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A T0060e PDF
A T0060e PDF
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ISBN 92-5-101453-1
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© FAO 1985
Printed in Italy
Foreword
This Guide to Extension Training is a new edition of a text which was orig-
inally written by D.J. Bradfield in 1966 and later revised in 1969. In this
new edition we have largely kept to the basic structure and broad content
outline of Bradfield's 1969 revision, except for a completely new first
chapter. We have, however, considerably reorganized the material and
rewritten it entirely.
Bradfield's text was based almost wholly on extension experience in
Malawi and drew its examples and approaches from that country. In this
new edition we have drawn upon our joint experiences with extension in
the three principal continental regions of the developing world - Asia,
Africa and Latin America - and have used material from these regions
in the text. Since the mid-1960s there have been a number of changes in
the conception and practice of extension, and we have ·included such
changes in the text, and generally brought it up to date.
The purposes of this guide are several. First, it is intended to be a text
for those involved in the pre-service and in-service training of extension
personnel. Second, we hope it can be used directly by extension agents in
the field as a resource text in support of their extension activities. The text
is a guide, and we have tried to lay out the material in an appropriate way.
We hope that the style of the text will be useful for an extension agent who
needs to understand the basic aspects of a particular extension issue.
The guide is directed toward extension agents in general. Of these,
and given the importance of agriculture in rural areas, agricultural exten-
sion agents will be the greater number. The principles and methods of
extension examined in this text are also relevant to those who work in
extension in fields other than agriculture, such as home economists, com-
munity development workers or health workers.
This guide is written within the context of rural development and
agricultural systems to be found in what we refer to as the developing
world. We have drawn our material from e~xtension practice in countries
in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Although the principles of extension
are applicable in any context, the analysis and discussion in this guide are
in the context of the above three continental regions.
In writing this guide we have had to make decisions about the use of
certain terms and in order to avoid misunderstanding we feel we ought to
point these out.
Vl
Page
Foreword v
2. Understanding extension 9
The concept of extension 9
Principles of extension 13
Extension and education 16
Types of extension 20
3. Social and cultural factors in extension 23
Social structure 23
Culture 29
Social and cultural change 33
Social and cultural barriers to agricultural change 37
4. Extension and communication 41
Communication 41
Mass media in extension 45
Audio-visual aids in extension 60
5. Extension methods 67
Individual methods of extension 68
Group methods of extension 75
Types of group extension methods 78
6. The extension agent 91
The role of the agent 92
Knowledge and personal skills 94
Public speaking 97
Report writing 100
The use of local leaders 101
Vlll
Bibliography 131
Case-studies 133
Index 141
1. The framework of development
Much has been written about the process of development, and the
approaches which developing nations should adopt in order to develop.
Reviewing this literature it can be concluded that a process of develop-
ment should contain three main elements.
This guide is primarily concerned with rural extension and with the liveli-
hoods of farmers and their families. The concept of rural development
must therefore be considered with particular reference to agriculture,
since agriculture is the basis of the livelihood of most rural families. In the
past two decades there has been increasing emphasis on rural develop-
ment programmes and projects, and recognition that the development of
rural areas is just as important as the building up of urban, industrial com-
3
Food production
Agricultural ~ Foreign exchange
....
production Capital
I i
Demands for other
Demand for inputs
goods and services
i i
Increased investment
Capital diffusion
in agriculture
i
...
~
Development of agro-related
industries and demand for labour
Non-physical. Not all the problems which farmers face are physical in
nature. Some problems are more related to the social and political condi-
tions of the region in which the farmers live, e.g., limited access to land,
no contact with government services, or dependence upon a bigger
farmer. These problems are also very real even though they exist below
the surface.
Access. Try to ensure that the programme and its benefits can reach those
in need, and beware of the consequences if some farmers have
access to the programme while others do not.
Independence. Devise a programme which helps and supports the farmer
but which does not make him or his livelihood dependent upon the
programme.
Sustainability. Ensure that the programme's plans and solutions are
relevant to the local economic, social and administrative situation.
Short-term solutions may yield quick results, but long-term pro-
grammes that are suitable to the local environment have greater
success.
Going forward. Technological aspects of rural development programmes
should help the farmer to take the next step in his development and
not demand that he take a huge technological leap. It is better to
secure a modest advance which can be sustained than to suggest a
substantial advance which is beyond the ability of most.
Participation. Always try to consult the local people, seek out their ideas
and involve them as much as possible in the programme.
8
Within the framework presented in this chapter, the concept and practice
of the central issue of this guide must now be examined: extension work
in rural communities. Extension is essentially the means by which new
knowledge and ideas are introduced into rural areas in order to bring
about change and improve the lives of farmers and their families. Exten-
sion, therefore, is of critical importance. Without it farmers would lack
access to the support and services required to improve their agriculture
and other productive activities. The critical importance of extension can
be understood better if its three main elements are considered:
The concept and practice of extension are the central themes of this
guide. However, before beginning to look at the many different aspects
of extension practice in later chapters, the meaning of the term extension
needs to be examined. Rural extension is now a common activity in most
countries of the world, and it is a basic element in programmes and pro-
jects formulated to bring about change in rural areas. Extension services
are similarly a common feature of the administrative structure of rural
areas and these services have the responsibility, in partnership with the
farmers, of directing programmes and projects for change.
Extension is an educational process. Here, an extension worker discusses with a Thai farmer
ways of improving his land by terracing and planting legumes
11
Farmers' organization
As well as knowledge, information and technical advice, farmers also
need some form of organization, both to represent their interests and to
give them a means for taking collective action. Extension, therefore,
12
Extension brings low-cost improvements in farming practice, such as line planting of crops
should be concerned with helping to set up, structure and develop organi-
zations of local farmers. This should be a joint venture and any such
organization should only be set up in consultation with the farmers. In the
future, these organizations will make it easier for extension services to
work with local farmers, and will also serve as a channel for disseminating
information and knowledge.
One of the main constraints to develovment that many farmers face is iso-
lation, and a feeling that there is little they can do to change their lives.
· Some farmers will have spent all their lives struggling in difficult cir-
cumstances to provide for their families with little support or encourage-
ment. It is important for extension to work closely with farmers, helping
them to take the initiative and generally encouraging them to become
involved in extension activities. Equally important is to convince farmers
that they can do things for themselves, that they can make decisions and
that they have the ability to break out of their poverty.
The above are the four fundamental elements of the extension pro-
cess. It is not suggested that all extension activities must contain each of
these elements, nor that some are more important than o.thers. Clearly,
the extension approach will be determined by the particuJar cir-
cumstances. However, an overall extension service should be based on
13
these elements and should seek to promote them within the rural areas.
Sometimes the local farmers' problems will demand prompt information
and advice; on other occasions, more patient work of organization and
motivation may be required. An extension service must be able to
respond to these different demands.
Principles of extension
Extension works with rural people. Only the people themselves can make
decisions about the way they will farm or live and an extension
agent does not try to take these decisions for them. Rural people can and
do make wise decisions about their problems if they are given full infor-
mation including possible alternative solutions. By making decisions,
people gain self-confidence. Extension, therefore, presents facts, helps
people to solve problems and encourages farmers to make decisions.
People have more confidence in programmes and decisions which they
have made themselves than in those which are imposed upon them.
Extension services and agents have two sets of masters. On the one hand,
they are accountable to their senior officers, and to the government
departments that determine rural development policies. Agents are
expected to follow official policies and guidelines in their work.
On the other hand, extension is the servant of the rural people and
it has the responsibility to fulfil the needs of the people in its area. This
means that the rural poor should have a say in deciding how effective
extension actually is. One measure of effectiveness is to see how well
policies and plans have been carried out. An equally important measure
14
is the extent to which incomes and living standards of the rural people
have increased as a result of extension work.
Extension programmes, therefore, are based on people's needs, as
well as on technical and national economic needs. The extension agent's
task is to bring these needs together. For example, an important part of
government policy may be to increase the amount of food grown and sold
in the country. By choosing to encourage the mass of small farmers to
increase their output by improving their farming methods, national needs
and farmers' needs can be satisfied together.
When the problem is being defined. Being in regular contact with the farm-
ers, the extension agent can help research workers to understand the
farming problems of the area and the limitations under which farmers
The Farmer
EXTENSION
Bridges The Ga
1:11 H -
'1 -~-
have to work. It is even better if the agent can bring researchers into
direct contact with farmers in order to ensure that research recommenda-
tions are relevant to farmers' needs.
When recommendations are being tested in the field. A new farm practice
or crop variety might produce good results at a research station but not
do so well on a farmer's field. Trials on farmers' fields are an opportu-
nity to test research recommendations and provide feedback for research
staff.
The two-way link between research, extension and the farmer is fun-
damental to sound extension practice and should be a basic principle of
extension activity.
