Scope and Subfields

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Basically, the mathematical logic has classified into following four subfields :

(i) Set theory

(ii) Recursion theory
(iii) Model theory
(iv) Proof theory

Although, each of these subfields share basic concepts of mathematical logic, yet they have different
focuses. Mathematical logic was initially introduced for constructing fundamental frameworks
for subjects like arithmetic, analysis and geometry. But it has now been utilized into several mathematical
and non-mathematical areas. It is being outstandingly applied to computer science as well.
Basic Logical Operators
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There are three types of logic operators:

Negation (NOT)
Disjunction (OR)
Conjunction (AND)

NEGATION
Negation is an operator which gives the opposite statement of the previous statement. It is also known as
NOT, denoted by ∼∼. It is an operation that gives the opposite result. If input is true then output is false. If
input is false then output is true. It has one input and one output. Truth table for NOT is given below :

Input(P) Output(~P)
T F
F T

Example of Negation

The negation of the statement "This year is a leap year" is "This year is not a leap year.

Similarly, the negation of statement "Amar is taller than Vivek" may be written as either "Amar is not taller
than Vivek" or "Amar is shorter than Vivek".
DISJUNCTION
We can join two statements by “OR” operand. It is also known as Disjunction. It symbolic from is "∨∨". In
this operator if any one of the statement is true, then result is true, and if both the statements is false,
then result will be false. It has two or more inputs and only one output.

Truth Table for OR :

Input Input Output

P Q P OR Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example of Disjunction

Consider the following statements :

A: 18+1 =19
B: 180+1 = 1801
and
A: 10 + 1 = 11
B: 18 + 1 = 181

Here in both examples, the statements A are true and the statements B are false. Therefore A OR B is
true.

A B A ∨∨ B
T F T

The disjunction of a compound statement is only false if both the combining statements are false else the
disjunction is true.

CONJUNCTION
We can join two statements by “AND” operand. It is also known as Conjunction. Its symbolic from is
"∧∧".In this operator If any one of the statement is false, then result will be false, and If both the statement
are true, then only result will be true. It has two or more inputs and only one output.

Truth table for AND (Conjunction):

 Input Input Output
P Q P AND Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Example for Conjunction

Consider above statements again:

A: 18+1 =19
B: 180+1 = 1801
and
A: 10 + 1 = 11
B: 18 + 1 = 181
Here, A AND B will be false, since statements A are true and statements B are false.

A B A ∧∧ B
T F F

The conjunction of a compound statement is true only if both the combining statements are true else the
conjunction would be false.

Examples
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Have a look at the following examples of basic mathematical logics.

Example 1 : What would be the negation of the statement "the number 8 is even"?

Solution : Let the given statement is denoted by

S = the number 8 is even.

The negation of S, i.e.

~S = the number 8 is not even.

According to the truth table of negation, if input is true, output must be false vice versa.

Here, S is true.

and ~S is false.
Example 2 : Two statements are given:

A: x is an even number.

B: x is a prime number.

List all the truth values of conjunction with the the help of examples.

Solution: The examples of truth values of conjunction are shown below.

If x = 2,

then statement A is true and statement B is true, therefore A AND B is also true.

If x = 4,

then statement A is true and statement B is false, therefore A AND B is false.

If x = 3,

then statement A is false and statement B is true, therefore A AND B is false.

If x = 9,

then statement A is false and statement B is false, therefore A AND B is also false.

Example 3 : For the following statements, demonstrate all truth values of disjunction using examples -

A: The number p is divisible by 2.

B: The number p is divisible by 3.

Solution: The examples of truth values of A OR B are listed below.

If p = 12,

then statement A is true and statement B is true, therefore A OR B is true.

If x = 4,

then statement A is true and statement B is false, therefore A OR B is true.

If x = 9,

then statement A is false and statement B is true, therefore A OR B is true.

If x = 7,

then statement A is false and statement B is false, therefore A OR B is false.

Practice Problems
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Problem 1: If S: The sum of x and y equals to a prime number. Write the negation of x.

Problem 2: If P: x is an even number and Q: x is an odd number then write truth tables for P AND Q and
P OR Q.