps below the yard. Process lines
turning into the east-west yard from the exchanger
structure have been arranged on the highest yard ele-
vation.
A number of vertical reflux clrums have been arranged
on the first level of exchanger structure. A1l suction
lines to pumps turn horizontally below the lower north-
south yard bank.
This, of course, is an unnsual example but it illus-
trates the necessity of choosing carefully yard elevations
and an over-all system of design. L!
1+ 1+
Locate Tower Nozzles Quickly
Same time and detail work Iocating tower internals and nozzles by using
these charts and tables.

Brion D. Wookey
Kellogg International Corporaiion
London, England

THE PHYSICAL interpretation of

process requirements inside a tower
is frequently more exacting than the
exterior piping. Often the location of
an internal part fixes within strict
'ovarhoad physical limits the location of tower
condo.t.,
nozzles, instruments, piping and steel-
S.e Fig. 6
- S€. Fig,5 work. Consequentln the f reedom
which the Iayout man usually enjoys
r\-r-
I Rettur tz/e/
t2"
in the initial stages of design can be
severely restricted. He may be forced
to switch his attention from the over-
all layout to tedious, large scale set-
See Fi! 3 ting out of tower internal details. This
is a lengthy but essential part of his
work, done to avoid internal and ex-
ternal interferences coupled with
poorly designed piping.
Much time and detail work in set-
ting out tower internals can be saved
by using the tabulations and graphs
presented here.
iec Ft?. 4
Tower lnlernqls
Figure 1 shows a typical process
vessel sketch. Dimensions and details
are developed by the process vessel de-
signer. Vapor and liquid flows deter-
mine tower dimensions. Tower
throughput and working pressure are
important factors in choosing an eco-
nomical shell diameter.
The number of trays are determined
by the degree of fractionation re-
Rabo//cr ,lafurn.
quired. Usually the tray diameter and
spacing are so chosen that entrain-
ment does not exceed 5-10 percent.
The depth of the liquid in the
tower bottom and consequently the
length of shell beneath the bottom
trapout boot is controlled largely by
,?.cyc/c the required holding time for the
tower bottom product.
The vapor space beneath the bot-
tgm tray is influenced by the reboiler
FIGURE l-Typical vessel sketch as developed by the process engineer. circuit, when provided. Reboiler draw

49
Locafe Tower Nozzles Quickly . . .
r
-li-
ir-
(a)
off quantities and the density of the
vapor/liquid mixture in the return
line governs both nozzle and trapout
boot sizes. Vapor quantities to the
bottom tray and liquid quantities from
the bottom tray carr be calculated by
means of heat balance around the re-
boiler.
Tray spacing is occasionally in-
creased to permit access from outside,
via manholes, to important internal
If the tower is in very "dirty"
piping.
service the minimum tray spacing is
considerably influenced by the distance
required to locate a manhole at every
ffay f.or cleaning and maintenance.
The distance above the top tray is
usually sized to accommodate reflux
inlet piping, vapor outlet piping and
the provisions of a top manhole for
lnspection of the critical head-to-shell
weld, and tray installation.
The pressure vessel designer (acting
between the process and layout engi-
neer) engineers the physical details
of the tower. Arrangements of tower
50
aoHriFLO^,
RLet SC6L FT
(*reli!r B'Et
rrcrt) (fiL.feRr{hTC
1nF'3)
FIGURE 3-(Above) Manhole locations
for single flow trays.
FIGURE 2-(Left) Reboiler drawoff noz-
zle locations.
(b)
internals are discussed in the follow- cost of the tower, but this is usually
ing and alternative possibilities aremore than offset by saving through
explored for arranging process nozzle better tower piping. The remaining
connections. segments of 90" lyg impractical
-vo drawoff connec-
locations for reboiler
Nozzles ond Piping Economy tions for obvious practical reasons.
Figure 2 shows typical reboiler The reboiler return line connection
drawoff connections for a single presents no problem as it can be lo-
flow tray. This connection, often one cated beneath the trapout boot and
of the largest nozzles on the tower, can be orientated anywhere on the
can be very influential in arranging circumference of the tower.
the orientation of trays. The simplest Figure 3 shows the arrangement of
and most economical location for re- typical single flow trays within a
boiler drawoff connections is shown tower shell. Access is frequently
on sketch (a) . Alternative locations needed to specific trays by using shell
may be placed within the angular manholes or handholes. These are in
limit of 2ao. This angle, of course, addition to drawoff and reflux con-
depends on the size of the reboiler nections with their associated internal
draw-off nozzle and. the width of piping. The arcs bo shown on Figure
trap-out boot at the tray downflow, 3 give the angular limits in which a
dimension "h". shell manhole or handhole can be
In the interest of more economical placed.
external piping arrangement, the noz- Figrre 4 shows the arrangement of
zle arrangernent shown on Sketch (b) typical double flow trays. Here, the
can be used within the angular limits possible areas for shell manhole loca-
of 1800. This arrangement adds to the tion are restricted to the four seg-
l'*. t-
(ivrt 'r.iill
".n*]l
Illo*rarrel ?
rrEta
[
(oo .'r.ilr)
J
?\;,/
AeCt
(ererl:no1s;

FIGURE 4-Manhole locations for double

flow trays.
(a) (b)
ments co, Manholes and handholes FIGURE 5-Typical internal reflux piping.
are not' usually placed in either the
downflow or seal-pot section of trays.
Process connections are not located in
the downflow sections of trays, unless
specifically required by the process.
Generally where internal piping is
arranged ovet a tray a manhole is also
provided. Reflux nozzles are provided
with internal pipes which discharge
the liquid into the seal pot of the tray
below. This internal is diagrammati-
cally shown by the process vessel de-
signer as in Figure 1. The obvious and
cheapest physical interpretation is as
shown in Figure 5a. Ilowever, if the
tray orientation has already been fixed
within prescribed limits by other fac-
tors, this nozzle location may be in a
very undesirable position for good (.) (b)
piping arrangement. This problem FIGURE 6-Two types of overhead piping arrangements.
can be overcome as shown in b, but
the designer must take care that the
horizontal leg of the internal pipe
clears the tops of the bubble caps or
weir dams. Ife must make sure that
the internal pipe itself can be fabri-
cated for easy removal through a
manhole or can be fabricated inside
the tower shell.
The vapor outlet nozzle (Figure 6)
can be located at the top of the head (")
(a), or it can be located in the shell (b)
with an internal pipe bend leading FIGURE 7-Distribution piping arrangements.

5l
Locate Tower Nozzles Quickly . . .
BSCKGROU}.ID GR,ID SCCLE
to
handling of such piping within the
tower so that no obstruction is en-
countered when removing other in-
ternals.
to to
:e Accessibility, whether internal or
+ lo u
external, is very important and is
often not given enough consideration.
A balance must be made between the
external accessibility of connections
from ladders and platforms and in-
ternal accessibility from shell man-
holes, handholes or removable sec-
tions of trays.
For example, a shell manhole open-
ing must not be obstructed by internal
piping unless that piping is removable
through the manholes or can be slung
clear from an internal hitching point.
In either case, the break flange bolts
must be accessible from the manhole.
The consideration of the design of
even simple internals illustrate these
five steps which can be applied in the
design of all internal piping:
l. Analyze the functions of the inter-
nals.
2. Determine the desirable location
of the shell connections relative to
external requirements (piping, plat-
forms) .

3. Determine the desirable orientation

of trays to suit all internal require-
ments.
A.Lay out the internal piping re-
quired to satisfy the prefered loca-
tion of the shell nozzle and the
VESSEL DIRI{ETER9. preferred tray orientation, and if
necessary adjust these to make a
FIGURE B-Grid for internal lavout sketches. workable arrangement.
5. Determine the practical physical
toward the center of the head (b). j"b and gives complete freedom of design of the internal piping rela-
These alternative arrangements allow orientation of the shell nozzle if the tive to cost, removal and/or han-
the piping designer more flexibility in distributor is above the top tray. If it dling together with internal and
locating the overhead line, and ar- is located as shown in Figure 1 the external accessibility.
ranging platforms to the top manhole, orientation would then be governed All of these considerations must be
vent and instrument connections. by the tray downflows. This alterna- made early in the design as they bear
Figure 6a shows not only a simple tive is only possible where space per- directly on the external arrangement
outlet connection but allows the bist mits dimension "1." of a tower. The examples shown are
access through the manhole. Figure for vapor outlets, simple cases of internal design that
6b shows quite common internal pip- t distributors and occrir very frequently. Orthodox
ing, and it has the advantage of mak- st be designed to methods of large scale layouts require
ing blinding of the vapor outlet nozzle ions as bubble caps, much time and labor. Even more time
accessible from the platform which weir dams, downflow and tray sup- is expended with more complicated
serves the top manhole. The vessel ports. At the same time they must ful- and unusual cases.
vent connection can also be piped to fill the process requirements for their
be accessible from the same p^laiform. location, as well as the physical re- Grophs ond Chofis for
This arrangement eliminates the need quirements of fabrication to enable Quick Design
for a small platform above the top head withdrawal through the shell man- Tower infernol toyout grid, shown
around the vapor outlet nozzle for holes.
blind, instrument and vent access. Access ts tmporront 'il::H"*t* r [:::*tl;;:tlJfii::
Figure 7 shows a double cross dis- If withdrawal is impossible, and in- overlays, a portion of any tower of
tribution pipe. In arrangement (a) the ternal piping must be fabricated in- specified diameter can be traced, free-
shell nozzle orientation is restricted to side the tower, adequate arrangements hand, and the internal tray, manhole
2xco.Arrangement (b) doesthesame must be provided for removal and ot nozzTe can be sketched in to scale.
52
 yessel diome ters
'o
-t
n|
:r'q
|l -rt "ob
rli -3 .s; s i-3 -E si i :: i 5-O

c'-c'
\(r.
cl
ii
s'-cf cl
ot
EI

o
i-6' .s
o
q
z'-o" €o
t
o
!-6 (,
co
.{
!
t-o

- o
o' 6' l1o' l'-6' 2'-o' 2'-6" 3'-o" 3'-6o tl-o' 4'-6" sb" 5'-6' olo"
polnl tongenc'1 centerlinc ol vcssel to loce of ftongc of nozzlc. *

With the help of the radial grid, cor-

rect relative orientations can be made.

*.@ Hillside connections are another te-

nozzle stohdout should bc
cnter chort meosured from nside ol
horo y.ssel to foce of llohge ot
lhc p.c.d. ol llongc bolt
holcs neoresl vcssel shell.
viz:
FIGURE 9-Use this chart for determining
the centerline of vessel to face of flange
dimension for hillside connections.
dious job. These connections are often
used for temperature points in tray
seal pots. When seal pot width pre-
vents sufficient thermowell immersion,
a hillside connection is the only solu-
tion. The correct dimension from the
center line of the tower to the face
of flange of the hillside connection
must allow for bolt withdrawal. This
is usually found by setting out to scale
ald measuring the required dimen-
sron.
Fig-rre 9 can be used for a quick
solution of the problem. It can be
used for all sizes of hillside connec-
tions in horizontal and vertical vessels.
The example shown on the chaft cites
an 8-inch 300-pound RF hillside noz-
zle located 12 inches from the point
of tangency of a 5-foot diameter ves-
sel. (See Figure 9.) The standard
nozzle standout which allows for bolt

53
 TABLE l-fflini6lum Nozzle Spocing-lnches
(All Dimensions Are to the Neorest /1")

Mlnimum Center Llne to Center Llne Dlmenslon-Flanges GovernlnE (300 Lb. Max. RatinE)
Nozzle Size % % 1 L% r% 2 2tz 3 3% 4 5 6 8 l0 t2 t4 l6 1E 20 24

27 2t% 2t14 2t3Z 22 22% 22% 23% 23' ,L1, 25122 26' 27% 29' 3011 3l3t 34%
20.. lglz \8r. t8%. 19 t9, L9' 20 2i1, 20st 27tZ 21y 2211 23% 24 26lt 2794 29 30, 371t 50 ,t
18. . 77 t7% t7% t7% 18 r8) L8% 19, 79l/t 20 20)4. ,1L 22% 23% 25' 26y, ny 29 42 46 -20
16.. ),582 t6% 16y, 16az l7 17>4 18 T8' tE94 7s% 20 21% 9rr, 24 2512 26r) 38 40 44 .18
74 14' L4% 15 t5% 75,, lSxt 16% t6% 77 t7' 18 t8, 20 2th 24 36 42 .ro
12 13' 73' t3tz 14% 74% t4% 15 tsyl lSxz t61Z 6Ya 171t t894 20 ,1 1, 30 3+ io 40 1,1

10. 182 t2 12% L2y. 13 t31Z 74 L4' vnl 75% 16 tTtz t8y. 27Yl 28% 3081 2ra, a+Y4 3832 t2
8 roy roVa 11 Lr/t 77y. 7% L2% 123/a tStl t4 1 A3/ 16 23)4 25' 2631 28% 30xl 32% 36% .r0
6 912 AL e% 10 to, t0, 11 17)4 t1, t21Z 7294 131/: t9tl 2tt 23' 2Lxl 26% 2881 30, 3LaZ .8
5 8y 8s. I 9' Q1z 931 r0% tOrz l1 tt>4 72 75' tTtz 7911 27' 22xZ 21N 26al 28' 32% .6
1 I 8' Etl 8% I s% s% LO% t0, 11 13 74t t6% 8' 20, 2111, 23y 25' 27' 3ty 5

3% 7rl 7at 8 EY 8, 8% 9LZ e% IO 11 t2 13, t51Z 77% 7s% 20% 22N 2+' 26t 30,, ,1
7 7' 711 7Ve 8% 8y o o1, LO LOy v t2r/ r494 76% l83l 20 22 24 26 30 3%

2%. 6% 7 7% 7' 7al 8 8' I 9' 10 11 t2h t4% L6r/+ 18r/t t9y. 27y 23' 29!, 3

2 6% 6y' 6% 7 7% 7 12,
7% 8' o ou 702 LI' t3y. 75% L7' 19 27 25

ttl,. 6' AI, 6% 7' 5% 6/t 6% 7t 7X a l0 t4 17 tTtz tqu 21, 23% 27y 2

t%. 5' 6 6 6' 4 5% 6 6' 7 7y 8y ox/ 1ttl 13% 752 17 t9 2t lrz

5' 5xz 6 332 4 5% 5% oYt 7 7y 8r/: 9y 1tlz 73% t5% t7 19 2\ 1.%

74. 5t 5y 3' 3xl oYl 5 5y. 6% 6% 7% 8% e% t3, t5y 76% 188)

71% 20az 22% 264) 1

%. A82 3' 3' 311 o 5' 6 ELl 7 li e% tl% 121, t51Z t6yl tStl 20% 22)\ 2614

3 3' 3' 3% 5 5' 6 6r, 7 8 sx tt% 13, t5% t6, BY 20% ny wy %

% % trz r>6 I 212 3 3% 4 5 6 E 10 t2 t4 16 1E 20 24 Nozzle Slze

Mlnlmum Center Llue To Center Llne Dlmenslon-Relnforclng Pads Gorernlng

TABLE !-fllinimrrm Nozzle Spocing-lnches

FIGURE lG.-Minimum certer line to center line dimension fiot tozzle flanges and reinforcing pads caD be determined from these
tables.

withdrawal and a nominal thickness
of insulation is required behind the
flange bolt hole nearest vesel shell.
Enter the chart at the vessel diame-
ter, and follow the curve until it meets
the horizontal line giving the distance
of the top bolt hole from the point
of tangency (i.e. l"-U' to nozzle cen-
terline phts 6f-inch pitch circle 'ra-
dius of bolt circle). Move along this
line the number of divisions equal to
the standard nozzle standout (in this
case, 11 inches)'and drop vertically
to the bottom of the chart where the
centerline of vessel to face of. nozzle
flange dimension can be read off
(3 feet 3 inches).
ffinimum noT.zle spocing can be
found in two quick reading tables
(Figure 10) which give minimum al-
lowable nozzle spacir,gs along a vessel
shell for any combination of
nozzle
sizes up to 24-inch diameter. This en-
ables relative nozzle elevations to be
established on a tower if the nozzles column and move horizontally until
are on the same orientation. the vertical column under the 3-inch
They can also be used for nozzles figure is reached. The figure here
on the top and bottom of horizontal (l2t/a-inches) is the minimum center-
drums. The figures for flange clear- line to centerline dimension between
ances have been calculated on 300- flanges. Enter Table II at 3 inches in
pound flangEs as 150-pound and 300- the right hand vertical column and
pound flanges are the most commonly move horizontally until the vertical
used ratings. It however, larger column above the 8-inch figure is
flanges have to be used, clearance di- reached. This figure (14/a inches) is
mensions should be separately de- the minimum centerline to centerline
termined and tabulated. dimension between reinforcing pads,
The table in Figure 10 also allows and in this example will govern un-
for both reinforcing pads (Table II) less a common reinforcing pad is used.
and flange clearances (Table I) gov-
erning. For all normal minimum spac- Angulor nozzle spqcing is the final
ing, the larger figure obtained from problem to be dealt with here e.g.,
the two factors should govern, but in the determination of the minimum
particularly tight cases a common re- angular spacing for nozzles at the
inforcing pad can be used. same or adjacent elevations in a slen-
For example the linear clearance is der tower. This occupies countless
required between the centerlines of an hours of work in making large scale
8-inch x 300-pound nozzle and' a 3- setting out sketches. Where angular
inch x 300-pound no le. Enter Table room is limited because of the small
I at 8 inches in the left hand vertical diameter of a tower or for reasons of

54
 4=
oF! e
,'ld
\/
FIGURE ll-Minimum clearance between
govern.
FIGURE l2-(Right) Minimum clearance between uozzles when
reinforcing pads govern.
accessibility, every inch is important,
and clearances between nozzles must
be kept to a practical minimum.
The minimum angular distance be-
tween the centerlines of any two noz-
zles in a cylindrical vessel shell is de-
termined by one of three factors:
1. A minimum practical clearance
between flanges.
2. A minimum practical clearance
between reinforcing pads.
3. A minimum practical clearance
between nozzle necks at the in-
side face of the shell.
The linear distance for (1) is meas-
ured along a chord of a circle 1 foot
6 inches greater in diameter than that
of the vessel under consideration. This
assumes a nozzle standout of 9 inches
(see Figure 11) . nozAe flange.
The linear distances for (2) and
(3) are measured along a chord of a
circle equal to the diameter of the
vessel under consideration (see Figurt
12 and 13).
Considering 300-pound nozzles, the
maximum reinforcing pad diameter
(plus clearance) exceeds that of the
Yi't =-eB
/\
oj
nozzles when flanges
"$.\
flange diameter (plus clearance) for
all nozzles over 4 inches. However, it
cannot be automatically assumed that
for allnozzles of 4-inch diameter and
under the flanges govern, or that for
allnozzles over 4-inch diameter the
pads govern, as in a small diameter
vessel, the minimum clearance re-
quired between nozzle necks as in a
small diameter vessel, the minimum
clearance required between nozzle
necks at the point of entry into the
shell may override both considera-
tions; viz. ao in Figure 13 is less than
ao in Figures 11 and 12. Even if this
is not so, because of the sharp con-
vergence of nozzles in small diameter
vessels, the reinforcing pad require-
ments can govern even when the pad
itself is smaller in diameter than the
When the angular distance between
two nozzles must be an absolute mini-
mum, factor 2 above is discounted, as
a combined reinforcing pad can be
used. This should be the exception
rather than the rule, as combined
reinforcing pads (or pads of smaller
diameter than twice the nozzle diame-
ter) are often thicker than the vessel
shell thickness, requiring special plate
for this small item.
There are, therefore, two alternative
CASCS:
Case 1. Normal minimum condi-
tions assuming separate
reinforcing pads.
Case 2. Absolute minimum condi-
tions assuming a combined
reinforcing pad.
For each of these cases, only two of
the three factors have to be consid-
ered. For Case 1, these will be factors
(1) and (2), and for Case 2,factors
(1) and (3) .
The total minimum ciearance di-
mensions for factors ( 1) and (2) l%
flange + t/2-inch (for 150-pound
through 900-pound flanges) and /2
pad * l-inch respectively] are tabu-
lated in Figure 14, but those shown
for factor (3) do not include the min-
imum clearance between the O. D. of
nozzle necks which can only be de-
termined when the shell thickness of
the vessel is known,
i.e. If t = shell thickness in inches
d : outside diameter of noz-
zle neck
55
 Neck
_+1
PAD HALF FLANGE DIA. + Nozzle
Nozzle
Size -; a 150 Lb. 300 Lb. 400 Ltt '41
600 Lb. 900 Lb. Slze

% ils 711a 23 294 %

% % 7tl 2l1a 2)11o 2\1la 211\s 3 lio %

1 t1/\6 Lr9{o 2% 2r916 2t1\a 2)5,1a 371a t

t% % I'A 2117u 3% 3% 3% 3% r%
rll 2 3910 39'ie 39la 4 rrz
2 191o 2'l4e 3% o "/4 :l% oY4 4% 2

l11a 311 4 1% 1% 4% 51,\a 2%

I% 4 4% 46h 4ra 4% 5% 3

311 2 411 1% 5 5 5 J/2

+ 2% 5 5 5% 5% 5r( 6% 4

5 231 6 5% 6 6 7 7% 5

6 3l{a 7 6 6% 6% 7% ll 6

8 4st\o I 7% 8 8 8% e% E

10 5% 11 8% 9% e% t01l \11,4 10

t2 63,4 13 10 tosz 70% \ltl 12% 12

t4 7 15 tl 12 t2 t23 13] 71

FIGURE l3-Minimum clearatrce between 16 8 t7 12% t31Z \3% t4 743,1 16

Dozzle necks at the poiDt of entry into the '13
vessel shell. 1E I l9 t41l 14rr4 tStA l6 1E

20 10 2l l41r'tr t5% 75% t6rl t7% 20

72 25 t6% tE% 181Z 19 21

then the linear distance for factor Insulatlon Note: The figures tabulated above and io Figure 10 are for uninsulated nozzles. For
insulated nozzles where clearance between insulation is required add the thickness of irsulation to
s.: + + 2t. the figure obtained for flange clearance dimensions oaly. All figures in inches.

Figure 14 gives a table io.f

to
which 2t must be added when known.
This table assumes nozzles fabricated
from pipe and flanges. If forged weld-
ing necks are used,+ can be ob-
tained from a manufacturer's cata-
logue.
Consider the three triangles outlined
in Figure 71, 12 and 13. The angle
ao in each triangle is the clearance
angle for the particular factor illu-
strated.
Notice that this angle will vary di-
rectly with the linear clearance di-
mension (x) required for the r:ozzle
in question and will eeual sin-l -a .
As the length of the hypotenuse, (y)
remains constant for each vessel di-
ameter under consideration, a gra;ph
of "clearance dimension" (x) against
t'clearance angle" ao can be drawn for
any diameter of vessel.
This has been done on the accom-
panying graph Figure 15 for vessels
with a range of diameters from 1 foot
to 10 feet in 6-inch increments.
The linear distance for the two fac-
tors to be considered for the required
conditions sho.uld be entered on the
graph at the appropriate place, and
56
FIGURE l4-Total minimum
nozzles. Thess figures are for uninsulated
between insulation is required add the th'ickness of insulation to the figure obtained for
flange clearance dimensions only.
the minimum clearance angle for each
nozzle determined as shown in the
following example.
Example 1. It is required to find
the minimum angular spacing be-
tween a 6-inch x 300-pound R. F.
rrozile and an B-inch x 300-pound
R. F. nozzle at the same elevation in
a tower 2-foot inside diameter and
with a shell thickness of three-eighths
inch. A combined reinforcing pad is
to be used, as absolute minimum con-
ditions are required.
The factors to be considered are:
1. Clearance between flanges.
2.Cleatance between nozzle necks
at the inside face of the shell.
Using the table in Figure 74 read'
off the clearance dimension
8-inch x 300-pound flange (8 inches)
and for a 6-inch x 300-pound flange
(6sl inches).
These clearance figures are meas-
ured along a chord of a circle 1 foot
6 inches greater in diameter than
that of the tower (i.e. 3 feet 6 inches
diameter.)
Enter these dimensions
clearance between nozzle flanges assuming pipe is for
nozzles. For insulated nozzles where clearance
hand edge of the graph and project
horizontally until they meet the curve
of .D:3 feet 6 inches. Drop verti-
cally from these points and read off
the clearance angle required for each
flange, i.e.22/zo for the B-inch flange,
and 19o for the 6-inch flange.
Again using the table in Figure 14
read off the clearance dimension for
an 8-inch nozzle neck (4s/6 inches)
and for a 6-inch nozzle neck (3fi6
inches). Add to these figr-rres 2t (%-
inch) i.e. 5rl inches and 4r/16 inches.
These clearance figures are measured
along a chord of a circle equal to that
of the tower i.e. (2 feet) . Enter these
dimensions at the left hand edge of
the graph and project horizontally
until they meet the curve of D : 2
for an feet. Drop vertically from these points
and read off the clearance angle re-
quired for each neck, i.e. 25o for the
8-inch neck and t9z/ao for the 6-inch
neck.
The total angle for this latter con-
sideration is greater than that for the
first consideration (+4y4" against
at the left +t/r"). Therefore, the practical min-
 a

e
o O
F
q @E
tr
,E
@
o
N
o = N
tr
E
I
o
o
6E
ba
='
I I
-
@
'g oZ k
(n

.r bo
E tr
F -o
go
Y<
4o

Et P., lo- a
:9N gE I
ro
EZ e=
.E@ _E-@-
ri
&
=L? =a
h
g

=
E
o
o
j
:
oogS
:6O T
riBEs
-g> E c
e 3-i:E
a6= 3 t
o.-
^E
g-iF?
+- 3<e'E
<Eu
O E
o

=EE3
@6s n9y=9o@ts@ 6+DN-O o
BRS NSS SRS-Re@F
urnu,rurl!- (alq01 ur0/l) saqsul ul elzzoN l0l uorsuauJl0 stuo/0e13

57
Locate Tower Nozzles Quickly . . .
ELEVATION
VATION SHOWING PADS ONLYONLY
FIGURE 16-Normal minimum clearance assuming
imum angular spacing for these noz-
zles will be 45o.
Exarnple 2. When determining the
minimum angular location for noz-
zles which are staggered along the
vessel shell as shown in Figure 16, the
minimum centerline to centerline di-
mension (x) can be read from the
table of data for longitudinal nozzle
spacing, Figure 10. (This is accurate
enough for all practical purposes al-
FIGURE l7-Method of using Figure 15 to deterrnine angular
verticle lines and platform brackets,
58
PLAN
separate reinforcing pads.
though the theoretical distance is
measured along a curved surface).
Dimension (V) ir set by the de-
signer, and thus the dimension (z)
can be calculated. This figure can
then be entered on the graph and the
minimum angle obtained as for "in
line" nozzles. This angle, however,
will be the complete angle between
the nozzle centerlines as shown in the
plan view of Figure 16. Although
clearances between
Figure 16 illustrates normal minimum
conditions assuming separate rein-
forcing pads, the same procedure can
be applied to absolute minimum con-
ditions with a minimum clearance be-
tween flanges and a combined rein-
forcing pad.
Figure 15 can be devdoped for ves-
sels over 10 foot diameter, and it can
be used for many other purposes than
that just described.
For instance, angular clearances
between vertical lines and platform
brackets on towers can be easily de-
termined, once the radial distances
from the tower centerline and the
linear clearance dimensions are
known.
Example 3. Enter the linear clear-
ance dimension (c) from Figure 17
on the graph (Figure 15) and move
horizontally to the curve which gives
D equal to twice the radial distance
from the tower centerline (r) from
this intersection move vertically to
the required clearance angle.
This application of Figure 15 can
be of great assistance to checkers of
piping layouts where there are large
numbers of similar angular clearances
to be investigated.
This procedure can be followed
for many other instances which arise
on layout studies and piping draw-
ings where angular clearances are
required and when only linear clear-
ances are known.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author expresses his thauks to The Kellogg
Interr:ational Corluation for permissim to pub-
lish this article.
About
rhe
Aufhor
Brian D. Wookey is a planning
engineer for Kellogg International
Corp., London, where his duties in-
volve design coordination, vessel de-
sign, and plant layout. Wookey re-
ceived his technical education from
the West Ham College of Technology
(gained Higher National Certificate
and Endorsements). He received his
mechanical engineering apprentice-
ship with Associate Lead Mfs. Lon-
don, and has been with Kellogg since
1951 .
 Piping of Pressure Relieving Devices
Pressure safety valves and safety discs must
'fail safe.' Engineered approaches to piping
and support design are essential for reliability
L. R. Driskell
Chemical Plants Division,
Blaw-Knox Company, Pittsburgh, Pa.
THE MOST important design
factor ,about pressure relieving de-
vices is the underlying principle of
intrinsic safety. They must "fail
safe" or not at all. Therefore, the
solution to problems in pressure re-
lief piping must be based on sound
design practices. Because failure is
intolerable, simplicity and directness
of design should be encouraged as a
mea,ns to reliability.
There are at least four good rea-
sons why the installation of pressure
safety valves and discs should be
engineered with care: (1) The inlet
and outlet piping can reduce the
capacity of the device below a safe
value. (2) The operation of the de-
vice may be adversely affected to the
point where the opening or closing
pressure is altered. In the case of
safety valves,* premature leaking or
"simmering" may occur at pressures
Iess than the set pressure or chatter-
ing may occur after the valve opens.
(3) The reaction thrust at the time
the device starts to discharge can
cause mechanical failure of the pip-
ing. (4) Good design saves mainte-
nance dollars.
Sofety Vqlve lnlel Piping. In
order to operate satisfactorily, a safety
valve must be mounted vertically. It
should be directly on the vessel
* For sake of brevitv. the term "safetv valve"
will be used throuehout this artiele to describe
rclief valves, safety valves, and safety-reliel
valves.
nozzle or on a short connection fit-
ting that provides direct and un-
obstructed flow between the vessel
and the valve. Safety valves protect-
ing piping systems should of course
$e mounted in a similar manner.
The device may never be installed
on a fitting having a smaller inside
diameter than the safety valve inlet
connection. Horizontal vessel nozzles,
when used for safety valve mounting,
may be connected as in Figure 1.
Pressure Drop. The pressure drop
between the vessel and safety valve
inlet flange should not be so large
that the valve is "starved" or chat-
tering will result. Sylvander and
Katz' suggest the following limita-
tions:
o The pressure drop due to friction
should not exceed 1 percent of the
accumulated relieving pressure.
o The pressure drop due to velocity
head loss should not exceed 2 per-
cent of the accumulated relieving
pressure.
Some safety valve manufacturers
suggest a maximum total pressure
drop of 2 percent of set pressure. fn
the absence of test data, it is recom-
mended that this more conservative
limit be used.
These recommendations are based
on a blowdown of 4 percent. Within
limits, if the blowdown setting is in-
creased, the pressure drop may be
increased proportionately. Remem-
ber however that pressure lost in the
inlet piping must be taken into con-
sideration when sizing the safety
valve.
Overstressed Fiping. It is impor-
tant that the inlet piping or mount-
ing nozzle on the vessel not be over-
stressed. The rea,etiorn force at t[.re
time of valve opening, along with
the forces transmitted from the dis-
charge piping must be considered.
To rninimize stra.in f,rorn tlhese
sources, keep the inlet piping as
short as possible. Considel these
remedies for troublesonae situations:
o Stiflen the nozzle with gusset
plates.
. IJsea long welding neck ncgzle
cut to proper length. This wiiin
provide added stiffness, w-ithout
sacrifice of intennal area, since the
long welding nedk rwzzl,e h,as a
greater section rnodulus than does
the same nomirral sire pipe.
. IJse an oversized nozzle and re.
ducer.
o Orient line-mounted valves to dis-
charge in a direction parallel to
the line upon which they are
mounted. This method is useful
rvhen the thrust would over-
torque the main upon which the
valve is mounted, or ca.Lrlse exces-
sive deflection. The lever arm and
consequently the moment may be
reduced by this method. Also
bracing is handled more simply.
Safety disc-safety val'".e combina-
tions may occur where the disc out-
let is Iarger than the safety valve
inlet. This arrangement (using a
reducer) is satisfactory as lbrrg as
the assembly is strong enotrsh me-
chanically.
Block Valves. Locked-open or
sealed-open block ra.h,rs, ale some-
times specified in relief lines for
maintenance purposes. These valves
should be full area gate or plug
type. Gate valves should be of the
risins-stem type. The wedge disc
should be so connected to the stem,
tha,t disengagement is highly improb-
59
Piping of Pressure Relieving Devices . . .
able. The valve should be located
so that the gate moves horizontally.
Plug valves should be constructed
that the direction of opening
readily visible and unmistakable.
Where three-way valves are em-
ployed to direct the flow to or from
alternate safety relief devices, the
valve selected must provide full-area
opening at all valve positions. The
transflow valve is of this type. Where
block valves of this style are used
on both inlet and outlet piping, they
must be so connected that it is im-
possible to operate one valve with-
out simultaneously operating the
other. The only exception allowed is
when the valves are locked or sealed
in position. The ken in this case,
must be held by a responsible super-
visor.
Low temperature service, below
32o E, may cause atmospheric mois-
ture to condense on the valve seat
and freeze. One method which will
prevent this is to install the safety
device with an uninsulated vertical
inlet line. This line must be suffi-
ciently lor.rg to cteate a dead space
which is adequate to insulate the
safety device from the low process
operating temperatures. The valve
must not be allowed to reach a tem-
perature below the dew point of the
atmosphere. Consider the fact that
a small leak may exist through
safety valve seat. If the warming
section of inlet piping does not pro-
lnlet piping design . . .
f-rq
J+'
,^oa
u-J \ rocrDswPmr
FIGURE l-Horizontal vessel nozzles,
when used for safety valve mounting,
can be connected t\is wa].
60
protection against
vide sufficient
freezing,it may be necessary to heat
so the valve by steam tracing or other
is appropriate means. The designer is
cautioned that when the inlet line is
lengthened it is usually necessary to
brace the line to prevent overstress-
ing by the large bending moments
which occur at the time of discharge.
Plugging tendencies in the inlet
piping due to coking, salting, con-
gealing, etc., may demand special
designs. Consider heating, insulating,
purging, flushing or blanketing the
device, whichever is suitable. Figure
2 shows one type of seal which is
useful to isolate the valve from the
process fluid.
Sofety Vqlve Dischorge Piping.
The back-pressure permitted on a
safety valve depends on several fac-
tors. One of these is the valve's back-
pressure rating. This is not necessar-
ily the same as the ASA rating of the
outlet flange, but must be obtained
from the manufacturer. Conven-
tional safety valves discharging either
to atmosphere or to any other con-
stant pressure cannot tolerate a
build-up or rise in back-pressure
greater than 10 percent of the net
spring setting (spring set pressure
with discharge at atmospheric pres-
sure). Even though the back-pressure
a is constant it must always be at least
5 psi lower than the pressure at
which the valve is set to open.
FIGURE 2-Valve can be isolated from
process fluid this way.
Balanced bellows valves operate
practically independent of back-
pressure up to pressures as high as
B0 percent of the inlet pressure.
They are limited principally by the
mechanical strength of the valve and
bellows as established by the manu-
facturer's rating.
Of course it must be recognized
that the above limitations are exclu-
sive of the effect of back-pressure on
valve capacity. If the drop across
the valve orifice falls below the
critical pressure ratio the valve
capacity must be calculated on the
basis of sub-sonic flow.
Piping Guide. Various factors de-
termine the type of discharge piping
arrangement that should be used.
Table 1 is a guide to the selection
of a suitable design based on con-
siderations which are frequently in-
volved.
Hazardous Fluids. Figure 3 should
not be used on hazardous fluids un-
less the valve is at a considerably
higher elevation than the surround-
ing equipment and the discharge
can be directed away from such
equipment. The possible need for a
bird screen should be considered.
When hazardous fluids are dis-
charged from valves installed as in
Figure 4, the terminal point should
be at least 10 feet above any walk-
ways which are within a 25 foot
radius.
Drain Hole Plug. The safety valve
drain hole plug (Figure 4) should
be removed in those services where
liquid could gather at the valve dis-
charge. This includes services where
condensate may form or where rain
or snow may enter the discharge
pipe and collect as a liquid in the
line. If the plug is removed, the
drain hole must be piped for safe
disposal if the fluid is hazardous or
il the location of the hole is such
that sudden discharge through the
opening might endanger personnel.
If the pipe is not warm enough to
melt any snow which may enter it,
a cover must be provided. This may
be either a lid as shown in Figure 10
or a light plastic bag fastened
around the end of the pipe. Metal
covers in some sizes are also avail-
able commercially.
Flashing liquids, wherein much of
the liquid is vaporized on relieving,
should not be emptied to a sewer or
other ground location without
Table 1 - Design Guide for Discharge Piping
UMBER

Valve
Outdoors

Non-Hazardous Serrice -(a)

,{ir or Gas. 3,(b) l(b)
Liquid-,.,--..--.. 5
Steam or Vapor
Disoharge Pipc Sizc to 1". . . . 6

-l

4
llazardous Service (a)
Closed svstem (Lo vcnt sta(k
burriirrg stark or s.rul,l,er).... I I 8
Opcn s1'stem ([o atmnsplrere)
Cas -.,1,............. ...1 3, I 3, 1
FIGURE 3-For air or gas service.
LiquiC--rdt........ . .....1 5 5
v;;';i,;,;i::::.... . ...1 r.+,c 3,1,6
I FIGURE 5-For liquid service.
Low Temperature Service
At or below ambient-design discharge pipe so that
now or ice cannot accu mulate at any point in the line wbere
the temperature may be at or below freezing. Use Figure
3, if possible. Where necessary Figure 4 may be used with
& coYer, at
Below 32" F-locate safety valve to avoid need lor dis-
charge pipinq, if possitle. Discharge opening and exposed
spring must be proteeted lrom the weather. A housing or
local heatiug may be required. The discharge, i[ properly
designed, may be sealed with a lorv viscosity oiI and covered
with plastic to prevent the entrance of moisture.

Note s:
(a) []emmablc or toxic fluids arc considered baz-
ardous.
(b)
Dischargc pipe nol requircd iI outlet over 7 leet
rbove walkway andl'or dircctcd away lrom personnel.
(c) Carry dischargc outdoors to a safe eleva[iort.
(d) Carn to an appropriate drain. FIGURE 4--For air, gas or steam
(e) Poirrt oI discharge musb lie safe for fire. servlce.