Within rural areas, extension services and agents should work closely
with the other organizations that provide essential services to farmers and
their families. Extension is only one aspect of the many economic, social
and political activities that seek to produce change for the better in rural
society. Extension, therefore, must be prepared to collaborate with all
other such organizations, both government and non-government, and to
take them into account when preparing to implement extension policies.
The kinds of organizations with which extension services should cooper-
ate include:
Political institutions and local political leaders whose active local sup-
port will help the extension agent, who may thereby be brought into
closer touch with local farmers.
Support organizations such as those which supply agricultural or other
inputs, credit facilities or marketing services. Such inputs must be
available in sufficient quantity, in the right place and at the right
time if they are to be of any use.
Health services, so that the extension agent is kept aware of local health
problems, particularly nuritional levels. Agricultural development
·and nutrition are closely related and the agent must keep closely in
touch with health programmes and projects and adapt his pro-
gramme to conform to local health requirements.
16
Local schools, so that the agent can have early access to the farmers of the
future, and begin to equip them with the knowledge and skills
required for farming.
Community development, whose objectives will be very similar to the
educational work of extension. Extension agents often work very
closely with community development workers to break down local
social and cultural barriers to change, and to encourage community
action programmes.
It is essential that the extension agent in the field know what his col-
leagues in other services and government departments are doing, and
that they understand what he is doing. Close cooperation not only avoids
duplication but provides opportunities for integrated farm programmes.
Extension recognizes that not all farmers in any one area will have the
same problems. Some will have more land than others and will be keen to
try out new ideas. Others, with fewer resources, will probably be more
cautious. Extension cannot offer a single "package" of advice, suitable to
all farmers. Different groups need to be identified and the agent will have
to develop programmes appropriate to each group.
In the past, much extension effort was concentrated on the pro-
gressive farmer who was expected to spread new ideas to others. It has
been seen, however, that this does not always work, because progressive
farmers often have different problems. They have more land, more edu-
cation and are usually more involved in the marketing of their produce.
Extension must, therefore, be aware of the existence of different
farming groups and plan its programmes accordingly. The smallest and
poorest farmers will need particular attention, as they may lack the basic
resources needed to become involved in extension activities. The point to
stress, therefore, is the existence of farmer groups with different
resources and skills in any one community, and the need.for extension to
respond to these groups accordingly.
It has been seen that the extension agent's task is an educational one. Farm-
ers and their families need to learn new skills, knowledge and practices in
order to improve their farming and other productive activities. As they do
17
so, they develop new attitudes toward farming and the new practices,
and to extension itself; this in turn influences their future behaviour.
Extension agents, however, must also be prepared to learn from far-
mers about the way they farm, and keep themselves up to date with rele-
vant developments in agricultural knowledge. In this educational work
of extension, the agent should be aware of a number of principles of
learning.
Practice is important when learning new skills. Here, members of a Young Farmers' Club in
Sisarma, India, gain practical experience in maintenance of a mechanical water pump
practise it. The extension agent can then correct any initial mistakes, and
the farmer will gain the confidence to use the new skill.
Awareness. A farmer learns of the existence of the idea but knows little
about it.
Interest. The farmer develops interest in the idea and seeks more informa-
tion about it, from either a friend or the extension agent.
Evaluation. How the idea affects the farmer must now be considered.
How will it be of benefit? What are the difficulties or disadvantages of this
new idea? The farmer may seek further information or go to a demonstra-
tion or meeting, and then decide whether or not to try out the new idea.
Trial. Very often, farmers decide to try the idea on a small scale. For
example, they may decide to put manure or fertilizer on a small part of
one field and compare the result with the rest of the field. To do this they
seek advice on how and when to apply fertilizer or manure.
Adoption. If the farmers are convinced by the trial, they accept the idea
fully and it becomes part of their customary way of farming.
Innovators. Innovators are farmers who are eager to accept new ideas.
Usually there are only a few people in this class in a farming community.
They are often farmers who, having spent some years outside the village,
feel that they can make their own decisions without worrying about the
opinions of others. In villages, innovators are often looked on with suspi-
cion and jealousy. Yet they are important to the success of an extension
programme since they can be persuaded to try new methods and thereby
create awareness of them in the community. However, the extension
agent should exercise tact and caution, and avoid overpraising inno-
vators in public or spending too much time with them. This could result
in rejection of the idea by the rest of the community because of jealousy
and suspicion of the innovator's motives in adopting new methods.
Early adopters. Farmers who are more cautious and want to see the idea
tried and proved under local conditions are known as early adopters.
They express early interest but must first be convinced of the direct
benefit of the idea by result demonstration. Usually this group of farmers
includes local leaders and others who are respected in the community.
The majority. If the rest of the farmers adopt a new idea, they will do so
more slowly and perhaps less completely. Many farmers will lack the
resources to adopt the new idea at all, while others may only do so slowly
and with caution. The majority who can and do adopt the idea are likely
to be more influenced by the opinions of local leaders and neighbours
than by the extension agent or the demonstrations he arranges.
Types of extension
Agricultural extension
Non-agricultural extension
Home
Economics
Population
Education
Rural extension covers many aspects of rural life
Farmers and their families are members of the society in which they live.
In any society there are strong pressures on its members to behave in cer-
tain ways. For the farmers, some of these pressures will come from
within. In all societies there are accepted ways of doing things and these
ways are directly related to the culture of the society. Farmers' attitudes
and desires are influenced by their society's culture. Ifit is customary in
a certain community for farmers to scatter seed and plough it into the soil,
people will grow up to believe that that is' the only correct way of planting.
Even if the benefits of other methods are explained to them, their
strongly held attitudes may make it difficult for to them change.
Yet not all of these pressures will come from the farmers' own
attitudes and beliefs; some will come from other people. Any society
expects its members to behave in certain ways. No one is seen by others
as an isolated individual. Each person is seen as occupying a position in
society, and each position carries expectations with it. In some com-
munities, an unmarried man is expected to work on his father's farm; only
when he marries will people expect him to start farming his own plot. A
successful farmer may be expected to give food, money and shelter to
relatives who have not been so successful, or to pay for his relatives' chil-
dren to go to school. If a person resists these expectations, those around
him will show their disapproval. Because most people like to feel accep-
tance and approval from those around them, they tend to behave in
accordance with such expectations.
An extension agent will be more effective if he understands the socia.l
and cultural background of the farmers with whom he works. He will then
be better able to offer advice that fits in with the culture of the society, and
he can use the structure and culture of the society to the benefit of his
work. It is useful, therefore, to examine the main features of societies and
cultures that are relevant to extension work.
Social structure
Social divisions
Age
People of the same age usually have similar interests and attitudes.
Young people tend to have different values, attitudes and aims in life
from those of older people. In many societies, elderly people are treated
with great respect, and their advice is listened to carefully. An extension
agent needs to learn the particular aims, expectations and restrictions of
different age groups in the society in which he works.
Sex
Religion
Social division of labour: men and women have different responsibilities on the farm
the extension agent should be aware of these. Some religions impose pat-
terns of behaviour which may affect extension. Certain times of day, par-
ticular days of the week or seasons of the year may be devoted to religious
ceremonies, which means that farmers are not available for farm work or
for extension activities.
Residence
People who live close to one another usually have some interests in com-
mon. Residents of a village will want facilities such as a school, clean
water and health services. They will want access to roads and a fair share
in government development programmes. These common interests can
unite the village, particularly if such interests are threatened. Where pos-
sible, extension agents should try to include in their programmes
activities which will unite the whole community in a common task. But
they should be aware that there may also be divisions within a village. For
example, residents of one part of the village may want a new water tap to
be put near their homes, while others will argue that it should be near
them.
Where there is tension between different parts of a community,
extension agents should as far as possible avoid making it worse and,
wherever possible, they should seek ways to reduce this tension. If an
26
Kinship
Large farmers and small farmers need different kinds of help from extension
traders will giv'e them better terms because they buy and sell in larger
quantities. Planners and political leaders often listen to them more read-
ily. Extension agents may also find it more attractive to work with the
larger farmers. But if smaller farmers are to be helped, extension agents
should be aware of these divisions and look for ways of supporting those
farmers who are keen to improve their farms but have not much political
or economic influence.
Groups
The broad social divisions that affect the attitudes, needs and interests of
the members of a society have been discussed. There are also, in all
societies, small groups of people who come together for a common pur-
pose or activity. Some of these groups may stay in existence for a long
time. A savings club, for instance, may continue to meet week after week
for many years. Although the members may change, the club will remain.
Other groups may be temporary, such as when several neighbours agree
to help with the farm work on each other's land.
These groups can be very useful for extension agents and can often
form the basis of extension groups. In the Republic of Korea, for exam-
ple, traditional women's savings groups have developed into Mothers'
Clubs, which are extremely influential in village development aCtivities.
These clubs raise large sums of money for community projects, contribute
labour for self-help projects, and are a channel for information on farm-
ing and popular education for rural women.
