Duality

Kevin James

Kevin James Duality

Definition
Suppose that V is a vector space over a field K . A linear function
is a function ` : V → K satisfying
1 `(x + y ) = `(x) + `(y ) and
2 `(cx) = c`(x) for all x, y ∈ V and c ∈ K .

Note
We note that for ` a linear P . , wn ∈ K and
function, w1 , . . P
v1 , . . . , vn ∈ V , we have ` ( nk=1 wk vk ) = nk=1 wk `(vk ).

Kevin James Duality

Definition
Suppose that X is a vector space over a field K . We define the
dual of X as

X 0 = {` : X → K | ` is linear}.

Fact
If X is a vector space over the field K , then the dual X 0 can be
equipped with an addition and scalar multiplication operation as
follows. If f , g ∈ X 0 and c ∈ K , we define

(f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x)

(cf )(x) = c · f (x).

With these operations, X 0 is a vector space over K .

Kevin James Duality

Example
Take X = C ((0, 1)).
1 For 0 < s < 1, the function `(f ) = f (s) is a linear function.
2 . . , sn ∈ (0, 1) and k1 , . . . , kn ∈ K , the function
For s1 , .P
`(f ) = nj=1 kj f (sj ) is a linear function.

Example
If X = C ∞ ((0, 1)) = {f : (0, 1) →
R | f is infinitely differentiable} and s ∈ (0, 1), then
n
X
`(f ) = aj (∂ j f )(s)
j=1

is a linar function.

Kevin James Duality

Fact
Let X be f.d.v.s. over K with dimK (X ) = n. Given any basis
B = {b1 , . . . , bn } for X , each x ∈ X can be written uniquely as a
linear combination of the elements of B. Further, weP may define a
map [·]B : X → K by [x]B = (c1 , . . . , cn ) where x = nj=1 ci bi is
the unique expression of x as a linear combination of elements of
B. The map [·]B is an isomorphism.

Theorem
Let X be f.d.v.s. over K with dimK (X ) = n and let
B = {b1 , . . . , bn } be a basis for X . Then we may associate to
x ∈ X its coordinate vector [x]B = (c1 , . . . , cn ). Let a1 , . . . , an ∈ K
and define ` : X → K by
n
X
`(x) = aj cj .
j=1

Then ` ∈ X 0 . Conversely, every ` ∈ X 0 can be so represented.

Kevin James Duality
Theorem
The dual X 0 of a f.d.v.s. X over a field K is also a f.d.v.s. over K
and dimK (X ) = dimK (X 0 ).

Definition
Suppose that X is a f.d.v.s over a field K . Given ` ∈ X 0 and
x ∈ X , we define the scalar product

(`, x) = `(x).

Fact
The above scalar product gives a bilinear map (·, ·) : X × X 0 → X .
(-i.e. the scalar product is linear in either variable).

Theorem
The map φ : X → X 00 given by (φ(x))(`) = (`, x) gives a natural
isomorphism between X and X 00 .
Kevin James Duality
Example (Homework)
Given a nonzero vector x1 ∈ X , show that tehre is a linear function
` ∈ X 0 such that
`(x1 ) 6= 0.

Definition
Let Y be a subspace of X . We define the annihilator of the
subspace Y denoted Y ⊥ as

Y ⊥ = {` ∈ X 0 | `(y ) = 0, ∀y ∈ Y }.

Example (Homework)
Show that Y ⊥ ≤ X 0 .

Theorem
Let Y be a subspace of a f.d.v.s. X over a field K . Then,

dimK (Y ⊥ ) + dimK (Y ) = dimK (X ).

Kevin James Duality
Definition
Given a f.d.v.s. X over a field K and Y ≤ X , we define the
codimension of Y as

codimK (Y ) = dimK (Y ⊥ ).

Corollary
Let Y be a subspace of a f.d.v.s. X over a field K . Then,

codimK (Y ) + dimK (Y ) = dimK (X ).

Theorem
Suppose that Y ≤ X , a vector space over a field K . Recall that
the map φ : X → X 00 defined by setting φ(x) : X 0 → K to be the
defined by φ(x)(`) = (`, x) = `(x) is an isomorphism of X and X 00 .
Under this identification of X with X 00 , for every subspace Y of a
f.d.v.s. X over a field K ,

Y ⊥⊥ = Y .
Kevin James Duality
Definition
Let X be a finite diemnsional linear space and let S ⊆ X . The
annihilator S ⊥ of S is the the set

{` ∈ X 0 | `(s) = 0, ∀s ∈ S}.

Theorem
Denote by Y the smallest subspace of X containing S (-i.e.
Y = Span(S)). Then S ⊥ = Y ⊥ .

Kevin James Duality