LONG MDIUS ELBOW FIGURE 6-For steam or vapor

PROVIDE HORIZONTAL RUN HERE

IF NECESSARY BECAUSE OF EXPANSION

DMIN TO
MANIFOLD

ENTRANCE ANG LED

FIGURE 7-For steam or vapor serY-
TO REDUCE
ice to 3 inch pipe.

PURC[ AS INERT
TO '
PROCESS FLLTD/

\rrrano*ou lvlANrFoLD
ELEVATION

FIGURE 9-Open system for pyro-

FIGURE B-Closed system for hazardous service. pnorrc gases.

6t
 Table 2-Safety Disc Piping

rlcuf,f, NUM8EB
Y
\l
SAFI CLE{P^NG

Si4h I

Dire tllaEr trd

I -ltGa,
l--p^r.8. ro0 rxd.r6.,
5--_J

12
t3, t{
t4
IT

(a) Parl,s of assembly 100 lbs. or less lor ease of

haqdline.
(b) Parts of assembly exceed 100 lbs. and require
mechanical Iilting.
(c) Vent stack through roof.
FIGURE 12-For lightweight assembly.

FIGURE lG-A cap like this will pro- /_ sT ACK

tect discharge pipe from being plugged //. INDEPENDENTLY

with snow. SUPPORTE D

HOOK OR
DRAW EOLT
(sEE FIG, 18)

FIGURE ll-Piping must be ade-

quately anchored to prevent sway or FIGURE 13-For heavy assembly with FIGURE l4-For heavy assembly with
vlbration while the valve is discharging. short stack long stack.

proper protection for personnel. The
vapor will propel the liquid at high
velocity and may spatter passersby
with the hot liquid.
Piping Supports. Safety valves,
although they may not be included
under the heading of "delicate in-
strumentsr" are nonetheless instru-
ments. They are required to meas-
ure pressure witbin three percent
and to perform a specific control
function. Excessive strain on the
valve body adversely affects its abil-
ity to measure and control.
Supports for discharge piping
should be designed to keep the load
on the valve to a minimum. In high
temperature service, high loads will
cause permanent distortion of the
valve because of creep in the metal.
Even at low temperatures, valve dis-
tortion will cause the valve to leak
at pressures lovrer than the set pres-
sure and result in faulty operation.
The discharge piping should be
62
supported free of the valve and care-
fully aligned so that the forces act-
ing on the valve will be at a mini-
mum when the equipment is under
normal operating conditions. Expan-
sion joints or long radius bends of
proper design and cold spring should
be provided to prevent
strain.
The major stresses to which the
discharge pipe is subjected are
usually due to thermal expansion
and discharge reaction forces. The
sudden release of a compressible
fluid into amulti-directional dis-
charge pipe produces an impact load
and bourdon effect at each change
of direction. The piping must be
adequately anchored to prevent
sway or vibration while the valve is
discharging (Figures 1 and 11).
Pressure loss in the discharge pip-
ing should be minimized by running
the line as directly as possible. IJse
long-radius bends and avoid close-
up fittings. In nocase may the cross-
sectional area of the discharge pipe
be less than that of the valve outlet.
Discharge Manifolds. The design
of discharge manifolds or vent sys-
tems with multiple safety valves in-
volves numerous factors which have
excessive not been considered here. Optimum
design will depend upon an overall
economic study of the system com-
posed of vessels, safety valves, and
discharge prprng. Increasing certain
vessel design pressures or changing
certain safety valves to the balanced
bellows type may decrease the dis-
charge piping cost significantly. A
study of this type is rather complex
and is beyond the scope of this
article.
Piping For SofeIy Discs. Some of
the problems associated with the in-
stallation of the safety disc are simi-
lar to those of the safety valve; some
are entirely different. For instance,
Design Guide

[Ergi-ldlallM4
. rlftlE l:Da € rB7

,,/.vN 'llE
l0d M^l.
lNct_ F6-
FIGURE l7-Closed system.

\ .,., ,o ,r,.

t- 7_l
FIGURE 1tr-Double disc with light- FIGURE lLDouble disc with heavy FIGURE lLHook detail (Draw-bolt
weight assembly. assembly. similar).

the use of block valves in conjunc-
tion with a safety disc calls for the
same design practices recommended
for the safety valve. Protection
against plugged inlets, freezing,
drainage of the outlet and handling
of flashing liqriids requires similar
treatment. Stack covers must be pro-
vided.
Since the safety disc has no mov-
ing parts it is not as sensitive to over-
stressing as is the safety valve. IIow-
ever, care must be used in bolting up
the assembly so that the diaphragm
is not reduced in cross-section or
damaged in any other way by high
or uneven flange pressure.
Outlet Piping. The size of outlet
piping required for a safety disc is
not necessarily the same as the disc
receptacle size. Discs are frequently
sized on the basis of pressure re-
quirements r:ather than capacity
requirements. In such cases it is
possible for the outlet piping to be
smaller than the pipe size of the
disc receptacle. If an arrangement of
this type is desirable, the pipe diam-
eter must be calculated on the basis
of the relief capacity requirements
and the maximum allowable up-
stream pressure. The inlet piping,
however, must have an area which
is at least equal to that of the re-
ceptacle in order to comply with the
ASME code.
Pressure Drop. The pressure drop
allowed through the inlet and dis-
charge lines is unlimited as long as
the capacity of the line is adequate
for the relief requirements. That is,
at the required flow rate the vessel
pressure must not exceed the maxi-
mum allowable accumulated pres-
sure. fn sizing a safety disc, it is
usually assumed that the entrance
loss at the nozzle is the governing
restriction insofar as capacity is con-
cerned. Thus the effective orifice
area is considerably larger than the
effective orifice area of a safeiy valve
of the same pipe size. Consequently,
the pressure loss in the piping will
be of greater importance in the case
of the disc. It is advisable to check
the effect of line pressure drop on
any safety disc installation rvith a
low rupture pressure or a long dis-
charge line.
The allowable pressure loss
through the discharge pipe, exclu-
sive of the entrance loss, may be
determined as follows:
P ( P^rn
where, P, : Accumulated relieving
pressure, psia
P : Pressure inside relief pipe
near the vessel, psia
rc : Critical pressure ratio for
sonic velocity
2 \ k/(k-1)
- /\s1/
63
Piping of Pressure Relieving Devices . If it is possible for air to be re-
lieved from the system under special
conditions, use a minimum value of
(See values of r" tabulated below) forces: (")
internal pressure, (b) k : 1.4 for design.
dead weight of piping, (c) thermal Calculation of the reaction force
k: ratio of specific heats for liquid service demonstrates that
expansion or contraction of either
If P exceeds P,r" it becomes this force is negligible. Ilowever,
neces- the discharge line or the equipment
sary to size the safety disc based on since it is usually possible to trap air
upon which the valve is mounted, or gas in any pressure system it is
subsonic flow. and (d) the bending moment caused recommended that k: 7.4 be used
Back Pressure. The pressure limi- by the reaction thrust at the dis- in the above formulas a basis of as
tations referred to above apply only charge. All ofthese stresses except piping design for liquid service.
to built-up pressure necessary to ex- the latter are common to practically Ifere are values of k which can
pel the fluid through the discharge every problem.in piping stress anal- be safely used for common fluids:
piping after the disc has ruptured. ysis and will not be covered here.
Back-pressure which is present be- Fluids k r"
The magnitude of the reaction force
fore the disc ruptures is another Air and diatomic gases 1.4 0.53
matter, since it affects the rupture resulting from the instantaneous re- Steam 1.3 0.55
pressure. If
the back-pressure is con- lease of a compressible fluid may be NH3' CO2' CH' and
stant, the rupture pressure must be calculated from the two simple for- SO, Vapors 1.3 0.55
mulas given below. Helium, Argon 1.67 0.49
specified based on the difference be-
tween the maximum safe vessel pres-
sure and the back-pressure. If the For a safety valve Vqcuum Breqkers. Vacuum break-
back-pressure is variable as is the F, : (k+ 0.2) AP1 ers are used on pressure vessels to
case when several pressure relief prevent their collapse should the in-
For a safety disc . ternal pressure be allowed below that
devices discharge into a common F, : 0.63 (k + 0.2) AP1
header, it cannot be allowed to in- of the atmosphere. Their installation
crease by more than 10 percent of offers few problems. They shoutd be
Where:
the maximum allowable working installed with a minimum of pipe
Fi : Reaction force, lbs. since the pressure drop limitations
pressure. Discharge to pressures less
than atmospheric is acceptable, but A : Area of value orifice or disc, are invariably stringent. Bird screens
the disc rating may not be increased sq. in. are usually required.
to compensate for the added pres- Pr : Inlet pressure at time of opening, The admission of air to some
sure difference because failure of the psia (set pressure plus 14.7) processes may be more hazardous
vacuum would prevent the disc from k : Ratio of specific heats, than the collapse of the vessel. The
ce/cu
rupturing at the pressure specified problem cannot be overcome by
by the vessel code. merely supplying the vessel with inert
Of course if the equipment being gas through a pressure reducing
protected is not covered by the vessel About the Author valve. Neither the reducing valve nor
code, the limitations cited are not the source of gas is sufficiently reli-
L. R. Driskell is the principal instru-
mandatory. The ASA Code for ment engineer for the Blaw-Knox Co., able. The best solution is to design
Petroleum Refinery Piping, for in- Chemical Plants Division, Pittsburgh. the vessel for full vacuum. If a num-
stance, permits temporary conditions The Instrument De- ber of vessels are involved it may be
of overpressure. partment, which he economical to connect them to an
heads, is not only
Disc Replacement. The considera- responsible for all inert gas system which floats on a
tions involved in the design of a instrumentation but gas holder. All valves should be
safety disc installation are similar to establishes the de- Iocked open and the gas holder
sign pressure and
those which were discussed under temperature ratings should be equipped with a low level
safety valves. In addition, the de- of all pressure alarm. Another method which has
sign features of the piping should equipment, vessels, been used on very large vessels is
reflect the need for periodic disc re-
piping and designs
the safety relief sys- to provide two separate sources of
placement. Changing a disc should Driskell has
tems. inert gas. These independent pressur-
be an operation which is quick, easy, been with Blaw- izing systems are then each equipped
and as safe as possible. Access plat- Knox for 12 years. He has worked in
the instrument and pressure vessel field
with alarms to warn the operator
forms should be provided where for 20 years, having previously been when safety depends upon a single
necessaxy. associated with E, I. du Pont de Ne- system.
Piping Guide. Table 2 is a guide mours & Co., Inc., and J. E. Segram &
LITERATURE CITED
to various types of piping designs Sons, Inc. He is also chairman of the lSylvander, N. E., and Katz, D. L., The De-
Final Control Elements Committee of sign and Constructiot of Pressure Relieoinp Sys-
recommended for safety discs. tems, Univ. oI Mich. Press, (Apr. 19,+8). -
the Instrument Society of America. ,API RP 52O, Recontnendtd Proctice lor the
Reqction Forces. The total This committee is responsible for all Design and Construttion ol l'rctsure-Relieoine
Systens in Rcfircritt, tSr:pt.
stress 1955).
technical activity of the society with s ASME Boiler and Pressure Vesel Code Sec-
imposed on a safety valve or its pip- respect to pressure safety valves and tion VIII, (1959).
ing is caused by the sum of these t'o it' P i pi n g H an d boo k' McGraw-
safety discs. ,i,,"'ir"ronTi .

64
NOTES

65
MATERIALS
 U.S. Ys. British qnd Europeqn
Piping Specificotions
U.S., British, Germon, French,
ond Swedish srondqrds ore compored
for steel pipe commonly used in
process plont pressure service
J. F. Loncqster, Kellogg International Corp., London,
and W. B. Hoyt, The M. W. Kellogg Co., New York
IN nreNv TNSTANoES, it is possible to find European
standard piping specifications which may be substituted
for ASTM standards. This can be done without any ap-
preciable change in the quality of the material being
purchased. Diflerences in steelmaking and tubemaking
methods exist, but may generally be accepted subject to
certain qualifications. The standards that are considered
to be comparable to ASTM specifications are listed, with
an indication of the limitations within which the list is
applicable.
Comporisons for the Averoge Engineer. In selecting
a suitable piping specification for refinery or process plant
service, it is rare that the average engineer needs more
than a superficial understanding of what the specifica-
tions cover. Provided the chemical composition is of the
desired type, the strength characteristics and dimensions
are known, the purchaser relies on the specification title
and scope to testify that the pipe will be suitable for
the intended service. This reliance is justified, because
national specifications have been prepared by groups of
experts who have extensive knowledge of the production
and usage of the pipe.
For this average engineer, the comparison tables in
this paper will be sufficient to advise which foreign spe-
cifications are comparable to the more familiar ASTM
and API specifications. It is the intent of this paper to dis-
cuss some of the more important differences and to indi-
cate where such diflerences may limit the selection of
foreign specifications for piping designed on the assump-
tion that IJ.S. materials and standards are used.
The specifications tabulated herein are limited to pipe
such as is commonly employed in process plants for pres-
sure applications. The discussion applies equally to all
tubular products for pressure containment, but the spe-
cifications available are too numerous for listing here.
Steelmoking Process ond Piping Specs. ASA 831.3
specifically limits steelmaking processes to electric furnace.
open hearth or deoxidized Acid Bessemer steel. On the
other hand, both API 5L and ASTM A53 permit un-
deoxidized Bessemer steel. fn using these specifications,
therefore, it is necessary to clearly state any limitations
of steelmaking practice that may be felt desirable to en-
sure adequate quality.
European pioducers have made considerable efforts to
improve the quality of Thomas steel (also called Basic
BesSemersteel) since World War II, particularly in Bel-
gium. Thus, it is now possible on a regular basis to pro-
duce Thomas steel having maximum sulfur and phos-
phorus contents of 0.05 percent and a maximum nitrogen
content of 0.009 percent. Since the nitrogen content of
open hearth and electric furnace steel lies typically in
the range 0.003 percent to 0.012 percent there is no met-
allurgical reason to regard such an improved Thomas
steel as technically inferior. To obtain the optimum of
price, quality and availability, therefore, Thomas steel
(which is permitted by most of the European pipe spe-
cifications) may be regarded as acceptable to the ASA
831.3 Code if it is fully killed, or if it meets the com-
position limits stated above. In the table of equivalents
(Table 9) such a requirement is included as Note 1.
Generally speaking, the improvement of old, and the
continued multiplication of new, steelmaking techniques
means that specifying the type of steelmaking furnace or
converter is no longer of much value as a means of de-
fining the end product. In the future, specification writing
will need to depend more on a definition of the required
mechanical properties and chemical composition-par-
ticrrlarly nitrogen and residual elements such as chro-
mium, nickel and molybdenum-rather than on limiting
the permissible means of making the steels.
Deoxidotion Proclice. So far as deoxidation is con-
cemed, carbon steel may be divided into three categories:
rimming steel, killed and semikilled steel.
Rimming steel is often used for fumace welded pipe.
The low carbon skin of skelp rolled out from a rimmed
ingot is particularly good for pressure welding and the
finished pipe has good corrosion resistance on both inside
and outside surfaces. Seamless pipe made from rimming
for non-corrosive service.
steel is, however, only acceptable
National standards for carbon steel pipe used at higher
67
 IABLE l-$eqmtsss Cqrbon Steel Pipe for Normql lufis5-About 5O,OOO psi Ulfimote Strength
MECEANICAL PROPERTIES
(Minimum)
CHENIICAL COMPOSITION %
'r, l-.-. -l-.
lrlslo,r,"' Ma*. Sircs Stre.ss
Maximum
Countrv Standard SteelmaIing Practice *c"- | n,, Si lMax. lllax. l psi psl A.lBr Heat Treetment
Recommended
Temperature oF
Irance GAPA\-D 11] 0pen bearth or electrjc 52.500 1i Cold-drawn pipe to
A 37C furnace 661
be normalized
Germany DIN 1629 St. 35 Electric furnace, open 0.1 I 005 005 3 1,000 50 000 None-gcnerallJ,hob
hearth or oxygeo con-
veiler- drawn (See DI\:101)
Italy Aq 35 UNI 663 ( Not specified 30,000 50.000 2t Non e J,
Sredeo sIS 1233-05 Killed steel, process un- 0.17 0.10 0.05 005 Cr 0,2
specified.
-0.5 30,000 50,000 1,07t CoLdrlrawn pipe lo D,
to Cu 0,3 be heat treabcd
0.10 N u009 t
,07+-
D
United BS.360r Opeu hearth, electric fu- 021 0.70 0,05 005 30,000 50,000 4i Cold<lrawn pipe to
Kingdom IIFS Dace or oxygeD coDYer- 3,i0
22 \fax 2D be hcat treated (See BS,335I)
CDS 22 ter. ot-

ASTM A 53 Type S, Gr. A: 0.048 30,000 48,000 1.09b None

seamles Opeo heuth, bmic oxy-
gen, acid Besemer or
n,,l (See
1 100
ASA 831,3)
t
electric furnace. ,00 + --
E.S.A.
D
API 5L Lioe pip Grade A: Open hearth, 0.22 0.90 0.01 0.05 30,000 48 000 None I 100
seamless electric furnace or bmic Max. (See ASA B3t.3)
oxygeD.

'A: Dietaoce between inside surfaces oI tube. I B: Distaoce belween platens of press. | [or acid Bessemer prodes.

IABTE l-$sqmtgss Cqrbon Sleel Pipe Suitoble for Higher Temperotures qnd pyg55rr1s5-About
60,000 psi Ultimote Strength
MECEANICAL PROPERTIf,S
(Minimum)
Deox- CHEMICAL COTIPOSITION %
idation
Cortry Stendard Stcelmalirg Process
Ptac-
tice
c-t-
Max. M" I Si Mex. Max I
P s I o,h;-
M"*.
Yield
Stuess Stress
Flatten ng Test Marimum
Tem pera.
psi psr Bi H€at Treatment ture oF

Frence GAPAYE 421 A elecLric Iiilled 60,000 5t Nornalize

42 C (Si-killed) 662
Iurnace steel

DIN 1629 Open hearhh, electric I{illed 0.22 0..10 0.10 o.rE 0.05 Cr 0.3 37,000 6 1,000 1_07r Nol specified
sr 45.4 furnace or oxygen con- steel l\{ rn. ta
Yerter 0.35 t
.07 + --
Germaoy t)
DIN 171751 Not speciEed I(illed 022 0.15 0. l0 005 005 N 0.0I0 for 37,000 6J,000 1.07t Normalizc, anneal or
sr tJZ
45.8 steel ll in. to basic Bes- rluench and temper
0.35 semer or t
Or con- .07 + --
verter t)
Italy Aq 45 UNI 663 D Not speci6ed Itilled
(Si 0.1/6 nio.)
34 000 64!000 1t \,'5 spp116",1 in2
steel
Sweden sIS 1435-05 Not specified Killed 0.22 0.60 0.t0 0.05 0.05 Cr 0.2 37,000 64,000 1.05t Colddrawn pipe to s37
steel Nl in. to Cu 0.3 be heat treated
0,{0 N 0.009 i
.05+ -
D
Uoited 8S.3602 HFS 27 Opeo hearth, electric Iiilled 025 0.30 ot0 0.(E 005
Kirgdom (Si-killed) furnace or basic oxy-
36,000 60.000 6h Colddrawn pipe to !i50
sleel to to 3D be heat treated
gen. .See BS
0.70 0.8i or- .335r)
4
u.s.A. ASTM A106 Opeu hearth, electric Iiilled 030 0.29 0. l0 0.0.1{ 005 35,000
Grade B furnace or basic oxy-
60,000 1.07b ColdJrawn pipe to 1 I0L)
steel to M rn. be beat treated (See -{SA
geD 1.06 I B3 1.3)
.07 + --
n
'A: Distance betweeu inside surfaces oI tube. t B: Distance between platens of press. I Similar to DIN 1629 Clas 4, but with guaratrteed elevated teEperature propertis.

temperatures and pressures commonly require killed steel, cal service, it is wise to specifically
but for normal duties, the deoxidation practice is not for seamless pipe when ordering
normally specified. Nevertheless, most seamless pipe is s. Table 9 includes such a require-
either killed or semikilled, except where specially ordered.
An exception to this rule is Germany, where rimmed
seamless pipe is a commercial product and where both Pipe-moking. In many respects the tube-n.raking meth-
DIN 1629 St 35 and DIN 17175 St 35.8 would permit ods usedin Europe are the same as those used in the
such material to be supplied. Although responsible manu- United States. There are some diflerences, however.
facturers would not iupply rimmeJ ,"u^l"r, pipe for Flash butt welding of line pipe is unknown in Europe.
68
More important: electric resistance weldecl pipe, which
can be obtained in quite large diameters in the United
States, is sometimes available only in the form of small
diarneter tube on the other side of the Atlantic. ERW
pipe ordered in Europe may be delivered as fusion welded
if it is a large size, and fusion welded pipe may or may
not be an acceptable alternative.
Spiral butt welded pipe is finding increasing use in
Europe. This product must not be confused with spiral
welded pipe to ASTM A211, which may be lap or lock-
seam jointed. The European material (as specified, for
example, in B5.3601 SFW) is a double submerged arc
welded pipe which, manufactured with adequate quality
control, has been applied successfully to refinery offsite
duties.
It is always worth while to pay attention to the quality
of welded pipe by quoting the correct specification and
by adequate shop inspection. API 5L and ASTM A155
require electric fusion welds to be double side welds, as
do DIN 1626 Blatt 3 and Blatt 4 and B5.3601 SFW
(Spiral weld). ASTM 4134, DIN 1626 Blatt 1 and Blatt
2 and 85.3601 EFW, on the other hand, permit single
side rvelds. The quality control measures called for in the
specifications permitting single side we.lds do not guaran-
tee freedom from defects, so that they are not suitable for
the more severe duties.
Gorbon qnd Gorbon-Mongonese Steei Pipe. Tables
1-4 list United States and European specifications for
seamless and welded carbon and carbon-manganese steel
pipe. Each table is intended to comprise material that is
equivalent in tensile strength and similar in over-all
characteristics.
There is a general difference in character between most
Continental European carbon steels, on the one hand,
and British and United States steels on the other. Con-
tinental specifications indicate a slightly lower level of
carbon content and higher yield to ultimate strength ratio
for quality carbon steels. This tendency has been influ-
enced by an increasing use of yield strength as a basis for
design in Continental countries and a desire to achieve
optimum weldability.
In general, the Continental tendency is to achieve the
required tensile properties through slightly higher man-
ganese and lower carbon content than the corresponding
American and British material. Improved yield to ulti-
mate ratio is frequently obtained by aluminum treatrnent.
Whereas British and American carbon steels may be semi-
killed, silicon killed or silicon/aluminum killed, there is
a tendency in Continental European practice (particularly
in Germany) to produce either fully killed aluminum-
treated steel or rimming quality. Such differences in de-
oxidation practice (which are applicable to both plate
and pipe) may have an effect on the properties of carbon
steel. Aluminum treatment, for example, combined with
the appropriate rolling technique, can reduce the grain
size and thus improve the notch-ductility as well as in-
crease the yield strength for any given ultimate strength.
It has also been suggested that by fixing free nitrogen as
aluminum niride this deoxidation practice may reduce
the creep streng*r of carbon steel.
The elevated temperature properties of steels produced
in different countries may not be identical and, in par-
ticular, the ASTM values for creep properties may be
not applicable to some European steels.
About ihe quthors
J. F. LaNcasron fs a mo,terials con-
sultant with Kellogg International
Corp,, London. He is the metallurgi,st
t"esponsible f or selection of matec'ials
used in oil refi,nery and petrochemi,cal
engineering, Mr. Lancaster holds a
B. Eng. degree from, Lberpool Uni-
aersity, is a fellow in the Institution
of Metallurgfsfs, is o, member of the
Institute of Weld,ing, the lron and
Steel Institute, and the Institute of
llletals. He utorked u;ith the Royal Engineers and u_tas a
metallurgist at A.P.V. Co. before ioi.ning Kellogg in 1957.
W. B. Hoyr is the chief materials en-
gineer with The M. W. Kellogg Co.,
New York. He is a staff consultant to
the Design Engineering Department on
materials. Mr. Hoyt attended, the Junior
College of Connecticutt and, Brooklgn
Polytechnic Institute. He has been uith
Kellogg for 32 gears. He is a, member
of the ASME Comruittee on Code for
Boilers and Pressute Vessels, chuirman
of ASTM Committee A-7, Subsection
11, Steels for Eoilers and, Pressure Ves-
sels. He is a membet of ASTM, ASME,
AWS, NACE, RESA, and, ASM.
The need to specify deoxidation and steelmaking tech-
niques more closely for carbon steel plate material is
now recog'nized to some degree in standard specifica-
tions. The most sophisticated example of this trend is
85.1501 : 1964 (Plate Steels for Pressure Vessels) which
comprises a number of grades in which the deoddation
practice (e.g. killed or semikilled) is specified, together
with the deoxidant used. Grain refining additions are
also covered by this standard.
The Ge.rman DIN 17100 for structural steel plate
(specified for welded pipe to DIN 1626) lists the disig-
nations U (rimming), R (killed or semikilled) and RR
(Specially killed). For quality grades the purchaser may
specify the deoxidation practice according to these desig-
nations.
The recent ASTM standards for carbon steel plate
ASTM A515 and A'516 do not attempt to define d6oxi-
dation practice, but rely on control of chemical compo-
sition and inherent (austenite) grain size to achieve ihe
required properties. ASTM ,4,515 is intended for elevated
temperature use and specifies coarse grained steel with
silicon between 0.15 percent and 0.30 percent, while
.4'516, for atmospheric and lower temperature service,
requires fine grain and controls both manganese and
silicon contents. ASTM ,4.524 is a pipe specification cov-
ering fine grained stee.l similar to the plate specification
4516. The specification for killed steel pipe for elevated
temperature se.rvice, A106, on the other hand, does not
contain any requirement for coarse grain and would not
prohibit the supply of an aluminum-killed fine grain steel.
It is possible that, in countries where aluminum treatment
is the ru.Ie, steel ordered to ASTM specifications may also
be aluminum-treated, with potentially Iower elevated tem-
perature properties. A conservative practice for critical
piping operating at elevated temperature is to use tlre
nationally-accepted design stresses of the country of pur-
69
 TABTE 3-Welded Cqrbon Steel pipe for Normq! Duties_About

CHTMICAL COMPOSITION %
IIql
Plate TreatmeDt C P S Otbcr
CouEtry Stendard Spccification SteelmaIirg Process ll eldiog Process After l{elding Ilar. Nln \r Mar. Max Mar.
Germany DIN 1626 Blatt 3 DIN ]; ](](] IiilJed or rimoring stecl: an.r Double-side lusion neld or No! rquired 0.17 005 0.05
process any type of prsure weld
(including buti weJd).

Sreden sls 1233-06 sls 1233 IiilLed steel Electric resistance weld Requ ired 0,l7 r0 005 005 Cr 0.2
-0.5 0.
to Cu 0.3
0.10 N 0.009
BW 22 Not speci6ed Continuous furnace butt \ot required 006 0.06
reid

ER}I 22 Open bcsrth, elec[ric fur- Illeclric resistance rreld Not required 020 070 0.05 005
nace or oxygeD conlerter.
Unitrd o
Eiugdom EI,'\Y Open bearth, electric fur- Electric fusion rreJd (single Nol required 006 006
nace or oxygen cooYerter. or douLrle side)

SFl\' Open bearth, eleel,ric [ur- Spiral seam double-side elec- Not required 0.06 006
nace or orygetr conyerter. tr:'c Iusion reld-

Butt red 0pen herrth, electric fur- Co[tinuous furnace butt Not required 0.30 0,0J5 0.0rii0
j nsce of ox),gen coDverter weld. to
q cl, 1 0.60

Acid Bessemer 0.30,/0.60 0.il 0 0.065

Electric qeld or sub- Open hearth, electric fur- lllectric resislance *eld or Not required 021 0.90 0 0t 005
I uerged arc weld Grade naco or lrasic oxlgen, submerged arc rreld, Cou- Dax.
ble side.
a

Typc F l'urnace-welded Open hearth, electrie Iur- Continuous furnacc bull Not required 0.08
nace, acid-ox5' gen-stearn, rveld.
or Uasic ox1'gen.
,{cid Ressenrcr 0 13
Type E Grade A-IIRW Open hearth, basic ox1'gen. lilectric resistance reld, Not required 0,05

U.S.A.

Fusion welded Plate A2{5 Grade B Operr hearth, basic or1'gen Electric fusion (automatic, Not required 025 001 0.05
Pioe I 6'aod over. dia. or electric frrrrrace sinsle or double side).
A283 Grade B (Acid) 005
0 oii
Basic)
0 0.1

A285 Grade B 0.20 080 see spec. FBQ:

0,0 1
Flange:
0.05
ERW 30'and under 0pen bearth, breic oxygen Electric rmistaace selded Not required 0,05 006
Grade A or electric furnace,

Fusion relded Pim 4' Open heartL, basic oxlgen Fllectric fusion (automatic, Not requircd 0.30 rl-0 0.05
i
1
and ovcr Grade or electric furnace- aingle or double eide). to
1.00

'A; Distance betreen inside surfacee of tube. I B: Diataoce betreen plateDs of pres. i Aa limitetl,by ASA BBl.3:1962.

chase whenever these are lorver than the ASA 831.3 val- design stresses for carbon steel are in force, it becomes
ues (Note 4 of the table of equivalents) . In other words, economic to change to alloy at a lower temperature than
the list of equivalents for carbon steel holds good up to would be the case with ASA B31.3.
650o F, but above this temperature special consideration The argument set out above applies with greater force,
must be given to material according to the country in if anything, to plate-and therefore to large diameter
which the piping is bought. The country in which the welded pipe.
piping is erected will also influence material selection: in
France, Germany, Holland and Italy stearn piping comes Ferritic Steel for Low Temperqture Duties. British
under the jurisdiction of the local Code authorities, who and German standards offer carbon and nickel steel for
are not so liberal as ASA in the upper temperature limit use at subzero temperature. The British steels are impact
permitted for carbon steel. In any event, u'here reduced tested carbon steel (down to -5Bo F) and 3/2 percent

70
 steels and a Cr-Cu-Al steel. Similar to the situation in
Europe, the nickel steels are available in the United
5O,OOO psi Ultimqfe Strength States, but the procurement of all the needed piping com-
ponents in one grade of steel is frequently so difficult that
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (llinimum) the use of a stainless steel may be preferred.
FLATTENIi-G TEST Maximum

Yicld Stress psi Ultinate Stress psi Bi Temperature "F Low Alloy Sleel for Etevoted Temperoture Service.
30,000 48 000 t.09t 572 The chromium molybdenum steels currently listqd by
llaterial:
t European specifications are almost identical with the
.ull +- corresponding ASTM composition. The only difference
D
2D
\Ye!d; of any consequence is that German and Swedish standards
call for normalized and tempered pipe and list ,higher
31,000 50,000 \ot required 7s2 yield and ultimate strength figures than the ASTM
specifications, which permit pipe to be annealed or nor-
50 000 Marerial: 5t 200 malized and tempered. The creep rupture properties re-
D (BS.3351)
weld. ported for German steels are lower than those given in
- ASTM publications at tempeatures over about 1,0000 F.
30,000 50,000
It or
2D 850 Thus in selecting European equivalents for ASTM
--2 chrome-moly grades operating at temperatures over
58 000 BEND TE$T: 300 1,0000 F the considerations already outlined for carbon
Mrlcriol:3t rrd.
Wd& St rrd. steel pipe operating at elevated temperature will apply.
58,000 BBND TEST: Carbon-molybdenum steel also presents problems.
Matcrial: 2t rad.
Weld: 3t rad. 85.3604 does not include the alloy at all. French, German
25 000 45 000 Meterial:0.6D 400 and Swedish standards do have this type of steel, but the
weldr
3D
minimum molybdenum content is specified as 0.25 per-
30.000 50,000 -4 400
cent, as againsg 0.44 percent for Grade Pl of ASTM 4335.
30 000 48 000 D 1100
Where carbon molybdenum steel is used as a hydrogen
llaterial: (ERI9 onlv) resistant material, this diflerence may be significant. For
- hydrogen service the French, German and Swedish car-
2D
weld. _
3 bon-molybdenum steels are not equivalent to the Ameri-
25 000 15,000 3D 100 can.
1\'eld'
-
I For strength, the low-molybdenum German steel 15
llaterial: 0.6D
Mo 3 is, like the chromium-molybdenum grades, reported
30,000 50 000

30 000 48,000 D' 1 100

to be lowe.r than Grade Pl over 1,0000 F. On the other
llaterial: --3 hand, the minimum specified yield strength is within the
2D scatter band for the ASTM material.
\\'eld '
-3
30 000 49,000 300 Corrosion qnd Heqr Resisting Steels. Generally speak-
l;,000 50,000 300 ing, the common grades of austenitic chromium nickel
steel are readily available in Europe. European specifica-
tions (85.3605 in particular) list a number of composi-
27,000 50.000 300 tions that are identical with ASTM stainless steels and
includes the H grades, which are 0.03 percent to 0.10
percent carbon steels intended for high ternperature
3u,000 18.000 D 100
duties. Extra low carbon steel is also in better supply in
1

Matcrial:
- the United Kingdom than was the case at one time. The
2D
Weld: latter material is also available in Continental Europe.
-3
30.000 48,000 300

Dimensions qnd folerqnces. Standard dimensions for

nickel steel, both virtually identical with similar ASTM
grades. German materials are impact tested carbon steel
and 5 percent nickel alloy, and are standardized in
Vereine Deutsche Eisenhuttenleute Stahl-Eisen Werkstoff-
blatt 680. In practice, 3/z percent nickel steel is equally
available in Germany-or rather, equally unavailable.
Indeed, nickel alloy is difficult to procure anywhere in
Western Europe and, for short delivery, it is often neces-
sary to substitute austenitic chromium nickel steel.
ASTM A333 covers six grades of impact tested pipe:
two grades are carbon-manganese steel tested at -50o F
and the other grades are 2/4, 3/z and 9 percent nickel
pipe are given in 85.3601-5 for seamless and rvelded
carbon and alloy steel pipe, in DIN 2448 (seamless pipe)
and in DIN 2458 (welded pipe) . All these standard sizes
have been written to fall in line with I.S.O. Recommen-
dation R64, which gives outside diameters only. Up to
an outside diameter of 5/z in. ISO R64 follows ISO R7,
and above this dimension follows ASA B2.1: 1945 and
API 5L. Wall thicknesses for the British standards include
some of the commonly used schedule sizes, as do the two
German standards, However, the German standard wall
thickness is less than the API standard weight (schedule
40), so that to specify schedule 40 pipe to DIN 2448 it
is necessary to select one of the special wall thicknesses
given in that standard. In this way a fairly good match
for API rstandard weight pipe may be obtained. but
7l
 TABLE 4-Welded Cqrbon Steel Pipe Suitqble for Higher Temperotures qnd pys55rrys5-About
60,000 psi Ultimcrte Strength
NTECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(Minimum)
CEEMiCAL COMPOSITIO!{ 70
Yield PlrttoirI for Mar.
Plate Steel Welding C P s Other Stress Stress Temp
Coutrtrr Staodatd Spec- Process Process Heat Treaa Max. Mr si Max Max. Msx. psi psi a. B' "F
Germany DIN 1626 DIN 17100 Killed, rim- Dbl. side elec NR o25 0.06 0.05 37.000 60 000 Material:
Blait 4 sr 12-2 miDg stcel, fusn weld or 1.07r
atry process elec rest weld
100/6 tot- t
destruct
rDg
t6t- .07+-
D
2L
Weld:
-
Swedeo sIS 1435-06 sls 1435 Killed steel elect. resist Reqd 0.22 0.6 0.10 0.05 0.05 Cr 0.2 37,000 61,000 Not equr4J 33;
weld EID. to 0u 0.3
0.10 N 0.009
United BS.3602 Open hearth, Dbl- side elec. Pin. by Eot 0.25 0.60 0.10 005 0.05 Ni 0.30 36.000 62,500 BEND TEST: s50
Kingdom EFW 28S elect. furo., fusiou weld, Rotl to to Cr 0.25 2t radius on
or Oz convtr spot radio- 1.20 0.35 Mo 0.10 weld
Silicon killed graphed Cu 0.20

u.s..{. ASTM A,551 A 201 Gr. B Open beartb, Dbt.sidemu- Stres reliel 0.2{ 0.80 0.15 See spec. 32,000 60 000 BEND TEST: r00
KC 60 Class 2S elect. ftrm., or ual or auto. over fun Eax. to 2t radius oo
Oz couvtr. Si. fusion weld, wall 0.30 weld
kifl uotr destruct
uot reqd.