28
In all societies there are men and women who make decisions on behalf
of others, or who are respected by others, and therefore have some influ-
ence on their attitudes and behaviour. Such leaders can be very important
for the success of extension work.
People who hold recognized positions of authority are known as for-
mal leaders. They are usually easy to identify once the pattern of leader-
ship in the society is understood. Some inherit their position; others are
elected, and others are appointed by someone in higher authority.
Leadership may be shared by several people or be held by a single person.
In most social communities there are religious leaders, such as priests, as
well as secular leaders, such as elected councillors and village heads.
In any rural community there will be a number of formal leaders: for
example, religious leaders; the chairman of a cooperative; a traditional
headman supported by an advisory group of elders; heads of kinship
groups and families; a village development committee; local leaders of
political parties; or elected councillors. The exact pattern will vary from
one society to another' but the extension agent should learn what the role
of each leader is, and how much influence each has within the community.
A village headman, for example, may have the power to allocate land to
farmers who want to expand their holdings. In this situation, the exten-
sion agent will need the headman's support if he is to encourage farmers
to invest in new enterprises which require additional land.
Extension agents should try to work through formal leaders. They
must learn which person is the best to approach on a particular issue. This
may vary from place to place, even within an extension agent's area. A
traditional chief in one village may be more influential than an elected
councillor, while in a neighbouring village the opposite may be the case.
29
In many rural societies, the extension agent will have little success unless
he first gains the support of the traditional leaders. Only then will he be
able to win the trust and confidence of the members of the community.
Informal leaders are not so easy to identify, because they do not hold
any particular position of authority. They are individuals who are
respected by other people, not because they hold an official position but
because they have an attractive or forceful personality or because they
seem to know the best action to take in any situation. Whatever the
reason may be, other people are influenced by them. If informal leaders
in a community support a new idea, such as the planting of a village wood-
lot or the setting up of a cooperative, then others will be more ready to
support it. Extension agents can find out who these influential people are
by observing who speaks out at village meetings or by asking farmers who
they normally go to for advice.
An extension agent can be more effective if he works through the
existing strueture of a rural society and through its formal and informal
leaders. However, such an approach also has its limitations. Influential
leaders often come from the more privileged sections of the community.
They may simply keep the benefits of extension, and of agricultural credit
and inputs, to themselves and their friends. By working through such
leaders, extension may widen the gap in living standards between the dif-
ferent sections of society. The agent, therefore, should seek to work
through existing formal and informal leaders, but should ensure that this
approach does not leave some.farmers at a disadvantage.
Social expectations
It was stated earlier that a person's position will determine the way others
expect him or her to behave. These expectations are known as norms. It
is the norm in some societies, for example, for a married woman to eat her
meal only after her husband has finished eating. These norms are deeply
ingrained in people's attitudes and beliefs. They not only determine how
other people think an individual should behave; they determine what
behaviour the individual feels is correct. Extension agents should be sen-
sitive to these expectations and should not underestimate their influence
on people's behaviour, however irrational they may seem at first.
Culture
The culture of a society is the accepted way of doing things in that particu-
lar society. It is the way in which people live, their customs, traditions,
30
Farming systems
Before he can offer any advice to farmers, the extension agent must
understand their present farming system. What crops are grown and in
what sequence or combination? How important is each crop in the local
diet? How is land prepared for planting? When are the main farm opera-
tions carried out? Why do people farm in the way they do? Farming sys-
tems are complex, and change in one aspect may create problems in
others. In parts of Nepal, for example, millet is sometimes planted be-
tween maize plants. Thus, any change in maize spacing or subsequent
weeding practice will affect millet production. Similarly, in regions of
Nigeria, up to 12 crops may be grown together on a single plot.
31
Soil&Water
Tools for Farming
Liv~stock
Family Labour
Farming systems: change in one part of a complex system will affect other parts
32
Land tenure
Land tenure consists of the ways in which people obtain the right to pos-
sess and use land. Land-tenure systems vary from one society to another.
In some communities land is owned by a tribe or kinship group, and each
family has the right to use as much land as it needs to feed itself. It cannot
sell or rent that land to anyone else, and there may be restrictions on the
uses to which the land can be put. In other societies individuals can buy
land and do what they like with it.
The land-tenure system will affect people's ability and incentive to
take extension advice. In some countries, for example, land is farmed on
a share-cropping basis. The farmer gives a fixed proportion of everything
that is produced on the land to the landowner. The farmer will, therefore,
be unwilling to adopt new practices if most of the benefits will go to the
landowner. Elsewhere, a young farmer may want to plant a tree crop, but
is not allowed to do so by the leaders of the kinship group that owns the
land. Or perhaps a tenant would like to improve his farm by fencing it or
installing an irrigation pump but may decide no,t to, fearing that his land-
lord may take back the land without paying him any compensation for the
improvements.
Inheritance
The way in which land and other possessions pass from one generation to
the next also affects extension work. In some cultm;es, a man's posses-
sions are inherited not by his children but by his mother's brothers and
their children. This may reduce a farmer's incentive to develop the farm.
In many areas, it is normal practice for a man to divide his land between
his sons and daughters before he dies. Such a farmer will not want to do
anything to the land that will make it difficult for each portion to be
farmed separately later. In other rural societies, land is not inherited at
all. When farmers die, the land they farmed is taken back by their kinship
groups for reallocation. Extension agents should understand the local
inheritance rules, because they will affect the ability of young farmers to
acquire land, and the incentive of farmers to take their advice.
needs to know when these take place so that he can plan his activities
around them. He should also take care to behave in the appropriate way
on such occasions.
• The extension agent can learn from them what people in the commu-
nity are saying and thinking. An understanding of local proverbs, for
example, will give the agent an insight into people's knowledge of their
environment and their attitudes toward farming. Songs and dances often
express deeply held feelings which an extension agent should be aware of
when planning his programmes.
• The extension agent can make use of these traditional means of com-
munication to pass on information and ideas. Many extension services
now use drama, puppets and songs to convey new ideas.
Social structures and cultures are never completely static; they can and do
change. The speed at which change takes place depends to a large extent
on the contact people have with other cultures and new ideas, and on the
ability of individuals within the society to initiate and accept change.
Although the extension agent should respect and work through the exist-
ing culture and social structure, his task should be to help to speed up cul-
tural change in farming. This may in turn contribute to wider social
changes.
As ideas or methods are accepted within ~. society, they gradually
come to be regarded as customary. A hundred and fifty years ago, land
preparation in most of what is now Botswana was done with hoes. Farm-
ers saw ploughs being used in what is now South Africa and· introduced
them to their own farms, with the result that an ox-drawn plough is now
regarded as the normal equipment for land preparation and planting.
More recently, in parts of Pakistan and Egypt, tractors are becoming part
34
New equipment in
Cyprus is becoming
an accepted part of
the culture
Factors in change
Innovators
In every society, there are some individuals who are more ready than
others to accept new ways of life. These people have a certain influence,
but they can also often cause suspicion and jealousy among those who are
less eager to change. However, if the new ways are seen to benefit those
who have adopted them, the rest of the community may eventually come
to accept them. The innovator mcfy then be regarded without suspicion,
and even gain in influence. General attitudes toward cultural change can
then shift; new ideas may be welcomed as promising a better life instead
of being regarded as a threat to established ways of doing things.
Communication
Roads in Malawi bring shops, which introduce new goods and speed up cultural change
can.visit.otherpla.:~es.and:Jearrr=different:ways.of.doing·Jhings .. Traders
establish shops and the goods inthem may act as incentives for farmers to
produce.more in order to buy them. Crops can be marketed more easily
and farminginputsbrought into rural areas more. quickly and cheaply.
Air travel has also had important effects. In Papua New Guinea, air
services have enabled isolated mountain communities to market vegeta-
bles in 'towns and mining settlements that used to be inaccessible. The
aeroplane has also helped to open up previously inaccessible areas of the
Peruvian and Bolivian mountain regions. Villagers can now visit other
communities and receive visitors from all over the world.
Newspapers, radio and television can also bring rural people in
remote areas into contact with the outside world. People in rural com-
munities who have radio sets or who read newspapers are usually influen-
tial and can spread their knowledge or new ideas to their neighbours.
Education is another way of introducing people to the ideas, values and
way of life of other societies.
Population growth
two or three seasons and move on to fresh, fertile land. The old fields then
have a chance to recover during a :fallow period. Whole villages may
move as new land is cleared and prepared for farming but as population
grows, land becomes scarce. New methods of farming have to be
developed which allow fields to be cultivated year after year. Villages
· become penrtanem-settlements: More ·elaborate houses can then be built
because they do not have to be abandoned or moved every few years. As
land becomes more and more scarce, individuals or families may move to
other areas or to towns to look for work.
Economic factors
Although cultures and social structures are always changing, the process
is often slow. In the short term, there will be features of society and cul-
38
Many rural societies look upon new methods with indifference and some-
times with suspicion. Respect for elders often results in the attitude that
the old ways are best. Farmers not only fear the unknown and untried
but they also fear criticism for doing something different from other farm-
ers. In such situations, the motives of extension agents and others seeking
to promote change can often be misunderstood. Village people may think
that the extension agent is introducing changes to benefit himself. Such
attitudes explain the behaviour of farmers who seem to agree that a new
method is good but are not prepared to put it into practice.
Members of all societies believe that their way of life is best. "These new
methods of farming may be all right for some people but they are no good
for us." This attitude results in reluctance to try something new. "How
can it be better than our way?" and "We know what is best for us" are
reactions that extension agents may meet in opposition to suggestions for
change.
Farmers may be too proud to practise ways of farming that could result in
other farmers looking down on them. For example, they might be too
proud to carry cattle manure to the fields. Many young people leaving
school look down on farming, even though some successful farmers earn
more than most government employees and schoolteachers.
Relative values
Extension agents often emphasize the improved yield or cash return that
can be gained by adopting new farm practices. However, farmers may
value taste, appearance or some other factor more than the level of out-
put. They may also value their leisure time so highly that they are not pre-
pared to work longer hours on their farms. Certain improved varieties of
39
Cooking quality and taste may be more important to rural families than increases in output
Traditional ceremonies
Communication
Any act of communication, be it a speech at a public meeting, a written
report, a radio broadcast or a question from a farmer, includes four
important elements:
Any communicator must consider all four elements carefully, as they all
contribute to effectiveness. In considering each of these elements, the
questions that follow provide a useful check-list.
Receiver
~ A c==l~ Receiver
~ Source ~ "' Channel
~ :~---~:passes a through a toa : 1
bI I 1 who then :
I I : becomes a 1
I I I
I I I
Channel
- What will be the most effective way of sharing the information? (This
will depend upon the considerations outlined below.)
- What are the characteristics of the message? Does it need a visual pre-
sentation, as when crop pests are being described? Is it necessary to show
movement or detailed actions (in which case, film, video or a demonstra-
tion will be needed)? If a permanent, accurate record of detailed informa-
tion is required, as in farm records or fertilizer recommendations, the
information should be in written or printed form.
- What channels are available to the receivers? Do they see news-
papers? Can they read? Do many of them have radios?
- What are the receiver's expectations? A senior government official,
for example, is more likely to take notice of a written submission followed
by a personal visit.
Message
- What form should the message take? In other words, how can the
message be put into the words, pictures or symbols that the receiver will
understand and take notice of?
Source
Listening
Shared meanings
Language. Even if source and receiver speak the same language, local
variations or dialects may use similar words with different mean-
ings.
The agent may understand the message, but will the farmer?
45
Mass media are those channels of communication which can expose large
numbers of people to the same information at the same time. They
include media which convey information by sound (radio, audio cas-
settes); moving pictures (television, film, video); and print (posters,
newspapers, leaflets). The attraction of mass media to extension services
is the high speed and low cost with which information can be communi-
cated to people over a wide area. Although the cost of producing and
transmitting a radio programme may seem high, when that cost is divided
between the millions of people who may hear the programme, it is in fact
a very cheap way of providing information. The cost of an hour's radio
broadcast per farmer who listens can be less than one-hundredth of the
cost of an hour's contact with an extension agent.
However, mass media cannot do all the jobs of an extension agent.
They cannot offer personal advice and support, teach practical skills, or
answer questions immediately. Their low cost suggests that they should
be used for the tasks to which they are well suited. These iriclude the fol-
lowing:
Mass media messages are short-lived and the audience may pay
attention for only a short time, particularly where the content is educa-
tional or instructional. If too much information is included, much of it will
soon be forgotten. This means that information provided through mass
media should be:
3.
INFECTION
Radio
Listening to the radio in groups encourages discussion, increases attention and promotes :
understanding
to the radio. They often listen while they are doing something else, such
as eating, preparing food, or working in the field. For this reason, radio
is not a good medium for putting over long, complex items of informa-
tion. A popular format in many countries, therefore, is for short items of
farming news and information to be presented between musical records.
Radio drama, in which advice is given indirectly through a story or play,
is also popular. This can hold attention and interest for longer than a
. single voice giving a formal talk. Finally, there is little feedback from the
audience, except with a live broadcast where it is possible for listeners to
telephone in their questions or points of view directly to the programme
presenter.
Where there is only one national radio station, it may be difficult to
design programmes that meet particular local needs. Moreover, it may
not be possible to cater for variations in agricultural practices and recom-
mendations in different areas. However, the growth in recent years of
regional and local radio stations does make it possible for locally relevant
information to be broadcast, and for extension agents to become more
closely involved in making radio programmes. Local radio stations may
be willing to allow extension agents to have a regular weekly programme;
if so, they will usually offer some basic training in recording and broad-
casting skills.
Farm broadcasts will only be attractive to farmers if they are topical
and relevant to their farming problems. Extension agents can help to
50
Radio talks
• Decide on the purpose of the talk; in other words, what you want
people to know, learn or feel at the end of it.
• Attract attention in the first few seconds.
• Speak in everyday language, just as you would in a conversation, and
not as though you are giving a lecture.
• Repeat the main points carefully to help the listeners to understand and
remember.
• Give specific examples to illustrate your main points.
• Limit your talk to three minutes; the listeners will not concentrate on
one voice speaking on a single topic for much longer than that.
• Make the talk practical by suggesting action that the listeners might
take.
• Include a variety of topics and styles if you are given more than three
minutes. A short talk could be followed by an interview or some item of
farming news.
51
Interviews
• Discuss the topic, and the questions you intend to ask, with the inter-
viewee beforehand.
• Relax the interviewee with a chat before beginning to record the inter-
view.
• A void introducing questions or points that the interviewee is not
expecting.
• Use a conversational style; the interview should sound like an informal
discussion.
• Draw out the main points from the interviewee, and avoid speaking at
length yourself; listeners are interested in the interviewee rather than
you.
• Keep questions short; use questions beginning "Why"?, "What?",
"How?" to avoid simple one-word answers, such as "Yes" or "No".
Audio cassettes
Audio cassettes are more flexible to use than radio, but as a mass medium
they have their limitations. Cassette recorders are less common in rural
areas than radio and are thus less familiar to villagers as sources of infor-
mation. The cassette also has to be distributed physically, in contrast to
the broadcast signal which makes radio such an instant medium. How-
ever, agents involved in many projects have found audio cassettes to be a
useful extension tool, particularly where information is too specific to one
area for it to be broadcast by radio.
The advantages of cassettes over radio are (a) that the tape can be
stopped and replayed; (b) the listeners do not have to listen at a specific
time of day; and (c) the same tape can be used over and over again, with
new information being recorded and unwanted information being
removed.
Information can be recorded on cassettes in a studio, where many
copies can then be made for distribution, or it can be recorded on a blank
cassette in the field. The possibility of recording farm radio programmes
for playing back later has already been mentioned. Cassettes can also be
used for:
Cassette recorders are light and fairly robust: However, they should
be kept as free from dust as possible and the recording heads kept clean
by using a suitable cleaning fluid, such as white spirit.
Film
The main advantage of film as a mass medium for extension is that it is vis-
ual; the audience can see as well as hear the information it contains. It is
easier to hold an audience's attention when they have something to look
at. It also makes it possible to explain things that are difficult to describe
in words, for example, the colour and shape of an insect pest or the cor-
rect way to transplant seedlings. Moreover, by using close-up shots and
slow motion, action can be shown in far greater detail than it is to see pos-
sible watching a live demonstration. Scenes from different places and
times can be brought together in order to teach processes that cannot nor-
mally be seen directly. The causes of erosion, for example, can be
demonstrated dramatically by showing how a hilltop stripped of trees no
longer prevents rain-water running down the slope, creating gullies and
removing topsoil. Similarly, the benefits of regular weeding can be shown
by filming crops in two contrasting fields at different stages of growth.
Once a film has been made, many copies can be produced with the result
that thousands can then watch the film at the same time.
Films come in two formats: 16 mm and 8 mm. Most cinema and edu-
cational films are in the larger 16-mm format. Equipment and production
costs for 8-mm films are much lower, but because the picture quality is not
quite so good and the projected picture size is relatively small, 8 mm has
until recently been regarded as suitable for amateur domestic use only.
As equipment improves, however, more organizations are producing
training and educational films in 8-mm format. An 8-mm film cannot be
shown on a projector made for 16-mm films or vice versa. Whichever for-
mat of film is to be used, it is necessary to have a projector; a screen or a
white wall on which to project the film; a loudspeaker for the film's sound-
track (unless it has no soundtrack, in which case the extension agent may
need a microphone, amplifier and loudspeaker so that he can give his own
commentary); and a power source, which will either be mains electricity
or a generator. If a generator is used, it should be as far away as possible
from the projector and the audience so that its noise does not distract
them from the film.