' A: Distance betweeo iuside surfaces ol tube t B; Distance between platens oI press. 1 As limited by AS.{ B31.3: 1962. g Class i requires sLress relie[ and 100/, radiography of weld*

fABtE f,-(q1l6n-Molybdenum qnd Chromium-Molybdenum Alloy Steel Pipe for Elevqted Temperoture
Duties
ilIECHANICAL
PROPERTIES Maximum
CHENIICAL COMPOSITION 70 (Minimum) Recom-
mended
S Yietd Ultimatr Tem-
C and Stre.ss Stress peraturc
Altoy Country Standard IIax tr{o si Ni Cr Mo P psl ps: Heat Treatmeot "F
C 0.3 -\to..... France AFNOR 15 D 3 GAPA\ E 0.20 0.50/0.80 0.15l0.35 0.30 mar. 0.25/0.35 0.01 3S,000 62 500 Annealed or normalized 97;
ard bempered

Germany DIN 17175 15 Mo 3 0.20 0.50/0.80 0.15/0.35 0.25/0.35 0.0 1 41,000 6{ 000 Normalized 312

Swedeo sls 29 12{5 0.20 0.40l0.80 0.15l0.35 0.25/0.50 004 41,000 64 000 Normalized and teupered 96S

C ):1I0..... U.S.A. AST\1 A335 Grade Pl 020 0.30/0.80 0.10/0.50 0.44l0.65 0 041 30,000 55,000 Annealed or normalized t100
and tempered

\ Cr ,rl \lo, Fraoce AFNOR 15 CD 2.05 0.18 0.50/0.00 0.50 max. 0.40/0.65 0.45/0.60 0.03 39.750 61,000 Ncrmaljzed and teoperer 1022
GAP.{VE 222

u.s.A. ASTNI 4335 Grade P2 o20 0.3c/0.6r 0.10/0.30 0.50/0 81 0 4110 65 004 30,000 55 000 Annealed or noroalized Ir00
and tempered
I Cr fi \{0.. Germany DIN 17175 13 CrMo 44 0.18 0.40/0.70 0.15l0.35 0.70/'1.00 0.40/0.50 001 42,500 61,000 \ormalized aod teupcrer 963

Swedeo sIS 2216-05 (I15 0.40l0.90 0.15l0.35 0.70/1.10 0.40/0.70 001 12 500 61.000 \ormalized and temperer
United Kingdom 85.3604 HF 620 or CD 62( 015 a.40/0.70 0.10/0.35 0.70l1.10 0.45,/0.65 005 33 600 60,500 \ormalized t200
U.S.A. ASTM A335 Grade Pl2 015 0.30/0.61 0.50 max. 0.80/1.25 0.44/0.65 0.04 30,000 60,000 -\nnealed or normalized 1200
and tempered
trZ Cr !,i \1o I'rance AI'NOR10 CD 5-05 0.r5 0.30/0.60 0.50/1.00 I.0c/1.50 0.{5/0.65 0.03 30 000 61,000 Annealed 10ri;
GAPAYE 222
50,000 71,000 \orroalized and remperer

United I(ingdom 8S.360{ HF 62 I or CD 62 l 0,15 0,30/0.60 0.50/1.00 r.00/1.50 0.15l0.65 0.01 33,600 60,500 Normalized 1200
II.SiA. ASTI{ A335 Grade P11 c.t5 0 30/0 6u 0.50/1.00 1.00/1.50 0.1{/0.65 0.03 30,000 60,000 .\nnealed or normalized 12(10
and tempered
2V Ct 1Mo. France AFNOR 1O CD 9-10 0.15 0.30/0.70 .0.50 mu. 2.0/2.5 0.90/1.10 0.03 30,000 60,000 Alnealed 1 11,
GAPAVE 222
Germany DIN 17175 10 CrMoO 10 o15 0.40l0.60 0.15l0.50 2.0/2-5 0.90/1.10 0.0{ 3S.300 6{,000 Normalized and temperet 1022
Sweden sIS 221845 Gl5 0.30/0.60 0.15/0.50 2.0/2.5 0.00/1.10 0,0.1 38,300 6.1,000 Normalizetl and temperer 1076

Uoited Kingdom 8S.3604 EF 622 or CD 62i 0.15 u40/0,70 0.50 max 2.0/2.5 0.90/1.20 001 33.600 60.500 Anuealed 1200

12,500 73 500 Normalized ard temperec

II.S.A. ASTM A335 Grade P22 0.15 0.30/0.60 0.50 max t.90/2.6 c.87/ r.13 003 30.000 6C,000 Annealed or norualized 1200
and tempered
6Crl!\{o.., United Kingdom 85.3601 IIF 625 or CD 62i 0.15 0.40/0.70 0.50 max 4.00/6.00 0.15/',0.6,t 0,0.1 30,000 00 000 Not specified 1200

U.S.A. ASTM A335 Grade Pi 0.1 5 0.30/0.60 0.50 max 4.00/6.00 0.{s/0.65 003 30 000 60 000 Annealed or normalized r200
and tempered
eCrl]Io France AFNOR Z 10 CD 9 0.15 0.30/0.60 0.25/1.00 8.0/10.0 0.90/1. l0 003 30.000 00 000 Annealed I 157
GAPAVE 222

Ewedeu sIS 2203-05 0.12 0.3clo.6c 0.50/0.80 8.0/10_0 0.80/1.20 003 18 000 i8,000 \orrnalized aod temperer 7202
U.S.A. ASTM A335 Grade P0 0.15 0.30/0.60 0.25/1,00 8.0/10.0 0.90/1.10 o03 30 000 6C 000 Annealed or normalized I 200

72
 TABTE s-Corbon qnd Low Alloy Sieel Pipe for Low Temperolure Dulies.

CHE}IICAL COMPOSITION %
Ultimate
Stress
CouEtry pst

Geruouy vDEb 680 TT St 35 I(illed, normal, opn 0.40 0.10 50,000

N impact tested hrtb elec furn Oz to to
coDvtr 0.60 0.35

Eh 650 12 Ni t9 030 015 0.035 85,000 5 kgm/cm2 Q&T

t\ to DVM min.
0.50 0.35 zverzge

udtd 83:3603 HFS or 0.05 60.000 20 ft. lb. min. As-ro.l

Kingdom CDS: 27 LT 50 average 15 It. or
lb. min, Chu- Noru
pvv
0,04 ,r"r* 15 ft. lb. min. Norm.
aYerage 10 It. &
Ib. mioimum Temp.

ASTM A333 Grade I P, 0.,f5

:
JJ,UUU 15 fh. lb. Din. Norm.
S: 0.06 eyerage 10 ft. or
Ib. minimum Norm,
&Temp.

Open hearth, elect ,rJ* 15 ft. Ib. min. Norm.

furn average l0 It. ol
Ib oinimum Norm.
& Temp.

Open hearth, eJecl 15 ft. lb, miu. Norm,

furn average 10 ft. or
lb. minimum Norm,
&Temp,

9Ni ASTI{ A333 Grade 8 -320 i 25 ft. lb. miD. o &T

dbt,

. According to AD-Merkblatt W. 10. Ia practice Germu cebotr sttrl pipe my be obtained impact Cested at -50'C for ue dowr to this temperature.
t lfith the addition of no 6ller metal in the welding operation..

TABLE /-ps5ignqtion of Corrosion-Resislqni Austentic Chromium-Nickel Alloy Stee! Used for Piping
Germany

.{ISI rrYerkstofi
Nomiaal Conposition Tl'p" Italy Designation number Sweden Utritod Kitrgdom

0.08% Eax C 19 Cr 10 Ni..-.-.--..-..,..- 304 x8cN1910 X5CrNi189 4301 801

O03 oax C 19 Cr 10 Ni..,..... 304L x3cN191l 801L

Titanium-stabilized 18 Cr 11 Ni..- -....... x8cNT18 10 X 10 I

CrNiTi 18 4641 s22 Ti

Colmbim+tabilized 18 Cr 11 Ni.......... x 8 cNNb 18 11 X 10 CrNiNb 18 I 1550 2338 822 Nb

18 Cr 12 Ni 2% Mo. Jlh x8cNDtT12 X 5 CrNiMo 18 10 4101 845

X 5 CrNiMo 18 12 4436

Extra low erbon 18 Cr 12 Ni 2%Mo 316L X 2 OrNiMo 18 10 4404 or 4435 845L

18 $ 12 \r811Mo.................,,..,. 846

TABTE $-!s5ignqtions of Heql-Resistqnl Auslenitic Chromium-Nickel Alloy Steels Used for Piping
GERMANY

AISI Werkstoff
Nominal Composition Tvpe It{ly Designation numbcr Sweden United Kitrgdom
0.04/0.10 C 19 Cr .10 Ni....... 304H 811

0.04/0.10 C Titanium*tabilized t8/8....,.. 321H X 12 CrNiSi 18 9 4878 832 Ti

0.04/0.10 C Colmbiu+tabilized 18/8... . . 317H 832 Nb

0.04/0.10 C 18 G t2 Ni 2rl Mo,.-...-,-.., 316H 855

23 Cr 12 Ni,.... 309 x20cN2412

310 x25CN2520 X 12 CrNi 25 2l 4845 236t 805

double-extra-strong would, in most cases, be outside the Toble of Equivolents. Table 9 (next page) "British,
limits of the DIN standard. In practice, pipe may be French, German, Italian and Swedish Equivalents to
obtained to schedule sizes without difficulty in Europe, ASTM Specifications" has been compiled based on the
so that it is not usually necessary to apply local standards. considerations outlined above. European grades have been
Tolerances are genefally similar to or within ASTM re- selected to give equal or greater strength than ASTN{,
quirements for the standards under consideration. and to show equivalent corrosion resistance.

73
 TABTE g-British, French, Germon, ltqlion ond swedish Equivolents to AsrM Specificolions
IIAIERIAL U.S. SPECIPICATION BRITISH FRENCII GERM.{r- IT.{LI.{N Notc3
Seamless BS.360l GAPA\-E 41I DI\ 1629
Grade A t{l'S 22 or CDS 22 A37 C Sr 35 Aq 35 UNI 663C
Grade B HFS 27 or CDS 27 A]2 sIs 1233{5
C st 15 Aq 45 UNI 663C sls 1.13{-05
Electric resist-
ance welded 8S.3601 DIN 1625
Carbon sreel Grade A ERW 22
linc pi1rc
Blatt 3 St 3{-2i Electric resistance
Grade B ERW 27 Blatt 4 St 37-21 welded
El""t.l" f,r.t- BS 3601
welded
Grade A
(Double welded
EF\4 :2
DI\ 1626
Blatt 3 St 31-2 Fusion r elded
Grade B Et'\\- 27 Btath I Sr 37-2
Furne:e butt 8S.3601 DIN 1626
welded BW 22 Btatt 3 St 3l-2 Furnace buttrrelded
Seamless
Grade A
GAPAYE ]II DIN 1629
A37C st
Grade B 12 C sr
35 Aq 35 UNI 663C sls 1233{5 t2
.4. 15 Aq 15 UNI 663C sls 1434-05 3{
Carbon steel pipe Electric resist-
z ance welded BS 3601
F
.a DIN 1626 Blatt 3
Grade A ERW 22 St 34-21 Electric reslstaDce
Grade B ERW 27 st 37-2l welded
Furnace butt 8S.3601 DIN 1626 Blabt 3
welded BW 22 St 3{-2 tr'urnace butt lrelded
Carbon steel boiler tube, ASTM A83 tsS,305!lrl or 2 GAPAVE 211
semles A37 C
Silicon-killed calbon steel ASTM AI06 BS.3602 GAPAVE 12I
pipe,for high teuperature Grade A HFS 23 A37C
Servlce Grade B HFS 27 A]2C
Aq 35 U}lI 663C
Grade C HFS 35 A{8C
Aq 45 U)iI 663C

Eletric fusion rvelded steel ASTM AI31 B,q.3601 Et'\\ DIN 1626 Illatt 2 []ectril
plpe firsion
wclded
ELectric resistance welded
steel pipe
ASTM A135
Grade A
8S.3601 Dt\ 1626 tslarr 3
ERW 22 St 31-21 Iliectric resisranrc
Grade B ERW 27 St 37-2l welded
Electric Iusiou rrelded ASTM A 139 BS.3601
6teel fit)e Grade A EFW 22
Grade B EFW 27

E-lectric-fusion welded pipe ASTM A 155 DIN 1626 Btatt 3 mit

tor hrgh temperature Clas 2 Abnahmezeugnis C
Eervlce c45 st 34-2
c50 st 37-2
c55 85.3602 UEW 2S st 42-2
KC 55 Si 42-2 Si-killed
KC 60 BS 3602 EFW 23-\ St 42-2 Sikilled
KC 65 st 52-3
KC 70 si 52-3
DESIGT-.lTIOli
AST-\I A312 8S.3605
TP 30] Grade 801 Cr\i l3 tr
TP 30]H Grade 8 I 1
1301 X 5 liEcNl0 10 siS'iadd-bz
TP 3(]1L \2Cr\i 189
TP 3IO
Grade 801L l5o6 r e'cx'id ri sis zi;z-oz
Austenitic stailless steel TP 316
Grade 805
Grade 845
18tl \ 15 Cr\iSi 25 20
\ 5 Crlii.\Io 18 t0
\ 2t cN 25 2{t sIS 2361-02
plpe TP 316H Grade 855
{101/1136 x:.c:\:.rr- r2 sIs 2313{2
TP 3I6L Grade 845I riol X 2 Cr-\i\Io 18 l0 sIS 2353{2
TP 3I7 Grade 846
TP 321
TP 321II
Grade 822 Ti
Grade 832 Ti
iiri \ Cr\iTi 13 I
10 .\ 8 CNT t8 r0 sis zdiz-bC
TP 3]7
TP 3{7H
Grade 822 Nb
Grade 832 Nb
isso X 10 br\i-\b ls e \ 8'C\Nb'13 u siS zsii-b,

wsN DESIGNATION
ASTM -{333 I 8S.3603
Grade 1 | 2Z LT 50 0437 SEW 680 TT St 41
5637 ., 10 Ni 1-l

GAPA\'E 222
AENOR 15 D 3 DtN ul75 l5 Mo 3 sIS.2912-05
P1 WSN 5123 16 lto 5
:**-,.,.r"
for
for
i.--t3
alloy pipe
P2
Pr2
er'\bn rs co z-o;
DIN i7i75 ra bruo 11 sIS 22 16-05
elevated temnera- Pr1 AF-\OR l0 CD 5-05
tube serviie F
I P22 AINOR 10 cD 9-10 DIN 1;175 10 Cr-\lo I 10 sIS 2213-05
P5

P1) .{FNOR Z 10 CD 9

3003 H|2 DIN 1716 -\1 lln Ft0

Aluoinum alloy 5151 II1 t2 DI\
prpe
1716 Al \Ig 3 FIS
z 6061 T6 DI\ .\l \Is Si I F3l
F
@
1716

composition requirements:
mar, \ 0.000[ mar.

for design in crirical applications.

f1': "I\-etded seants Lo be 0on<leslructirell tested in accordance with paras. 11.5 aod ll.6 ol

sis for design in criiical applications.

74
 Which ltoteriql for
Process Plqnt Piping?

Here ore reminders ol whot
nof fo do in specifying piping
moterial lor refinery and
petrochemicol plant service
Dr. Cqrl H. Samons, American Oil Co., Whiting, Ind.
RBrrNnn.n oR pETRocHEMTcAL rLANT piping is the
Iargest single construction item, representing about 15
percent of the equipment and material cost. However,
DON'T expect to have a wide selection of materials.
Carbon steel, the low-alloy steels containing up to 9 per-
cent chromium with 0.5 or 1.0 perceirt molybdenum,
the straight chromium ferritic stainless steels (400 series),
and the chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steels (300
series), are about the only ones which have been used
successfully.
Nevertheless, materials selection for process pipe is not
as simple as this might suggest. As an experienced engi-
rleer, you know that the Code for Pressure Piping (ASA
83 1) gives engineering requirements for designing and
'
constructing safe piping systems. But, you also know that
it does not decrease the need for competent engineering
judgment, particularly with respect to pipe materials.
This judgment usually comes only from direct experience.
However, a review of some of the significant metallurgi-
cal and process factors which influence materials selection
may be helpfLrl, not to tell you what you should do, but
rather to remind you what you should not do.
The temptation to spend a little more for pipe to avoid
possible trouble is great. But, DON'T select a more ex-
pensive material than actually is required unless you know
that it has been used successfully before or you are fully
aware of all the additional problems that could arise.
Otherwise you may be "master-minding yourself into
trouble."
Cqrbon Steel. Carbon steel is the most common pipe
material, but DON'T look down on it simply because it
is relatively inexpensive. There are other reasons why the

Fig. l-Brittle fracture of steel pipe.

75
WHICH MATERIAL FOR PROCESS PIPING?
.. . significant only below -20o F. DON'T be misled. Unless
some simple precautions are taken, much steel pipe also
is subject to brittle failure at ambient or even higher
temperatures.
You can see this easily if you try to bend run-of-the-
mill ste.el pipe made to well-recognized specifications.
With some lots, you may have little trouble; but DON'T
get overconfident. With the next lot, bought to the same
specification and often from the same mill, rejections may
run alarmingly high.

ERW-Pipe. If run-of-the-mill pipe inconsistencies dis-

Fig. 2-Inside surface of joint in steel pipe with high-tempera-
-aiid
tur-e hydrogen 611aa[ slown by deep etchingl Note that
only portions of circumference are attacked.
process industries use it so widely. One of its big ad-
vantages is how close it comes to being foolproof-most
of the time. But, DON'T forget either, that
"carbon
steel" is a generic term, not a specific one, even if it is
of specification grade.
Specificotions. Many steel specifications actually cover
a wide range of properties because only maximum analy-
sis limits and minimum properties are given. Maximum
or minimum specification values are just that. You usually
get pipe reasonably close to the specification value but
your only guarantee is tllat the pipe will meet the speci-
fication, not necessarily the way you choose to interpret
the specification. And the very time that you are counting
on specific properties will be the time you don't get what
you expect. To be sure you get the steel you want, select
a specification with maximum and minimum values for
both chemistry and properties. Some of the newer specifi-
ations do this, some do not.
Britle Fqiture. Below some limiting temperature, steel
pipe is notch sensitive and can crack at lower-than-yield-
point stress with little or no deformation or adsorption
of energy2 (see Fig. 1). Hence, DON'T use any cjrbon
steel pipe at temperatures even as low as 0o F unless the
service is completely nonhazardous or you have specific
evidence that a particular lot of pipe is resistant to brittle
failure at the service temperature. Bessemer steel pipe is
perfectly satisfactory for many applications but DON'T
use it where unexpected brittle failure would be disas-
trous. And DON'T confuse modern basic-oxygen steel
with bessemer steel. Although the basic-oxygen process
resembles the bessemer process, bessemer steel contains
more phosphorus and probably more nitrogen. This in-
creases the tendency to brittle fracture at ambient and
lower temperatures.
IJnfortunately, for many years construction codes allowed
the same design stress from -20o F to 6500 F. This im-
plied, although not intentionally, that brittle fracture was
76
turb you, and they should, inquire about ERW (electri-
cal resistance welded) carbon steel pipe. This has more
consistent properties than the usual steel pipe. You should
be able to buy ERW-pipe for essentially the same price
as pipe meeting your old specifications. It is made from
fine-grain, fully aluminum-killed (0.02 percent minimum
residual), basic-oxygen steel containing 0.08 to 0.15 per-
cent carbon, 0.27 to 0.63 percent manganese, 0.05 percent
max. sulfur, and 0.035 percent max. phosphorus. In the
usual normalized condition, it has a minimum teruiie
strength of 40,000 psi, a minimum yield strength of
30,000 psi, and a minimum elongation of 40 percent in
two inches. Low-temperature impact strengths have been
good, although not guaranteed, down to -50o F. The
combination of low carbon content and high manganese-
to-carbon ratio increases resistance to cracking and brittle
fracture but still provides adequate control of mechanical
properties so maximum values need not be specified.
DON'T have qualms because ERW-pipe is made from
strip. Rolling deforms strip to a greater extent and more
uniformly than the wall of most seamless pipe is de-
formed. Strip can be made with both surfaces clean. It
can be inspected readily. These features give you confi-
dence in both the inner and outer surfaces and the
uniformity-of-thickness of welded pipe. With selected
carbon steel strip, modern automatic fusion welding pre
duces reliable longitudinal seams, and a normalizing heat
treatment after welding removes all evidence of weld
structure.
Gentrifugolly-Cosl Pipe. As wall thickness increases,
both seamless and welded pipe become increasingly diffi.
cult to fabricate. Ifowever, DON'T become alarmed if
you need heavier pipe. Modern centrifugally-cast steel
pipe is a common product, and simple heat treatment
develops a suitable metallurgical structure. Although pipe
is cast in lengths shorter than you may be used to, these
can be butt-welded together into any lengths you want.
High-Temperqlure Hydrogen Attock. As service tem-
perature increases above atmospheric, the likelihood of
brittle fracture decreases, so carbon steel still may be the
best material to use. But DON'T forget the pipe selected
must resist process deterioration, and DON'T think that
deterioration means only corrosion. For example, if pro-
cess atmospheres contain more than 100 psig partial pres-
sure of hydrogen, watch out, you may be headed for
trouble (see Figure 2). As a competent refinery engineer
you know about Nelson's hydrogen attack curves.3 But,
DON'T think you can always save money by keeping
design temperatures low enough so carbon steel pipe can
be used safely. There are many possible traps. For exam-
ple, as catalyst deteriorates, DON'T be surprised if oper-
ating pressures or temperatures rise more than you expect.
If they do, reactor outlet piping, in particular, could be
subject to hydrogen attack.
However, DON'T panic, because hydrogen atmo-
spheres can be handled sa'fely. If you use Nelson's curves
intelligently, they will help you choose the proper steel
to withstand most process conditions, particularly at high
hydrogen partial pressures. But, even though these curves
are quite well established, DON'T select even a low-alloy
steel whose limiting-resistance curve is too close to oper-
ating conditions. Operators may become careless in con-
trolling temperatures as alloy content increases. Inciden-
tally, although molybdenum additions improve elevated-
temperature strength, and resistance to hydrogen attack,
their primary function is to retard the temper embrittle-
ment of low- and intermediate-chromium steels (up to
10 percent chromium) during Iong exposure to process
temperatures.
Some engineers consider austenitic stainless steels so
resistant to hydrogen attack that no precautions are nec-
essary. Stainless steels do resist high-temperature hydro-
gen attack, but DON'T select them with the belief that
hydrogen will not pass through them. .It will, in the
atomic form. Thus, if you use an austenitic stainless steel
to line or to clad a low-alloy base, be sure that the base
metal will resist hydrogen attack. Alsq be sure that the
bond between the two layers is metallurgically tight. If
it isn't, diffusing hydrogen atoms, after passing through
the stainless steel, will combine to form molecular hydro-
gen at the interface and will build up a pressure essenti-
ally equal to the process hydrogen partial pressure. It
doesn't take much of a disc,ontinuity in the bond to allow
molecular hydrogen to form, so DON'T count on any of
the usual . inspection methods for detection, even ultra-
sonics.
Corrosion. In petroleum refineries, process streams con-
taining hydrogen frequently contain hydrogen sulfide also.
This causes sirlfidic corrosion. You know from experience
that increasing the chromium content of a steel increases
its resistance to cgrrosion by high-sulfur cmdesa (see Fig-
ure 3). Ilowever, DON'T jump to the conclusion that
chromium alloying always improves resistance to sulfidic
corrosion. It does so if the operation is dirty, as it usually
is in crude streams. Or if the corrodants are elemental
sulfur or sulfur compounds that do not decompose to
release hydrogen sulfide. This increased resistance to sul-
fur corrosion depends on formation of a protective scale.
With such scales, the corrosion rate is parabolic; that is,
it decreases with exposure time.
If the operation is clean, as it usually is when hydrogen
is present, the iron sulfide corrosion product is not pro-
tective.s,8 Under these conditions, the corrosion rate is
linear and does not decrease with time, and chromium
additions are not beneficial. Carbon steel and 9 percent
chromium steel corrode at substantially the same rate and
a 5 percent chromium steel may corrode even faster tharr
the other two. So DON'T waste your money by picking
a chromium content higher than you need to resist hydro-
gen attack.
d
U
r?5
F
o _- ll,:3
z
o loo
o
E \ <t2s
o
o
\'
ui
t- 5()
E \_
zo
625
\. --tkrpn
o
G
E
o | cRuoE orLs
-------r---
l)
o 4 6 8 rO
CHROMIUM,O/.
Fig 3-Efiect of chromium content on various sulfide corrosion
rates.a
Welding Problems With Cr-Mo Pipe. Also, DON'T
use even low-chromium steel pipe unless you are willing
to pay for more careful welding and post-weld heat treat-
ments. At a given hardness, low-alloy chromium-molybde-
num steels have somewhat more ductility than carbon
steels. Ilowever, because they air harden so much, they
usually require post-weld heat treatments to toughen the
weld metal and heat-affected zone. This heat treatnent
complicates field welding.
DON'T always be subservient to convention, because
intelligent materials selection should decrease sorne of
these welding complications.T For example, when carbon
steel pipe is welded to a higher alloy, such as 5-Cr, /r-Mo
steel, some engineers require weld metal corresponding
to the higher alloy and a post-weld heat treatment. How-
ever, DON'T you think carbon steel weld metal should
be equally satisfactory? And then a post-weld heat treat-
ment might not be necessary. Such joints clearly have to
be in a process zone where carbon steel is acceptable.
Frequently, the very engineers who insist on post-weld
heat-treatment with carbon steel or low-alloy weld metals
would be willing to omit the post-weld heat treatment if
an austenitic stainless steel electrode, particularly Type
309 (25-Cr, 12-Ni) were used. Ironically, their reasoning
that the hardened, heat-a^ffected zone of the 5-Cr steel
would have ductile, austenitic stainless steel weld metal
on one side of it and ductile, 5-Cr steel parent metal
on the other, is equally valid in the rejected case where
the weld metal is carbon steel.
Higher Alloys. If low-or intermediate-chromium steel
pipe won't resist corrosion adequately in refinery streams
you'll have to use aluminum-coatings8 or high-chromium
ferritic (Type a00) or austenitic (Type 300) stainless
steels.e DON'T try to justify anything more expensive;
it's almost impossible. And, when trying to choose be-
tween these possibilities, look at the over-all picture,
DON'T even bother about corrosion resistance; they
don't differ that much. As a matter of fact they also may
differ less in cost than you might expect, too.
Aluminum Cootings resist sulfidic corrosion well, but
DON'T expect them to be perfect and DON'T expect
77
WHICH MATERIAT FOR PROCESS PIPING? . .
Fig. 4-The aluminized backing ring in aluminized pipe is on
the upstream side.
Fig. 1-,Stress-corrosion cracks in stainless steel pipe.
them to stay on unless they have reacted with the base
steel to form an iron-aluminum alloy layer.8,ro Simple
sprayed coatings won't do. This alloying reaction requires
melting the aluminum. But, DON'T go too far above
the melting point or the brittle reaction product becomes
excessively thick and tends to spall. Also, DON'T expect
to be too huppy with aluminum-coated pipe if the alum-
inized surface has to be welded; the weld probably will
embrittle and may crack. In addition, if butt welds are
used for pipe joints, a low-alloy chromium-molybdenum
weld metal will be susceptible to corrosion. One alterna-
tive is to use austenitic stainless steel weld metal. Another
is to use aluminum-coated backing rings to protect the
weld root against corrosion (see Fig. 4). Neither of these
has been completely satisfactory.
Hot-dipping produces a good aluminized coating but
10 to 12 feet is the longest pipe that can be handled.
Because even these lengths have to be dipped from each
end, there may be a poor coating in the overlap region.
High-temperature aluminizing, known as alonizing or
78
caiorizing, gives by far the most continuous aluminized
coating; unfortunately, it is also the thickest, and because
both surfaces of the pipe usually are coated, it is difficult
to weld.
Stoinless Steels are well advertised and may look very
good in short-time field trials or in laboratory tests. But,
DON'T expect them to get you out of trouble automati-
cally, and DON'T specify them unless you know their
many disabilities. They have been most successful at oper-
ating temperatures lower or higher than most of those in
petroleum refining. If you accept the advertising claims
simply because stainless steels cost five or six times more
than carbon or low-alloy steels, you may be heading for
real trouble.
DON'T expect plain 11- to 13 percent chromium fer-
ritic stainless steel pipe (Type 410) to be much of an
improvement over 9-Cr, l-Mo steel. It has only border-
line corrosion resistance. Tlpe 410 welds also air harden
and require post-weld heat treatment. DON'T put this
alloy, or any of tho lower alloys, into service if the hard-
ness is above Rockwell C22; it is likely to hydrogen stress-
crack. The aluminum-containing grade (Type 405) is
completely ferritic up to the melting point so it doesn't
harden on welding. Ifowever, it develops extremely coarse
grains adjacent to the fusion line, which lon'er ductility.
DON'T use ferritic stainless steels containing more than
16 percent chromium in the 7500 F to 1,0000 F tempera-
ture zone. They invariably embrittle, because of precipi-
tation of a chromium-rich constituent.ll Even the 11- to
13 percent chromium alloy sometimes seems to embrittle
in this way, for reasons not clear. IJnfortunately, this is
a common temperature zone for many refinery and chem-
ical plant processes. Furthermore, DON'T use these fer-
ritic stainless steels above 1,0000 F, either; they will em-
brittle for a somewhat different reason, because of the
formation of an iron-chromium intermetallic compound
called sigma phase.12
Austenitic stainless steels resist oxidation by either
oxygen-bearing or sulfur-bearing process streams. But,
DON'T expect austenitic stainless steel pipe to be fool-
proof simply because it has corrosion resistance. Many
plant operators are too optimistic and feel that tight
temperature controls aren't necessary with austenitic stain-
less steels. If temperatures climb too high, even these
steels will oxidize and sulfidize significantly.G
Relatively short-time tests indicate that austenitic stain-
less steels are ductile at all temperatures. But, DON'T
expect this conclusion to be valid for steels exposed to
thousands of hours at process temperatures. Long ex-
posures between, roughly, 8000 F and 1,6000 F precipitate
chromium carbide and sigma phase in many stainless
steels. This causes a significant loss in atmospheric-
temperature ductility; ductility at higher temperatures is
affected less.
Slress-Corrosion Crqcking. The greatest problems witJl
austenitic stainless steel piping usually arise when the unit
is off stream rather than when it is operating. You have
to anticipate such problems and take the necessary steps
to avoid them if you want to use stainless steels. Chlo-
rides, and caustics under some conditions, can cause any
austenitic stainless steel pipe to crack transgranularlyrs
 (see Fig. 5). Plain-chromium stainless steels do not crack
in chloride solutions, but they usually pit badly enough to
be only moderately satisfactory.
Strictly speaking chloride stress-corrosion cracking will
not occur unless there is contact with an aqueous solution
of suitable chloride concentration, a favorable tempera-
ture, and strain or residual stress. Ifowever, DON'T be
lulled into an unrealistic sense of security by this com-
plexity, as these requirements may be met rather'unpre-
dictably. For example, the small amount of chlorides in
most external pipe insulations can be leached out by
exposure to weather and become concentrated at the pipe
wall.la Temperature may be difficult to measure, let al,one
control, especially during startup or shutdown when
gradients exist. And residual stresses usually are present in
a relatively low yield strength material like annealed
stainless steel pipe. A pipe bumped in shipment, or sprung
or cold bent in fitting can have all the stress needed. In
fact, circumferential weld shrinkage alone, particularly in
heavy-wall pipe, may create complex bending stresses at
the joint. Post-weld heat treatments should relieve many
of these stresses, but, if there is much restraint, the subse-
quent cooling can reintroduce harmful stresses. DON,T
overlook the fact, either, that the much higher thermal
expansion and contraction of the austenitic stainless steels
may introduce unexpected restraint stresses as well as
being troublesome in piping layouts.
When the normal carbon (0.08 per.cent maximum)
grades of austenitic stainless steel pipe are used in the
temperature range of B00o F to 1,5000 F, chromium car-
bides precipitate in the grain boundaries. This sensitizes
the material and makes it susceptible to intergranular
corrosion in many acid media. So long as the unit stays
on stream there is no real deterioration from this precipi-
tate, except some loss in ductility. In fact, if the material
stays at these temperatures for a long enbugh time (the
necessary time decreases as the temperature increases to
approximately 1,6500 F), it will heal itself and lose its
sensitivity to inter-granular corrosion. Nevertheless,
DON'T count on this long-time exposure. Something, if
only a check to be sure everything is working properly,
generally shuts down initial mns of a new unit prema-
turely.
Sensitized material also is susceptible to intergranular
stress-corrosion cracking in the polythionic acids formed
by the reaction of iron sulfide, air, and moisture.l5
Any type of stress-corrosion cracking is troublesome be-
cause it seldom is noticed until the unit is being brought
back on stream. Then it is invariably attributed to some-
thing that happened during the startup. Shutdown costs
may be increased still further by futile attempts to weld-
repair the leaks. With cracking like this, weld shrinkage
will open up another crack as rapidly as one lea-k is
repaired.
DON'T expect the extra low-carbon (L grades), the
chemically-stabilized (Types 347 or 321), or the con-
trolled-ferritelG (centrifugally-cast, usually) varieties of
austenitic stainless steels to solve these potential cracking
problems. They may help, but success is unpredictable.
For example, in the low-carbon types some carbide pre-
cipitation still can occur toward tho low side of the B00o F
to 1,5000 F temperature range. This may be enough to
sensitize the structure to intergranular corrosion. The
higher the carbon content the greater the danger. The
About lhe quthor
Dn. Cmr, H. Snrrlrts is assistant direc-
tor of Resea,q'ch and Deaelopment,
Amer'ica,n Oil Co., Whiting, Ind. He
holds the Ch.E. degree from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute and recei,aed luis
M.S. anil Ph.D, d,egrees in metallw'gg
from Yale Uniuet'si,ty. Dr. Samans has
held positions in the Resea?,ch Dept. of
Cha,se Brass & Copper Co., as instruc-
tor at Lehi.gh and, Rensselaer, and as
chemically-stabilized types (containing columbium-tanta-
lum, or titanium) are excellent if carbide precipitation
occurs during welding and if subsequent service is near
atmospheric temperature (at least below 7000 F) . Then,
only randomly-distributed columbium, tantalum, or ti-
tanium carbides precipitate during cooling. However, if
service is between 8000 F and 1,0000 F for long times, the
carbon left in solution, even after the stabilized carbides
form during post-weld cooling, precipitates conventionally
as chromium carbide at grain boundaries. Here again, if
there is enough precipitation at any. one location, and if
these grain-boundary particles are properly spaced, sensiti-
zation still can occur. In the controlled-ferrite grades, the
ferrite won't crack, although it may embrittle or corrode
selectively in some media, but the austenitic matrix is
subject to all the disabilities mentioned above.
The higher-nickel stainless steels offer some hope. But,
these alloys are expensive and they may not have ade-
quate resistance to either stress-corrosion cracking or sul-
fidic corrosion if conditions are severe.
There is no certain way of preventing transgranular
(chloride) stress cracking and the only real solution to
intergranular (polythionic acid) stress cracking is to
heat-treat the piping, including welds, in order to pre-
cipitate as much carbon in a stabilized, nonsensitizing
form as possible before service. Even then, DON'T forget
to caution the operators to open equipment as infre-
quently as possible, to Ieave it open as short a time as
possible, and to keep it either dry and blanketed with
inert gas or flooded with an alkaline solution when it
is off stream.
LITERATURE CITED
1 ASA 831.3-1966,
"Petroleum Refinery Piping," The Amer. Sc. of
Mech. Engs., New York, 1966.
or Engireering. Sttuctures"' John w,ev
o'.lill"i;I S;;'?ilX]"Sf lavior
3 Nelson, G. A., Hydrocarbon Processing, 45, 201 (1966).
a Dravnieks, A., and Couper, A, 5., Corrosion, 18,, 2911 (1962).
sDravnieks, A., ud Samans, C. H., Prc. A.P,I.37, 100 (1957).
oSorrell, G., Corrosion, 14, 15t (1958).
7 Bland,
J., Weld. Jour. Res. Suppl. 35, 1815 (1956).
ETisinai, G. F., aud Samns, C. H., Proc. A.P.I.,39,92 (1959).
oAlessendria, A. V., and Jaggad, N., Proc. A.P.I.,,lO, 1,10 (1960).
l0Dravnieks, A., and Smam, C. H., Prrc. A.P.I.,37, 100 (1957).
11Lena, A. l. Metal Progress,66,722 (lgH\.
12Lena, A. and Hawkm, M. F., Trans. A.I.M.E.,200,607
ulfoar, T. J.,
(1954).
P,, Corroion, 19, 331t (1963).
LAshbaugh, ti,l. G., Materiak Prolection,,l, 18 (1965).
rrDravnieks, A., and Suau, C. H., Proc. A.P.I.,37, 100 (1957).
^-'u.Eg!!e"", M, G., Brck, F, H. md Flmers, J. W., Metal Progress 80,
99 (1961).
C|. H.," M e tottic Mate riats it Etshe eths ;' "I\e
"*f,:,U;.t*:t.ft"Yffi."d,
79
EXPANSION
 Find Best Pipe
Expansion Loop Quickly
If your piping flexibility calculations
little more than an expansion loop juggling act,
check this new one-try method
George L. Ellison, Thompson's lndustriol
Drofting Service, Boton Rouge, Lo.
Most methods for solving expansion-flexibility problems
fall into two categories, the rigorous and the sornewhat
Iess rigorous. The rigorous methods are time consuming
and often are too involved or complicated for the man
who does not have time to become an ex?ert in this
branch. It may also be found that the time spent on
numerous problems, the expense incurred, and even the
nature of the problem itself does not justify such rigorous
t. ' calculations. The less rigorous, simpler methods are us-
I ually designed to conserve time and eflort, but often fall
r into much criticism concerning their accuracy.
! Regardless of the method used there is an inherent
It weakness in the results. This weakness can be illustrated
best by looking at a lr,ypical procedure. First, a proposed
piping configuration is drawn up. Then one proceeds to
calculate the moments and other things that may be
required by the particular method. Last, the maximum
pipe stress and the thrust on the anchors is calculated.
As can readily be seen, the thrust and stress (the main
considerations), are controlled entirely by the piping con-
figuration. As the piping configuration is arbitrary, this
often results in excessive stresses or thrust. When this
happens the designer must revise his piping configuration
and start over with a little more assurance that the second
represent
or a later try will produce results that are within the
desired limitations. As these calculations are spmewhat
tedious and "hit or miss," a designer will often lengthen
the piping configuration in such a way as to cause the
system to have an unnecessary length in order to have
assurance that excessive thrusts and stresses will not
occur. This causes added expense for pipe. In some cases,
this will cause added pressure drop through the pipe
which must be offset by using larger pumps and more
power.
Using this new method, t-he maximum stress and a
desired thrust are selected first. This is most desirable
because it eliminates further concern about these two
main considerations. Lastly, the piping configuration is
selected in such a way that it can be adjusted with little
effort to give the desired total moment for the stress and
thrust selected. Thus, problems are solved in one opera-
tion with the best possible results.
The method is partially graphical and of the complete
system concept so as to minimize laborious calculations,
yet it has as its basis the rigorous mathematical concepts
which will be readily recognized by structural, mechanical
and piping designers.
How the Method Works. This method assumes that the
moment of inertia is constant throughout the pipe in the
piping configuration, that the flattening of pipe bends
8t
 FIND BEST PIPE EXPANSION LOOP QUICKLY. . . This method is theoreticat but it may be used as cor_
rect, subject to the limitations stated above. The deriva_
Anchor

CONDITIONS
i

The. complete system and semigraphical concepts have

.been thoroughly time tested. They were presented as far
back as 1930.'z They since have been uied as standard
EIGURE l-Piping configuration and conditions for Example 1.
or recommended procedure by numerous manufacturing
firms and engineering handbooks.
This new method is unique in that it uses second
moments. The determination of these second moments
is similar to the determination of the moment of inertia
oj 1"y structural shape with respect to an axis. In par-
ticular, it is analogous to the determination of the moient
of inertia of an extremely short beams of arbitrary con-
figuration, with a compressive load on its flanges ihat is
parallel in line of action to the neutral axis of ihe beam.