Because films require this cumbersome equipment, it is not practical
for the extension agent to show them in villages unless he has motor trans-
53
A suitable
arrangement for
showing films or
slides: the audience
must be able to see
and hear clearly
Television, like film, combines vision with sound and like radio, it can
also be an instant medium, transmitting information directly to a mass
audience. Television signals can be broadcast from a land-based transmit-
ter, by satellite or through cables. However, in many countries, television
transmission and sets are still restricted to urban areas, and the potential
of television for rural extension will remain low until sets become more
widely available. Television sets are much more expensive to buy and
repair than radios, and programme production costs are also far higher.
Where television has been used for rural extension communication,
access and impact have been increased by group viewing followed by dis-
cuss10n.
Video combines most of the advantages of film and of audio cas-
settes. Using a video camera, picture and sound are recorded on a magnet-
ic tape and are then immediately available for viewing on a monitor or
55
television set. This enables the production team to re-record any material
that is not satisfactory. As with audio cassettes, unwanted information
can be removed and the tape reused.
As a mass medium, video has more to offer than film, since video
programmes can be made far more quickly in multiple copies, and the
lightweight video cassettes are relatively easy to distribute. As video
equipment - television monitors and video cassette recorders -
becomes more robust, it will be possible to use mobile units to show up-
to-date programmes, made within the country and even within the area,
to large numbers of rural families. The tape can be slowed down, wound
back to repeat a particular action, or held on a particular frame while the
extension agent explains a point. The same mobile units could carry port-
able video cameras to collect material for new programmes. The main
limitation to viewing is that only 20 to 30 people can satisfactorily watch
a video programme on a normal television set, while several hundred can
see a film projected on to a large screen.
Where video equipment is available - and it will become increas-
ingly so over the next few years - extension agents should refer to the
guidelines given above for using film and audio cassettes.
Printed media
Printed media can combine words, pictures and diagrams to convey accu-
rate and clear information. Their great advantage is that they can be
looked at for as long as the viewer wishes, and can be referred to again
and again. This makes them ideal as permanent reminders of extension
messages. However, they are only useful in areas where a reasonable
proportion of the population can read.
Printed media used in extension include posters, leaflets, circular let-
ters, newspapers and magazines.
Posters are useful for publicizing forthcoming events and for reinforcing
messages that farmers receive through other media. They should be
displayed in prominent places where a lot of people regularly pass
by. ·The most effective posters carry a simple message, catch
people's attention and are easy to interpret.
Leaflets can summarize the main points of a talk or demonstration, or
provide detailed information that would not be remembered simply
by hearing it, such as fertilizer application rates or names of seed
varieties.
Circular letters are used to publicize local extension activities, to give
timely information on local farm problems and to summarize results
of demonstrations so that the many farmers who cannot attend
them may still benefit ..
56
A poster in India carrying a simple message, and located beside the village water supply to
attract maximum attention
Newspapers are not widely available in rural areas. However, local lead-
ers often read newspapers, and a regular column on agricultural
topics is useful to create awareness of new ideas and to inform
people of what other groups or communities are doing.
Define the context. The agent should be clear about the purpose of the
material. Is it intended to create awareness and stimulate people to seek
more detailed information? Or to remind farmers of what they have
learned? Or to provide detailed technical information and serve as a
reference for future use? The agent also needs to know how the material
will be used by the audience. Will it be seen casually as people pass by a
notice-board? Will it be studied individually in the home, or discussed at
a group meeting?
Know the audience. Before planning the content, the agent needs infor-
mation about the particular audience: their knowledge and attitudes con-
cerning the subject-matter of the information, and their farming prac-
tices.
Structure the information. The agent can help farmers to understand and
remember the information by dividing the contents into sections that lead
logically from one to another, and by the use of headings and underlining
to bring out the main points.
A mobile extension exhibit in Kenya uses real objects and demonstrations to help people
visualize the physical benefits of increased milk consumption
59
are efficient and keen to communicate. -Displays are suitable for notice
boards inside and outside extension offices, at demonstration plots
(where the progress of the demonstration can be recorded in pictures),
and at agricultural shows. Although a good display can take quite a long
time to prepare, it will be seen by many people. With displays on perma-
nent notice-boards, it is important that the material be changed regularly
so that people develop the habit of looking there for up-to-date informa-
tion.
A display should stick to a single theme broken down into a small
number of messages. It should include. several pictures (preferably photo-
graphs) and diagrams which must be clearly labelled. If there is a lot of
printed text that is not broken up by pictures, the display will look dull
and fail to attract attention.
Campaigns
Traditional media
The term audio.;visual aid refers to anything that an extension agent uses
to help to convey the message when communicating with farmers. The
spoken word is the agent's main communication tool, but, whether the
agent is speaking to a large village meeting or discussing a problem in
a field with a group of farmers, its impact and effectiveness can be greatly
increased by the use of suitable audio-visual aids. When selected and used
properly, audio-visual aids can help in the following ways:
• The interest of the audience can be maintained if the agent varies the
mode of presentation. It is difficult to concentrate for long on what some-
one is saying; but if the agent refers to a wall {:hart, or illustrates a point
with some slides, his audience's attention can be maintained.
• When information is presented to more than one sense (sight and
touch, for example, as well as hearing), more is taken in and it is better
understood and remembered.
• Processes and concepts that are difficult to express in words alone can
be explained. The procedure for applying for a loan, for example, may
sound confusing, but a simple chart or diagram can make the process
clearer. Again, the life cycle of a crop pest can be explained by showing
a series of slides or drawings.
• The effects of decisions and actions that farmers might take can be
shown. Photographs of a cattle dip or a model of a cooperative store can
give farmers a clear idea of just what it is they might be considering.
• Pictures can have a more immediate impact on our emotions than
words. Photographs of a heavy crop, for example, are likely to arouse
interest more effectively than details of yields read out by an extension
agent.
places; but for an individual extension agent who uses it to increase the
impact of a talk, it is an audio-visual aid. Many of the principles of media
use discussed earlier also apply to audio-visual aids. The audio-visual
aids available to the extension agent can now be examined.
Objects
A real object is often the most effective aid. It enables the audience to
understand exactly what the extension agent is talking about. Equipment
and tools can be shown, samples of diseased plants and insect pests dis-
played and different seed varieties and fertilizers handled by farmers.
Where an object is too large to be shown, a model of it can sometimes
be used as a teaching aid. This applies particularly to buildings and other
fixed structures. The construction of a poultry shed, for example, or the
installation of a dip tank can be demonstrated by using a model, which
can be taken to pieces in front of the audience. ·
Photographs offer another substitute for real objects. They can be
passed around an audience or displayed by the agent. If a photograph is
Visual aids used in an Indian crop protection campaign include samples, equipment, posters
and charts
62
being taken to use as a visual aid, just the right amount of detail should be
included for the audience to recognize it. Too much detail confuses and
distracts, while too little prevents recognition. Photographs of people
doing things are more likely to interest the audience than photographs of
objects alone.
Chalkboards
Posters
Posters are useful for highlighting the main theme of a talk and wall charts
can be used to show complex processes. Although they are used mainly
in class-room teaching where they can be left on the wall for future refer-
ence, they can also be carried by the extension agent to help him to con-
vey ideas to farmers.
63
Flip charts
Flannelgraphs
Projected aids
Audio-visual aids are only effective if they are appropriate to the situa-
tion and are used properly by the agent. Unsuitable aids or ones that are
not used prop~rly can at best distract and at worst mislead the audience.
When selecting suitable audio-visual aids, the agent will be limited to
what is readily available or can be made. Within that range, some aids are
more suited to a particular objective than others. For example, if accurate
detail is needed, a photograph, slides qr a careful drawing may be more
appropriate. If, on the other hand, the agent simply wants to highlight the
structure of a talk or the main conclu_sions of a discussion, a blackboard
or newsprint will be suitabl~. The agent sho'uld also consider where the
aids will be us,ed: indoors or outdoors, with or without electricity, at a
large meeting or with a small group. All these factors will influence the
choice of audio-visual aids.
Proficiency in using audio-visual aids cannot be learned from a book;
it comes only with practice. The following principles may, however, be
useful, whatever audio-visual aids an extension agent may use.
Select the aids most in accordance with your objective, the composition
and size of the audience where the aids will be used.
Use the aids to reinforce your message. They are there for support, to
complement and supplement the spoken word, and should not be
expected to comm-i.;micate their contents without explanation. Refer
to them, explain them and ask questions about them.
66
Make sure that the audience will be able to see and hear clearly. Audio
cassettes that cannot be heard or lettering that is too small to be seen
can make the audience restless and inattentive.
Practise using the aids beforehand. Where projected aids are used, it is
important to be completely accustomed to the equipment. For
example, there are seven incorrect ways of loading a slide into a pro-
jector but only one correct way. ,
5@ Extension methods
In the previous chapter, the mass communication methods that the exten-
sion agent can employ in his work with farmers were reviewed. In this
chapter, two other extension methods that the agent can employ will be
examined. They are (a) the individual method, in which the agent deals
with farmers on a one-to-one basis; and (b) the group method, in which
the agent brings the farmers together in one form or another in order to
up_dertake his extension work. Each of these methods demands different
approaches and techniques on the part of the agent, and these will be
examined later.
The two methods are suited to different purposes. It is important for
the extension agent to consider the range of individual and group
methods at his disposal and to select the method appropriate to the situa-
tion. It is also important to remember the educational purpose of exten-
sion work, and to ensure that the method selected is used to promote the
. Group
Farm visits
Farm visits are the most common form of personal contact between the
agent and the farmer and often constitute over 50 percent of the agent's
extension activities. Because they take up so much of the agent's time, it
is important to be clear about the purpose of such visits and to plan them
carefully.
• familiarize the extension agent with the farmer and his family;
• enable him to give specific advice or information to the farmer;
69
• build up the agent's knowledge of the area, and of the kinds of prob-
lems which farmers face;
• permit him to explain a new recommended practice or follow up and
observe results to date;
• arouse general interest among the farmers and stimulate their involve-
ment in extension activities.
First, it is important to be very clear about the purpose of the visit. Before
a visit, the extension agent should review the file on the farm to be visited
70
Check-list
The agent must always remember the basic educational purpose of exten-
sion and his role in this process. The agent's role is not just one of trans-
mitting new knowledge or recommendations; he must also devote time
during visits to building up the farmer's confidence and interest. One
of the first points to think about when making a farm visit is how to start
a conversation. The first few minutes of contact are extremely important
for establishing a good relationship, particularly if it is the first meeting.
Methods of establishing rapport and of initiating conversation differ from
culture to culture. Small talk in order to break the ice is often an impor-
tant first step, and gives both sides a chance to relax and to get to know
each other a little before more serious matters are discussed. Time must
be spent in greeting the farmer and his family and an informal chat will
not be wasted. Similarly, local customs should be followed as regards
accepting hospitality. If visitors are expected to drink tea or coffee with
the host, then the agent should do so, while taking care not to acquire a
reputation of one who spends all his time drinking tea or coffee during vis-
its.
The agent should then choose the moment when more formal busi-
ness can be discussed. The choice of the discussion topic is also an impor-
71
Check-list
The purpose of any farm visit will be lost if its content and conclusion are
not recorded and no follow-up action taken. During the visit, the agent
72
will almost certainly make a series of notes and observations. On the first
available office day, these notes should be neatly transcribed on an indi-
vidual card kept at the extension office. After each visit, the agent should
record the date, the purpose, the conclusions or recommendations arising
from the visit, as well as any other additional information or observations
which he feels will be helpful. The agent must not store this information
in his head, since, if he is transferred, the incoming agent will be left with
a gap in information and will find it difficult to catch up with the situation.
Finally, the agent should arrange for any follow-up that may have
been agreed with the farmer. This could involve the sending of further
specialist information, or arranging for a specialist colleague to visit the
farmer concerned. Whatever the case, it is vitally important that the
agent follow up on any issues or problems that he was not able to deal with
in person. Failure to do so will disappoint the farmer and lessen his con-
fidence in the agent. It iSvery importantto maintain the confidence and
trust that can often take years to build up. He should also schedule his
next visit to the farmer in his work programme.
Check-list
Farm visits are perhaps the single most important aspect of the
agent's work in terms of establishing rapport with the farmers in his area
and of building the trust and confidence that are vital to the success of his
work. However, farm visits take up a lot of time and only a few farmers
can be reached. Farm visits are, therefore, a costly extension method and
for this reason they must be carefully thought out and planned. The visits
must make an impact and must lead to positive agricultural development
if they are to justify their cost. Finally, the agent should beware of visiting
some farmers repeatedly. This would not only severely limit the range of
his activities, but could also arouse the resentment of other farmers who
might feel excluded.
Office calls
Just as the extension agent visits the farmer, so he can expect that from
time to time the farmer will visit him at his office. Such a visit is often a
reflection of the interest which the agent may have aroused among the
local farmers. The more confidence local farmers have in the extension
agent, the more likely they are to visit him. Such office visits are less time-
73
consuming for the extension worker, and offer some of the advantages of
a farm visit. While no extension agent would wish to be overwhelmed by
such visits every day, he should encourage farmers to drop in if it is conve-
nient for them to make the exchange of visits two-way.
As with farm visits, office visits similarly have to be prepared.
Although the agent may not know when a farmer is likely to drop in, he
can at least arrange the extension office in such a way that the visitor feels
at ease and can understand the activities of the office. The arrangement
could include:
• ensuring that access to the extension office is adequately posted and the
agent's name displayed;
• having a notice-board clearly displayed upon which useful, up-to-date
information can be pinned;
• having one or two chairs where visitors can wait for appointments;
• displaying any bulletins, circulars or other written extension literature
that the visitor can read.
in order not to let it drift aimlessly on. The agent should always escort the
visitor out, and say goodbye. A note on these office visits should also be
added to the farmer's record card, and any follow-up implemented.
Letters
Telephone calls
Telephone calls and office visits serve a very similar purpose. Itis improb-
able that the extension worker will deal with many of the farmers in his
area (if at all) by telephone. If the telephone is used, however, it will not
be for long discussion but for passing on specific advice or information.
Whatever the reason, it is important for the agent to speak clearly, to note
the main points discussed and to enter them on the farmer's record.
Informal contacts
Informal contacts will occur continually during the agent's stay in a par-
ticular area. Market days, holiday celebrations or religious events will
75
bring him into contact with the farmers with whom he is working who will
inevitably talk about their problems. By attending such events, the agent
can become well acquainted with the area where he works and with the
farmers and their problems, and he will be able to pass on ideas and infor-
mation on an informal basis.
The extension agent should consider the use of the group approach in his
work with farmers. The use of groups in extension has become more com-
mon over the past decade, and indeed a number of new ideas have
emerged about how groups may be used most effectively. For example,
the widespread Small Farmer Development Programme (SFDP) in
Southeast Asia was based upon group methods and it has produced two
manuals which detail the approach of group extension work. Further-
more, in Latin America, work with extension groups in Brazil and Col-
ombia has shown the usefulness to extension of the formation of exten-
sion groups, and how these groups can support extension activity.
It has been seen that individual extension methods can be costly in both
terms of time and scarce extension resources, and that they reach only a
limited number of people. There is also the danger that too much
emphasis upon individuals can lead to undue concentration on progres-
sive farmers to the detriment of the poorer farmers.
Coverage
Learning environment
Action
The group method brings together farmers with similar problems. Often,
these problems demand concerted action (tackling the erosion of a hill-
side, for example), and such action can be taken more effectively by a
group rather than by an individual, who may be overwhelmed by the
enormity of certain problems.
77
Purpose
The agent should be aware of two main purposes in his work with groups.
First, he should try to develop the group, to encourage its members to
continue to meet and to establish the group on a permanenfbasis. In this
way, the agent will be developing a base from which group members can
continue their development efforts. Second, the agent should use the
group to transmit new ideas, information and knowledge that will assist
the farmers in their agricultural activities. While the second use of groups
is more common, it is important that the agent consider the initial
development of the group as an equally vital extension activity.
Size
The most suitable size for groups in rural extension is between 20 and 40
members. If the group is too large, it becomes unwieldy and many farm-
ers may feel lost and bewildered. Smaller groups allow closer contact,
a better chance of involvement and more opportunity for strengthening
bonds of friendship and support among members. One common deter-
minant of group size is geographical location: its membership will be
restricted to those living within a particular area.
Membership
Since the extension agent's job is to help farmers identify and tackle prob-
lems, it is better to have groups of farmers with common problems. If the
agent is working with a group made up of different types of farmers, rang-
ing, for example, from big landowners to small, tenant farmers, it may be
difficult for him to achieve a common purpose within the group. The
agent, therefore, should pay careful attention to group membership and
try to ensure that its members shaie a common interest and problems.
78
The agent should give considerable thought to his relationship with the
group. Ideally, he will want to encourage the group's formation and help
to strengthen it. If his extension work takes him to another area, it is
hoped that he will leave behind a structure that can function with a
minimum of extension support. The agent should try to avoid being
directly responsible for setting up the groups and should try to ensure that
they are based, where possible, upon existing social or cultural commun-
ity groups. In all of his activities with groups, the agent should beware of
the group becoming too dependent upon him and of creating a structure
that needs him for survival. Instead, the agent should strive to encourage
an element of independence in the group, by encouraging the group to
take the initiative in extension activities and to decide for itself in what
way the agent can be of assistance.
These four issues, then, should be borne in mind by the agent as he ·
pursues his work with extension groups. His main concern will be to do
his work well and to ensure that, through the group approach, more farm-
ers come into contact with new ideas and practices. In the long run, group
work might be even more productive and effective if he gave some
thought to the development of the group itself in his extension work.