FIGURE 2-The expansion loop

Exomple l. Assume a piping configr_rration and condi-
l, can't be taken off the tions shown in Figure
1. Find the most econornical con-
long side.
figuration to meet these conditions.
All Rod =2.5' Cornei Siretch Out=t.5?(25') =39J'

All Corners
3 93'
Solufion
1. Assume a Maximum Stress:
!s S max. : 60,000 (.125) : 7,500 psi.
lz= 5 0' 2. Assume a Maximum Thrust:
k=J75'
T:750 lbs.,(This figure.may be.any one the designer may
Moment Arms
preferably one that conforms to f,is stand'-
choose, _but,
o = l3' ard anchoring system).
c =lJ 0
d .9 4'
3. Calculate "b": (IJse Equation l. See list of Equations
e =40 and derivation)
f

6TD : =l*gj1gfl_:10.r
=9.4

u: sp: r rt.
6 (750) (6.625)
FIGU-R! 3--Proposed configuration for Example I and
caluculation of neutral axis. - 4. Compute Ac: (Use Equation 10. See List of Equations)
_
ac: Da (e) : 33.5 (6.90'l
-a: 2.31 in.
during expansion or contraction will be negligible and -100-l 1b0
that all anihor points are 100 percent fixed. 5. Compute M': (Use Equation 2. See List of Equations
It should be noted that systems having a combination and derivation)
of higJr expansion facto$, low tensile strength and ex-
tremely high temperatures should be examined more ,,,
l}t _ Ac E I : (2.31) (24,200,000) (40.49)
closely by some a
-178T @:1,750ft.3
method, which con 6. Draw an assumed piping configuration and calculate
varying of wall th the neutral axis position:
the system which
Ilowever, few systems require such an examination.
Tors systems will
not be designer to
render
section ,yi:KT:: o See Figure 3 for the proposed configuration and
Piping.l calculation of the neutral axis distance (n).
82
 Ailr

C.G.

FIGURE LAssumed center

of gravity for elbows.

lr = 2-5' -ffi
lz = 5.0' r,27'
lr=50'
k =16 5'
! 40'
. Note all lengths in Figure 3 are true and all moment 15
Ir
=21.0'
= 3,93'
;r

arms are to be perpendicular to a line drawn through h = 3,93'

lc = 393'
the anchor points.
FIGURE 5-New moment arms are drawn.
o For layout purposes the center of gravity of each
bend may be assumed as shown in Figure 4 except o Calculate approximate Ax (based on K and K'
for extremely long radius bends. (approx.) above):
Draw new moment arms G) (."" Figure 5) perpen- Ax (approx.) : (K' (approx.) (5.3
7.
-K) - -4.7):0.6ft.
dicular to the neutral axis and extending to the center . Compute Al: Assume a Ax based on above ,Ax
of gravity of each of the components, and the equiva- (approx.); try Ax : 0.+ ft. then: (Use Equation 9
lent lengths (l') of each component. from List of Equations)
Note that new comPonents were made wherever the (0.4)
s3.5
neutral axis crossed any section, with the exception of
bends. The difference in moment by considering a bend
. Al:CAx:T:0.9ft.
as two components is in general negligible. . Compute Kf (actual): (Use Equation 6 from List of
Measure each component (l), eachmoment arm (l) Equations)
and each equivalent length (l') from the layout, place K' : K * Ax: 4.7 + 0.4: 5.1 ft.
in the appropriate column of the "Moment Calcula- .
tionForm" (Table 1) and calculate moment (M). Compute L': (Use Equation 11 from List of Equa-
tions)
B. Adjust Configuration: L':L* : 61.8 + 4(0.9) ,- 65.4 ft.
2NAl
. Calculate radius of gyration of the configuration o Check adjusted (M') to see how closely it agrees
about the neutral axis based on (M): (Use Equation with the required (M') : (Use Equation 3 from List
4 from List of Equations) of Equations)
M'(adj.) : L' (K')2: 65.4 (5't;z - 1700 cubic feet
":{+: {H:4.7rt. Ax of 0.4 ft. checks
. Calculate approximate radius of gyration based on
Note that, with respect to significant figures, this is
(M'): (Use Equation 5 from List of Equations)
as close to the desired M' as we can get with the
K' (approx.): {Y : {-ffi- r.rr,. figures used
9. Change configuration
in tJris example.
by adding 2Al to the length of
the expansion loop and check to see that "b" is not
TABLE l-ltomenl Cqlculqtion Form for Exomple I exceeded by this change.
B:
I (l)2
Exomple 2. Assume a piping configuration and condi-
Lergth Lenfth Lealth Ms Per Sect.
Sect. I 0) (r')2 0) 0), r (ii, t2 :A*B Anchor
I 2,5 2,0 4.0 672 168.0 0.8 168.8

2 h.l, 2.0 4.0 1,3 JO.O 1.7 382

5.0 4,4 19.1 4.1 16.8 840 8.1 92.1

4 16.5 7.8 60.9 4.0 16.0 254 0 83.7

2t-0 9.5 90.2 4.0 16.0 336,0 157.8 403.8

50' Anchor
Ms 1030.6
EXAMPTE II
CONDITIONS
c: Pipe . . l2"sch.160pipe
Rarlius Length D: Mc Per Cor.
:C+D Mbment of Inertia. ...781.3 in.r
Corner R 1.57 R R3 (D 0)2 r (:D, ,15 R3
Max. Temp. . .750o F
156 53 28.1 109.7 112 0
2.5 3.S
j:: :: . .: :: . :: : ::::: :: :l3oJ*
2 do do do 03 01 04 do 2.7
of pipe. .6.4 in.
do do do 72 51 I 202 I do 204 4 n"
: : -: : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : :36;3#H
Mc Total 3i9 1
.51.0 ft.
M : Ms * Mc : 1030.6 + 319.1 - 1349.7 cuft. FIGURE LPiping configuration and conditions'for'example 2.

83
FIND BEST PIPE EXPANSION LOOP QUICKLY. . . fABLE 2-Moment Cqlculqtion Form for Exomple 2

B:
tions shown in Figure 6. Find the most economical con- r (r),
figuration to meet these conditions. Letrgth Length Length Ms Per Sect.
\ Sect I (l') (l'), 0) (l), r al), t2 :A*B
293 28 1 807.0 131 179.8 5260 0 1970.0 7230 0
Solulion 2 211 596 0 11.0 141.8 3500 0 1260 0 4700 0

1. Assume Maximum Stress: 3 80 20 40 768 0 61J0.0 30 61 13.0

S max. : 60,000 (.125) : 7,500 psi.

18.1 t7.7 ,IJ D 98 96.0 r766.0 4rJ0 0 2246 0

5 196 188 354.0 8.1 70.5 1382 0 578.0 1960 0

2. Assume Thrust: 6 210 4-8 23,0 2J8 615.2 i770.0 16.0 14,816.0

T: 925 lbs. \{s Total 37 -15s.0

3. Calculate "b": (Equation 1)

(7500) (781.3',| C:
b:ffi:83'oft' Corner
Radius
R
l=
1.57 R R3
Lenqth
(t) ( t), | 0)2
D:
15 R3
l\Ic Per Cor
:C+D
6.0 2 r6.0 269 6800.0 320 683: 0
4. Compute Ac: (Equation 10)
2 do do do 24,1 581.0 5160 0 do 5 191,0

o": A#[: 3.26 in. do do do 19.4 376 5 3510 0 do 35;2,0

trIc Totat I5,SPrl.0

5. Compute M': (Equation 2)

It'I : N'Is * IIc : 37155 * 15896 : 53,051 cu. ft.
( 3.26\ ( 24.550-000 ) (781.3)
M':ffi:39'loocu'ft'
6. Draw assumed configuration and locate neutral axis o Calculate K' (approx.): (Equation 5)
(See Figure 7).

7.Draw and measure l, l'and (M).

K' (apprbx.) : !T : \i-+#: 16.0 rt.
i and compute ( See
Figure B and Table 2.) o Calculate Ax (approx.): (Equation 7)
B. Adjustment: Ax (approx.) : (K'-K) : (16.0- 18.7): ft.
-2.7
o Calculate K: (Equation 4) o Compute Al: (Equation 9)
Assume Ax: trv Ax : ft'
":{+: {#:ra.7rt. Then:
-2'2

All Rod.= 6.0" Corner Stretch Out=157(6)=9.4' ( 5t\ (-2.2\

al : cAx : --;o- : _2.2 f.t.
All Corners
lc = 9-4' . Compute K' (actual) : (Equation 6)
Lengths
K, : K -| A* : (18.7 : 16.5 1,.
lr = 54.0' -2.2)
lz = 8.0'
ls = 38.0'
lc = 24,O'
lr = 29.3'
Moment Arms lz = 24.?'
o = 26.5' lr = 80'
b = 56.0' lr = 18.4'
c = 30.2' ls. 19,6'
ls = 240'
d = 2.5' l? = 9.4'
e = 55.0'
f . 52.5'
ts '
9.4'
lE = 9.4'
s= 8.0'
I

-,-
l33,
iz= ll.9'
iz= 2?.7'
1=T-q' ir = 9.9'
t. s.+'
iu.24.8'
iz. 269'
is= ?4.1'
is = 19.4'
o= lro* lzb +lsc +lod+ lc (e+f+g)
lt +12+13 +14+3lc Anchor Line
l'
1432 + 448 +1150 +60 + 1087
I = ?8.4'
152.2 tz = ?4.4'
l'3. 2.0'
- 4t77 _ 27.4, = l?.7'
l'q

152.2 r;. l8.s'

t,6 . 4.8'
FIGURE 7-Proposed configuration for Example 2 ard
location of neutral axis. FIGURE &-New mometrt arms drawn for Example 2.

84
 o Compute L': (Equation 11)
l' :l + 2NAI : 752.2 + 4(-2.2) : 143.4 f.t,
o Checked adjusted (M') to see how closely it agrees
with the required (M') :
M'(adj.) ,- L' (K')2 : 143.4 ( 16.5)'?: 39,080 cubic feet
25'
9. Change the configuration by subtracting 2Al from the
length of the expansion loop. In this case, "b"' does
not require a further check.
Exomple 3. Assume a piping configirration and condi-
tions shown in Figure 9. Find the most economical con-
figuration to meet these conditions. 30'
Solution
l5'
EXA'I'IPLE III
1. Assume Maximum Stress: CONDITIONS
pipe.. ....,..12u X-Stg.pipe
g 11av.:60,000 (.125) :7,500 psi. Mbment of Inertia .. . .361.5 in.l
Max. Ternp. . .750 "F
2. Assume Thrust: Fab. Temp-, . . .70 'F
At .......... .......680 oF
T:925 lbs.
i':.:1 .':::. : :::::: :'.'.'. .'.:3aa,s?o,ooo p.s.i.
3. Calculate "b":
,;' ::::::::: .: :: :::::: :::fl:ffir.'"i
.b:-o'ffi:38'3ft'
(7500) (361.5) FIGURE 9-Piping configuration and conditions for example 3.

4. Compute Ac: 5. Compute M':

o":E#4:2.64in. *':W:14,650cu'ft'

I
I
PLA N

____111:

ELEV

lrn = 14.9' lrv. O 0' tr =40o' ir = 50'

lzx = 13.l' lzv= 6 O' r, rS.O'
= iz = 8.2'
Note. lat = l0O' l: = 5.0' i. = g.O'
Poro I le I l+x. 6.0" lnv= 3 5' ta = tOO' tr = t3.0'
lsx' l9' ls = 7.85' i. . rf S'
bt'= A'l lev = ll0 15 = 7.85' 15' 6.2'
i Lenqth lzx = 150' lzv = D.3' lz= 7.85' h,lO2'
Line tr (lrxl +lz (hi) t (11x) t h lkx (l:r) +t (tax )+lr(tr
- 13 ) +15 x)
" ltrl2tllrla.lsrlarl7
F= . r5,0'

v=

;-' (40x0) r (l 5 x6)+(5)(1e.5)+(10)(3.5) + 7 85 ( 1.6 +l 1.0 + 10. 3)-?7a,

40115+5+10+3(785)
FIGURE lLPiping configuration and new axis calculations.

85
FIND BEST PIPE EXPANSION LOOP QUICKLY. . . and equivalent lengths (l'). Place these lengths in
the appropriate column of the Moment Calculation
Form and calculate the moment (M) (See Table 3).
7. Adjust Configuration:
o Calculate K:
Length ond/or
": {+:{=s--:B.oft.
o Calculate K' (approx.):

K'(approx.) : {+-: {1o436:560:,r.tu.

I# . Calculate Ax (approx.):

FIGURE ll-Piping configuration used to derive equations Ax (approx.) - (K'-K): (12.5-8.0):4.5[t.

. Compute AI: Assume Ax: Ax = 3.3 ft.
6. Draw assumed piping configuration and calculate the
neutral axis position (See Figure 10). Then:
o This problem involves a three plane system which
complicates the relatively simple method that was
used in the two plane problems of Example I and 2. . Compute K' (actual):
It may be greatly simplified by using a few of the K' : K * Ax : 8.0 + 3.3 : I1.3 ft.
more simple tools of descriptive geometry. They are:
( 1) the transfer of points, which should require no o Compute L':
explanation here, (2) the true length of a line and L' :L + 2NAI : 93.6 + 4(5.0) : 113.6 ft.
(3) the point view of a line. o Check adjusted (M):
Explanation. The true, length of a line may be found
L' (K')'- (113.6) (11.3)'9: 14,500cubicfeet.
M:
by projecting a view of the system with the fold line
parallel to the line drawn between the anchors or B. Change configuration by adding 2Al to the length of
with the projection lines perpendicular to the line the expansion loop and recheck "b."
between the anchors.
The point uieut of a line may be found by projecting Derivqtion of Equotions
a view containing a true length line across a fold Derivqtion of Equotion I. The basic, flexural stress
line that is drawn perpendicular to the true length equation seryes as the basis for Equation 1, i.e.:
line or with the projection lines parallel to the true
length lines.
o Project the trire length line view (Figure 10) and the s:-+!- (r)
point view of the line view. (Where S : stress at extreme fiber, M : moment due to
o Erect a convenient pair of perpendicular coordinate the force applied to the section, b : distance to extreme
axes and calculate the center of gravity, which will fiber and I : moment of inertia of the sect.)
also be a point view of the neutral axis parallel to Consider thb general piping configuration of Figure 11.
the point view of the line between the anchors. Imagine it to be a beam whose length is the same as the
o Layout moment arms (l) and equivalent lengths (l'). diameter of the pipe (D). To this beam is applied a uni-
. Measure component lengths (l), moment arms (i), form distributed load of T lbs. acting on a line through
the anchors. At various times and under various stress
TABLE 3-filoment Golculotion Form for Exomple 3 conditions all of the load may be shifted to one end of

B:
Len'gth Length Length
| (t')2
Ms Per Ser
About the Author
Sect. I 0') (l ), ri) (t)2 r rr-), t2 :A+B George L. Ellison is a design draftsman with Thomp-
son's Industrial Drafting Service, Baton Rouge, La. He
I 400 6,0 360 5.0 25.0 1000 0 120 0 1120.0
designs 1lressure valves, oil field
2 15.0 ob 423 8.2 67.2 1010.0 530 1063.0 equipmcnt, piping, structures and
5.0 1.7 2.9 9.0 81 0 405 0 1-2 406.2 other related equipment. In 1951 he
4 100 109 130 169 0 1690.0
started in the industry rrith J. B.
9.1 1690.1
Beaird Co. as a pressure vessel
Mr Totsl 4,288.3 draftsman and designer of L.P.G.
systenls. Later at Delta Tank Mfg.
Co. in 1956, he did the mechanical
Ra rlius Length c: D: Mc Per Cor design work on high pressure-
Corner R 1.57 R R3 0) (l) 3 l 0), .15 Ra :C+D
temperature vessels and piping,
5,0 7.85 t25 0 13.5 t82.2 911.0 1&8 oro a
structure, general layout, heating
do do do 6.2 384 192.0 do 210,8 and controls for the company's gas
do do do t0.2 104.4 0 do
dehydrator and hydrocarbon recov-
ery unit. Mr. Ellison is presently Ellison
522 540 8

Mc Total r.681.4 completing his work on a degree in mechanical engi-

neering at Louisiana State University.
M : Me * Mo : 4,288.9:+ 1681.4 : 6,969.7 cu. ft.

86
this beam, (that is to say, one edge of the pipe). From
any convenient beam tablesra it is seen that the moment
(M) for a beam under the above conditions is:
M:-+- Q)
(Where M, T and D are as above.)
Since the distance "b" is measured in feet and must be
converted to inches, ( 1) becomes;
( _ 12Mb
(3)
I
On combining (2) and (3),
s _ 6TDb
(4)
I FIGURE 12- IR'? is a second moment of this section.
IJpon rearranging (4);

b-1rr-...Equationl
SI List of Symbols
*S max. : Maximum allowable stress (psi) in any part of the
Derivoiion of Equolion 2. This equation has as its basis system. This can be set by the applicable part of the
the formula for Youngs Modulus, i.e.; Piping Codel or it may be safely assumed to be
approximately 72/z percent of the tensile strength
o_ Stress :_ T/A
L: (l) o{ the material used in the cold condition.
struir, Lc/l T: Thrust, taken on a line between anchors (Ibs.).
Where E :Youngs Modulus or the modulus of elasticity, T :
thrust, A : area that thrust is applied to, I : length of Ac: Change in the equivalent length of pipe between
rnember to be used and Ac: change in length of (l). anchors (in.).
Rearrange (1) as follows; *E : Ypungs Modulus or modulus of elasticity (in psi).
*f : Moment of inertia of the pipe used (ina).
r:_ ---T-
, AcEA
(2)
M: Second moments of all sections of the configuration
Square the radius of gyration (R) of the section to be with respect to the neutral axis before adjustment
(cu. ft.).
used and add it to each side of equation (2) thus;
AcEAR2
b: Maximum permissible, perpendicular distance from
(3) the neutral axis to the farthermost fiber of the con-
T figuration (ft.).
Since AR'zis simply the moment of inertia of the pipe, *D: Outside diameter of the pipe used (in.).
(3) may be restated as; L: Total true length of the piping configuration (ft.).
p, - -4$I-
T&) K: Radius of gyration of the total system before adjust-
ment (ft.).
Noting Figure 12, lR'z is a second moment of this section
K' : Radius of gyration of the total system that (K)
about its center line. Thus, if the left hand side is gen- must be adjusted toor (K-l- Ax) (in ft.).
eralized to lK'z for use with respect to any axis, (4) be-
comes:
Ax: The adjusting distance between K and K' (in ft.).
O:EI M': Second moments of all sections of the configuration
M:IK2n,.-: with_respect to the neutral axis to which (M) must
- ---i- (5)
be adjusted (in cu. ft.).
Since (M) will be in cubic feet, it must be converted to Al:Proportional equivalent of Ax (in ft.).
cubic inches thus;
C: Proportionality factor for the configuration.
AcEI
M:17rr...Equation2 N: The number of members crossed by the neutral axis
including bends.
List of Equations
L' : A_djust-ed total length of piping configuration or
SmaxI (L + 2N^l) (in ft.).
. b: ur, (ft') (1)
:
Da Distance between anchors (ft. ) .
AcEI *e:
M'- Urr, (cu. ft.) (2) Expansion in inches per 100 feet at maximum tem-
perature.
M' (adj.) : L' (K')2 (cu. ft.) (3)
*.For these values refer to the Piping Codel or any other good,
convenient
*: {* rn.r (+)
engrncerlng or plplDg handbook.

LITERATURE CITE,D
K'(approx.) : {f ,n., (s) u,i"ffr: ff} ff".i:j"o s**:rr3i ,[::ny*.T'rr'lfr.
(ratest edition); pub-

.by"jA_Gr-ap-hig Method for Determining Expaosion Stresses in pipe Lines,,,

K':KfAx(ft.) (6) C. T. Mitchell; publishedin A.S.M.E. Tiansactions (tS3O). -
Ax (approx.) : (K'(approx.) ,. ] "f-jShlcage Cold-Fomed Steel Design Muual,, (1956 edition); pub-
(ft.) (7) lished by The America Iron and Steel Inititute.
Al (approx.) : CAx (approx.)-K)
a "Steel Construction Manual" (latest
(ft.) (B) edition); published by T'he Ameri-
can Institute of Steel Construction.'
al: CAx (ft.) (s)
Da(e) Key Words for lndexing
^^_
ac - ,6 (in.)
,
(10)
Design Expansion Loops
L':L + 2NAl (ft.) (11) Drawing Flexible Pipi"S

87
 FIGURE l-This Texos refinery uses both slip-type exponsion loints ond double-
offset U-bends to obsorb pipe line exponsion ond controction. See next poge {or other
of exponsion ioints.

Expansion Joints
How to Select and Maintain Thenn

If you are confused about all the t1'pes of

expansion joints, here's a method of selecting and main-
taining the right one for the job.

K. 5. Roberls
Yarnall-Waring Company
Philadelphia
LARGE NUMBERS of pipe lines
conveying steam, hot Iiquids and
other fluids for refining and petro-
chemical processing must be fitted
with some means to absorb expansion
88
caused by a rise in the temperatule
of the pipe. There ars also instances
where means for absorbing pipe con-
traction must be provided, if the line
is installed at a temperature higher
than the rninimum experienced in
operation. Positive control of pipe ex-
pansion and contraction is absolutely
necessary if dangerously large or de-
structive forces at the anchors and
other restraints are to be avoided.
Three proven means for absorbing
pipe expansion and contraction are
popular in refineries and petrochemi-
cal plants today. These are: (1) ex-
pansion bends, (2) corrugated- or
bellows-type expansion joints, and
(3) slip-type expansion joints. This
Expansion Joints
FIGURE 2-Simplified
sketch showing o typicol
corrugoted-type exponsion,
ioint suitoble for refinery
piping systems.
article discusses the relative merits of
each, and the important factors in
application to modern piping systems
in refining and petrochemical plants.
Expansion Bends-These are made
in several different shapes, depending
on the amount of space available, size
of the pipe, expansion or contraction
to be absorbed, and the temperature
and pressure of the fluid flowing
In
through the pipe. general, the
more intricate the bend configuration,
the greater the expansion that can be
absorbed for a given stress in the pipe.
The common types of expansion
bends used today are either fabricated
or built-up. Fabricated bends may be
simple U, double-offset U (Figure 1),
circle, or single offset IJ. Creased
to some ex-
bends, though once used
tent, have become less popular in
recent years. Built-up bends are made
in a number of configurations from
welding elbows.
Expansion bends require no routine
maintenance if they are uninsulated.
If the bend is insulated or fitted with
a drip trap, or both, routine inspec-
tion if the insulation and trap is
required.
All expansion bends, whether fabri-
cated or not, require more installation
space than either corrugated or slip-
type expansion joints (Figure 1).This
is often an important consideration
in crowded refinery areas, but can
usually be overlooked on tank farms
and other locations where a large
amount of space is available. Expan-
sion bends are usually mounted ver-
tically (Figure 1), or horizontally,
depending on the amount of
available.
FIGURE 3-Simplified sketch show- FIGURE,t-Single-end ond
in9 o hinge-type corrugoted expon-
double-end glo nd-
sion ioint suitoble for refinery slip-type exponsion joints
piping systems. use conventionol
rubber ond duck ring
pocking.
The first cost of a fabricated ex-
pansion bend may exceed the first
cost of a bellows or slip-type expan-
sion joint. A built-up expansion bend
usually costs less than a fabricated
bend or either type of expansion
joint, unless a large amount of labor
is required to build the bend.
Corrugated Joints-These j oint
consist of one or more corrugations in
a metal suitable for the temperature
and pressure in the pipe (Figure 2).
Typical materials used for corrugated
joints include copper, stainless steel,
or Inconel in the bellows and cast-
iron or cast-steel end flanges, or steel
welding nipples.
The corrugated joint, when well
designed and constructed, has ad-
vantages where the installation is
inaccessible and maintenance of the
joint is difficult or impossible. Cor-
rugated joints do not require mainte-
nance in the form of repacking or
lubrication. Ifowever, the selection of
a corrugated joint must take into
careful consideration the extent and
frequency of the cycles (degree and
number of expansions and contrac-
tions) of operation anticipated in the
fife of the installation. Otherwise, the
joint may fail prematurely due to
overstressing ths corrugations or
bellows.
There are other advantages of the
corrugated type. When made of stain-
less steel they can be used at tem-
peratures beyond the range of slip
joints; the latter are limited by pack-
ing and lubrication considerations.
space Stainless steel corrugated joints are
excellent for handling corrosive fluids
pocked
osbestos
or fluids which must not be subject to
cohtamination.
In very large sizes (over 30 inches)
corrugated joints are easier to fabri-
cate, transport, and install than slip
joints. They are often used in large
ducts and manifolds, particularly for
high-temperature exhaust systems and
other refinery applications. They are
s
also useful when the piping is subject
to lateral and angular misalignment,
as well as axial motion, although here
again it is important to select and
install the joint properly so that the
corrugations will not be overstressed.
rn recent years corrugated expan-
sion joints have been used increas-
ingly as hinge, universal and gimbal
joints. These are specialized appliea-
tions of the bellows principle which
have definite advantages for certain
tlpes of installations. One of the most
useful is the hinge joint, Figure 3,
which, when circumstances permit,
can be used to absorb expansion with-
out the need for anchors.
Slip-Type Joints-In spite of the
versatility of the corrugated joint out-
lined above, the slip joint (Figure 4)
has certain advantages which make it
the choice for many refinery and
petrochemical installations. When
well designed it is a rugged, depend-
able, and economical means of ab-
sorbing expa"nsion and contraction. It
is particularly useful in steam and
hot-water transmission lines where
the expansions and contractions are
frequent and of large magnitude- Slip
joints contain no highly-stressed flex-
ing element subject to failure after a
finite number of cycles.
Slip joints require a nominal
89
amount of maintenance in the form
of packing and lubrication. The exact
amount of maintenance required de-
pends largely on the operating condi-
tions, i.e., temperature, pressure, ex-
pansion or contraction absorbed and
frequency of operation. Probably the
most objectionable feaiure of slip
joints in the past has been the neces-
sity for periodic repacking of the
stuffing box, which entailed shutting
down the line and considerable labor.
In one uniqug and well established
design-the gun-packed joint (Figure
5) packing can be inserted into the
stuffing box at any time with full
temperature and pressure on the line.
This eliminates any shutdown and
reduces maintenance timeto a mini-
mum.
Slip joints fitted with a sliding
member at only one end are known
as single-end joints. When sliding
members are used at both ends, the
joint can absorb twice the expansion
of a single-end joint and is known as
a double-end joint.
Where repacking under pressure is
not a consideration, conventional
gland-packed joints (Figure 4) rnay
be used. These resemble gun-packed
joints but have conventional asbestos
or rubber and duck ring packing.
Cast-iron glands are generally used,
while the body and sleeve are wrought
steel. The sleeve is polished and
chromium-plated.
Gun-packed joints are of all-steel
construction, the sliding sleeve being
made of polished seamless steel with
a layer of hard chrornium plating.
The sleeve is guided internally and
externally for correct alignment in
the stuffing box.
Packing, in joints of the type in
Figure 5, is forced into the stuffing
box by the jack action of a wrench-
operated plunger threaded in a cyl-
inder, as shown in Figure 6. The
packing .can be fed into the joint
while the line is under pressure. The
packing used is a semiplastic. heat-
resistant, high-grade, Iong-fi6er as-
bestos, combined with an inert filler
and impregnated with high fire-test
mineral oil. It is furnished in small
slugs for easy insertion in the packing
gun.
Joint ond Bend Selection-When
choosing any t)?e of expansion joint
or bend it is essential that a number
of important factors be considered.
These include the required traverse,
operating temperature and pressure,
90
FIGURE 5-Single-end gun-pocked type slip
exponsion joint. This is olso built with double
ends.
nature of the fluid, presetting, expan-
sion, anchors, alignment, and sup-
ports.A number of these factors aJe
discussed below.
Traverse-This is the distance, ex-
pressed in inches, that the joint or
bend must contract in order to ab-
sorb the expansion of the pipe served
by the particular joint or bend. The
required traverse is numerically equal
to the distance the pipe expands over
its full temperature range. Ths lowest
temperature that will be encountered
is as important as the maximum tem-
perature. This means that if the ex-
pansion tables available start at 70 F.
(as some of them do) and the line is
to be installed outdoors where winter
temperatures can drop as low as 20 F.
below zero, traverse must be provided
to cover the additional 90 F. range
below the reference temperature of
70 F.
The traverse of the joint or the
bend is the maximum safe movement
FIGURE 6-Wrench-operoted plunger for feed-
ing plostic pocking to o gun-pocked type ex-
ponsion joint.
by the manufacturer. The
specified
numerical value of this traverse
should always exceed the computed
expansion of the pipe (i.e. the re-
quired traverse). Thus, with a 20-
inch expansion a joint with a total
traverse of 24 inches is usually chooen.
Presetting-Where traverse in both
directions is expected, it is essential,
when actually placing the joint, to
preset it for the temperature of the
pipe at the time of installation. With
slip-type joints, the sleeve should be
pushed in from its fully extended
position a distance equal to or slightly
greater than the distance the pipe
will contract in going from the in-
stallation temperature down to the
minimum temperature. For the ex-
ample cited above, if the installation
temperature is 70 F., the sleeve should
be preset enough to accommodate 90
F. of contraction---or approximately
one inch if the pipe is 100 feet long.
Bellows joints are sometirnes furnished
in mid-position (halfway between the
fully compressed and fully extended
positions of the unit) to cover such
conditions, but with all designs the
manufacturer's'installation instruc-
tions should be followed carefully.
The following actual case is an ex-
ample of how important contraction
can be. Expansion joints were in-
stalled, fully extended, in a pipe line
in a tunnel where the temperature
was close to 100 F. The line was well
supported and rigidly anchored to
the tunnel wall with through bolts
and backing plates. In accordance
with good practice, the system was
given a hydrostatic pressure test prior
to putting it into steam service. Ifow-
ever, the hydrostatic test water came
from a deep well at a temperature
between 40 and 50 F., and the pipe
contracted with unfortunate results.
The pipe anchors were literally pulled
out of the wall. Obviousln the trou-
ble in this case was not that the an-
chors were inadequate but that no
provision had been made for contrac-
tion of the pipe.
Pipe Expa"nsion-Figure 7 shows
the expansion of steel pipe for any
temperature up to 700 F. For con-
venience, one scale also provides the
saturation temperatures for various
steam pressures. Given the tempera-
 Occasionally installations have been
ExpansionJoints... observed where an expansion joint
SATURATEO STEATI PRESSURE was anchored by only one of its two
v c0-rcHEs xERcuRY Ooa tfitsmt-rolt OO ?CA Smt H legs or by an inadequate number of
ro 25 $Er@ m@
anchor bolts. While this can be done
safely under certain favorable condi-
tions, it is not generally recom-
mended. Such procedures have re-
sulted in damage to the expansion
U
4 joint or to the piping, either from the
E
excessive loading on the secured leg
o
F
U or from the inadequate number of
U
d
anchor bolts. Trouble of this sort is
9 a
not the fault of the joint, but of the
E
E manner of installation. As a rule an
o
U expansion joint, like any other fitting,
-
o S
should be anchored with the full
=
=
number of bolts provided for in the
2
o base.
2 2
A Bending moments caused by offsets
U EXPANSION OF STEEL PIPE in the piping are anothersource of
trouble. Offsets are often necessary
to get around obstacles in the line of
the pipe, or to shift its axis a few feet
up or down or sideways. The net ef-
fect is to create a bending moment
TEMPERATURE RANGE IN DEGREES FAXREIHEIT on the pipe and elbows that is pro-
FIGURE 7-{hort for quickly determining lineor exponsion of steel pipe for vorious steom portional to the thrusts at the elbows
pressures ond temperotures.
and to the length of the offset. If the
expansion in the offset leg is relatively
ture range and pipe length involved, straight run of pipe without an ex- small, an additional expansion joint
the to{al traverse and amount of pre- pansion joint or other device to ab- may not be required, and diagonal
setting can be readily determined. ft sorb the expansion between them. bracing of the elbows to provide
should be noted that when the mini- Anchor design is particularly im- rigidity may suffice. Ilowever, every
mum temperature is below 0 F., the portant with high pressures and large project must be checked carefully be-
temperature range used in determin- pipe sizes because of the high thrusts cause frequently it is necessary to
ing expansion must be increased ac- that develop at end anchors. End anchor both elbows to prevent ex-
cordingly. Values taken from the anchors are so called because they cessive bending stresses in the pipe.
curve include a safety factor of 10 occur at terminal points and at The importance of analyzing and
percent over the actual pipe expan- changes in direction of the pipe. At properly providing for anchor loads
sion to provide for discrepancies in these points, the pressure acting on is graphically illustrated in the fol-
installation and unforeseen tempera- the inside area of the pipe would lowing actual case. A large steam line
ture extremes. tend, if unrestrained by anchors, to in a tunnel had a right-angle offset
Anchors-Anchors are important pull an expansion j-oint apart. Thus, of several feet. One elbow was con-
in any piping system, but there are end anchors must absorb this pressure nected to the body of a slip-type ex-
some special considerations necessary reaction as well as the forces required pansion joint which was very solidly
when expansion joints or bends are to activate the expansion joint and anchored. The other elbow was lightly
used. In general, anchors are installed to overcome friction in supports and braced by an I-beam that was not
to stabilize the piping at certain vital guides. Intermediate anchors, on the properly aligned with the run of the
points, such as valves or other equip- other hand, are subject to only the pipe. This brace was not strong
ment, junctions of two or more pipes, latter forces. The curves in Figure B enough and it eventually collapsed.
and terminal points. With expansion illustrate the comparative magnitude The full end-anchor load then acted
joints, anchors also serve to divide the of end and intermediate anchor loads on
the offset and created a large
system into sections, so that each joint for slip-type expansion joints, and moment at the other elbow and the
absorbs only the expansion in its own they also provide reasonably accurate expansion joint adjacent to it.
section. This may seem plementary, anchor load figures for various pipe Although the joint anchorage was
but it is frequently overlooked. There sizes and pressures. Values for corru- more than adequate for its normal
are numerous instances where two gated joints are comparable, except loading, it could not support this ad-
joints are installed in the same section that end anchor loads are somewhat
ditional stress. The anchor bolts were
without intermediate anchors with higher in the larger pipe sizes because
the result that one joint becomes of the larger area in the bellows. In- all sheared or dislodged from their
overloaded and subject to damage termediate anchor loads are some- concrete foundations; and, but for
its
while the other one is underloaded. what lower because bellows require limit stops, the expansion joint proba-
The converse of this is that two an- less force to actuate them than do slip bly would have separated. Because of
chors should never be placed in a joints. its rugged construction, it withstood
9t
 the abnormally high stresses imposed
upon it and prevented further dam-
age to the system. This case demon-
strates the potential force of a mo-
ment; and, even more important, it
shows how serious the effects of a
failure in one part of ths system carr
be to other parts of the system.
Pipe Aligpment-Except
specialized applications of the corru-
gated type, expansion joints
bends require. good pipe alignment to
perform satisfactorily. Guides serve
two important pur?oses. First, when
installed near an expansion joint they
prevent cocking of the sleeve in a
slip-type joint, or distortion and pos-
sible buckling of a corrugated-type
joint, or an expansion bend.
Second, guides are usually neces-
sary in long spans to prevent the pipe
from buckling as the pipe expands.
Ths tendency to buckle increases as
the pipe becomes smaller in diameter,
longer, or both; hence, the need for
guides is greatest with long spans of
relatively small pipe. Table 1 gives
recommended spacing of guides from
expansion joints and also between
guides for various pipe sizes.
Prpe Supports-Table 1 also pro-
vides generally recommended spacing
of supports for steel pipe filled with
water. The importance of adequate
support is well recognized. However,
it should be pointed out that supports
must be designed to withstand the
thrust resulting from motion of the
pipe over the supports as well as the*
vertical load due to gravity. Failure
to provide for this thrust has resulted
in failure of the supports in some in-
stallations.
System Design-Figure 9 shows a
typical refinery piping system using
slip joints, consisting of 8 inch steel
pipe with a total length of 770 feet.
It carries steam at 125 psig, with 25
F. suporheat. The procedure for find-
ing traverses, anchor loads, and guide
and support locations is as follows:
TRA\IERSES: Saturation temper-
ature for 125 psig. steam is 355 F.
Recommended Spocing for Pipe Allgnment Guides ond Supporis, in
Nominal Pipe Size, Ioches....,
Distance between guide and expansion
92
for some
= Note: Anchor loads with corrugated
and
FTGURE 8:An# i:'":'i i,'I11"",."a,o,"
end onchors used with slip ond other types
of exponsion joints.
(Figure i). Add 25 F. for a total
temperature range (assuming mini-
mum temperature to be 0 F.) of 380
F. Expansion for this range is '3.4
inches per 100 feet, from Figure 7.
. Span AB : 140 feet; expansion :
(l+0) (3.4) 1100:4.8 inches. A single-
end joint with an 8-inch traverse is
suitable at Point A. Span BC is 90
feet long and has an expansion of 3.1
inches when figured as above. Ilence,
the joint C is single-end with 4-inch
traverse. The span CE is 430 feet
long with 14.7 inches of expansion.
A joint with an 8 inch
double-end
traverse at each end is suitable at D,
the approximate mid-point. Span EF
is 110 feet long with 3.7 inches of ex-
pansion, for which a single-end 4
inch traverse joint will be adequate.
ANCHOR LOADS: fntermediate
anchors at A, D, and F are subject
to possible maximum loads of 8000
pounds in both directions. These val-
ues are obtained from Figure 8 for
8-inch pipe. The contraction loads
equal the expansion loads but are in
the opposite direction.
End anchors at B, C, and E have
possible maximum axial loads of
15,000 pounds in each leg (solid ar-
rows, Figurs 9). The resultant anchor
TABI.E I
6161717181 8le I 10 10
11112113114115116118 20
151r0122125130135145 60 70
22
80
11112113114115116118 20 21 22
load is the vector sum of the thrusts
in the two legs, or 21,000 pounds act-
ing along an axis 45 degrees from the
pif'e axes (dotted arrows, Figure 9).
Maximum, contraction loads in the
reverse direction consist of friction
only and amount to 8000 pounds
along the solid arrows with an.11,300
pound resultant.
joints will be somewhat higher or
louter depending on pipe size, pres-
sure, etc. Consult manufacturer's in-
structions.
SUPPORTS AND GUIDES: FTom
Table 1, assuming the joints are the
internally-externally guided type, in-
stall alignment guides not more ihan
ona 18 feet from slip end of each joint
and at intervals of 45 feet, more or
less, along each span. Also, from
Table 1, the pipe should be supported
at intervals of about 18 feet and
wherever concentrated loading exists
due to valves and fittings.
lnslollqtion-Having designed the
system and selected the expansion
joints, it is advisable to observe the
following points at the time of instal-
lation. Align the expansion joint care-
fully with the pipe span so that mo-
tion of the sleeve (or bellows) is axiat
and lateral thrust on the joints is
minimized. Also, for the same pur-
poses, be sure that guides adjacent to
the joint are properly located and
aligned. When installing expansion
joints with anchor bases, uss ihe full
number of bolts provided for and
tighten the nuts securely. This is par-
ticularly important at end ancliors.
If the temperature of the pipe at
the time of installation is appreiiably
higher than the minimum tempera-
ture designed for, expansion joints
should be preset to allow for contrac-
tion. To do this, the sleeve of a slip-
joint should be pushed in from its
fully extended position a distance at
least equal to the distance the pipe
will contract in going from instilla-
tion temperature down to minimum
temperature. Corrugated joints are
sometimes furnished in mid-position
to cover such conditions, but with all
designs of joints and bends the manu-
Feet
facturers' instruction should be care-
fully followed.
lnitiol Operction-When the sys-
11 12 L2
tem is first energized, expansion joints
00
25
1Li
26
110
should be checked for leakage or any
25 26
other signs of improper operation.
Usually joints which are properly