Group meetings
Whatever the case, however, the agent should only call a meeting if
he thinks that it can be useful. If farmers feel that their time has been
wasted in coming to a meeting, they may refuse to come to subsequent
meetings and thus frustrate the agent's work. Once he decides to hold a
meeting, the agent should make careful preparations and check a number
of important arrangements which will be necessary to ensure a successful
meeting.
The basic purpose of the meeting should be agreed and to determine
this the agent should consult community or group leaders. Only then can
the agent and community leaders consider the content and the best
approach to the meeting. It may be useful to write down in a few words
what the purpose is, and then to see what are the important aspects to be
considered. If it is to be a meeting for providing information, the agent
must structure his material in a coherent form and decide in what se-
quence he is going to present it. If it is to be a general community meeting,
then, similarly, he must decide how he will structure the meeting and
introduce discussion on the issues he has in mind.
Depending upon the nature and purpose of the meeting, the agent must
decide the most appropriate form for the meeting and how it can best
be conducted. The agent should consider the appropriateness of the differ-
ent forms the meeting could take and, in consultation with community
members, decide accordingly. Ideally, the ingredients should be mixed to
suit the occasion. ·
Smaller meetings are more likely to meet the specific needs of those
who attend. When plans are to be made or decisions taken, a small
number of representatives will usually achieve more than a large gather-
ing of all community members. On other occasions, it will be important
for the meeting to be open to as many people as possible.
80
There are two important decisions to make regarding the time and loca-
tion. A date and time for.the meeting must be decided and announced.
The time should be convenient to all concerned and should avoid clashes
with other events or activities. The meeting-place should be well-known,
easy to get to and appropriate for the form of meeting. The meeting-place
should also be comfortable and have the facilities necessary for the meet-
ing. An extension agent would never hold a meeting at midday, on a very
hot day, in the open sun. Such a meeting could be disastrous, as well as
cause considerable discomfort.
After the above two issues have been considered, it may be useful for
the agent to draw up a list of other arrangements to be made in prepara-
tion for the meeting. Such a check-list could include:
Check-list
Even the most carefully prepared meeting can fail if it is not conducted in
the right manner. While the above arrangements are important, the way
the actual meeting proceeds will determine whether it will be a success or
not. The agent must be conscious that he is dealing with adults who do not
want to sit for hours listening to a speaker talk endlessly. The agent
should try to vary the agenda of the meeting: for example, a short talk,
accompanied by visual aids, followed by comments and questions.
Variety of content, as well as a chance for the farmers to participate,
will be important. In addition, the meeting must not go on too long. One-
and-a-half hours are probably sufficient for a group or community meet-
ing. It is better to have a highly productive, short meeting than one which
rambles on and loses effect.
The agent's role in the meeting should also respond to the cir-
cumstances. He should encourage the community to appoint a chairman
and should allow the chairman to conduct business. The agent's role
should basically be to inform and support, and he should not dominate
the meeting. Furthermore, the meeting should not resemble a class-room
82
with the agent as teacher and the farmers as pupils. The agent s4ould
make every effort to ensure that during the proceedings the community
members feel that it is their meeting and that they have a part to play.
As a guide to the proceedings of the meeting, the agent should keep
the following points in mind. He should start the meeting on time. Then
he should welcome community members and special guests, explain the
purpose of the meeting and the programme to be followed, and begin the
programme. Later, the agent should encourage questions and discussion,
and be prepared to summarize the main points and note important deci-
. sions. The meeting should be closed with thanks to all concerned.
As the most commonly used form of group extension method, the
group or community meeting will be most effective if carefully thought
out and planned. After each meeting, the agent should ma,ke a brief
record of the proceedings and the principal decisions taken. He should
also take any prompt follow-up action that has been decided.
Demonstrations
Farmers like to see how a new idea works, and also what effect it can have
on increasing their crop production. Both purposes can be achieved by
means of a farm demonstration. A good, practical demonstration is an
invaluable method in extension work. The demonstration is a particularly
powerful method to use with farmers who do not read easily. A demon-
stration will give such farmers the opportunity to observe, at first hand, the
differences between a recommended new crop practice and traditional
practices. The strength of the demonstration should lie in its simplicity
and its ability to present the farmers with concrete results.
There are two principal types of demonstration used by extension
agents - method demonstration and result demonstration.
Method demonstration
Result demonstration
Result demonstration: comparing rice grown with and without applications offertilizer in Jog-
jakarta Province, Indonesia
The agent should work out in some detail his answers to the above
questions before proceeding any further. It is very important that the
reasons for the demonstration be appropriate and clearly understood and
that there is a realistic expectation that the demonstration will be of
benefit to the farmers involved.
The more carefully the agent can prepare all the details of the demonstra-
tion, the more chance he will have of it running smoothly. The following
are the key areas of preparation.
• Consult the local people and seek their help and advice in the prepara-
tion of the demonstration.
• Prepare a detailed plan of the demonstration, the main issues to be
covered, the sequence of events, the resources needed and the contribu-
tions required from other people.
• Collect information and material available on the new idea or practice
to be demonstrated, and make sure that the topic is familiar and that
questions can be answered.
• Check that all the support material is ready (e.g., audio-visual aids,
implements).
• Select those farmers who will take part in the demonstration and brief
them on the outline of events.
• Ensure that the demonstration has been publicized and that the farm-
ers know exactly when and where it is to take place.
• Visit the demonstration site beforehand to make sure that all is in order
and that the site is appropriate.
During the demonstration, the agent's role should be to supervise but not
to dominate. He should actively support the farmer who may be assisting
in the demonstration, and encourage the others to participate as much as
they can. The agent should be keen to ensure that all those present benefit
from the demonstration. During the demonstration, therefore, the agent
should:
Welcome the participants, make them feel at ease and ensure that they
have all they require to benefit fully from the demonstration.
Explain the purpose of the demonstration, what it is hoped to achieve
and what the various stages are that will be followed. Distribute any
literature or other material which may have been prepared as a
guide for the participants.
87
Follow-up
It is important that any interest generated by, or decisions taken at, the
demonstration be followed up. Farmers will feel let down if the agent
does not do so. This follow-up will be useful for the agent as well.
Demonstrations can often result in good contacts with local farmers, and
the agent may be able to enlist their support for future activities. It is also
important that the agent reflect upon the demonstration and evaluate its
effectiveness. The agent should, therefore, write a report and prepare a
record of the demonstration, noting the names of the participants, the
effect achieved and personal impressions of the usefulness of the
demonstration.
Field days
It is probably better not to over organize the field day but to try to create
an atmosphere in which visiting farmers can inspect, inquire, question
and generally get to know what is available.
Although the agent will try to encourage an open and informal
atmosphere for the field day, there is still a considerable amount of prep-
aration needed to ensure that it runs well. The issues which the agent
must consider are very similar to those noted under demonstrations and
will not be repeated here. It may be useful, however, to bear a few addi-
tional points in mind.
A field day is a day out for farmers and is often a welcome relief from
their daily hard work. The agent should, therefore, provide an interesting
and well-presented exhibition,_ suitable refreshments and points of rest,
and generally create an atmosphere in which the farmers will feel at ease
and will be eager to know what is going on.
Tours
Farmers like to visit farms in other districts to see how they work, what
they grow and what kinds of problems the farmers there are facing. A
tour is a series of field demonstrations on different farms, or at different
centres, and can often attract a lot of interest from local farmers. The tour
should give local farmers a chance to see how other farmers cultivate their
land, and to exchange ideas and experiences with them. It is important,
therefore, that the area to be visited be in some way similar agriculturally
to that of the visiting farmers.
As with all other forms of extension, tours have to be well thought
out, planned, prepared and conducted. The five stages of determining the
objective, planning the content, preparing the arrangements, conducting
the tour and arranging for appropriate follow-up will be a guide to the
extension agent. However, it may be useful to add these points:
89
Visit the area first to become familiar with local conditions, the farms to
be visited, the route and road conditions.
Limit the tour to what is possible. It is better to do a short tour in which
visitors can have a good look at local farms than to arrange an
ambitious tour and be pushed for time. Don't tire the visitors out.
Encourage the host farmers to do all the explaining and to take charge of
the tour.
Arrange for food and drink during the tour.
Conclude the tour with a short summary of the main events and note any
comments or conclusions.
The whole extension process is d~pendent upon the extension agent, who
is the critical element in all extension activities. If the extension agent is
not able to respond to a given situation and function effectively, it does
not matter how imaginative the extension approach is or how impressive
the supply of inputs and resources for extension work. ·Indeed, the effec-
tiveness of the extension agent can often determine the success or failure
of an extension programme.
The extension agent has to work with people in a variety of different
ways. It is often an intimate relationship and one which demands much
tact and resourcefulness. The agent inevitably works with people whose
circumstances are different from his own. He is an educated, trained pro-
fessional working with farmers, many of whom have little formal educa-
tion and lead a way of life which may be quite different from his.