Ai.CrlopEt)
S(N4LE-END
Al\)C}IORED
Dou6le,.epo
JcxNf
AlrC.{ocED ELBoW
GUrDE
r UNIO.ICIiOQEO
SINGLE-ENO
L
^ JOTNT
FIGURE 9-Typicol refinery piping system using slip loints to obsorb the exponsion ond controction.
constructed and installed will need
no attention for the first few weeks.
I{owever, it is quite normal for the
packing to require some attention
after a month or so in service. In a
conventional gland-packed joint this
con-sists of tightening the gland nuts
evenly until signs of leakage dis-
appear.
In the gun-packed type, the addi-
tion of only a few plugs of plastic
packing (depending on size of joint)
is necessary. Once this initial adjust-
ment period has passed a regular
maintenance schedule should be es-
tablished, the frequency of which will
depend on the operating conditions
(steam pressure and temperature)
and the type of joint used.
Lubricqlion-Good maintenance of
expansion joints is primarily a matter
of keeping the packing tight to pre-
vent leakage and lubricated to keep
sleeve friction low. Though not rec-
ommended, most joints will operate
in a dry, unlubricated condition, but
the stresses in the pipe, fittings, and
anchors will be considerably reduced
by a nominal amount of the correct
lubricant. Furthermore, lubrication
helps retain the sealing qualities of
the packing, in the conventional as
well as the gun-packed type.
fn the better designs, alemite-type
fittings are provided on the body of
the expansion joint, through which
lubricant can be added to the stuffing
box with a lever-operated gun. Fit-
tings are usually the hydraulic or
button-head type and have built-in
check valves to prevent blow back
from the pressure in the stuffing-box.
In the average case, gun-packed
joints on continuous service need lu-
brication no more than two or three
ANCHOEED
sIrl4LE-EN[)
JorNT
ANCHOEEO GrlOry
times a year. One shot (strokg of
pump-gun lever) in each fitting will
usually suffice to maintain optimum
packing quality. Only in rare cases of
relatively high pressure and tempera-
ture should it be necessary to increase
this rate. Excessive lubrication
shown by oil being extruded between
the sleevs and g1and. Always use the
lubricant recommended bv the manu-
facturer of the joint.
Pocking-Packing requirements of
conventionally packed expansion
Meet
the
Aulhor
K. S. ROBERTS received his
B.S. degree in engineering from
Hartford College, Hartford, Pa.
in 1942. His professional experi-
ence includes being a field engi-
neer with the U. S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey, Washington
D. C. from lg47 to 1948; and
a cost engineer with General-
Shea-Morrison, fnc., contractors
for the Hungry Horse Dam in
Montana from 1948-49. Roberts
is presently a mechanical engi-
neer for Yarnall-Waring Co.,
Philadelphia, Pu., where his
duties include the design and
application of expansion joints
and other products.
joints will vary according to a variety
of factors such as service pressure,
and temperature, traverse, frequency
of expansions and contractions, de-
sign of joint, and alignment of in-
stallation.
Conventionally packed joints are
kept tight by taking up on the gland
nuts from time to time. Eventualln
of course, steam must be shut off and
the stuffing box overhauled; i.e., the
gland pulled back, old packing re-
moved, and fresh packing installed.
I Packing rings should be carefully
\ measured and cut to fit the stuffing
box snugly. Rings should be installed
with ends staggered so as to minimize
the possibility of leakage from one
ring to the next. ft is most important
that the gland be tightened evenly so
that cocking is eliminated (no bind-
ing on the sleeve) and packing pres-
sure is uniform around the sleeve
circumference.
is The great advantage of the grrn-
packed expansion joint is that it does
not require overhauling. The cost and
inconvenience of shutting down the
system is completely eliminated. Leaks
are sealed simply by forcing small
plugs of a specially prepared plastic
packing into the stuffing box by turn-
ing a threaded plunger with a short
wrench. This feature is shown in
Figure 6.
In normal service, packing needs
to be inserted in gun-packed joints
only two to four times a year. Experi-
ence varies considerably, depending
on service conditions, and some in-
stallations have required no more
than one packing addition per year.
The amount of packing inserted var-
ies from one or two plugs to several
plugs per packing gun, the number of
guns per joint varying from one to
12, depending on the size of the joint.
As a rule it is wise to establish a
regular schedule of packing and lu-
brication maintenance, the .nature
and frequency of which can best be
determined by experiencs in the par-
ticular installation.
Refinery and petrochemical piping
systems provide many opportunities
for wise use of all the available means
to absorb pipe expansion. The ulti-
mate choice of the method to be used
lies with the designer of the piping
system. The pointers outlined in this
article should be useful to all design-
ers, operators, and supervisors who
must choose, use and maintain de-
vices for absorbing pipe line expan-
sions and contractions. ##
93
 Spring Honger
Pipe Supporl

PLAN ELEVATION

Use scale plan of piping (left) and elevation (right) to simplify hanger design.

Spring Pipe Hanger Design Simplified

By using a scale plan piping drawing, the Iocation and
weight of piping components can be greatly simplified

Wqrren E. Doyle, Las Vegas, Nev.

weights of the flanges ar A and F to points A and F and

the weight of pipe C-D to fall at D.
2. Layout the piping system to scale and draw work-
given to the location and weight of various components lines in plan between the points of support. A-CD and
of a piping system. The results are well within tha fimits CD-F.
that are correctible by adjustment at the time the sup- 3. Transpose the weights of the components from their
ports are installed. center.of gravity to the work-lines, at right angles to the
work-lines, such as the weight of pipe A-B, rvhtse center
Sample Design Procedure. Problem. Determine the of gravity is at G to fall at H, the weight of the valve
load required to be supported by a constant-support lo- to fall at K and the weight of B-C to fill at
cated at point-D of the piping system shown in the J.
figr.rre. 4. Calculate the loads at A, D and F considering that
the transposed weights at H, J, L and M ar.e loads fall_
Assume: 1. The unsupported pipe between A-C and ing on simple beams whose ends are at A and C. and D
D-F is saje and not overstressed. and F.
2. Piping system between A and F is adequately flexi-
ble provided the total vertical movement is shared by 5. Determine total r.veight of the system frorn the
A-C figure and knorr.n inlormation:
and D-F.
3. Pipe weighs 100 lbs. per ft. A-B: [: 400
B-C: J- 700
Valve: K: 500
C-D: 1 500

D-E: L: 800
E-F: \{: 200
sider B-C to be one continuous pipe even though it is Flange @A: 100
interrupted by a valve. Include the weight of flanges and Flange @B: 100
bolts connecting to a valve as part of the valve. Add the
Total 4300 lbs.
94
 6. Determine the following dimensions by scaling the constant-supports may be installed temporarily, provided
plan in the figure: the pipe is not permitted to deflect the spring.
C-K: 1.5 D-L: 3.85 2. Install all appurtenances which attach to the pipe
c-J : 3.0 D-M: 8.0 being supported, including but not limited to: insulation,
C-H: 7.O D : 8.25 valves, instruments and branch pipes.
C-A: 8.0 -F
3. When the pijring is completely installed, leak-tested
Calculation: 1. Take moments about C to find the and cleaned, the spring-supports are ready to be installed,
load at A: loaded and adjusted. Load the spring-hanger by turning
(r s X 500)_* (3 X 700) * (7 X 400) roo
the screw-device provided as a part of the hanger. In
o: 8.0
l some cases this device is a turnbuckle in the pipe-hanger
rod.
A _ (7so + 21qo + 28oo)
f loo :8o6 rbs.
8.0 4. Load all spring-supports approximately at the same
time until the pipe has raised approximately 1/16-inch
2. Take moments about D to find load at F: above each temporary support. Readjustment will be
required since some unloading will be required of those
.:W*,oo spring-supports which are first to lift their pipes.
(3o8oJ-l600) 5. Where the load indicator fails to mbve from the
-F: 8.25 * roo:667 rbs.
top-most part of the scale during the loading-operation,
or where the load-indicator in its final location, relative
3. Find load @ D: D : total system load minus (-) to the ends of the scale, does not allow for the expected
the loads at A and F. operational movement of the pipe, or when the load-
: 4300- 806 indicator moVes to the bottom of the scale without
D 667
- 2827 lbs. (answer)
- raising the pipe, the spring is inadequate and shall be
Select a support from a manufacturerrs catalog. One replaced. The need to replace a spring-supPort is very
spring support suitable for this application has a nominal unlikely were designed by any of the accepted
if it
rating of 2900 lbs. and a load-range of 2030 to 4060 lbs. procedures or by the procedure described herein.
over its working deflection range, which tends to justify 6. After the piping system is completely installed on
the short-cut method described herein. spring-supports, make a punch mark on the support scale
at the load indicator and then, when specified, make
!nslqllqti,on Procedure adjustment for the weight of the fluid in the pipe. Ad-
justments are usually made only for liquids and are not
1. Install piping on temporary supports where shown made for gases and vapors. Liquid hydrogen is one ex-
on the drawings. These temporary supports may be of any ception because of its light weight (+.+3 lb.lft.3 ) and may
description consistent with good field-practice and which be neglected the same as a gas or vapor.
does not interfere with installation of other piping. The
7. Where it is desired to load the spring-supports to
compensate for the liquid-load proceed as follows:
. Calculate the load imposed on each support by the
About the Author liquid alone, using the method given in the example
Warren E, Doyle is the resident engineer at the Nu- above.
clear Rocket Development Station near Mercury, Nev.
IIis companl. is AETRON. Div. o Adjust each constant support so that it lifts the ad-
Aerojet-General Corp. Mr. Doyle's ditional weight designated for it. The amount of this
drrtics ere to give engineering sup-
port to the Space Nuclear Propul- rveight is usually arbitrarily set at 50 percent of calcr.r-
sion Office, a joint ADC-NASA lated liquid-load. This will make the prestress in the
Agencl', for the construction of a pipe about equal to the stress during operation and is
nuclear rocket engine test facility
for the NERVA engine. He has about half of that u,hich '"vould result if the spring-
studied at the Llniversity of Minne- sr-rpport rl.ere adjusted for the full liquid-load. The
sota and Indiana University. Prior additional load can be measured on the load scale
r,, jni11i11q ,\ETRO\ lrc sr. e proj-
r:tt cnginccr rvith Air Ploducts and betrreen the punch-mark mentioned above, and the
Chemicals, Inc., on liquid hyclrogen load-indicator.
f)ovle production facilities and nuclear re-
actor testing facilities. lIe rvas also associated rvith CAIJTIOII! Before disconnecling a pipe line or re-
Danicl, X{ann, Johnson and Mendenhall, Architects and rroving any part of a piping system that tends to change
Enginecrs, as a mcchanical design group leader. He is a
registerecl professional enginccr, a member of the Na-
the rreight on a spring-support, provide a fixed tempo-
tional Socicty of Professional Engincers and the Ameri- lall support for the pipcline belore removing the spring-
can Instilutc of Aeronautics and Astronautics. support. Failure to do this may result in the spring
causing excess deflection and stress in the pipe ##
95
Piping Tierod Design Made Simple
Most piping designers recognize the
need to provide tierods around pipe
joints. What are design requirements?
Here they are-simplified
Worren E. Doyle, Guided Missiles Range Div.,
Pan American World Airways, Inc., Mercury, Nw.
TrsB.oos ARE usED to restrain the anchor force pro-
ducod by the particular group of pipe-joints which tend
to pull apart when subjected to internal pressure.
Figures 7, 2, and 3 show typical installations of tierods
around such joints. The structural failures shown in Fig-
ures 4 and 5 graphically demonstrate the consequence of
having an inadequate anchor system around an expansion
joint.(These joints failed under test pressure, whereas,
they should have been able to withstand rp to 2/z tmes
this pressure without failing.)
The technology governing the need for tierods, and
their design is quite fundamental, yet, tho absence of tie-
rods where they should be used, is one of the most fre-
quent hazards in existing piping systems. The object of
this article is to show the conditions where tierods are
required to make a piping system safe, and provide the
tools to simplify the design of tierods and other anchor
systems.
There can be other conditions which add to the longi-
tudinal (anchor) force produced by internal pressure, but
the force resulting from theso conditions is relatively small,
tE. ,
ta,
I
Fig. l-Tierods around a slide-joint in Fig. 2-Expansion joint wittr factory in-
a pump discharge pipe. stalled tierods.
96
and usually disregarded in the design of tierods; e.g., the
longitudinal component of the centrifugal force caused by
a change-in-direction of a pipe flowing water at 50,000
gpm in a 30-inch pipe, is equal to the longitudinal force
produced by an internal pressure of only 6 psi. It is un-
likely that the sum of this pressure and the operating
pressure, would ever exceed the design conditions of a
piping system. A condition where tierods in a long-vertical
run-of-pipe support a dead load, should be examined for
the effect of the dead load on the design conditions of
the tierods.
The longitudinal force in a pipe joint, caused by in-
ternal pressure is,
P-Ap (1)
where ,{: effective area of the pipe joint, and
.1, : pressure in the pipe,
The effective area of a sleeve coupling, or bell and
spigot-type joint is considered to be the area of a circle
having a diameter equal to the outside diameter of the
pipe. The effective area of convoluted expansion joints is
determined by pressure tests, which are made by the
manufacturer and published in his catalogs. The eflective
areas given in Table 1 are representative of the product
of several manufacturers.
Design Procedure. 1. Determine the longitudinal force
in the pipe-joint from Equation ( 1) , using the effective
area from Table 1 and the specified test pressure, ot L/2-
times the working pressure of the pipe line, whichever is
greater. Add to this force, any other longitudinal force
in the joint, to obtain the Total Longitudinal Design
Force.
2. With this design force, enter Table 2 and select the
Fig. 3-Tierods around an expansion
joint in vacuum service.
 Fig. 4-Overstress failure in a gimbaled expansion joint. Fig. 1-Overstress failure in a hinged expansion joint.

number and size of tierods most suited to the operating TABLE 2-Tierod Selection Dotq
conditions. The joints which are required to have a hinge
action should have two tierods. Longltudlnal NUMBER OF TIE RODS
Force, P
3. Enter Table 3 with the size of the tierod selected, Lbs,

which determines the size of the tierod anchor required. 500 ..

1,000...
%
IZ
The required section modulus of the anchor, given in the 1,500. slt
2,000 ,4
second column, has been determined using an allowable 2,500 ..
fiber stress of 10,000 psi and a distance of 3/2 inches from 3,000 .
3,500 ..
the rod to the pipe, which is adequate'for all joints in 4,000 .,
4,500,
corunon use. The structural member size and shape given 5,000 .

in the third column is merely a suggestion, other struc- 6,000.

7,000 , .
tr,rral rnembers may be used provided their section modulus 8,000 . .
is adequate. 9,000, . .
10.000, .
Table4 is provided to give data for the design of tierods
.

12.000. .
to suit conditions other than those given in Table 3.
Design Notes. Steel for tierods should be selected to
have an ultimate strength of 40,000 psi, or more.
o Tierods should have national-course threads and at
(1) The recommended choice of tie-rods is \\'ithin the heavy lines.
least two nuts on each end. a2) l'he size of tie-rods is based on a tensile strength of bolts giYen in Table 4.
o Sufficient weld-metal should be used to develop the
full strength of the tierod anchor where it connects to
the pipe.
o Whe.re an expansion joint is used in a vacuum line, or
lvhere any other compressive force is required to be fABLE 3-fierod Anchor Selection Tqble

TABLE l-Efiective Areqs of Pipe Jolnts Structuml

Member Slze
Rod Size In. & Shape (2)
2 xr)4x sl6L
2 xllx )4L
Convoluted .09
Nomlnal Plpe Stze SUp-Jolota Expanslou .15
.I olnts 1 2 x71,5xl4L
2)4x7)4x )4L
!.. 4 13 .4+ 2)4x2x sAaL
3 20 .56 3 x2 r )4,L
4.. 15 29 .70 3 x2 xsAaL
t]. 51 1.06 3x2x3xrlU
li
.
58 97 r.47 4x2x4xlU
lo., 90 135 1.93 4x2x4r)y',U
tl L28 180 2.42 4x2x4x 5l6U
t.l. L54 231 3.10
Iri . 200 289 3.70
Ita.. 254 4.50
20.. 314 424 6.10
452 5E3 8.00
30. . 702 871
(1) Based on an allowable fiber stress of 10"000 psi. -
r Areas representative of the product of several manufacturers. (z) Ottrer shapes may be used if their section modulus is adequate'

97
 PIPING TIEROD DESIGN MADE SIMPLE . . .

TABLE 4-flerod Design Doro

20 .049 .027 270

18 .077 .045 450
16 .1 10 .068 680
74 .150 .093 930
13 .196 .126 t,260
72 .248 .162 t,620 (o) HTNGED ExpANSroN-JorNT
l1 .307 .202 2,O20
10 .442 .302 3,020
I .691 .419 4,1 90
8 .785 .551 5,510
7 .994 ,693 6,930 SPACER
L.227 .890 8.890
6 1.485 1.054 10,540
6 1.767 7.294 12,940
5 2.405 t.745 17,450
4% 3.142 2.300 23,000

sleeve should be placed over each

distance between the anchors, with
t in the free condition, as shown in
. Thg design details of tierods around an expansion joint
shall be such tllat the required function o] the expan_
sion joint is not jeopardized. fn certain cases it is
necessary to specify a particular gap betryeen the tierod
anchor and the tie.rod stop. See Figure 7 f.or typical (a) Exr,ANSloN-JorNT
"TMBALED
tierod design detail. Fig. L-Gimbaled and hinged expa.sion joint detail.

@ rrrnoo
(D trrRoo
" ANcHoR

A2P @ erer rrrue

(2) @ COUPLING
srrrve
3l -
where P: total longitudinal design force in the expansion
joint, and Fig. 7-Typical tierod design detail.
f - allowable shear stress.
Where the force is appreciable, the pin connection should be designed to place the pin in double shear, as
shorvn in Figure 6. The structural failures shou-n in Fig-
ures 4 and 5 undoubtedly would not have occurred i-f the
pins had been in double shear.
About the quthor
The maximum stress in the gimbal ring occurs at the pin
WnnnnN E. Doyr,p is a faciti,tg engineer connections, rvhere the bending rnoment,
at the Nuclear Rocket Deuelopment Sta-
tion near Mercu,r'y, Neu. His com,panE i,s PI
Pan American Wo,t'ld, Airuags, support M: (3)
8
serui,ce contracto,r, fo,r, the station. Ml,. whcre P: total longitudinal design force in the expansion
DoEle has joint, and
Minnesota
has held, : outside diameter of the gimbal ring.
/
utith Air This equation takes into consideration the fact that the
associatecl
ring is not an ideal beam- and is intended to give a con-
and Xlendenh.all, Architects and Engi-
selvative design.
resident
Heisa The tension bar at the pin connection should be de-
National signed to be stronger than the pin.
-ic'un In-
The holes for the pins should be drilled and reamed to
a Class 3 (medium) fit J)- JL
1+ 1+

98
NOTES

99
 HERMOWELLS

g"
Thermowell Design For Process Piping
Pqrt l: Procedures For the Piping Designer
Part 2z Installation and Specifications
Part 3: Selection of Thermowell lnsertion Lengths
John A. illqsek, Philadelphia

DesrcNrNo pRocEss piping with thermowells properly

located so they will project inside the pipe to give accu-
rate temperature readings with good speed and response
requires important engineering considerations.'This will
often present a perplexing problem to the new designer
because this design work must be done without knowing
the length of the thermowell, especially in the early fl35orern
design siages of a project. The inexperienced piping de-
uooLEFS

signer will unfortunately find this the situation. Fetp Cutrr-er

Parts 1 and 2 of this article will provide sufficient in-
formation for the design and installation of the threaded
type thermowells in piping. Part 3 will show how to
seiect the proper insertion and immersion lengths of
thermowells for most pipe configurations and pipe sizes.
When the design work of a project is started it usually
has to be done under pressure to meet drawing comple-
tion dates. These schedules impose an additional burden
to the designer unfamiliar with thermowells. Practically,
there is no time for training or consulting available in-
structors. Sometimes the designer may be able to obtain
the desired information on how to install thermowells. At
other times he will not get assistance so he must do the
best he can. He has learned from experience that to ask
Iines, regardless of size. This will create a problem for
the piping checker who will have to redesign sections
of the piping to install the thermowells properly.
Most engineering design offices have a piping depart-
instrumentation designers working with this department
will make the required instrument drawings covering
the project.
Since thermowell connections are for instruments that
must be installed in the piping by the piping designers,
On other occasions each department may function in-
dependently with the result that instrument and thermo-
*"^ll .o.rrr""tions may or may not receive the attention
they should from the piping deaprtment. Much will de-
FIGURE l-Flow sheet showing temperature instruments re-
quired and sensing points.
pend on ho- *u.y experienced piping designers are
assigned to the project.
Some engineering offices may have elaborate instru-
rnentation standards to which the piping designer can
refer and follow in this design work. Other drafting
rooms may not have any such standards, thus leaving it
up to the individual piping designer to work out what
he may think best. To an experienced designer this is
no problem.
Flow Sheets qnd Temperoture Points. AII refinery
and chemical plant design work is guided by flow sheets.
These present the diagrammatic arrangement of the
process equipment and piping. The flow sheets of a
process become the main working reference for the pip-
ing designer. Tho temperature points, with their index
numbers, will be found and will require the installation
of thermowells in piping. The temperature index num-
bers assigned to each point are designated by conven-
tional symbols such as Tf, (Temperature Indicator),
TH, TIC, TC, TRC, TR, TIA, TRCA, TT ANd TW
followed by the number assigned to each of the points.l
In Figure 1, a partial process layout from a Process
flow sheet illustrates where the typical temperature in-
struments'have been actually assigned, and later used in
designing the process pping. Only the temPerature
points have been shown. The other instruments have
been omitted to emphasize the installation of the thermo-

rot

.'r--:n
3 -,- .r1
(.) (6)
FIGURE 2-For process piping 3-inch and larger, typical
thermowell locatio-ns. Instillati6n details: therm"obulb"(g),
wells in the piping. The flow sheets will give the pipe
line size and the prylng specification reference to use. In
this case we will assume that the l-inch pipe thread
thermowell complies with the specification for the job.
An identifying process reference line number may also
be given to each line; giving the piping designer the
necessary data needed to proceed with this work.
Piping foyout. The plot plan of the project will usually
locate the equipment in thl process afea with the eleva-
tions. The equipment connecting nozzles required in
connecting the process piping with the pumps, vessels
and exchangers will be found on the respective equip-
ment drawinp. The pping designer will layout the pip-
ing to suit the general piping arrangement, clear the
obstructions, and run the piping from one piece of
equipment to another. The piping must be run in the
space provided, without interfering with structural steel
platforms and other piping. Sufficient space must be
provided for the valves, flanges, instrument connections
and for the installation of thermowells. Thermowells
must be accessible from the grade, floor or platform. fn
the case of a dial thermometer, the face must be easily
seen. Piping will often have to be diverted from the
shortest possible course with the addition of extra fit-
tings to install thermowells. Possibly the shortest piece of
ro2
(l-l
(c) (l) (e,\
thermocouple (f) (h) (i) and dial thermometers (j) (k) (l).
pipe that may be shown on florv sheets into rvhich ther-
mowells are installed is a pipe reducer betrveen trvo
flanges. Such a connection may be used betrveen t\\.o
heat exchanger nozzles as shown in Figure 2c.
When two different process lines conr.erge into a
pipe tee and then flow into one line it is necessanr to get
a good representative temperature. This pipe line must
extend not less than 10 pipe diameters to obtain a good
mixing before the flow reaches the thermorvell. An er-
ample of this is shorvn in Figure 2.
Thermowells for Lorge Size Pipe. Thermorvells can
be installed with ease in process pipe lines 3 inches and
larser. Every effort should be made to install the therno-
well connection in a welding pipe elbow. The connection
should be made b1, rvelding a l-inch, type 6000 lb. or
other size forged steel elbow adapter in the heel of the
pipe elbow (see Figure 2). If this is done the thermo-
wells with the longest required insertion length can be
installed u'ithout running into interferences inside the
piping. The pipe should, of course, be laid out so the
thermorvell rvill be accessible from the grade or platform.
Since most thennowells must be removed for inspection
during a plant shutdown they must be located within
the pipefitter's reach, preferably without resorting to the
use of ladders. This will often require an additional proc-

!r.x'-
FIGURE 3-Small process pipe lines, fi
ess pipe elbow in the line. This precaution will be ap-
preciated by the maintenance department and by those
who have to service the equipment.
Some of the typical piping layouts that can be used
are shown in Figures 2a to 2e. Only the pipe elbow has
been used in each of these details for installing thermo-
well connections. These are for dial thermometers,
thermocouples and thermobulbs. Such arrangements are
necessary whe,n the 3-inch and 4-inch and larger process
lines are used. It is often possible to install dial thermom-
eters and thermocouple well assemblies on a 45-degree
angle by using an elbow adapter as a lateral connection
as shown in Figures 2h and 2k. Thermowell connections
can be installed perpendicular to the pipe wall with a
forged steel thread adapter. This arrangement can be
applied best on 4-inch and larger pipe as shown in Fig-
ures 2i and 21.
Thermowells for Smoll Pipe Lines. Installation of
thermowells in small sized process lines f-inch to 2-inch
requires special consideration. Because the lines are
small, the thermowells cannot be installed directly into
the process piping; this would restrict the flow in the
line. The pipe is enlarged to overcome this or swaged
up with a2/z-inch pipe elbow to accommodate the f -inch
elbow adapter connection for the thermowell. Thermo-
wells with 6-inch insertion lengths or longer can thus be
installed. Longer length thermowells required for long
thermobulbs furnished with the instrument or process
requirements can have the 2/z-inch outlet of the pipe
elbow extended with a 2t/z-inch pipe spool piece, to ac-
commodate these wells.
In Figure 3 four typical piping arrangements
shown to be used in installing thermowells. When the en-
larged sections must be provided with a 2f-inch spool
piece, the minimum length should be at least 12 inches.
Note that the Figure 3 details are accessible so the ther-
mowells can, be taken out and inspected and reinstalled
Coxootr To
(cnrtr r- ?trc,l
u\
to 2-itch, swaged up to accommodate thermowells.
during plant shutdowns. Providing for an indicating dial
thermometer, the swaged up section should be located
to be seen from the grade, floor or platform. At times it
may be necessary to install two thermowells together
in the same pipe section for the same service. Such in-
stallations may require an indicating thermometer and
another thermowell for a temperature transmitter ther-
mobulb. The 2/z-inch enlarged pipe elbow with the
spool piece can provide for these duplex installations.
These sections should be made up to enhance stream-
line flow. The fittings should be assembled to prevent
the residue in the florving product from accumulating
inside the pipe and around the thermowell which would
present a temperature Iag to the operating instrument.
The swaged up section could give the arrangement an
awkward appearance, thus every eflort should be made
to blend this piping with the surrounding equipment.
In Figure 3a, this 2t/z-inch section is installed in the
vertical, with a thermometer at the bottom, and the
thermobulb at the top. The vertically installed thermo-
well may be required if a thermal-fluid is to be placed
inside the well to increase the thermal transmission
through the well to obtain a quicker temperature re-
sponse, to the instrument.
In Figure 3b, the 2fi-inch section is installed with
two l-inch elbow adapters in the horizontal with one
connection for the indicating thermometer and the other
for a duplex thermowell containing a thermocouple and
a zfi-inch diameter thermobulb for a temperature trans-
mitter. If vibration is likely td be transmitted in the
piping, the transmitter should not be supported from the
process piping but instead mounted on a building col-
are umn, wall or from a floor pedestal.
In Figure 3c, two 211-inch pipe elbows are installed
together with a pipe spool piece at the lower end to in-
crease its length for the installation of a thermowell with
a thermobulb. The other elbow adapter holds a dial
thermometer in a 6-inch long thermowell. In Figure 3d,
t03
THERMOWELL DESIGN FOR PROCESS PIPING

-a

.1'

FIGURE 4-Three types of l-inch con-

nections for thermowells installed on
welding pipe elbows: (a) regular pipe
coupling that should not be used, (b)
improvised connection made with a boss,
(c) 6,000 lb. forged steel elbow adapter
provides best thermowell connection at
lowest installed cost.

a single 2t/z-inch pipe elbow is installed with suitablc
pipe reducers to fit the small size process line. The l-inch
elbow adapter holds a 6-inch long well with a thermo-
couple (T/C). The T/C head is connected with an elec-
trical conduit that carries the circuit to the temperature
recorder on the control panel.
ThermoWell Pipe Elbow Connections. Most themo-
wells for process work will require a l-inch pipe thread
connection, for its installation, in process piping. It has
been observed that in some engineering offices a f-inch,
3000 lb. or 6000 lb. forged steel screwed end (F.S.S.E.)
pipe coupling will be specified for the installation in a
pipe welding elbow. This continues'from the time when
there was nothing better. If the designer would check
this, he would find that the pipe coupling cannot be in-
stalled, in pipe elbows. This is shown in Figure 4a. This
is often done by designers new in this work who are
under the erroneous impression that this makes for a
cheap installation.
The piping fabricators are well aware of this, and in-
steadwill provide a steel boss lf-inch in diameter by
4 inches long, drilled and tapped for a f-inch pipe
l04
thread. This boss is then n,elded into the pipe elborv as
shown in Figure 4b. It is a more erpensive operation
than using an elbow adapter.
The best and cheapest installation for a 1-inch thermo-
well is to rveld a 1-inch type 6000 lb. F.S.S.E. elborv
adapter in the heel of a welding pipe elborv as shou.n in
Figure 4c. The elbow adapter is shaped for u'elding and
gives a streamline florv service and appearance. It rvill
prevent unnecessarv flow turbulence in comparision to
a "boss installation." mentioned above. During some re-
finery inspections it has been noticed that rvhen bosses
are installed in pipe elbows, for mounting thermou'ells
on hot oil serr.ices, considerable erosion would actuallv
take place inside the elborv, in the welding area, because
of the flow turbulence. It is therefore recommended that
for all threaded tvpe thermowells installed in piping
whether 3A-, 1-, or l/a-inch, an elbow adapter rated at
6000 lbs. (F.S.S.E.) type shall be welded on all pipe
lines requiring a thermowell connection.
LITERATURE CITED
rlnstruentatioD FIow Plan Symbols, Iutruent
Sciety of Amerie,
Pittsbugh, Pa,
Thermowell Design For Process Piping
Part 1: Procedures For the Piping Designer
Port 2: lnstqllotion ond Specificotions
Part 3: Selection of Thermowell lnsertion Lengths

John A. Mqsek, Philadelphia in most cases because the pipe branch is

Thermowell connections for temperature sensing de-
vices, specified by the instrument department, are de-
signed by the piping department and installed by the
piping fabricator. This divided responsibility produces
an often neglected design detail.
Part I of this series described how the piping designer
can properly design thermowell connections by using in-
formation on the flow sheet to locate the thermowells on
the piping drawings. Italso described design consideration
for thermowells in pipe sizes 3-inches and over as well as
for small size pipe. This part will describe detailed instal-
lation procedures and specification details.
Fittings For Thermowell Connections. The piping
for a refinery or chemical plant will often
specifications
give the allowable sizes permitted for screwed pipe
branch connections. For usual piping services, the 2000
lb. or 3000 lb. F.S.S.E. fitting will be specified This will
be satisfactory
permanently installed in the pipe connection and will re-
main in place throughout the plant's existence.
Thermowell requirements differ from the screwed
pipe branch connection in that the threaded thermowell
must be removed occasionally for inspection, especially
during plant shutdown, and then replaced. This will re-
quire perfect pipe threads for the thermowell connec-
tions. If the t/, l, or ltf-inch F.S.S.E. type fitting
rated at 6000 lbs. such as a thread adapter, elbow adapt-
er or pipe coupling is welded in the process piping or
equipment, good threads can be assured.
Pipe welden differ in their welding technique; some
can do a better job than others. If a s/, l, or l/a-inch
F.S.S.E. 6000 lb. rated thread adapter or elbow adapter
is installed there is a better chance that the pipe threads
and connections will be free from warping. The fitting
will more than likely take overheating which will pre-
vent stress concentrations in the pipe threads.
It may happen that during one of the thermowell in-

For T.c. I

rrira?ar'-l
(c) Tf'pical thermmouple u'ells

Jxenmotourre Hero Jlcerrt LExctr Ta Surr

I'PItt ilrfrLr,3'Loi6 :zo4"Eors For
Tlermocoutrt

/r.r*lffill
To lH6Tiliexa.
ril.PT
lf-,.Dre,
L .31s" B o*, Fo^
.!Jr "! r a.THErhoruLl
-(d) _Double bore well with bore lor thermobulb and thermmouple including
(a) Typical dial bimetallic thermometer rr ell head

TrrRxotol! i'tol"D,^. I
,'i, +t,t i',roii ro't t+-l
(b) Typiel thcrmowells for thcrmobulbs sysrem ll r,/c thermouerr,
roburbs with filled
niled system ['tii'"r"*$.;l1T3n'111j$,f:l['#"#::.i?.ilft'ud'd
FIGURE 1-Typical thermowell types for process piping.

r05
THERMOWELL DESIGN FOR PROCESS PIPING ...
l'x,r.r.
tl*::
f Nlrial.G.pa.r
FIGURE LThermobulb installations: (a) Special union fit-
ting-use with caution, (b) Cormgated sleeve, (c) thermal
liquids.
spection periods the pipe threads may require retapping.
A 6000 lb. rated fitting will also have sufficient metal to
permit retapping in the future. If this is done it may be
necessary to replace the thermowell with another well,
one with a long tapered pipe threads io fit into the en-
larged retaped connection. Thermowell manufacturers
can provide such wells on special order.
There are seemingly unrelated reasons for using the
3/, l, and l/a-inch, F.S.S.E., 6000 lb. thread adapt-
er, elbow adapter and pipe couplings for thermowell
connections. Prefabricated pipe bends are often shipped
to the plant site in long haul trucks or in freight cars.
While these pipe bends are in transit they will get some
heavy jolts. A 6000 lb. rated fitting is more likely to
lvithstand darnage under these connections.
When the piping is being erected, the pipe fitters will
often use the l-inch thermowell connection fitting as an
erection lug. A pipe nipple may be screwed in tempo-
rarily and used as a ladder rung to support a pipefitter's
foot. A 6000 Ib. fitting will usually sustain such mishan-
dling.
Thermowells are provided in piping with the assump-
tion that they will be used under normal flow velocity
service. Sometimes unexpected high flow velocity may be
encountered. A l-inch, 6000 lb. F.S.S.E. connection with
its extra rigidity will provide a better mounting connec-
tion for the thermowell and prevent it from vibrating
and to withstand these disturbances.
ro6
Pipe Threod Size For Thermowells. Thermowells can
usually be obtained in pipe thread sizes of /z-inch as a
special type, rvhile z/- and l-inch are the usual avail-
able stock carrying sizes and the lt/a-inch is a special
size.
Thermowells in the /2-inch size are used where
space on the equipment will only allow a /z-inch con-
nection to be made for either a thermometer or thermo-
couple assembly.
The zfi-inch size thermowell is generally selected
where process operating service pressures and tbmpera-
tures are in the low range. They are used for mounting
thermometers, thermobulb in thermowells and thermo.
couple assemblies. These are a few dollars cheaper than
the next larger size thermowell.
When a z/a-inch thermowell is to be used, the pipe
designer is cautioned not to use the conventional %-
inch full pipe coupling for mounting thermowells. If the
z/a-inch full coupling is welded on equipment, the nar-
rowness of the inside of the coupling where the two pipe
threads meet may prevent therrnowell insertion. If a z/'
inch type 6000 lb. thread adapter or elbow adapter, u'ere
instead welded on the piping this will make for a better
installation.
The l-inch size thermowell is the one usually selected
for most process services. A typical selection of the ther-
mowells is shown in Figure 5. They should be used when
the l-inch pipe thread connection conforms with the pip-
ing specifications for the project. Sometimes they can be
used on process services that operate at fairly high pres-
sures and temperatures, as high as 750o F. The l-inch
connection for these thermowells should be made with a
F.S.S.E. type 6000 lb. fitting. When process pressures are
very high, approaching the super-pressure range, the
threaded connection should not be used. The specifica-
tions in such cases will usually call for a flanged nozzle
connection with a special type of ball ground joint for
the thermowell. In some refineries, the l-inch threaded
thermowell is used only on steam pressures, 400o F. and
Iower, on water and air services. For hydrcarbon serv-
ices, a ball ground joint thermowell that fits in a flanged
nozzle, made to fit the joint, is often used. There are
other special adapter type thermowells used by re-
fineries.
Chemical and petrochemical units have been designed
using piping specifications which allow for the installa-
tion of l-inch pipe connections for all the l-inch thread-
ed type thermowells used throughout the unit. This ap-
plies to the process piping and the l-inch pipe thread
connection that is also specified for use on vessels and
drums . for the threaded type thermowell. Normalll,
flange type nozzle connections are specified for vessels
including those used for thermowells. Apparently the en-
gineering departments of these companies have found
that in their processes the l-inch threaded thermowells
will give satisfactory service. These processes usually op-
erate in the low pressure and temperature range, and
the products are noncorrosive making threaded thermo-
rvells acceptable.
The l/a-inch thermowell, because of its large size

Rrgurer UJrrorrr
Nrer FLara! C^r
Dt Dir!Lro Arr Jrt 5ot,o 5urpoirrtt Ero 0r Tcr l'prr.
Trtrro PloYuur Traril.waLL Erf airr.* 7i.Ja.rr Ixr. 1ir
'Irrr Am Il' .5lO" 0irrrcc O?arria. L.rta 5?rcr lt ErD,
CouxT.R 6oRE a"', i',li"l'0rrrs
0a.r{.t ID .5lo'Olt,fri'a Dr..1rupurrL.
't\N , lSo".PtrarTrrrf/c, lcstlht'!lt.
I I Lf0[.Prtre'[rrr T/crBor rrt'D'..(l.tio+).
Errrrr.r0 Vrrw 0r TrrlmourrLL Hr.rr Tttr,xocoulr-c, ,
FIGURE 7-Orifice flange adapted for installing a T/C well
and assembly.
thread, can be provided with a thicker tapered wall con-
struction which starts at the bottom of the threads and
is shown in Figure 5a. They are used for higher pressure,
temperature and velocity steam services, becausc of its
sturdy construction.
Moterio! For Thermowells. It is customary, when the
piping and vessels are of carbon steel, to order the ther-
mowells in stainless steel, AISI type 304 or AISI type
316 for greater protection. The AISI type 316 is often
specified for refinery and chemical plant services and
preferred when process pressures and temPeratures oP-
erate in the higher range.
The thermowell manufacturers usually provide recom-
mended materials selection list or chart in their catalog.
This can serve as a guide in the selection of the right
service material required for various process fluids. Spe-
cial material recommendations can be obtained from the
thermowell manufacturer by specifying the service and
fluid in which the thermowell will be submerged. The
threaded type thermowell connection is not recom-
mended to be made of the same material as the special
alloy of the equipment, this could cause galling of the
thermowell pipe threads. In such cases it is customary
to provide l/z-inch flange nozzles in the process piping
and flange type thermowells are installed.
It is important when selecting the thermowcll material
that the composition will prevent an electrolytic action
between the well, piping or vessel.
Thermobulbs Without Thermowells. The catalogs
and service manuals for some of the instrument comPa-
nies show recommendations for the installation of tem-
perature transmitter thermobulbs; being installed with-
out thermowells similar to Figure 6a. A compressiotr
union fitting with gasket and packing gland permits the
thermobulb to be inserted through this fitting and made
pressure tight at the capillary tubing. This type of in-
stallation should not be emPloyed as a general prac-
tice. It may sometimes be used wbere a Doncorrosive
Prtr Nl??L1 \.lrr.Or[Nri. TilT \.ilrr l!Lo! Fol
n SL'Dr FrT f oi Tir lHtlio{Err--,
SirrL B fo 5urr,---7
^r{.,.LDto I
c-t", ti' or \L" -6oaof !,EY ulrn
Ptan of pipe elbow with internal support for thermowell
Elevalion and section o[ process pipe shou'ing details for installing
installing inaernal
support for thermorrcll.
FIGURE 8-An internal pipe supporting bracket for a long
thermowell.
process ,".uite exists, and no flow velocity to cause
movement to the thermobulb that is suspended from
the frail capillary tubing. It is regrettable that illustra-
tions of these have been reproduced in several recent
instrumentation books.
While therc may be a slight increase in tl-re temPera-
ture response, this may prove negligible compared to
the disadvantages that may be encountered later. One in-
convenience is that the process containing the thermo-
bulb must be shutdown and drained each time the bulb
is inspected.
A service man for one of the companies told the
writer that he has had to answer many service calls on
the complair,t that their temPcrature transmitter would
not operate. After driving all day to get to some out of
the way location, he would inspect the temperature
transmitter which was usually in satisfactory condition;
the next step was to inspect the thermobulb.
After the process was shut down and the line
drained, he would open up the compression union. At
this point when he would withdraw the capillary tubing,
he would often find no thermobulb at its end. This had
been corroded and was carried away with the process
flow in the line. In other cases, the bulb was still intact;
however, the flow velocity imposed forces on the ther-
mobulb inducing stresses in the capillary tubing. A small
crack would eventually develop and cause the thermal
fluid under pressure to leak out thus ruining the tem-
perature transmitter. Installing these thermobulbs in
thermowells would have pfevented this trouble. Often
the user of the instrument does not realize the benefits
that can be derived by installing thermowells as shown
in Figure 6b and 6c.
Reducing Log. A thermowell is required to Protect the
thermal element of a thermometer or temperature trans-
mitter thermobulb from corrosion, erosion, and to give
t07
THERA,TOWELL DESIGN FOR PROCESS PIPING . . insuring a metal to metal contact throughout the
length of the sensitive thermobulb. In some cases, two
sleeves are used on both sides of the bulb. The corruga-
tions in the sleeve itself provide a metallic path between
T"Z"ltt,urrocs
Flexo;
Tc Dottor.r oF ELrrrD
the well and the bulb on opposite side. The advan-
Trir ecrr is 0 Fr,cw DiFlrc,roa.
Dlrrr- A{r Tol For tage of using a sleeve is that it can be applied to thermo-
TrEi,rour ur, I ilt,?, T. Crrrr. wells installed in a vertical, horizontal, or in an upside-
down position.
The standard type thermowells manufactured and
supplied are provided with the following bulb diameter
to well bore relationship. The dimensions listed in cata-
EorTom Srre 0r {-tgo* n,f. F.5,BrtHD FuRile s. logs are usually given as (/a-inch bulb fits into a 0.260-
inch bore) ; sft-inch into 0.385-inch); (/2-inch into
0.510-inch) ; (9/16-inch into 0.572-inch) ; s/s-inch into
Cenllrr\ Turrxe To lrt rr r. 0.635-inch); (11/16-inch into 0.707-inch) ; (s/-inch
Dr-rxo Fuc. Drtuurp t T^er:o, into 0.760-inch) .and (t/g-inch into 0.885-inch).
It is generally assumed that thermal liquids and metal-
lic filings will be used when the thermowell bore is ex-
cessive, a condition encountered when an existing well
must be used, or a crude well is made up in the field
to be used in an existing process cannot compare with
a thermowell manufactured to close bore tolerances as
those listed above.
When thermowells are installed, in a vertical position
in piping and. equipment, various substances are used to
f,revr tr ox increase the heat transmission and temperature response
FIGURE 9-Thermowell protected with angle iron is by using mercury (See Figure 6c) . Mercury is
deflector. -one
probably the best, from a thermal consideration. Mer-
cury must not be used when the process operating tem-
perature approaches its boiling point (3750 C or 6740
F). Both the thermowell and bulb should be made of
steel or ferrous alloy. A brass thermowell or bulb im-
mersed in mercury would be destroyed by amalgama-
tion. Some authorities question having exposed mercury
in a room, whose vapors could mix with the room at-
mosphere, claiming this can create a toxic hazard to some
people.
A mixture of oil and graphite is better than graphite
for use on higher operating temperatures. Ottrer sub-
,=tf;:=='.11$ stances used in vertical thermowells are: glycerine,
naphthalene, oils and various types of greases, and pro-
I.t t'..l4iy prietary heat transfer fluids.
Oil evapcrates in time, breaking down as it ages,
filling the inside of the well with wax and dirt. The
i
thermal liquids should immerse only the length of the
IIGURE l0-(u) Pipe plug stops small leaks in thermowell,
thermobulb. Thermowells should not be filled entirely
(b) Use shut-off valve and pipe nipple for large thermowell
leaks. to the top of the well, this would increase the un-
wanted heat transmission resulting in greater lag and
lower temperature readings at the instrument.
it adequate support;to permit jts removal without in- Thermowells in a horizontal position can be filled
terrupting the process. The use of the thermowell will with graphite, carbon, metallic dust slrch ,ui copper,
unavoidably introduce a temperature time Iag to the aluminum or clean iron filings or a corrugated alumi-
changesin temperature in the process and response to num sheath to reduce the insulating properties of the
the temperature relayed to the instrument. This is
caused py the transmission of the heat through the air gap. Solder is sometimes used between the thermo-
thiclcness of the metal well, the invitable dead air space
bulb and the thermowell (tin, +2Oo F, lead, 6000 F).
between the well and bulb.
One manufacturer solved this problem by producing Additionol fhermq! Logs. There are other normal
a corrugated sleeve and this is shown on Figr_rre 6b. thermal lags, in addition to temperature lags in ther-
This sleeve provides a metal to metal contact between mowells, which will vary with different process flow
the bulb and the thermowell by means of a very thin services. For instance, the lag will be small in water,
(.005-inch) corrugated aluminum sleeeve. Ionger in oil and quite long in air. The lag in super-
The sleeve forces the bulb to one side of the well heated steam will be much longer than for wet or satu-
to8
nated steam, for the same velocity or the flow past the
thermowell.

Pipe Flonge Used for (T/C) Well Assembly. Special

types of thermocouple (T/C) wells can often be de-
signed and installed in process piping to better advan-
tage than the conventional cantilever type thermowell. tt
One such arrangement is shown in Figure 7 which uti- tl

lizes an orifice'flange for mounting the T/C well. This _ii G)

T/CC well is /z-inch in diameter. Half of the extended I
L--- -:---
length is a solid extension which fits into the opposite
flange orifice opening that has been counter-bored to
0.510-inch diameter. The solid end of the T/C well holds
the entire well securely in place regardless of the flow
velocity. The slight expansion that may exist between the
parts will slide in the flange openings.
The active other half of the T/C well is drilled to FIGURE' ll-Extend platforms for inacccssible thermorvell
asscmblies.
hold either a /s-inch or /a-inch O.D. pencil type T/C
assembly. The hot junction extends into the center of
the process pipe flow area. This T/C assembly is shown
in Figure 7 and is connected to the T/C head. The en-
tire well and assembly must be designed special for each
flange and ordered with the drawing from the thermo-
well manufacturer.
If an orifice flange is not available for this puryose,
the regular pipe welding neck flange can be drilled,
bored and taped as shown in Figure / providing the
flange is l/s-inch thick but preferably thicker.

Supporfing The End of Long Thermowells. When \..Jer-pEo

temperature control instruments are provided with very
Iong thermobulbs they must be installed in suitable ther-
mowells. An example of such is shown in Figure
Thermowells 15-inch to 24-inch in length, if installed and
held in place only by the pipe thread connection, could
cause the well to vibrate with the flow velocity. Eventu-
ally the well could bend and lead to a possible fracture.
Some self-acting types of temperature controllers often
require long thermowells. When they are installed in pip-
ing they should be provided- with some internal means
of supporting and in stabilizing the end. In Figure 8,
such a supporting arrangement is shown. When an in-
strument is ordered requiring an extra long well, the
instrument department should prepare a sketch similar
to Figure 8 and submit it to the piping department
to be incorporated on the process piping drawing.
Protecting Thermowell With Deflector. In some
process pipe lines the flowing product rnay carry a
mixture of entrained solids. Such an installation is
shown in Figure 9 which also requires a long thermo-
well. This process line will require a 4-inch flange noz-
zle made at the outlet of the main pipeline tee, on
which the welding neck flange is installed.
A 4-inch blind flange is drilled and tapped for the
l-inch thermowell. To protect the thelmowell from the
flow velocity, a 2x2xsft-inch angle iron flow deflector
is welded to the bottom of the flange. This angle iron
flow deflector is installed ahead of the well and in this
way takes the shock and diverts the flowing product
in the pipe, thus protecting the thermowell from bend-
ing or becoming damaged by erosion. The blind flange
8.
Drnme.rens t
FIGURE l2-Locate back welded thermowells near pipe
flanges.
supporting the thermowell provides an easy arrange-
ment for inspection of .the inside of the process pipeline.
When Thermowells Leok in Service. When a thermo-
well does develop a leak in service, it will be necessary
to isolate this thermowell and stop the leak without
shutting down the plant.
When the leak is small, the instrument in the thermo-
well may be removed and a /z-inch or f-inch pipe
plug screwed in the thermowell opening and tightened
in place as shown in Figure 10a. This will take care
of the situation until the next plant shutdown when the
well may be replaced.
There may be other cases when the eroded part of
the thermowell will let go under operating pressure re-
sulting in a very large leak. It will be impossible to
screw in a plug to stop this leak and it must be han-
t09
 THERMOWELL DESIGN FOR PROCESS PIPING
. design of piping in the drafting room. Sometimes ther-
mowells with their assemblies may have to be installed
unavoidably in the process piping, heaters and vessels
where Lhey will be completely inaccessible. When this
becomes known to the piping designer he should cbtain
mark
This
. The
to reach and service tt" tnllffl*ell without difficuly.
An example of this is shown in Figure 12.
To neglect such details or leave it for someone else
to pick up later may mean that it will be overlooked.
The- plant may be built with no easy means of getting
to these thermowells except to build a scaffold or by
using a ladder, cach time ihe the.mo*ell must be serv-
iced, Such omissions have sometimes been responsible
for accidents and injury to the instrument mainlenance
men who must service these thermowells under adverse
circumstances.

FIGURE l3-Locate thermowell downstream of pressure gage
connection.
dled differently. During these emergencies, a tfu-inch
shut-off valve and pipe nipple assembly must be ob-
tained and used. The valve is left in an open position
so that the process fluid can leek out while the assembly
is being screwed in the well opening, as shown in Figure
llb. When the nipple has been screwed in tight, the
valve is shut off and the Ieakage stopped. This will
hold until future repairs can be made.
Bqck Welding fhermowells. Threaded type thermo-
wells when installed on process piping for some services
may have to be back welded. This is often done on high
pressure steam, hydrocarbon, acid, or caustic lines and
on other service pipelines carrying toxic prodrrcts. Ther-
mowell back welding at the threads will prevent its re-
moval for inspection. When back welding is necessary,
it is a good practice to locate and install the thermowell

Hof Oil Leoks. One of the real hazards in oil refineries

is to have a thermowell leak in hot oil services. When
a leak occurs the vapors will flash into a flame on com-
ing in contact with the atmosphere, creating a danger-
ous situation. When an operator sees something like
this happen he will immediately rush for a steam hose
and will direct the live steam on the leaking thermo-
well assembly; in this way he can put out the fire and
keep it from reigniting.
Another operator will obtain a /2-inch valve rvith
nipple as shown in Figure 11b, with the valve in an open
position. When the thermowell has been cleared oi its
T,/C assembly, with the steam continually being directed
on the well to prevent
valve assembly will be
When the pipe nipple is
shut-off thus preventin$
gency. The well replacement will be made in the next
plant shutdown.
When a thermowell is brokcn off in l.rot oil servicc,
due possibly to imbrittlement oi other causes creating
a very large leak, there is only one thing to do that-
that is to shut down the plant. It is for these reasons
that thermowell inspections become an important re-
sponsibility during plan shutdown periods.
Provide For Accessibility. Accessibility to the thermo-
rvells and their assemblies becomes very important in
their installation, mainteilance and especiaily during
emergencies. The time to provide for this is during the
section to be removed. Sometimes the adjacent pipe
bend can be designed to be removed without too much
difficulty. This facilitates gerting to the other pipe flange
with the thermowell so it can be inspected.
When a refinery turnaround takes place, the inspec-
tion of all thermowells receives important considerafion.
They are carefully examined and the stem is gaged with
a caliper. The opposite side of the thermowell is
checked by reaching inside the pipe with the hand and
feeling the thermowell stem for evidence of possible
erosion.
Pressure Goge And Thermowell Conneclions. The
flow sheet of a process will often show a pressure gage
and thermowell connection that must be installed in the
same piping. It is considered good practice to install the
pressure gage connection ahead of the thermowell, as
shown in Figure 14. Since the thermowell will create a
flow turbulence in the direction of the flow this could
have an effect on the pressure gage connection.
On some critical processes re
on which a pressure gage conn
this too is located near a pipe
two pipe diameters away from the face of the flange.
This puts the connection where it can be examined and
inspected from the inside of the pipe, for possible
erosion.

no
Thermowell Design for Process Piping
Part 1: Procedures
Part 2: lnstallation and Specifications
Port 3: Selection of Thermowel! lnsertion Lengths
John A. tlosek, Philadelphia
TrrBnr ARE Two METlroDs that can be pursued when
providing for thermowells during the design of process
piping. One is to design the process piping and to pro-
vide the necessary l-inch thermowell coFrnections in the
piping or for the enlarged pipe sectio-nF wherever they
are required; later, the thermowell insertion lengths are
selected from the completed drawing to s'uit each connec-
tion, depending upon the piping and configuration.
The other method is to decide in advance what thermo-
well insertion lengths to use for all the thermowells. This
will apply to the dial thermometers, thermobulbs, resist-
ance bulbs and thermocouples. The design of the process
piping will then have to be made to accommodate the as-
signed thermowell insertion lengths. The thermowells
handled in this way will usually have 9 inch, 12 inch, 15
gl
8nr!-
FIGURE l4-(above) Thermowell connections made with
l-inch, 6,(X)0 lb. elbow adapter installed ot 2/z to l2-inch
pipe weld elbows.
FIGURE lL(right) Thermowell connections made with
l-inch, 600 lb. el6ow adapter installed at weld line of 2 to
lO-inch welding elbow.
for the Piping Designer
inch or longer insertion lengths. When the thermowells
are in the longer range, this will be advantageous in that
complete immersion will be assured. There will be a
better chance that the thermal element will project ade-
quately inside the piping to be completely immersed in
the process flow. This is one way of designing for thermo-
wells in piping to enchance better temperature resPonse
and thereby reduce lag to the temperature instrument.
The other advantage of this method is that it will also
reduce the number of types of thermowells that have to
be ordered. It confines the types that have to be carried
in stock at the plant where they will be used for future
maintenance work, to a minimum. When the piping de-
signer knows in advance what thermowell insertion
lengths are preferred he will be in a better position to
Dbor Adapt.! c.!!.rllil l.ryl E
r.ldlq lll c.nt.r1l!. latd r!or.
!1p. s.)d vt!h dalcl.rl .pa
b.tY.cE r.ld. lo dlt.
lll
 Each piping detail confoins cr scole on ihe centerline ol the thermowell,
Use it lo selecl lhermowell lenglh by spolting eftective flow dreo.

degree angle. The well perpendicular to the pipe will

naturally be in the turbulent flow section of the pipe. Of
course, it will not always be possible to do this because
of the piping arrangement and direction of the process
5aalr lN' 0A t . flow. If the thermowell is long enough, with complete
insertion and immersion this will enhance quicker 1em-
perature response and reduce lag to the instrument.
Since o the thermoweli may
protrude the piping so they will
be paral atforms. If this is not
done, workmen carrying tools on their shoulders may ac-
cidently knock off the head of a dial thermometer. An
operator in an emergency rush could become injured by
bumping into a T/C head that may stick out in the aisle.
Capillary tubing should not dangle from the well but be
attached and strpported with |xlx/s-inch angle iron or
placed inside conduit.
In Tables I to +, lists are given
of the various types of
thermowells that apply to the details in Figures lt to 27.
These are recommended for use either for dial thermom-
eters, temperature transmitter thermobulbs and for
r!3t lr'orC
tclt thermocouples. The proper insertion lengths for special

F.-6=
(0r Lertorn ro Surr)

sc"u8 Ir rmEDt
8tf, lrDlr I
FIGURE lLElbow adapter installed on 2-inch reducing
elbow for I and l/z-irtch piocess piping.

provide for their installation, in the process piping. This

will save time and will enable him to complete the draw-
hg sooner.
In Figures 14 to 27 many piping details are shown
that will suggest to the piping designer the various
Oi LtN:ri T6 5urT
schemes that can be used. The important feature of these (\)
details is that each has been provided with a scale, in SCM IN INCIIS
inches, shown on the center line run of the thermowell. s{ lEU I

This will enable the irxtrumentation engineer to select a

thermowell by examining the scale. He will be able to
spot the active eflective flow area where the thermal ele-
ment of the instrument will be located, preferably in the
turbulence zone. a

When the thermowell is installed perpendicular or at

a 45-degree angle to the pipe wall, the tip of the thermo-
well should be at or near the center line of the pipe.
Thermowells and their connections should point counter
flow to the flow in the process line. This should apply to
u (c,) Zr'. ,,.. qq{r{6!FrNr Wnrx Two
' -i2RBoueLLa MulI B(,{iraLLiD
To:rra:a.

FIGURE l7-Thermowell connection f.or t/a to 2-inch piping

:waCg.d_up tg 2/2-inch with l-inch 6,000'lb. elbow afaptei
thermowells installed on pipe elbows and those ot a 45- installed in elbow.

It2
 TABTE l-Thermowells with l-lnch Pipe Threod, Giving lmmersion ond Ordering lengths
Flfl. l4-f -1n., 6000 lb. elbow adapter lnstalled on mowell
fl8. l5-l-1n,, 6000 lb. elbow sdspter lnstalled at
Il9. l9-f-1r., 9999 !F. adapter lnstalled on ,thermowell
std tr/zn procees tlnes
Fl8. l7-l-1n., 6000 lb. "!F"*
elbow adapter tnstalted on 2, procbisilnes

Thermowells
for thermobulbe
Indlcatlng dlal thermometer wlth t/.n dla. blmet^lllc stem Immerslon length
Etart8 wlth dlmen-
Dlal thermometer Dlal thermometer Immerelon length slon glyen below.
wtth yz" plpe lmmerelon lengttl wtth rl" plpe of thermowell Check wlth the
thread of thermowell thread scale shown on fIE, Thermmouple
Flg, no. of plpe detall
followed try reference s."-l.a"Ge No lnsulatlon Stem orderlng
wtl zi-iiJrt-lo. add the length well
extenslon requlred for the
to the Bpectfic
nomlnal plpe elze
leng,ths
glYen below S""
lengthg
glven below S'".
thermobulb. See
aete for determln-
IiiE-r-"oo
orderlDg, length
"a"1" ""t" lng ordedng length
Inches Inches Inches Inchee fnches fnchee
Inches
Fig, )4 2t4 6 4t4 9 5t4 5 Plus Bulb 6
Fis. 14-3 6 4% I 5% 6 Plus Bulb 6
Fip- l4 9 7% 12 8% 8 Plus Bulb 8
Fig, 14 6 I 7% 15 71% 10 Plus Bulb t0
Fie. l4-8 12 70% 5 71% 13 Plus Bulb 12
Fig. 14 10 12 10% 15 t7% I5 Plus Bulb 72
Fis.14 12 t2 10>4 15 1\t4 18 Plus Bulb 12
Fie. 15 2 6 4% 9 5% 2t4 PIus Bulb 3%
Fi,e.75-2rl 6 4% 9 5% 4% Plus Bulb 6
Fig. 15 3 6 4% I 5>4 4% Plus Bulb 6
Fig. 15--4 7% t2 8% 4)Z Plus Bulb 8
f lg. lb--b t2 '10t4 tr14 lo
15 714 Plus Bulb
Fie, 15-E 2 to14 5 r1>4 714 Plus Bulb 72
Fig. l5 I0 12 10% ]E t4% 10)4 Plus Bulb 72
Fig. 16 a, b 6 Lrz 4%
Fig, )6 c, d 6 LU I 5% 4 Plus Bulb 6
Fig. 17 a, b 6 4>4 I 5>4 4 Plus Bulb 6
Fig. 17 c 6 4% I 5% 4 Plus Bulb 6

TABTE l-lhsvmqwells with 'l -lnch Pipe Threod, Giving tmmersion qnd Ordering lengths
l8-l-ln., oa 2t , Zrht. l. it tll 4"-45 plpe ofisets
thread adaDter I tn 2il to 12" Droceas D

Thermowelle
for thermobulbe
Iodlcatlng dlal thernrometer wlth y1" illa. blmetnlllc Btem Immer8lon lenEth
Dlal thermometer Dlal ttrermometer Immerslon length slon glYen below.
wlth t/zil DtDe Immerslon lenEth wtth r/ ptpe of thermowell Check wlth the
thread of thermowell thread scale ehown on flg. Thermocouple
Flg. no. of plpe detall
followed by reference Stem orderlng N" l*rl*b" Stem orderlng extenalon
wrtllTlltioo Add tbe length
requlred for the
well
to the speclfc lengthg lenEthg thermobulb. See Inertlon and
nomlnal plpe slze Blven below See ecale Elven helow See scale scale for determln- orderlng length
lng orderlng lenEth
Inches Inches I""h* Inches fnches Inches
Inches
Fig. lEa-2 6 4rz I 5ti 4%
B-is. t8b-2)i 4Ll I 5% 4" PIus Bulb 4t4
Fig. 1Ec 3 9 7% I 5% 4//Plus Bulb 6
Fig. 18d-4 7% t2 8% 4'Plus Bulb 6
Fig. 18e-2 6 4% I 5% 6
Fi,s. raf-2ri 6 4y I 5% Plus Bulb 6
Fig. 18g-3 I 714 9 5% 5' Plus Bulb 8
Fie. 1Eh- 4 12 10rl 12 8% 6/ PIus Bulb 8
Fig. 19-2 4 l rA* 6 r14*
Fis. 19 2rZ 4 111* 6 lrl*
Fie. 19 3 4 trl* 6 t4* 3r4*+
Fig. 19 4 6 4rz 6 1U* 3ll*+
Fig, 19-6 6 4% I 5lz 2 to 6 For Bulb 4t1
Fie. 19-8 6 4% I 5% 2 to 8 For Bulb 6
Fig, 19-10 6 4rl I 5% 2 to 10 For Bulb 6
Fig. 19 12 I 7% o 5% 2 to 12 For Bulb 8

NOT
+ The 2)4o sensitive element oI the bimetallic thermometer is immersed ooly 7!l' in the flowing
stream within tlre line. Use u'hen indicating temperature is of
secondary importance.
** Select another piping arrangement so a longer thermorvell rvith more immersion can be installed.

II3
 4 Prr:

(I) .r

lo" Pr, E

lotl !
Plporal1 rhlch6i.es 1:ryf,
s6 for Schedul. 8C Dl!6.

,':il
sc^!! IN IlicHts
SI! TELS 2

s{'- /' ,
1L6,M Ib, ElboY ldept.!
.ir2 ..n!.tllr. 1. ln.lall.d on
af, v.lA1B.1tov tsa.n! !o
c.n!.!11D. oi ul.
$[I IX IXCES
s lfir 2

12" Prrr
FIGURE l&-Thermowell connection installed oa 2,2/2, 3, FIGURE lLThermowell connections perpendicular to pipe
and 4.in-ch piping, 45-degree ofisets using l.inch, 6,000'lb. wall.
clbow adapters.

thermowells can be determined from the scale, slrorvn on

each of the figures. In this way, other thermowell lcngths
can also be verified for their insertion and immersion.

Piping Detoils. Figure 15: The long radius welding

pipe bend. The point of maximum flow turbulence is at
the end of the elbow where the weld line occurs. Every
effort should be made to utilize the quarter pipe bend or
welding pipe elbow for locating thermowells and their
connections.
Figure 16: The welding pipe elbow has the thermo-
well l-inch elbow adapter connection near the welding
line. The point of flow turbulence is at the center line.
This arrangement is used when accessibility ancl obser- sAr Ili I):!=5
@TEU3
vation of the dial therrnometer make this arrangement
desirable.
Figure 17: Two reducing type quarter pipe bends are
used to make up a 2-inch swaged-up pipe section in an
l/2-inch or smaller process line for the installation of
thermowells.
Fignre 18: The 2/2-inch welding pipe elbows are
used for swaging up a section of the piping. This applies
to t/4- to 2-inch process line thermowells. By installing a
pipe spool piece between the pipe elbows and welding
f-inch elbow adapter on both elbows, two temperature FIGURE 2G-Thermowell connection installed 45-degrees to
pipe wall oa 2r/z to l2-inch pipe using l-inch, 6,000 t6. eito*
instruments can be handled for the same service. adapter.

il4
 TABTE 3-Thermowells with l -lnch Pipe Threod, Giving lmmersion ond Ordering lengths

Thermowells
for thermobulbs
Indlcatlng dlat thermoDeter slth %" dta. blmetallic stem I^-.*flG-e.t
starts wlth dlmen-
slon Clven below.
Check wlth the
scale shown on flg. Thermrcouple
sdd the length well
FlA. no. of plpe detall requlred for the
followed by referencc thermobulb, See Insertlon and
to the speclfic scale for determln- orderlng lenEth
nomlnal plpe elze roe3rjlal:lirqleth
Inches
Inches Inchee

V l+ 6 5%

Fie. 20 3 +% I 5% 2 to 4ft For Bulb 4%

I 5% 2 to 6 For Bulb 4%
Fig,20-4 4%
I I 8% 2 to 7% For B\lb 6
Fie,20 6 7t4
7rl 8r/, 2 to 10r/6 For Bulb 8
Fie. 20 S I 12

r0% t% 2 to 16 For Bulb l0

Fig. 20 I0 \2 12

t0rl r5 5Yz 2 ro 16 For Bulb 10

Fie. 20 12 12
I rz* 2 to 4% For Bullt 4%
Fig.21a, b-3 6 4%
t%* 5% 4%
Fig. 21c 3 4 6

I 8% 2 to 6 F'or Bulb 4%
c
Fig, 22a, b, 4 6 4%
I 7rl t2 8% 7 Plus Bulb 8
Fie,22-2rl
t2 10rl 15 L|% 8 Plus Bulb 8
t'lP. z6-J
.10% 15 rt t4 9 Plus Bulb 10
23 4
Fig. 72
)2 8% 7 Plus Bulb 8
F\e.24 111 7%
I t2 8% 7 Plus Bulb 8
Fie.24 2 7%
8% E l']lus Bulb 12
Fie.21 2\l I 7% 12

Fig.24 3 12 10% t5 tltl 9I'lus Bulb t2

Fie.21 4 l5 13% 18 )4t4 ll Plus Ilulb 12

NOTE:
perature is oi secondary importance.

Figure 19: Vel can be Provided

with short offsets gree piPe elbows
and providing the for the well con-
nectiron. This arra a dial thermom-
eter or 'f/C well and assembly. When a thermowell
lr's{Gil ?,tG I with a long inscrtion length tlermobulb is required, a
l5E.l'!i 3'Loflq. I
pipe spool piece can be welded between the 45-degree
(c) Honrzoxreu Prt elbows. In ihis rvay! the longest type thermowell can be
installed with a minimum of pressure drop rvith a good
streamlinc florv in the process piping'
Figure 20: Thermowells can be installed PerPendicu-
lar to the proccss pipe line; however, this becomes prac-
tical on 4 inches and larger pipe lines. When the process
lines are smallcr, it will be necessary to s\\'age uP the
thermowell section to 4 inches. The l-inch thread adapter
connection is welded on the piping. See Figure 27 fot
other arrangemcnts.
Figure 2l: lnstalling thermowells on a 45-degree
angle by welding.ona l-inch elbow adapter as a lateral,
is a good arrangement when it is desirable to place a
sc[! IN Ixcus
SI! T[L' ] tliermometer so it
can be easily seen. Somctimes this may
provide a means of installing a thermowell that was in-
PtPe Ruu'
tended to be perpendicular to the line but was too long
Vrnttcar-
by a fraction of an inch. This thermowell can thus be
FIGURE 2l-Thermowell connection installed on 3'inch installed on a 45-degree angle and made to suit the
swaged up pipe section using l-inch,6,000 lb. thread adapter
Iot 1/4 2, 2/r-inch process piping. installation.

tt5
 THERMOWELL DESIGN FOR PROCESS PIPING. ..

?iT.r

J IEE

4" Te.
fgt Sttrrrrvg Tf,EtHo ELtMti SCIT IN II:'hTS
scrr.E IN Itrcms lirrpr Trr Trarnolllu 5rouro SE TED I
3I! !8t! g PRoJEat BEyo{o Tr. Tra
lr]rrp Lrrz. THt! !rrLtH
THE Lai6T, 0f TF! Trrr

FIGURE 22-Thermowell connection installed on a 4-inch FIGURE 23-Thermowell connection installed in back of.2/2,
:",uq:q up pipe-scctio-n using a l-inch, 6,000 lb. elbow adapter 3, and 4-inch pipe tees with a l.inch,6,000 lb. thread.daptli.
Ior l/z to 3-inch piping.

Figure 22: When small sized pr-ocess lines have to be
swaged up to three inches, the arrangements shown and
their adaptation in several positions can be used.
Figure 23: This 4-inch swaged-up pipe section with
reducers can be connected into smail iizid process pipe
lines where short thermowells can be installed, for dial
thermometers and T/C assemblies.
Figure 24: The back of a process pipe tee can oc-
casionally be used for the installation of thermowells.
This takes care of the branch of the process piping into

TABTE 4-Jhsnn6wells with l -!nch Pipe Threod, Giving tmmersion ond Ordering lengrhs
ilt'.l=i: Tft:ffif:lllfil[llfifl ll;Hf""3:1.:'ffjii:*eilffi9 3obi,lfl".En".t",".I,.tEi trnEs and prpe rensths to surt requrrements

Thermowelle
for thermobulbs
Indtcatlng dlal thermometer wlth y{, dla. blmetalllc stem Immersio.n length
Dlal thermometer Dlal tlrermometer Immerslon leneth slon glven below.
wlth rl, ptpe Immerelon lenpth wlth r/2, ptpe of thermowell Check wlth the
thread of thermowell threed scale shown on flg. Thermocouple
FlE. no. of plpe detall
followed by reference
to the epeclfic
sill.oEe
lenEtbg
N" fr*rtrtf- sIm
"rd*t"(
lenAths
wlth 2" lnsulatlon
extenalon
add the length
requlred for the
*ell
nomlnal plpe slze glven below S.*1. glyen below
thermobulb. See Insertlon and
See rale scale for determln- orderlng length
Inches Inchee inE ordering length
Inchee Inches I".h"" Inches
Inches
F're.25a-lr6 b +% 5% Plus Bulb
3 4%
Fis.25b-2 6 +% 5% 4 Plus Bulh 6
FiE.25b-2r6 6 +% I 5rh 4 Plus Bulb 6
Fig.25*714 9 7% 12 8% 5 Plus Bulb 6
Fig.25c-2 I 7t4 12 8% 6 Plu Bulb
s 8
Fie.25c-2% t2 10% 12 E% 7 Plus Brrlb
Fig. 25c-B r2 10% l5 11rZ 8 Plus Bulb 10
Fig. 26 As Noted Above.

It6
TABLE s-Evoluollng Thermowell ln3lollotlon Arrong.monlt .N,.5IzE Of PIFE LINC
Shown ln llg.27, For Usc Wlrh femperoture lntlrumenlr t{'x l'H:r Hsno 5r.
lilsr^LLiaro{ 0F
TxETMowELL lH^ n
Nooiorl
Best tenp. speed ol tesponse
is reted es No. I end lollors 2 3 1 6 5 f , ti, t|'nno tt )"/-1-
{rc rs rhown ScltrtrpLrx:r \ P
Gtre Arrp lxro Ar t{ u
Ideutifyin! the 2-ir, thermo- bcREUED I Et,
lo"fr"" rell conncction shown in Fi(. b c d a
27

Thermobulb 6inor Sinto Il;ff

6In. Dial theroometer
Longer

Yes
6 io.
Yes
3

Yw
in. No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes I
Thermmouple on center litre
of pipe. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Thermobulb 6 in. or 3into +

Longer 6 in. No No No No Ealad trai
Dial thermometer Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 2{ Scneweo Teel lr Ltles,
4 In.
Thermocouple on center line
of pipe Yes Yes Ye Yes Yes Yes Dru. Foa
in. or 3into
r50t
6
Thermobulb Longer 4 in. No No No No Fr qp'
Tee.
No $M IX INCES
3 In. Dial thermoueter Yes Yes Yes No No sm lEL! { Tre 3"-300* irqc,
ThermocoupJe on center line TEt is 9Howt..
ol pipe Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Foi 0THER FLqD.
TE 3i U!r DrnEx-
jroi!5tsort A!oYf,
Brrpo Ernrte Dltrtro
f Ta r r ro For I' l{,P'

_litrrorrrr Foi ErrirA Ar

t'PrpE TiafaD
lNlraarrxq DrAL TnrlMourrrr , A TrtiFocou?La
OR FoR A TrMptt^aoit TRAtrFllrar TxraMoDU!8.

tl" rEE lNriALL^rro{ 0r Txrar"lowrrus lr li', Z', 2i'AHD 3'-l5otAltD3OOlFLtl(Eg ltrt'

Nort:
FIGURE 2Llnstallation of thermowells in 11, 2,2/2, anid
Ttsz 5ct!r Nor.o 0{ € 3.inch, 150-lb. and 300 lb. flanged tees.
0F Prrric l5 li U{Cl{tl l" Pr?g 8^rr Coursrtrror I'TrrcrDhLEr
nrD ir lJe(D hDlTErxtrrN4
tho h Crtcrrla 'Irc
iMMERrtoi LrNqai 0r
Trt Txrrvoutur Fro. 'lir
TH€ Eolron otliE iill
1" PrPr TFiE^D.
'THt 5Eisiarva P.i1 ''liri
0r TiE Tx!iFoWrLL
5iouLD PnoJtcl ul
iNsrpa THa PtPE
BErorD TNE a ot
Trr t4ologrrq Prpt.
Tit THEaMAL ELtillxt zl'a eL
li THE !IELL Sroulg
5E Loarrr! ld TBE
Srrzrq Frov.

Norr: M^at Prlt Nrttrt Larrlsr 1o iutl THrimoutr- lMqrlrrrx:'

\irro! 0f ?ltl Ll{at'

+.TEE
SO& Itr INCES
sm rEr 3 FIGURE 26-Pipe ofisets
with screwed end fittings.
FIGURE 2,f,,-Thermowells installed at outlet ol l/2 to 4-ich N.P.T. thermowells of all
welding pipe tees with either l-inch thread adapter or f-inch ture controller bulbs, ther
half coupling,6,000 lb. rating. mometers.

which a thermowell has to be installed. When using this Figure 26: When screwd pipe a,nd fittings are sPd:
arrangement the thermowell must project inside the pipe 6ect for use in prrcess piPing' the threaded tee and
with sufficient insertion length so the thermal element screwed fittings tan be arranged with a reducing pipg
will be in the flowing product of the line. bushing for the thermowell connection. These enla;ged
Figure 25: This is an alternate arrangement for the sectior; in the screwed pipittg strould be big enough to
pipe elborv. The pipe tee is arranged to enable a Possible assure unrestricted flow inside the line where the thermo-
future branch connection. It is important that the ther- well is installed.
mowell insertion length projects beyond the dead space Figure 27: When a straight run of piping -with
and is in the flowing product of the line. scre;ed fittings requires thermowell, the run of the piping
tt7
 THERMOWELL DESIGN FOR PROCESS PIPING . .
4-rx, Prpe
Nomenclature for Thermowell
Connectioris
(a) l-inch Elbow Adapter, 6,000 lb.
ratrng.
(b) 1-inch specially designed nozzle
connection, welded to suit.
(c) l-inch l.lbow Adapter as a lateral
connectron,
(d) l-inch Thread Adapter, 6,000 lb.
rating.
3-ru, Pree
(e) f-inch Flange Nozzle or l-inch
socket weld flange nozzle made with
a f-inch Sch. B0 pipe nipple. Flange
drilled and tapped for Thermowell.
Use detail (f) in preference to this.
I Wr.r PR.!rrr L,rl. air
(f) l/z-inch Flange Nozzle. Blind flange -.. ix.LLtr aia 3.r{. !..r'rr
il) i(x.,r! etTriluA.rr u'
is drilled and tapped for Thermo-
well. IJse this detail rather than (e).
Eftective Length of Thermol Elemen?
DETATL
Llae Slzc
3.Inch Pige
4-Inch Pipe.
6-Inch Pipe
FIGURE 27{ompositearrangement showing six typical
w.ays thermowellscgn be installed"in 3, 4, and,6linch piicess
piping (see Table 5).
can be made with"an offset as shown. This is another
way of giving the thermowell adequate consideration.
Thermowells ond Speed of Response. All thermo-
wells l.rave characteristics similar to a heat exchanger;
that is, they either absorb or gi'".e up hcat. They rvill be
affectecl by both conduction and radiation. The heat flow
will pass from the hot or cold temperature of the process
medium to the thermowell stem. This transmitted heat
will also travel along the length of the well and pass
through and beyond the t/a- or l-inch mounting pipe
tlrread connection, to the uninsulated upper well exten-
sion. The heat passed from the process u'ill continue to
move outside to the accessory parts screwed into the tft-
or s/-inch thermowell opening, which may be a dial
lt8
. tlrermometer or a T/C assembly. Some of this heat will
likewise be passed on by conducrion to the exposed parts
of the well extension and assembly and will be dissipated
by radiation to the surrounding atmospherc. The iesult
of all this will lcad to a slightly lower temperature inside
the stem of the thermou'ell that contains the thermal ele-
ment at its bottom.
The larger the operating remperature diflerence be-
tu,'een the process temperature and the atmosphere tlte
greater the heat flow,. This will invariably cause a slighth
Iower temperature inside the thermowell stem. All this
will ultimately be reflected in the temperatlrre indication.
either on a dial thermometer operating through its bi-
metallic element, on the temperature transmitter througir
its thermobulb or the thermocouple in the interior tip ot
the well stem, that transmits the temperature to the rc-
corder on the control panel. There will be a temperatlrre
dilference at a given moment between the operating prc" -
ess temperature and the tentperature indicatccl or re-
corded on the instrument. The fact is that it takes rir*e t,-r
heat and cool the thermowell stem with its tl-rernr:l elt-
ment inside the rvell-this is referred to as a timt lag.
The effect of temperature lag can be reducecl 1l.r' ,:ocd
engineering design of the therrnowell and bv pror,idinlq a
good location for its mounting conncction in rlte nroce...,
piping.
Vcry short thernrou,ells inadvertentlv locared in pipin:
areas where the florving medium mav be stagnant or
)ag. Reducing the:e
ed of response to the
to improve the speeci
tion and immersion
length of the thermowell in the process piping. The ther-
mal element must likewise be at the tip inside the rvell
stem. Figure 27 shows a composite arrangement of six
rvays thermowells can be installed in piping. The best
possible thermowcll connection is the I-inch elborv adap-
ter installed in the heel of tire pipe elbow. TI-rcse ar.c
shown in Figure 27, 3-inch(a), 4-inch(a) and 6-inch(a).
The advantage of this arrangement over the others is
that it can provide for all thermowell Iengths that mav
be required for most temperature instruments. When thc
tl'rerrnowell is long enough this will to an extent. mini-
mize the heat conduction and radiation losses to the out-
side because the thermal element rvill be completelr. sub-
mer€Jed and arvay from its mounting connection. In this
way the over-all speed of response rvill be irnpror.ed. In
Figure 27, the 6-inch(a) detail will naturailv have a
better speed of response than in the smaller 3-inch(a)
process pipe line.
The thermorvell arrangements shown in Figur.e 27 pr.e-
sent other methods that can be used in makinq the f -incir
connections in process piping. There are aclr.antages ancl
some disadvantages regarding each of the schemes shou,n.
All of the types may have to be used from one tirne or
othcr, depending on the process conditions encounterecl
and the piping confisuration involved. In order to cvalu-
ate each of the thermo*'ell details shown, these are sunt-
marized and appraised in Table 5. This table presenrs
an analysis shorvins the active, effective thermal lengths
inside the pipe and horv they cornpare in speecl of re-
sponse, and to what instruments they are best applied:
also sho*'s it is n ol practical to use certain well ui.u.rq"-
ments for temperature instrurnents.
NOTES

rt9
PFIE RE DROP AND
VI BRATION
 Sirnplified Utility Loop Balancing

Utility distributionsystems require procedure used to find the correct flows is relatively
simple but tedious to solve by hand. The calculation pro-
periodic checks on flow and pressure cedure can be.broken up into stePs.

drops in the loop mains. This
method reduces the calculation time
from days to minutes
B. Wesl and A. J. Newton
Poll,rner Corp., Ltd., Sarnia, Canada
IJrrr-rw DrsrRrBUTroN srrsrEMs for refineries and chern-
ical plants are becoming larger and more complex. Usually
these svstems are looped, so that the utility supply to any
unit is not dependent on one path through the system.
As a result, complicated piping networks are built up.
A major plant expansion will normally include a study
of the utility distribution systems, to determine the efiec[
of the load increase, and to indicate where expansion is
1. Collect Data. Pipe diameters, pipe equivalent lengths
(i.e. including length for fittings.), system configuration
and average fluid properties.
2. Estimate Flows in the Network. The flow rate of
fluid in all the pipes in the system is estimated. The only
criterion for this estimate is that the chosen flows must
be consistent with the over-all masS balance. It is pref-
erable, however, to make reasonable estimates, as this will
reduce the length of the calculation.
3. Calculate the Pressure Drop in the Pipes. Any
standard pressure drop calculation is used. In the com-
puter program, the Polymer standard procedure is used.
:,
ir:t
,
, I I
il
r Vr * ,
J
1

required. These studies when performed by hand are 'rE

|
very time consuming and prone to error because of the rll ,.,: F r: r lt 1

large number of repetitive steps involved. il ttt t tr)

The repetitive nature of the calculations naturally leads Yz.Yl r-t

to the use of a computer method of evaluation. Com-

puter prograrns 2,3,6,7, B have been written to solve r:.i F

this type of problem.

The following is a description of the network analysis ESTIMATE I, J

program developed at Poll,rner Corp.

lnformqtion Required. It is decided to examine one of t!

the plant utility distribution systems. The object of the
study is to determine the effectiveness of the system under q :tii
,,
present and future loads. The effectiveness might be de- I : :i, EiT ri:F
I lr I L' I I I
termined by comparing required pressures at various
points in the system to the predicted pressures. It could Fi.:r
,
! r4 ir ra l:t .F,

also be determined by comparing the predicted fluid

velocity in the pipes to the maximum allowable fluid
velocity.
This information can be provided by determining the
flows and pressure drops in the pipes of the system. The Fig. 1-Simplified computer flow diagram.

t2r
SIMPLIFIED UTII-ITY LOOP BALANCING .. .
'r (F , t'o,t (;t; ..
t,
- 4. Check to Find if the Loops Balance. Each loop is
examined individually. The algebraic sum of the pressure Equation 2 ancl 4 ciln be ;rut in thc form:
drops in the loop pipes is found. If this is zero, the loop
is in balance. If this sum is not zero, an adjustment must
/o.\
,' (;:, )
be made to correct the flow rates in the loop, to give ^

balance. Each loop is checked and corrections made to 'I'lre value of rstant for a qiren systenl.
the estimated flows if necessary. Equation 5 is equation usccl in the cor -

5. Return to Step 3. Steps 3 arrd 4 are repeated until l]uter prosr':,rnr t essurc drolts in the pip|s
all the loops in the system balance.
Friction Foclor. In Equation 5 all the tcnrs excel)r
The above procedure is applicable to both hand or the friction lactor. are input data lrredeterrninecl lol tlr,
computer solution. Hand calculations make use of various s,vstem under study. The friction factors can be reacl r.,.o
approximations because a detailed calculation would take a chart if the calculation is done by hand. Thc conrll,-rrr-l
too long. Computer solutions may be made rieorous by solution reclLrires an analvtical expression lor frictir,:
reducing the number of approximations. factor. .\n cxprcssion developed by Dukler' from f Icrocir'.
friction factor chart and used in t]re program is sho,,r:
BASIS FOR CO'YIPUIER CATCULATIONS
l--=ru3 i' \
The relationships used for pressure drop calculations r5;brc*(R'
in our program are simplified and reflect certain assump- lt' \-\ 2l
tions stated below. The degree of sophistication used to !t
calculate the pressure drops is very much dependent - 1.75 1og R - 1.10 (log R)'? 5
upon the individuals' needs. For our requirements we
have found the flow formulas presented here to be ade-
quate.
rr.rr,.r,. R_Re(;,)J
i
The assumptions inherent in the following theory are:
Substituting the follorving into Equation 6.
. Isothermal flow for compressible fluids, + 7t1
-
o Fluid properties are for the average temperature and
pressure of the fluid in the system, -.
,:{, l-tr : lt
f,/ r.'
o The pipes are rough, and
. Datum temperature is 50o F. tt,-_-lttc ]f '_ _ _Re t'
2Y8 l
The basic relationships used for analyzing the loops are gir.es:
the equations for flow of fluids in pipes. 1
-- 1.03 + 5.76 log I'l - 1.75 log R 1 1i-'l lc,c -R
Y
Pressure Drop Equotions
or
Noncompressible Fluids. The relationship between inlet l
and outlet pressures is FY:1.03 -!2.5 lnI+t- 0.761n R-0207 (lnll ,.
I'

!,- ?,-(+) (:;) ,, (l)

Tlre corrcct cstimatc of f gives Fl' : O.
To soh'e Equation 7. a value of )' is chosen arcl I J'
or pr_ p_ _ kn (s.G.) | ,"(3') (2) caiculated. If FY is not zcro, e corrtctiorr is rracle to tire
initial value of Y. This correction is lound br a1;p1rcr:tr,.,,
Compressible Fluids.
of the Neu,ton-li.alplrson techniclue.l
Whcre
!,, - !,, :X*l*,",+-," (#)] (3) Y,-\', , E
and

/ r\
) ) +250 rtnlt')
FY 1 03
-\ -Oi6 (tnft) -0207 On tt.
d(FY ) 1 1.7+ 0.+1+
_ (lil ]l)
dY )-+ )-Y

'I'his proccclurc is repcated until F)' is zcro ther i r.

For long pipes (f 200ft) or 1ow iound lronr I'.
,/\
'elocities
n'( P' \ ,pp.or.h., ,"ro. Boloncing loop Flows. 'l-lrc prcssure drops in all t]it,
\P./
1;ipes alc calculatcd bascd on tlre initial cstirnatcs of {lorr
122
rates. The algebraic sum of the pressure drops is found
for each closed path or loop taking the clockwise flows as
positive (this is the Hardy-Cross convention) . If the esti-
mated flow rates are correct, this sum will be zero for all
the loops. If this sum is rrot zero, an adjustment must be
made to the estirnated flows. The adjustment is made ac-
cording to the Hardy-Cross5 formula which is a special
application of the Newton-Ralphson technique.
Algebraic Sum : Or, : -t_,
r,, : hold,s
t-rt r
If z4S is not equal to zero a correction is inade
estimated flows in the loop, j.
lr,,f*: la,,f*-,
rvhere
7- ln
f qualitg contt'ol and. other technical as-
l)
H.,rt
LO.:
L=t1
i-in ,,-
dtyji
I
L,,
t _ )l
dO ' L,i
,1u,,
The new estimated flows are used to recalculate the
until the loops
pressure drops and the procedure continues
are balanced
i.e. until
jil
X AS1 :o
j=r
Tolerqnces on the herqtive Procedures.
techniques are used to determine the friction factors and
the correct flows in the network. The criterion for finding
the correct value is that a test variable (FY and E ,4St)
should become zero. An optimum tolerance is required
on the conve,rgence test of these variables. A balance must
be struck between the accuracy of the results and the
computing time.
Friction Factor Calculation. Two different tolerances
are used on the test variable FY. Initially a tolerance of
-+. 0.1 is used and if the flow rates are changed by less
than 5 percent from the flows in the previous iteration, a
new friction factor is not calculated. When the flows are
almost balanced the friction factor criterion is tightened.
The tolerance becomes -F 0.001 and a new friction factor
is calculated for each change of flow rate.
Flow Balancing Criterion. Ideally, when the loops are
in balarrce the values of ,4S in each loop equals zero. To
attain this value would require considerable computing
time. The criterion used to decide whether the flow rates
need further modification is to sum the absolute values
of the deviations from zero of each loop, and if this
exceeds a desired value, a further change is made to the
flow rates. This desired value is best determined anew
for each system, taking into account the computing time
available and the desired accuracy of the results.
Absolute Pressure Colculotions. The pressure drops
in each main in the network are now known. For com-
pleteness, it is necessary to calculate the absolute pressure
at the end of each pipe.
About the qulhors
B. Wsst i,s a pt'ocess engineer usith
Polymer Corp. Ltd,., Sa't'nia, Ont.,
Canad,a. His utork inaolaes responsi-
bility for p,t'ocess design, quality con-
trol, plant efficiencg control and. eao'lu-
atton in the Styrene Depat'tment ttsith
particular responsibilitg towards the
Litol uvvit under constt'uct'ion. Mr. West
o,t a B.Sc. (Tech) 'in chemical en-
gineet'ing i rom M anchester (Inht ersitE,
r=J1 rlt!r+f") (9)
L England. He joi,ned Polgmer after grad-
uo,tion ds d, process engineer i,n the Uti,li,ties Depan'tment,
was transfet'red, to the Butadiene Depo,,rtment, o,nd now to
to the the Stgrene Depo,rtment. He is o, g,t'aduate of th,e Institution
of Chemical Engineet's, London, and, is a registered en-
gineerin Ontari,o.
- lon,)^, A. J. Nnwrox is a process engineer uitlt,
Polgmer Corp. Ltd., San'nia, Ont., Can-
ada. Hi,s utork 'inaohses process design,
li, Le" Q,r'/Dur'1
l ( 10)
sista,nce in the Styrene Department. Mr.
Neutton holds a B.Sc. degree in chem-
ical engineeri,ng fl'om the Uniuersitg of
Le; i Q;i 'o ,,"f Saska,tcheutan. Pq'ior to his pt esent as-
signment, he usas a, process eng,ineet, in
the comitang'e Util:ities Department. He
is a member of the Association of Pro-
fessional Engine,ers of the Proaince of
Onta,r"i,o, the Eng,ineering Institute of
Co,nad,a, the Chemical Institute of Canada, and the Associa-
tion of tlrc Clrcytui,cal Profession of Ontwrio.
The following systematic approach is used. The loops
Iterativo are treated in turn. Loop one contains the input (or the
highest pressure input if there are several inputs) to the
system, at which point the pressure is known. All the
pressures are calculated around loop one. The next loop
in numerical order is then considered. A pipe is found
which is common to a previous loop or enters an intersec-
tion common to a previous loop. This search provides a
point of known pressure from which the other pressures
around the loop may be determined. All the loops are
examined to give all the pressures throughout the system.
It is important to number the loops in such a way that
they have mains or intersections in common with lower
numbered loops. This is necessary to ensure that each
loop has a starting point where the pressure has already
been found.
Fig. 1 shows a simplified flow diagram of the computer
program.
Experience Wifh the Progrom. The program described
here has been used extensively by the Utilities Department
of Polymer Corp. for evaluating proposed changes to the
steam and water distribution systems. The program has
been checked by comparing the results obtained with the
actual system. A good agreement has been obtained.
The great reduction in calculating time has enabled
more varied modifications to be studied for each expansion.
A sample problem follows which shows the preparation
and computing times for the problem and for typical
utility problems. For the example shown, the computer
gives the result in about 15 minutes; whereas the hand
t23
SIMPLIFIED UTITITY LOOP BALANCING .. . The service water distribution system consists of 41
mains and l0 loops.
2,000 U.S. gpm A typical computing time is 15 minutes.
No specific times of calculation by hand are available,
1,000 u.s. 3,000 U. S. gpm but several days of continuous work were required to pro-
duce results of comparable accuracy.
A recent papers gives an excellent description of a much
more rigorous method of solution to complex pipe system
problems. The method has obvious attractions for use
in systems where the fluid conditions and properties are
subject to considerable change. The simple procedure
presented here, appears su'fficiently accurate for fluids at
Fig. 2-Sample problem. steady conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
TABTE | Dqtn for the Somple Problem The Polymer Corp, Management is duly acknowledged for the pemissioa
-lnpuf to publish this aticle.
MainNumber Dian. (in.) F4.Lgth. (ft.) Est.FlowUSgpm
NOMENCLATURE
1 r2 1000 5000
2 t0 600 AS Algebraic sum of pressure drops in a loop
3 10 500 -5000
4000 CF Compressibility factor of fluid
+ 10 1 200 D Diameter of pipe, inches
5 10 1 500
-5000 t Weisbach-Darcy friction factor
6 10 200 -3000
4000 lr Fanning friction factor
7 10 I 000 1000 FY Friction factor test variable
Newtons-law conversion factor, ft.-lbs. ma;s/lb.
force-sec.2
TABTE 2-Computer Cqlculqted Vqtues of Flow qnd G Mass velocity, lbs. mass/ft.' sec.
Pressure in Eoch Loop Moin H Pressure drop in pipe, lbs. force/in,2 (lbs.-force:,/
in.a) (units for compressible fluids)
Main Number Balanced Flow, USgpm Outlet Pressure, psia k* Constant for noncompressible fluids, lbs. force in.s
min.2/ft.S USG2
I 5934 68.2 kc Constant for compressible fluids. lb. force: in.-'
2 ---4065 80.7 hr.2/ft.8 "R lb. mass
J 4934 34.6 K Constant for system and fluid
4 3+.6
-4065 Ka Absolute roughness magnitude
5 16.4
-2235 Le Equivalent length of pipe. ft.
6 4764 24.1 M Total number of loops
7 1764 t6.4 N Total number of pipes
p1 Inlet pressure, lbs. force/ft.2
p2 Outlet pressurc, lbs. force/ft.:
calculation would take at least one hour. The advantages a Volume or mass flow rate, USgpm or ilbs.
of the computer are greatly increased as the size of the mass/hr. )
systemis increased. One hour's computing time replaces Re Reynolds no.
two weeks or more required for hand calculations on the ,s.G. Specific gravity of fluid at florv temperature
big utility systems. T Absolute temperature, ('R)
VO Specific volume of gas at standard temp. and press.
(ft.3/lb. mass)
Somple Problem. Determine the flow rates and pressures p Fluid density at flow temperature, ibs. mass/ft.:r
in the network shown on Fig. 2. Flow correction factor, USgpm or (Jbs. mas:/'hr.)
Table 1 gives the main numbers in the loop and tabu- ^QE Friction factor correction factor
lates the diameter of the main, the equivalent length, and
the estimated flow in USgpm.
SUBSCRIPTS
Table 2 is the computer calculated flow in each main
and the outlet pressure. i Pipe number
The time taken to complete the problem was as follows: j Loop number
m Over-all iteration number
Function Time I Friction factor iteration number
jn Number of pipes in loop j.
Prepare data 10 minutes
Punch data 2 minutes LITERATURE CITED
Computer solution 3 minutes ad
ngineur Phpicits.
ork Progru.
15 minutes for Friction Factor,,, AICilE l-,

Hqnd vs Computer Colculotion Time. A steam dis-

tribution system consists of 29 mains and 7 loops.
A typical computing time for this system based on a
reasonably accurate initial estimate is 30 minutes.

124
 Piping Design Stops Pulsating Flow
Reciprocating compressor piping requires special design considerations.
Analog computers can be used to size the pipe and predict performance.

Rolph Jqmes
Humble Oil & Refining Company
Baytown, Texas

THE DESIGN of reciprocating
compressor piping can be resolved into
two catergories: (1) measures to pre-
vent excessive mechanical vibration
of the piping and (2) selection of the
pipi"S system which will provide the
maximum compressor efficiency. These
two categories are interrelated. For
examplg it may be necessary to add
flow resistance at certain points to
reduce pressure pulsations so that
piping vibration can be minimized.
The efficiency may be reduced by this
step but vibration that could lead to
fatigue failure is prevented.
Disturbing Forces. Both periodic
machine forces and gas pulsations
may provide the alternating forces
which can excite mechanical vibration
of piping. Machine exciting frequen-
cies that usually must be guarded
against include one half the rpm, the
rpm, and multiples of the rpm up to
five times the rpm. The base or
fundamental pressure and flow pulsa-
tion frequency from one double-acting
cylinder is twice the rpm. If more
than one cylinder is discharging into
the system, the pulse frequency is a
function of the crank angles. Twice
the fundamental pulse frequency is
called the second harmonic, three
times the fundamental frequency is
the third harmonic, etc. The pulsa-
tions from a compressor are propa-
sure or flow superimposed on steady obtained, the resonant frequency will
pressure or flow) behave in the same be amplified to produce combined
fashion as sound waves, even though pulsations of much greater intensity.
the pressure variations in sound waves
are very minute. In other words, dre Allowoble Vibrolion. There is al-
wave theory which is used to predict ways some mechanical vibration in
acoustic phenomena such as reso- any piping attached to a reciprocat-
nance and wave addition and reflec- ing compressor. If the vibration is
tion may be applied to compressor perceptible and of pronounced am-
piping design. Pulsations from a com- plitude, the piping stress and fatigue
pressor may contain all the harmonics life should be calculated to determine
of the fundamental pulse frequency. if corrective measures should be taken.
flowever, the intensity of the com- Usually, if the vibration frequency
ponents decreases rapidly as the fre- can be counted by eye there is not
quency increases. If the acoustic much likelihood of piping failure.
character of the piping components High frequency vibrations are of
are such that wave reinforcement greater significance-especially if the
from reflections (acoustic resonance) amplitude at the antinode (loop) of
of a certain frequency component is vibration can be visually observed. fn
t-rle' ota. BAcx sPorFAcE
OETAIL
.'A.'
zRows r'd HoLEs-
EAUALLY SPAOEO
IO
HOLES PER ROW.
I.3/4.. BETWEEN

gated through the piping by wave ROVIS

action at the speed of sound in the t"d DRA|N HoLE

gas (neglecting the fluid velocity
which may add or subtract velocity) .
The wave length of the gas pulsations
is equal to the velocity of sound
divided by the frequency of pulsation.
Gas pulsations (which may be con-
sidered as periodic variations in pres- FIGURE l-Surge bottles should be supported on springs.

125
oqe case, a t/a-inch schedule 80 in-
strument connection pipe attached to
a 600 rpm hydrogen compressor failed
in approximately three weeks.
The pipe that failed was in three
planes anchored only at the ends. A
similar connection on an identical
spare compressor was found to be vi-
brating with all frequency compo-
nents that were multiples of 600
cycles per minute up to 18,000 cycles
per minute. Calculated stresses in this
pipe based on measured amplitudes
indicated a fatigue life almost exactly
as occurred (considering stress inten-
sification factors) . This problem was
solved by replacing part of. the pipe
with flexible hose. Observed fatigr-re
life in large piping, (3 inches and
over) has been much longer, usually
a number of years. Since failure oc-
curled, indications are that stress con-
centrations or vibraticn magnitude
rnay have been underestirnated.
In many cases, the alternating
stresses in a vibrating pipe are not
considered to be serious, but addi-
tional restraints are provided because
the vibration looks bad and is a source
of concern to the operators.
Foundqtions. A well designed foun-
dationl is essential if the major por-
tion of mechanical vibration so often
present in large compressor plants is
to be avoided. It is not the intent here
to go into foundation design; how-
ever, a few observations may be of
interest. First, a wide foundation mat
of proper design provides a better in-
stallation (vibration wise) than a
narrow and deep foundation block.
If more than one compressor is to be
installed, it is recommended that a
single continuous mat be poured. A
natural frequency of the foundation-
soil mass combination that coincides
with the compressor rpm or multiples
thereof should be avoided.
A serious problem from both the
maintenance and piping vibration as-
pects is the tendency of many types
of compressors to break loose from
the grout and shake relative to the
foundation. One preventive measure
is to slope and seal the surface of the
grout adjacent to the compressor so
as to reduce grout deterioration from
oil seepage. Another measure is to
mechanically key the machine base to
the foundation.
Occasionalln it may be desirable to
isolate a compressor from the piping
to minimize mechanical vibration of
the piping. The size and critical serv-
126
ice of most process compressors pre-
vent the use of most of the conven-
tional flexible joints.
One way to provide flexible piping
connections to medium size process
machines handling fluids of suitable
composition and temperature would
be to use ball joints that employ thick
contained synthetic rubber gaskets. No
relative motion between the gasket
and joint surfaces would be required
for the moderate movements encoun-
tered. fnstead, movement would occur
by shear in the rubber gasket. An al-
most unlimited cyclic life of the joints
could be obtained in this manner.
This method was proposed to isolate
a gas-conservation compressor which
was rocking its entire foundation
block.
Supporls. Supports for piping at-
tached to compressors should be so
spaced that the natura.l frequency of
the piping between supports does not
coincide with significant disturbing
frequencies discussed previously. Nat-
ural frequencies of straight lengths of
piping' with various end conditions
can be easily computed.2,3 Even
though such a pipe has an infinite
number of degrees of frbedom, all fre-
quencies involved are identical. On
the other hand, it is difficult to cal-
culate the spring factor for bends in
one plane and three-plane secticns
between anchors. A number of reso-
nant frequencies, depending on direc-
tion of vibration, can occur in these
cases. For this reason, it is recom-
mended that where possible supports
be placed near all changes in direc-
tion so that piping between supports
is essentially straight. Another im-
portant factor is that pulsating flow
sets up a cyclic force at bends because
of the change in mass flow rate with
time.
Supports for compressor piping
should restrain movement in all direc-
tions. Because of this, and to allow for
thermal expansion, a spring loaded
clamp may be necessary. Piping just
above grade is easier to support and
usually provides a much better in-
stallation, vibration wise, than, over-
head suction and discharge piping. If
overhead piping that is vibrating ex-
cessively is anchored to a structure,
the usual result in that both the struc-
ture and pipe continue to vibrate.
High frequency vibrations caused
by g^ pulsations are particularly dif-
ficult to control by restraints. In many
cases, the gas pulsations must be re-
duced before a restraint becomes ef-
fective.
To avoid cylinder alignment prob-
lems, the piping forces on the c,vlin-
der nozzles should be quite low. The
flexibilitv of a seemingly massive cast
iron structure is quite surprising. It is
recommended that there be no rigid
piping betrveen the cylinder and
foundation, i.e., the lower bottle
should be supported on sprir-re..
(multi-sprinq t1 pe with damper ar, i
the lavout of piping should pror-ic-
some inherent flexibility in other. d:-
rections. The use of cast iron base ei..
and cast iron transition pieces br-
t'"r,een c)'linders and bottles shotrld he
avoided. (See Figure 1 for sussi.,t:
connectins nozzle details).
In a number of vibraticn stLrc.it.
has been deterrnined that tl.ie ,:,:,::--
rvill vibrate r e ;. -
pressor cylinder
to the crankshaft center.line T:-..
movement occurs because of ll-= r=-
riodic elongalion ancl eo11113g':n-. - :
the distance piece and other- c.,:r---
pressor parts. Ordinarih' this .r:--a
movement is of nc concern. bur r::a.,
need to be considered if extreme.'.
rigid piping is involr.ed.
Design of Surge Bottles
When Required? AIl larse col-
pressors require surge bottle, inr-
mediately adjacent the ,suction and
discharge flanges of cach cvlinder.
Sufficient capacity for smr]l cornpres-
sors may be obtained bv incr.easins
the size of the suction and dischar.ee
lines to one or more pipe sj76s 1"11o"'
than the compressor inlet or. orrl"r.
Surge bottles serve two purposes. 1
A surge capacity r,vilI help reduce the
transmission of compressor pul,satrons
into the piping svstem and /2 r ef-
ficiency of the compressor rrill be
improved by adequare sulse capaLir\.
A surge bottle on the suction side rrill
decrease pressure drop at the r ah'es
on the suction stroke, tl'rerebr- pr e-
venting cylinder "stan'ation." It has
been reported that cylinder capacitv
has been reduced by as much as 25
percent by operating lvithout a suc-
tion surge chamber.a A discharse
surge chamber will tend to pr.r..i,
greater than average momentar\-
in the discharge valve cham-
pressure
ber. Momentary pressures can result
insevere overloads and may also re-
duce capacity. Acoustic pulsations
also play a part in determining the
effect of surge capacity-as will be
discussed later.
Techniques used to size surge bot-
tles vary widely. A survey of a num-
ber of compressor installations placed
in service over the last 15-20 years
(excluding certain recent installa-
tions) revealed no correlation be-
tween surge capacity and compressor
or fluid characteristics. Bottle capaci-
ties ranged from 0 to 15 or more
times the piston displacernent volume.
Some installations have proven satis-
factory. Other installations have a
history of piping failure and mainte-
nance problems. While attempting to
coffect some of the more troublesome
vibration problems, it became obvious
that piping design, including acoustic
phenomena, was an important factor.
The need for a logical and consistent
design technique was evident. Sample
surge bottle calculations in the ap-
pendix illustrate the different meth-
ods used by various designers as re-
corded in the literature or learned
first hand.
Semi-Empirical Methods. Semi-
empirical methods are usually based
on experience andf or fluid flow
analysis. IJsually, however, the deri-
vation is not supplied. These meth-
ods are easy to apply and may be
satisfactory for cost estimating and
certain actual installations. The dis-
advantage of this rule-of-thumb ap-
proach is that acoustic resonance fac-
tors are ignored. On occasion, this has
resulted in unsatisfactory installations.
fn one case involving three identical
compressors, piping vibration was re-
duced by replacing the acoustically
resonant interstage bottle and piping
with a new design. It is believed that
fluid pulsations occurring in the orig-
inal installation contributed to the
excessive maintenance costs experi-
enced.
Surge Tank Approach. On pages
333 to 335 of Reference 5 is an ideal-
ized derivation of the amount of pulse
smoothing to be expected from a vol-
ume capacity (energy storage) acting
together with a moderate pressure
drop (resistance) of the piping sys-
tem. The effectiveness of the surge
tank is expressed as the attenuation
factor :A.F. : Inflow Variation Relative to Mean Flow Rate
Outflow Variation Relative to Mean Flow Rate
Thus, an attenuation factor of 20 in-
dicates the amplitude of pulsations
has been reduced to 5 percent of the
original value.
The advantage of this method is
that it is based on a logical analysis
which gives some insight into the ex-
pected pulsation attenuation. The
Piping Design Stops iPulsafing Flow
problem of selecting a satisfactory
attenuation'factor and pressure drop
is difficult. The' usual procedure is
to make the bottle as large as practi-
cal so that the highest possible A.F.
is obtained. Method 5C. will glve an
erroneous answer if the size arrived
at is resonant to the compressor ex-
citing frequency. This brings up the
next topic-acoustic resonance.
Acoustic Resonance. Consider a
capacity volume with a neck such as
would correspond to a surge bottle
and the nozzle connecting the bottle
to the compressor cylinder. This
acoustic element is known as a Helm-
holtz resonator. ft is supposed that
the air in the neck vibrates as a solid
mass while the air in the char[ber
acts as a spring as it is alternately
compressed and rarified. The acoustic
resonate frequency of this device can
be calculated by methods detailed in
the appendix.
The acoustic frequency of sections
of piping can be determined by the
familiar "organ pip"" formulas.
Acoustic frequencies of various com-
bined systems are discussed in Refer-
ence 5. The polar-diagram methods
of determining natural frequencies
discussed by Warming6 may be easier
to apply in many cases.
fn general, the acoustic frequency
of a surge bottle and piping should
not be the same as the pulse fre-
quency of the compressor. In fact, it
is good practice to design so that the
acoustic frequency of the surge bot-
tle is 3 to 4 times the compressor
pulse frequency (computed frequency
should not be a multiple of the pulse
frequency. Reasons for this rule are:
(1) Pressure surges in the bottle at
resonance can build up to appreciable
values. These surges can, especially
when in phase with the compressor
pulses, "starve" or overload the cylin-
der as previously discussed. Such a
reaction between the pressure pulqes
of the comprssor and the fundamen-
tal or a harmonic of the acoustic pres-
sure wave may cause, severe vibration
from varying power requirements (as
waves change phase), overloading of
the driver, poor compressor capacity,
or valve breakage.ra (2) The bottle
will no longer to attenuate the
^ctbut may increase
compressor pulses
the transmission of pulses into the
piping system. (Of interest is that
Rayleigh (Sound, 2,p 42) has proved
mathematically that the mean pres-
sure inside a resonator is greater than
that in the surrounding medium.)
Plane Wave Theory Filters. This
method of attack in designing pulsa-
tion attenuation filters is well de-
scribed in References 8 and 9. A
brief explanation is as follows. When
longitudinal waves (such as a sound
wave or pressure wave) traveling
through a pipe arrive at a discon-
tinuity (surge chamber, etc.) where
the acoustical impedance (Ratio of
pressurb to the product of linear ve-
locity and the cross sectiorral area)
is either much higher or much lower
than the characteristic impedance of
the pipe, only a Small fraction of the
acoustical energy can flow through
the discontinuity. The rest of the
energ'y goes into a reflected whve that
originates at the discontinuity and
travels back toward the source. Thus,
the transmission of energy can be
reduced by inserting suitable discon-
tinuities in the pipe, even though
these discontinuities may not absorb
any of the energy directly.
One type of filter designed by this
principle is called a low-pass pulsa-
tion damper or filter. This device
consistsof a combination of two bot-
tles and an interconnecting pipe. It
is characteristic of this arrangement
that all wave frequencies up to a
point known as the cut-off frequency
are transmitted with negligible at-
tenuation through the filter. Above
this frequency, up to the, next trans-
mission band (1st pass band), all fre-
quencies are eflectively attenuated,
The higher band passes need to be
determined but usually these bands
are quite narrow.
By increasing the length or de-
creasing the size of the connecting
pipe, the volume needed for the surge
bottles can be reduced. Ifowever, the
length of pipe is a factor in determin-
ing the high-pass bands.ro The de-
t27

RECOROING POINTS:
^ PRESSURE PATTERN
FIGURE 2-Analog computer used to simulate this
system.
sign should be such that the first and
second band-pass frequencies do not
correspond to harmonics of the com-
pressor frequency. The resonant fre-
quency of the piping components ad-
jacent to the compressor should not
coincide with the compressor base
frequency or the first and second
harmonics.
Space requirements may limit the
application of this type filter. Also,
the cost of two separate bottles may
be greater than the cost of a suitable
single bottle even though internal
pulse attenuating devices are required
in the single bottle.
As can be seen by comparing the
surge bottle requirements determined
by methods detailed in the appendix,
the designer is faced with a selection
of met[rod, allowable pressure drop,
and surge amplitude. Based on three
methods from different sources the
proper size of the capacity bottle for
the case stated is approximately five
times the swept volume of the cylin-
der. The same result could be ob-
tained by the use of another method
if an allowable pressure fluctuation
of 7.65 percent is selected. Also in-
volved, is the economic problem of
reducing first cost while considering
future maintenance and operating ef-
ficiency.
Boftles. A baffle is a plate or tube
containing multiple holes. The baffle
is arranged in the capacity chamber
so that the large flow stream is di-
vided into individual streams which
flow through the baffle holes and are
recombined again into a single stream.
One or more ba.ffles have been found
to be quite effective in reducing
pulses without significdnt pressure
128
a >t
o-
AP
o
so% 75%
% DESIGN VOL. OF LOW STAGE SUCTION
FIGURE 3-A minimum pulsation occurs in the low,stage suction bottle who
the compressor is operated at 3@ rpm.
loss. For the size dampeners used on
compressors, the diameter of holes in
the tubular type baffle is usually z/
inch to 1 inch. Enough holes are pro-
vided so that the combined flow arpa
of the ba-ffle is greater than the flow
area of the single stream of the inlet
or'outlet nozzle.
The author knows of no mathe-
matical study of the action of a baf-
fle. Possibly the action might be as
follows. First, the baffle orifices act
preferentially on the high velocity pul-
sating flow component, i.e., the re-
sistance to flow through an orifice is
proportional to the square of the ve-
locity. Therefore, the resistance to
steady flow is nil while the resistance
to the high velocity components of
pulsating flow is appreciable. Another
important factor rnay be the reflec-
tion of the waves from the orifices.
Also, the multiple transmitted waves
may recombine to produce a much
smoother wave pattern because of
phase differences. A typical baffle in-
stallation is detailed in Figure 1.
Orifices. In a number of cases, the
installation of an orifice upstrearn of
a vibrating piping system has greatly
reduced the amplitude of vibration.
Only a nominal pressure drop across
the orifice is usually sufficient. Sev-
eral successful orifice installations
were designed to produce a pressure
drop across flange taps of 1 percent
of the average line pressure. Steady
flow conditions were assumed.
Pulsqtion Contro!. (a) Arrive at a
tentative capacity volume for each
side of each cylinder by one of the
semi-empirical methods discussed pre-
viously.
(b) Check the acoustic resonant should be considered as a whole. The
I
lN.3
I
t9r
l-z,ols
!el rol
Or tr
9l @l
jl Or.l
Or At
rdl
o:
>4
2., dl
ol
+ r.26 AP
a'. =l
ldl
ol -l
I
I
I
I
loo% t25% l5oz
BOTTLE
frequency of the various piping s-vs-
tem components singly and in corn-
bination to determine if acousiic
resonant frequencies coincide rvith tire
pulse frequencies of the compressor-.
If necessary make changes to the pip-
ing components. In general, pipe size.
should be somewhat larger than a size
established by pressure drop calcula-
tions which assume steady florv.
(c) Design a cylindrical baffle for
each surge bottle.
(d) Size an orifice for the last sur.se
bottle outlet flange for a pless'.rre drop
across flange taps of 1 percent of the
average discharge line pressure.
Figure 1 is a dra,rvins of a trpical
surge bottle of a t1'pe nou' being
tested in se\/eral installations. Ade-
quate Teinforcing of nozzles and brac-
ing of small piping connections is er-
tremely important. Supports and
bracing for small piping should be
carefully detailed. Often this problem
is neglected, resultins in vibration
and possible breakase.
Admittedly, some of these recom-
mendations are based on erperience
and rule-of-thumb techniques. For
this reason, efforts are being made
to increase the knowledge of acoustic
phenomena. The only knorvn practi-
cal way to completely analyze a com-
pressor installation is by means of an
analog computer, which is recom-
mended for all critical compressor
installations.
Anolog Compufer Tests. It became
evident during the investigation of
pulsating flow that the available
mathematical methods left much to
be desired since the complete system
great many factors involved made
mathematical analysis prohibitive.
Even if one case could be worked
mathematicalln a change in one com-
ponent would require that the entire
problem be reworked.
The use of an electrical analog is
based on the fact that mechanical,
electrical, and acoustical phenomena
are analogous and can be expressed
in the same mathematical lan-
guags.?'12'rs'ra For example, the circuit
of an acoustic analog would behave
electrically precisely as the compressor
and associated piping behave acousti-
cally. Electrical voltage corresponds
to gas pressure, electrical current cor-
responds to gas flow, and electrical
frequency corresponds to acoustic
frequency. Measurement of the volt-
age and current patterns at certain
points of the analog circuit indicate
compressor performance with various
piping systems, compressor loads, com-
pressor ratios, and speeds.
it
On investigation, was soon
learned that only a very large analog
computer could handle a comPressor
problem, and only a few such instal-
lations are available. The problem was
discussed with Walter Brunner, an
Applications Engineer for the Prince-
ton Computation Center, which is an
analog and digital computer center
maintained by Electronic Associates,
Incorporated. After analyzing the
problem, Brunner and his associates
arrived at an anaTog circuit which
was different from some reported in
the literature in that the elements of
the circuit were actiae. An actiue
component analog consists primarily
of high gain amplifters which can by
various externa^l electrical hookups be
made to differentiate, integrate, add,
multiply, divide, provide various volt-
age patterns with time. etc. A passiae
element analog consists primarily of
resistances, condensers, and induct.
ances. The advantage of the 'actiae'
element computer is that system non-
linearities are easily handled.
Nonlinear characteristics must be
included in a system analysis in order
to optimize volumetric efficiency. For
example, compressor phenomena and
compressor valve characteristics are
nonlinear. The analog developed pro-
duces a very accurate simulation of
the pressure-volume relationship with-
in the cylinder. This relationship was
derived from a consideration of the
energ'y balance including gas flow.
The actual piston displacement with
time was used in the simulation. Ileat
Piping Design Stops Pulsating Flow
loss effects including transfer of heat
through the piston rings, piston ring
friction, etc. can be simulated if de-
sired. The valve analogy used in the
test case assumed the flow across the
valve to be proportional to the square
root of the pressure drop, but ignored
valve ind.uctance. Since then the in-
ductance term has been included.l6
To evaluate the analog circuit, it
was decided to simulate an actual
comprressor system which had been
designed by
conventional methods.
The computer results would then be
checked against the actual perform-
ance,
Figure 2 is a schematic of the sys-
tem tested. Pressure and flow Patterns
were recorded on strip charts' with
200 mm of the chart coresponding
to one second of real time. X-Y plot-
ters were connected to draw P-V dia-
grams of both the head end and crank
end of each cylinder.
At first the entire system was being
simulated. However, there was a tend-
ency for the interstage pressure to
drift upward. Because of time limita-
tions, it was then decided to run each
stage separately. Changes to any part
of the simulated system was easily
done by adjusting potentirometers or
other computer components. IIow-
ever, the optimization of the system
by varying all components until best
results were obtained from the com-
pressor could not be completed in the
time available. Items that can be de-
termined from the test data include:
Size of Surge Bottles. If the peak-
to-peak pressure variations in the
low-stage suction bottle are plotted
against the simulated volume, the
curve in Figure 3 is obtained. From
this curve it appears that a volume
of approximately 20,750 cubic inches
will result in a minimum pressure
TABIE I-Comporison of Three Pressure-Volume Diogroms
Work Per
Cycle,
DIAGRAM In. Lbs.
-c.*i,it.i*iiri
. Ideal. ..
ilt t.;;i;a+;
r07,000
. ;iDGs 117,000
. Computer with piping connected, ..,. , 131,400
* Compresor diagrams are for 300 rpm.
** Consiant Dressuie supplied at valves. The valve
the idml diagmm.
pulsation in the low-stage suction
surge bottle when the comPressor
rpm is 300. Either increasing or de-
creasing the volume would result in
greater pressure surges. However, the
pressure pulsation level is not the
only factor to be considered in pip-
ing design. A maximum comPressor
efficiency is the real goal.
Pulsation Frequency. A Fourier
analysis can be made of the pressure
or flow pattern strip charts by means
of a mechanical analyzer. This analy-
sis will show the intensity and phase
angle of the various frequency com-
ponents making up the complex wave
pattern. A number of the wave Pat-
terns recorded during this test have
been analyzed which show that the
intensity of some of the harmonics
of the compressor pulse frequency are
quite high.
Varying Suction Pressure. Since
three 600 rpm compressors are con-
nected to the same headers as the
it was decided
compressor under test,
to make two simulated runs on the
analog with simulated varying suc-
tion pressures. Runs were made with
the pressure, in the suction header
varying sinusoidally -f 10 percent at
600 and 1200 cycles per minute. Dur-
ing the 600 cycle-per-minute disturb-
ance the pressure variations in the
line to the compressor increased 250
percent as compared to the pressure
variations with constant header pres-
sure. A beat frequency was also dis-
cernable. The pressure pulses in the
suction surge bottle increased 100
percent; however, the volumetric ef-
ficiency of the cornpressor did not
seem to be much affected. Varying
the suction pressure at 1200 cycles
per minute did not have nearly so
great affect as the 600 cycle per min-
ute variation.
Valve Chamber Volume. It was
In.-Lbs. of
Dellvered Indlcated
Flow Per Work Per
IEdlcated Cycle In. 3 at Cublc In.
Horsepower Suctlon of Gas
At 3OO RPM* Conditlons Dellvered
47.2 4L40 25.4
88.5 4220 27.a
99.5 4740 27.8
los can be estimated by comparing this diagram with
129
found that the compressor-valve-
chamber volume had a pronounced
eflect on the pressure and flow pat-
terns. This factor is not considered in
other techniques of compressor piping
design.
Compressor Efficiency. Table 1 is
a comparison of three pressure-vol-
ume diagrams of the low-stage head
end.
The last column is a measure of
the compressor efficiency-the lower
the number-the greater the effi-
ciency. Note that though the indicated
horsepower increases when the piping
is connected, a compensating increase
in flow js achieved. Ffowever, at 320
rpm, itrequires 30.2 inch-pounds of
indicated work per cubic inch of fluid
delivered at suction conditions. By
comparisons such as this, it is be-
lieved that the computer can indicate
the conditions that will provide the
maimum compressor efficiency.
In this connection, it would help
to have an electronic circuit to meas-
ure the average flow. This can easily
be done by adding some integrators
to the circuit. The strip/chart flow
pulses are too small for accurate
planimeter readings.
Data from the analog test are now
being checked by comparison with
actual compressor installations.
A beat-frequency pressure pattern
was made recording from one suc-
tion line of a multiple compressor
installation similar to, but not the
same as, the one simulated on the
analog. An alternate reinforcing and
cancelling action between pressure
pulses from adjacent compressors was
observed and was predicted by the
t30
interactions that occur in a compres-
sor piping system.
The author is convinced that an
analog computer is the most practical
Aboul way to study flow and pressure varia-
tions in a complex piping system. In
the addition, the analog computer pro-
Speoker vides a means whereby the total s1's-
tem can be analyzed to determine
optimum piping design and operat-
ing conditions.
Ralph James, Jr., is a supervising Originally presented before the
engineer in the Engineering division API Division of Refining, Los Anee-
of the Design department at Humble Ies, May 13, 1958.
Oil and Refining Co.'s Baytown re-
finery. He has a B.S. degree in me-
chanical engineering from the Uni-
versity of Texas and an M.S. degree
in mechanical engineering from the
University of Houston. james is a
member of ASME, the American
Welding Society, the American So-
ciety for Metals, and the Texas
Society for Professional Engineers.
analog analysis. Such a phenomena
has long been suspected to be the
cause of the periodic variations in the
intensity of mechanical vibration at
certain compressor installations. At
some of these installations, pulsation
snubbers have greatly reduced the
pressure variations. A quartz crystai
transducer together with an amplifier
that operates by an
-calibrator
electrostatic principle was used to
obtain the actual pressure patterns.
The amplifier----calibrator output was
connected to an oscilloscope and a
polaroid carnera was used to photo-
graph the pressure versus time pat-
terns displayed on the oscilloscope.
It is ofuvious from this study that the
analog, computer circuit.can very
closely simulate the complex acoustic
Find Line Pressure Drop by Nomograph

Using this nomograph, you can perform five important

steps in line sizing and even correct for changes in friction
factor

John D. Lewis, Hydrocarbga Research, lnc. 3. To find the line size giving "economic" pressure drop
New York City (for gases only):
A. Find a working point as in 1.
HERE'S A NEW TYPE of nomograph for sizing lines B. Move horizontally from the working point until a
and estimating pressure drop. It is easy to use and gives vertical line extended up from the prepsure scale is
intersected.
rapid results of sufficient accuracy for ordinary line C. Read the line size on the diagonal scale.
sizing problems.
Note 1: The "economic" pressure drop is based on a cor-
Using this nomograph you can find the following: relation given in the Prtnor,r,ulr RrrrNrn, Vol. 3,
No. 7, Page 151 (1951).
o The pressure drop in a given Iine Note 2: The pressure scale does not necessarily show the
o The line size giving a desired pressure drop actual pressure except at the economic size.
o The line size giving "economic" pressure drop (for 4. To correct for a different friction factor:
gases only) A. Find a working point as in l.
. Correct for a different friction factor B. Move diagonally to 100 times the new friction factor
as shown on the pressure drop scale.
o The pressure drop in a new line size (Note: This is the only time a diagonal move should be
o The allowable. flow in a given line. made.)
C. Move horizontally back to the reference line to find
This nomograph solves the Fanning equation ex- the corrected workirg point.
pressed in the form: D. Continue with Steps B and C as in paragraph 1, 2
and 3. For example, suppose we had 1,000 lbs/hr of
Ap,/100 ft : fw, material with a density of 0.12 lbs/ft,s and our pre-
74,000 pds liminary w-ork had shown that a 2.7 inc}r, dia line was
where Ap: pressure drop, psi per 100 ft of pipe required to give the desired pressure drop of 0.3
psi/100 ft. We decided to use a 3 inch line. A more
W: flow, pounds per hour careful check later on shows that the actual friction
p: fluid density, lbs/t3 factor is 0.006 instead of 0.004. We make the correc-
tion as follows:
d
- inside diameter, inches A. Start where the 2.7 rr;rch line intersects the 0.3 psi line.
f : friction factor, assumed equal to 0.004. The chart
can be corrected for other friction factors as B. Move horizontally back to the reference line to find
described below. the old working point, then move diagonally to the 0.6
psi vertical line.
and can be used as follows:

1. To find the pressure drop in a given line:

A. Locate a working point on the reference line, by laying
Aboul lhe Author
a straight edge from the density scale to the flow scale. John D. Lewis is a project engineer
B. Move horizontally from the working point until the for Hydrocarbon Research, Inc., and
diagonal line showing the correct line size is intersected. supervises the design of petrochemical
C. Read the pressufe drop. plants in this country and abroad. Mr.
Lewis started with HRI in 1952 and
before that was in the research depart-
2. To find the line size giving a desired pressure drop: ment of Standard Oil Company of In-
A. Find a working point as in 1. diana. Mr. Lewis received a B.S. in
B. Move horizontally from the working point until the chemical engineering from Cornell
vertical line showing the desired pressure drop is University in 1948 and has studied at
intersected. MIT and Manchester University.
C. Read the line size on the diagonal scale.

l3r
 Find Line Pressure Drop by Nomograph...
C. Move horizontally back to the reference line to find
the corrected woiking point.
D. Move horizontally back to the 0.3 psi vertical line.
The new required line size is seen io be 2.9 inches
instead of 2.7 inches as estimated originally.
E. Instead of stopping at the 0.3 psi vertical line, we
could continue moving horizontally past the 0.3 psi
line to the 3 inch diagonal line. Here we can read tf,at
the actual pressure drop will be 0.27 psi/100 ft. in
a 3 inch line.
5. To find the pressure drop in a new line size:
A. Find the point on the chart where the old line size
intersects the existing pressure drop.
B. Move horizontally to the new linc size and read the
new pressure drop.
6. To find the allowable flow in a given line:
A. Use^ the given line size and the allowable pressure drop
to find a point on the chart.
B. Move horizontally to the reference line to find a work-
ing point.
C. Lay_ a straight edge from the density scale through the
working point to find the allowable flow.

0.01 t,000,000

60q000
0.02
400p00
0.03
300,000
0.04
0.06 ,{ffi 200,000

0. I r00000

60p00
0.2
4q00o
0.3
30p00
0.4
20,000
0.6

I
ro t0,0@
#
u-
6p00 g
U' 2
! -
J 4,00o
3 ar,
>\ # 3p00 -o
'6 4
tJ-
J
L

oc) 6 o
o
2p00
o
=
L-
r0 1,00o
U'
o-
?o o
o 600
lr)
30
o o
d 400
o, 300
40 =
U'
60 aD 200
o)
!
o-
r00 o lr,o oo ooooo oo o o oo o
o oo
t00
- -(\r ro\f @ooo'oR 33 3 O o
loO e 70
- -A' ro
200 50
Pressure Using"Economic" Size, pSlA
Instructions-l. Locate a working point on the reference or the desired line size, or to the operatinq pressure to find
line by luyi"S I straight edge from ihe density scale to the the "economic" size. Note: Chart is f,ased o"n i friction factor
flow scale. 2. Move horizontally to the desired pressure drop of 0.004.

t32
 New Approach to Pipe Reactions

Computer calculation of pipe expansion

forces and moments carurot be
justified on many two-anchor pipe
Ioops. This estimating method is
quick and economical

G. R. Kent
Stone & Webster Engineering Corp., boston

Corrpurr,ns rrAvE TAKEN the hand calculation work

out of piping stress analysis. Ifowever, because of time
and cost, the computer is not available for many simple
two anchor pipe loops.
Fast estimating procedures were developed for less
complicated configurations based on the cantilever prin-
ciple. The procedure predicts excessive loop requirements
which, in turn, increase piping cost estimates. An alterna- Fig. 2-Beam cantilever moment at end.
tive to the cantilever prinoiple is to rely on generalized
charts for estimates; but very often they do not cover
the range for the problem at hand. Then:
k* FLz _ kM ML
Hence:
M-kF/kMFL-koFL (1)
need of less pipe for a required flexibility. From the expression for deflection:
The improved accuracy of the proposed method results
from the use of "generalized parameters" obtained from EI6/Lz : kt' FL
- k* M
several calculated pipe loops. No claim is made that the Substituting from Equation 1:
outlined procedure will equal the accuracy of a detailed
pipe loop calculation. It is expected that the results will EI6/1'z - kF FL kM ke FL
or
-
deviate by a reasonable amount from the most probable
values. EI6/az : (ko
- kM kd FL - k5FL (2)
. Solving for the constants Ke and Ko in Equations 1
Bosis for Pqromelers. Referring to Figs. I and 2 and and 2 and using the minimum distance between anchors
applying the principles of the moment area method (L-) results in:
described in texts on mechanics of materials,l the expres-
sion for the net deflection is:
Ks: M/FL,* (3)
K6: EI6/FL*' (4)
EIl - 1,, FLl kM ML2
-
The net angular change is: The values for Ke and Ko were determined for a
number of. analyzed pipe loops of varying line sizes and
EIO : ko FL2 kM ML configuration. Several of the sample pipe arrangements
-
If the free end is held against rotation: used in this study are listed in Table 1. The results of
the calculations were plotted against the coordinate
O:0 (2LlL*), refer to Fig. 3. From the curve which sum-
t33
 TABLE l-Tabulation of Calculated Pipe Loop Data Evaluated in This Study
C. S. Pipe I Temp. F M
ln. j "F Lb. Lb. Ft. >L/1. L/K6 /Ko
Arrangement Size ln. Schd. No. L

95'

8 40 72.5 700 533 28,330 1.3 109.8 2.24

10 40 160.8 500 2,295 7,000 1.57 91.5 19.5

2,055 1. 15 1055
2,O30 1.195 1050
6 40 28.74 425 1,787 1.135 925
1,660 1.155 864

5 t20 49.96 625 1,930 r.4 225

10 60 2t2 750 3,040 22,380 t,7 45.2 7.2

10 40 160.8 750 L,572 17,850 2.33 7.35 2.24

rS.
lo 40 160.8 750 1,300 L4,700 2.12 6.O7 2.28

marizes the calculations, the following equations were With the values of Ke and Ko deternined flom equa-
determined: tions 5 and 6, respectively, the value of the resultant
150 force and moment at an anchor, for a given pipe ar-
(5)
rangement, may be determined. For convenience, Equa-
" - Fr \r'8,
K^
(;) tions 3 and 4 are rearranged to solve for the desired
resultant forces and moment.
(6)
F: EI3/K6LiL3 (7)

M - KoFLm (B)

Refer to Fig. 4 for a diagrammatic representation of

About fhe quthor
GEoRcE R. KoNr is a proiect eng'i,neer
with Stone & Webster Engineec"ing
Co,t"p., Boston. He is responsible for
the mechanical design and operation
of petrochemi,cal plants. Mr. Kerut holds
a B.S. degree in ciail engineering from
Cooper Union School of Engineet"ing.
He worked as a ciuil engi,nee,r prio,t' to
1948. Since then, he branched 'into en-
g i,n e e r in g a,s s o c ia t e d u; it lt p e t r o c h e m-i c al
plants including uessel, heat e*change,
yrping, and maclainerg desi,gn as toell as project respon-
sibilits.
r34
key variables.
It should be noted that
2L represents the actual length
of pipe including e length of bends.
Limiting Recrclions. It is always necessary to limit the
force and momen on a piece of machinery such as a
pump, compressor or turbine. When the manufacturer
of equipment is asked for their limitations, some sort
of "bargain counter" approach is used, starting with
zero allowable. Obviousln no piping can be made suf-
ficiently fledble to result in zero thrust or torque. The
following formulas yield values of force and moment
 t00

(D
-lY
E,
o 6
-l-

t0
/tL\
\Lr/
Fig. 3-Reaction parameters.

which have been found acceptable to several equipment Exomple. It is desired to determine the resultant force
manufacturers: and moment for the arrangement shown in Fig. 5.
The Limiting Force Given: l0-inch schedule, 40 C.S. pipe, L.R. bends,
Fo:140 eN/6 (e)
I : 160.7 in.a, T : 7500 F, E : 25 X 106 lb./in.2,
t:7.35 X 10-6 length/oF. (Note: 1.6 feet corrects the
I'he Limiting Moment length for pipe bends.)
ML- t.72 FL ( 10) :
>L 20 + 14 + 18 + B - 1.6 - 5B.4ft.
From Equations 9 and 10, a reasonable value for the L*- ll42 + 18, + (20-8121 o.s - 25.8 ft.
limiting force and moment may be obtained. It is cau-
tioned that the equipment mar-rufacturer's approval be AT :750-70 - 680' F
obtained before proceeding with final piping design. 6 : (7.35/106) 680 (25.8) 12 1.55 in,
-
135
NEW APPROACH TO PIPE REACTIONS
It- =Lzr*Lx+LY+Lz2
[tr-r, + trrl\ *^
(INCLUDE LENGTH CORRECTIONS FOR
PIPE BENDS)
Fig. ,4-Typical pipe arrangement.
. From Eq. 8,
M: 1/0.98 (900) 25.8 - 23,700 lb. ft.
Pipe Stress. After the thrust and moment at an anchor
has been determined, it is necessary to determine if the
selected pipe size and configuration have sufficient strength
to withstand the combined stresses to which the pipe
would be subjected. The contributing factors to pipe
stress may be caused by any combination or all of the
following:
a fnternal or external pressure,
a Bending in the straight pipe or at an elbow,
o Torsion which subjects the pipe section to shear,
a Direct stress by axial forces, and
a Pipe support spacing affecting local bending.
Before calculating the individually contributed stre,ss,
it is often convenient to resolve the resultant thrust and
moment at an anchor to their equivalent componer.i-i:
axial and perpendicular to each plane of projection.
It is generally a simple matter, after the p\re geonrei:y
is studied, to select the point of maximum bendin,q in
the pipe loop. After taking moments about the selected
r rlr)"' pipe section for investigation, the resultant unit sire.'se-<
may be calculated. By combining stresses rrith the aictre
of Mohr's Circle and employing the marimum silear
theory, the resultant stress should be compared r.r.ith the
limiting value for the pipe material. Should the calcu-
lated results exceed the allowable stressr it r,r.ill be neces-
sa.ry either to select a heavier u,a1l pipe or increase its
flexibility by changing its geometrr,. The procedure ior
calculating the unit stresses for piping is thoror-rglily
covered in many texts on this subject; hence, t-he reader
rvill not be subjected to its repetition in this article.

NOMENCLATURE
E : Resultant displacement, in.
e : Natural Iogarithm base,2.7l82B
E - Modulus of elasticity, Lb./tn.'
F : Resultant force or axial thrust, lb.
K : Constant or parameter
L- Lcngth, ft.
)L - Total Iength of pipe, ft.
M: Resultant mo,ment, lb-ft.
0: Angular displacement
I- Moment of inertia, in.a
Fig. S-Piping configuration for example given.
N: Nominal nozzle size, in.

Subscripts:
3 Related to displacenent and force
-
O
- Related to angular change and moment
From Eq. 5, F: Related to force
M- Rclated to moment or bending
L - i,imiting value
From Eq. 6, m: Minimum value

LITERATURE CITED

From Eq. Timoshenko,

-Materials",
_1 and M,acCullough, G. FI. "Elements oI Strength ol
-S.,Netrand
7, D. Van Co., Inc.
F_ 25 X rOu (160.7) 1.ss_(4.3)
900 lb. Indexing Terms: Analyzing-8, Bending-6, Computinq-8. Deflections-9. Eoua-
(25.a1s 172, - tions-10, Flexure-7, Force,/Energy/-9, Layout-6,-Loops-9, Mom.nts-9.'Parim-
etcrs-10, Piping-9, Pressue-6. Strc"ses-7, Supports-6, Thrusts-6, Toision-6,

r36
NOTES

137
 EAM TRACING

'.flv" L ni:*
 New Guide to Steam Tracing Design

Test results recomrnend using Ys-inc}r. fABLE I-Sleom Trop fests No-Lood Operotion
The following tests were conducted indoors on 100 psig steam.
floating disc thermodynamic steam The traps were instailed so that no condensate could reach them.
This test, in effect, gives the minimum condensate load required
trap as standard and prescribe to operate the trap without steam loss.
Condensate
maximum tracer size and length of run Size Recovered
Trap Inches Pounds per llour
A "/a 2,8
B "/8 1.9
C 1A
Kenneth G. Elqnd D, r/"
1.6
2.3
AtlanticRichfieldCo., Philadelphia, Pa.

Srr,,c.N( TRACTNG coMpoNENT DESTGN and selection vari- TABLE 2-Steom frop fests
ations forprocess and instrument piping, can and does
Iead to steam wastage. We decided that a standard appli- Field tests conducted at AtlanticRichfieldCo., f 90.1 Paraffin
Wax Hydrogenation Unit, Point Breeze refinery, Philadelphia,
cation method for steam tracing components would not Pa. The trap was allowed to discharge into a calorimeter and
only minimize steam losses but eliminate design time on the results were obtained by heat balance calculations.
run-of-the-mill steam tracing systems.
Steam Load Steam Loss
The following facts are based on tracing systems using Trap/Test No. Inches Lbs. /Hr. Lbs.,/Hr.
150 psig saturated steam. (The basic findings and recom- A-1
mendations will also hold true for all lower-pressure trac-
% B.7B 0.3,t
2 % tt.52 None
ing systems.) Capacities and the length of tracer runs u,iJl, 3 % 4.80 None
of course, vary. There is a steam pressure belolv which I % 26.35 t5.7 I
pressure drop will govern the length of a tracer run B-1 % 2.78 None
rather than the condensate load. This is true for 15 psig
2 % 2.62 None
C1 % 20.78 0.62
exhaust steam systems which are quite prevalent.
D,-
,2
% 20.88 0.40
A great deal of basic information was gathered by ob- 1
% 3.Bo 2.tB
serving the operation of various traps in the field. Check-
E-1
2 % 2.68 0.+2
ing cycle times, discharge times, and taking upstream and % 2.+6 t.32

dor,r,nstream pyrometer readings on many traps gave an

excellent indication of quality and repeatability of each
vendor's product.
The effect of design and quality control on field opera-
tion may be demonstrated by the results of a series of
no-load laboratory tests which showed that each of the
traps tested was capable of operating on less than 5
pounds per hour of condensatel These results are shown
,2
% 3.r1 t.t2
ject to freezing, the thermodynamic trap is generally
used in outdoor locations. Because of handling ease and
reduced inventory, the thermod),namic trap is also used
to a great extent in indoor locations. Other advantages
of the thermodynamic trap are its small size and insensi-
tivity to pressure variations (up to 600 psig) .

in Table 1. Trap Sizing. The sizing of thermodynamic traps is

Tests were conducted in Atlantic's Refinery to obtain
operating data under the rigors of field conditions. These
results are shown in Table 2.
Typicol Trocing Syslem. A typical steam tracing system
is shown in Fig. 1. The keystone of this system is the
steam trap. Correct selection and application of other
components is to no avail if the steam trap is inproperly
chosen. Selection must be based on tr,r,,o choices: type and
size of the trap.
Trap Types. The two types of traps normally used in
steam tracing service are the bucket trap and the floating
disc thermodynamic trap. Since the bucket trap is sub-
more critical than for other types. Size a trap too small
and it rvill back up condensate; too large, and it will
r.vaste steam. Excessive oversizing will cause the trap to
destroy itself. This occurs u,hen the trap cannot get
enough condensate to fulfill its energy requirements and,
therefore, begins to cycle more rapidly partly on live
steam. This causes an accelerated wear rate, which causes
an even more rapid cycling, which causes an even more
rapid r'r,ear rate, and so on until the trap becomes useless.
Sizing to include potential startup loads leads to over-
sizing in thermodynamic traps. A thermodynamic trap
r.vill handle a great deal more cold condensate than hot
condensate; and if a still greater rate is desired, the line

t39

FLASH FOT
TO SEUER OR
RECOVERY
Fig. l-Typical steam tracing system.
can be manually blown down. For applications other
than steam tracing, careful consideration should be given
before introducing any startup allowance, especially if
the addition requires an increase in trap size.
For steam tracing applications, a flow rate of 100
pounds per hour gives the best balance between trap siz-
ing and traced length of pipe. The allowable lengths at
various temperatures stays within the realm of possibility
while the unavoidable short runs do not cause the flow
rate to fall into the trap's inefficient range.
On this basis, the selection of a group of steam traps
to handle all steam tracing situations is possible. Actually
this consists of a zft-\ndn nominal size trap; but lately
the steam trap manufacturers have begun to rate their
traps by orifice size rather than by connection size. Suit-
able traps should have 150 psig steam condensate capaci-
ties from 350 to 600 pounds per hour at saturation tem-
perature and from 550 to 850 pounds per hour at,30o
below saturation temperature. Some representative traps
are shown in Table 3.
Field and laboratory tests conducted by the author
show that the nominal zft-inch size trap will operate
efficiently below 20 pounds per hour and has enough ca-
pacity to give safety factors of two or more, depending
on the trap, based on a 100 pounds per hour normal load.
Low Loads and Cycling. The trap should be able to
handle loads down to a very small percent of its rating
which should be in the realm of 2-3 percent at operating
temperature. Cycling, or condensate blowing, should oc-
cur at a three-to-four-cycle-per-minute rate, with a blow-
ing time of five to ten seconds duration. With proper
operation, the trap will not allow condensate buildup in
the tracer and will blow down completely each time.
This, of course, is based on a bare trap; insulation should
not be applied to a thermodynamic steam trap.
Trop Operoting Problems. Determining the causes of
erratic and improper operation leads to a comparison of
operating theories and manufacturing techniques.
The operation of a floating or tilting disc trap is based,
in part, on the Bernoulli effect. When air and/or con-
densate enter the trap, the disc is raised from its seat
t40
which allows flow at full trap capacity. As steam enters
the trap, the high velocity between the disc and seat
creates a low pressure area beneath the disc, and at the
same time, steam is recompressing above the disc raising
the pressure at that point. This combination causes the
disc to snap down on its seat, sealing the trap. As the
steam above the disc condenses, the pressure decreases to
a point where the cycle is repeated. (See Fig. 2)
In studying manufacturing techniques, it was noted
that some manufacturers use a small scribe mark in the
disc to prevent air binding, while others rough grind the
disc to a 7 to 12 microinch finish. This rough grinding
apparently controls steam losses much better than the
scribe mark. Recompression volume and radiation surface
directly affect trap operation. If they are small or there
is a poor balance between them, the result will be poor
cycling and discharge characteristics which will cause a
condensate buildup upstream of the trap. The required
balanco is achieved when the radiation of heat is such
that the steam trapped above the disc condenses at a rate
which gives the desired cycling rate. If the volume is large
compared to the surface, the cycling rate will be too slorr':
if the volume is small compared to the surface, the cycling
rate will be too fast.
Replaceable-seat Traps. A more nebulous area but y'et
directly involved is the gasketing between the body and
seat of replaceable-seat traps. A poor fit in this area
evidently causes live steam loss and consequent erratic
cycling. Atlantic does not normally use replaceable-seat
traps, but of the few tested, the losses were high. The type
tested used a flat metal gasket to seal the body-seat joint.
This sealing problem has been recognized by the manu-
facturers and they have done extensive testing rvhich has
resulted in no t'uvo using the same method; one does not
even offer a replaceable-seat. The problem, of course, can
be avoided by using integral seat traps. The decision to
use or not to use replaceable-seat traps must be based on
economics of the individual user.
Trqcer Lengihs. As mentioned earlier, recommended
maximum traced lengths have been computed to give a
steam flow of100 pounds per hour and are shor,vn in
Table 4. For the majority of steam-tracing applications.
the length of the tracer run is uncontrollably short. Onl1,
for long transfer line runs can the length be controlled
for effective trap utilization. The usual length of a tracer
run produces a condensate flow much below the capacitr'
of the trap. Grouping of small systems is useful but limited,
since combined s'ystems rapidly become unra.ieldy. By
basing traced lengths on a flow of 100 pounds per hour.
fABIE 3-Sreom Trop Copocities Contlnuous Dischorge
Capacity, Pounds per Hour
15 psig Steam 150 psig Stearr.
Size 30o Below 30" Below
Trap Inches Sat. Temp. Sat. Temp. Sat. Temp. Sat. Temp.
A% 230 330 575 850
B% 195 (300) 490 (725)
cYB 135 225 350 570
Dr% 250 380 575 850
D, /, 250 380 575 850
Numbers in parentheses are approximate; normal trap operation
consists of three to four discharges per minute of six-to-ten
seconds duration.
 NEW GUIDE TO STEAM TRACING DESIGN .. .

Gtt
a trap can be selected which is srr-rall enough to avoid orSc (sflovfl tfl oPEil
oversizing, while the allowable runs are reasonably long. PtOStflolt )
In cases where looping or pocketing of the tracer exists,
the tracer should incorporate no more total pocket height
than determined by the following API forrnula:
Sum of pocket heights : 2.31 \ 10 percent of inlet
steam pressure, psig. This condition will occur in the outr.Cr
majority of tracing applications within a refinery unit.

Strqiners. To insure trouble-free operation, once the

steam trap has been selected, it is necessary to keep dirt
away from the orifices and the disc seating area. This is Fig. 2-Cross-s_ection of typical floating-disc steam trap. Sreanr
flow is shown by the arrows.
best accomplished through the use of a strainer, although
an alternate method is manual blowdown of all tracing TABLE 4-r$oximum frocer Lengths for o/s-inch frop
headers and lines before startup. However, using the
blowdown nethod, it is difficult to assure that the system Based on the formula: L: ry- \L-y,)
Q (^sr)
is properly blor,l'n down. After startup, the majority of
tracers are a clean service; but it is during initial startup Where: I - Length of tracer per foot
W : Stearn flow, pounds per hour
and any subsequent startup following a shutdown that
LH:Latent heat of vaporization, Btu per pound
problems arise. Either a tr^p may seal itself because of
Q- Heat loss, Btu per hour-foot
an accumulation of sludge, or it may trap dirt under the SF - Safety factor
disc, allowing the steam to blow freely. With a closed And: W :100 pounds per hour
condensate system, such malfunctioning is not readily SF: 2 (basic) 1.5-3.5 (actual)
apparent; and during the duress of a startup, it will prob-
150 psig Steam
ably go unnoticed.
Line Size Tracer Length Insulation Thickness
In the course of conducting field tests, 2 out of 14 traps Inches Feet Inches
in norrnal tracing serwice were malfunctioning because of 2 400 1

dirt under the disc. To provide strainers for each and .1 5t3 to 325' , l/z above
every tracer, to prevent possible trouble during startup, 4 3tJ to 27 5" , 7/t above
is undoubtedly false economy, especially when the fre- 6 275 to 225' , l/z above
quency of such problems appears to be no more than five B 250 1to 225",1% to 325".
percent. A better solution is to install a strainer in each 2 above
small header feeding a number of tracers, thereby cover- NOTES: (1) Chart is valid from 150" F to 350" F fluid temper-
ing all systems. ature.
(2) The tracer should incorporate no more total
Integral-Strainer Traps. The author believes that in- pocket height than computed by the following
tegral-strainer traps are not suitable for large refinery units API formula:
for the following reasons: their straining capacity is too Sum of pocket heights - 2.31 x 10 percent of
inlet steam pressure, psig
small, especially for startup conditions; they cost consider-
(3) Insulation thicknesses are based on economic
ably more than separate units; and for complete coverage. studies for the Philadelphia area.
each traccr rvould have to be equipped with an integral-
strainer trap.
pot. Insuflicient sizing of these, as well as any other open
condensate collection system, will cause a steady rain of
Condensole Collection Sysfem. The remaining facet
of tracing systems is the condensate collection system. For condensate in the area of the vent pipe, and the sew-ers
undersround systerrs) Atlantic uses a small flash pot rvhich in the area will emit flash steam. An underground system
will handle a given number of traps. The tracing systems can cause maintenance problems when the coolers must
be installed beneath concrete.
are broken down into groups, each having its or,r,n flash
The alternative is to install an above-ground conden-
sate collection system. From a maintenance viewpoint,
About fhe oulhor a single centralized unit would be even better. Under-
KnNrvnrn G. Er,lwn is an autumotiue sround flash pots, being generally horizontal, do not eive
equipment engineer uith AtlanticRich-
as good a separation as an above ground vertical unit.
fi.eldCo. in Pluiladelphia, specifging
and selecting automotiue equipment for The difficulty in drawing any specific conclusions on con-
the Atlantic Diaision as utell as conl- densate collection systems is the nature of the application
ponent testing. He receiued lyis B.S.
degree in mechanical engineerirug from and the existence of local codes.
Drerel Institute of TechnologA, Phi.la- Originally presented to the ASME Petroleum Mechan-
delphia. IIe utas formedy a design en- ical Engineering Conference, New Orleans, September
gineer u;ith Atlantic Refining Co., as-
sisting in the engineering of refinerE 18-21,1966.
.WhiLe
uni,ts. in the military seruice, he seraed as test engi- ACKNOWLEDGMENT
neer on the Nike-Hercules launcher research project. The author wishes to ackoowledge the cooperation of various steam trap
manufacturers aod their representatives in obtaining data lor this report.

t4t