Extension agent
92
In his extension work, the agent basically intervenes in the life of the
farmers in a particular area. The extension agent is a change agent: he
intervenes to bring about change in order to help improve the lives of the
farmers and their families. This is not an easy task and a series of issues
arise in relation to this intervention. The basic role of the agent in bring-
ing change into a rural area and what areas of knowledge and personal
skills would be useful in performing this role both need to be considered
in this case.
There are no models of an agent's role which are applicable to all situa-
tions. An agent must consider each situation individually and adopt a po-
sition or role suitable to that situation.
Indeed, there-is a wide variety of views on the extension agent's role
in bringing about change among farmers. To illustrate this range of views,
a number of different statements on the agent's role, taken from exten-
sion practice from different parts of the world, can be examined.
However, a lot of the ideas about the agent's role can be assembled
into two very broad categories. The agent can be seen as having two main,
but different, areas of responsibility.
Knowledge/communication/innovation
The extension agent is responsible for providing the knowledge and infor-
mation that will enable a farmer to understand and make a decision about
a particular innovation, and then for communicating that knowledge to
the farmer. In this role, the agent is seen as a vehicle of knowledge, usu-
ally of a technical nature, and as a teacher who instructs farmers in the use
of this knowledge_. The ag~11t is formally trained for this position and is
provided with the technical knowledge and information which he must
then communicate to the farmers. In this role, the agent's work is usually
highly structured and based on existing government policies and pro-
grammes of rural development.
Educator/facilitator/catalyst
In the role of educator, facilitator or catalyst, which the agent may need
to perform in the course of his duties, the agent is associated less with the
knowledge/communication aspect and more with the farmers' personal
development. The agent is less concerned with specific programmes or
targets and more with helping the farmers to gain confidence, to organize
themselves and to begin to get involved in extension activities. The
agent's role is essentially to help support and actively encourage farmers
to develop their own initiatives and to begin to tackle their own problems.
This discussion can be summarized by listing the wide range of key
words used in extension throughout the world to describe the role of the
extension agent. The list is not intended to suggest that the agent must be
all of these things. It does, however, underline the agent's importance in
extension practice throughout the world, and the many-faceted interpre-
tation of this role:
The above list shows us the diversity of roles an agent can assume,
but he must always be aware that the most important thing is to study the
94
Two other important issues are the types of knowledge that an agent must
have, and the p€rsonal~kills required of him to do his job effectively.
Again, in extension practice throughout the world, there is considerable
diversity on these two issues, reflecting the variety of situations in which
agents work. How the knowledge and personal skills required by the
agent are influenced by the role th~ agent performs will be considered.
Knowledge
Four main areas of knowledge are important for the extension agent and
form the basis of extension training.
95
Policy. The agent should be familiar with the main legislation of govern-
ment or other institutional policies which affect the rural areas, develop-
ment programmes, credit programmes, and bureaucratic and administra-
tive procedures.
Personal skills
Analysis and diagnosis. The extension agent must be able to examine situ-
ations which confront him, recognize and understand the problems that
exist and propose courses of action.
96
Initiative. The extension agent may often have to work in isolation and
unsupervised. He must have the initiative and confidence to do so without
depending upon guidance and support from his superiors.
Personal qualities
The personal qualities required by a good extension worker are often dis-
cussed. These qualities are more difficult to define but, nevertheless, they
are qualities to look for when selecting extension agents. Some of the
qualities suggested are personal characteristics, and it is important to
assess whether an agent possesses them before appointing him to an
extension post. The personal qualities required in an extension. agent
include:
Extension agents
97
The above areas of knowledge, personal skills and qualities are not
exhaustive. They are not presented as a check-list against which to judge
the competence of an individual to do extension work, but to show the
very demanding nature of the work and to act as a guide when selecting
and training extension agents.
Public speaking
Public speaking is a skill which the agent will be called upon to practise
frequently. A principal task of the agent is communication; this inevitably
involves public speaking to explain a new idea, conduct a demonstration
or generally take part in a community discussion.
Speaking in public is a very useful and effective form of communica-
tion, if done competently. A public speech gives the extension agent an
opportunity to demonstrate his enthusiasm and technical knowledge.
Some people are natural public speakers and easily and competently
arrange their material and present it in a way which is both interesting and
intelligible to the audience. On the other hand, if an extension agent is
pootly prepared to give his speech and delivers it badly in an uncomfort-
able situation, then his efforts could be counterproductive.
Public speaking represents an important aspect of an extension
agent's work and one which he can use to great advantage if he prepares
well. Most importantly, a talk must flow well and give the impression of
being well-thought-out. There is nothing more off-putting for an audi-
ence than a speaker who fumbles his notes, forgets basic facts or talks too
long. A well-prepared and delivered extension talk can make a consider-
able impression upon farmers and build up confidence in the extension
agent.
While not all agents will have the same natural ability to speak pub-
licly, there is much that an agent can do to improve his performance.
98
~
~
~
~ -'----
~
0
Preparation
Content
Great care should be taken with the content of a talk, both in terms of the
words and expressions used and also in the logical sequence of what is to
be said. The subject of the talk should be introduced and a general outline
of the subject given. The main body of the talk should contain the key
points that the agent wishes to make. He should not put too much content
into a talk; a short, concise and well-thought-out talk will have far more
effect than a lengthy, rambling presentation.
It is also important to take some care in the use of words and expres-
sions and to adapt these, where possible, to the local context. Similarly,
it is important to avoid the use of over-complex technical language or jar-
gon, which might confuse the audience.
Delivery
This is the most critical part of public speaking and demands much care
and attention. Confidence is very important in delivery. If an agent knows
what he wants to say, prepares himself and says it clearly and effectively,
he will probably give a good talk. It is useful to develop a friendly·style
and to talk to or with an audience, and not at them. Under no cir-
cumstances should an agent underestimate the intelligence of farmers
and talk down to them.
During a talk, posture and body movement are important. Excessive
fidgeting, gesticulating or other theatrical gestures can often distract lis-
teners, although some gestures can be used effectively to emphasize a
particular point. The agent should continually observe the faces of his
audience and take note of signs of interest, boredom or disapproval. A
talk should be a two-way communication process in that the agent should
be sensitive to the effect he is producing and be prepared to react positively.
The agent should always ensure that his voice is loud and clear
enough for all those present to hear. He should try not to be nervous, and
should not apologize in advance for any shortcomings. A positive attitude
to the delivery of a talk is very important.
Finally, the talk should be relatively short, about 15-20 minutes. Farm-
ers will probably be unwilling to concentrate for longer than that, so the
content should be restricted to the time available.
Report writing
Ensure that all the information and data which will go into the report are
available and readily at hand.
Plan the report beforehand and decide upon its general content, format
and style of presentation.
Structure the content in a logical order, introducing the purpose of the
report, followed by the main substance, and then some concluding
remarks.
Keep it brief! At whatever level the agent is operating, a brief, concise
and well-structured report is far more useful and effective than a
lengthy, rambling one.
Check over the report, once written, and ensure that the final version is
clear, neat and easy to read.
An extension agent who can easily and quickly structure his report-
writing duties will get through them with much less bother than the disor-
ganized agent who prepares and writes his report as he goes along.
Report writing can be time-consuming, and the extension agent will want
to minimize the time spent on this bureaucratic responsibility.
101
A good extension agent will always try te> enlist the support of local farm-
ers in his extension work. In any extension organization, there will be
only a small number of trained, professional extension agents within any
one region, with responsibility for thousands of farming families. The so-
lution is for extension agents to seek out and enlist the support of local
people who have leadership qualities or influence within the area.
Local leaders can be of invaluable assistance to an extension agent in
a number of ways. They can assume responsibility for certain activities in
the agent's absence; help to organize local extension groups; assist
directly in the spread of new ideas and practices by demostrating them in
their fields; and generally serve as a point of contact between the agent
and the farmers. By enlisting their help, the extension agent will have a
chance to reach far more farmers than he could on his own. Working with
local leaders also builds closer ties with local farmers, and encourages farm-
ers' confidence in the extension service and their willingness to partici-
pate in extension activities.
Extension agents will work locally with both formal and informal leaders.
In Chapter 3, formal leaders were described as local people who hold
s9me kind of formal position within the bureaucratic and administrative
structure. Such leaders can include representatives or agents of govern-
ment ministries; traditional chiefs or headmen; teachers; religious lead-
ers; political officials; and officials of local institutions (e.g., coopera-
tives). The extension agent should try to interest such formal leaders in
his activities and discuss appropriate parts of his work with them. If he can
enlist their general support for his programme, then his extension
activities in the area will have a firm basis. Certainly the extension agent
should invite these formal leaders to extension meetings or other public
extension activities.
When carrying out his extension programme and activities in the
field, the extension agent will work with local informal leaders. Informal
leaders are farmers, prominent in their area, who show the qualities and
abilities which can be of use to an extension agent. Informal leaders will
exist in a rural area, and by careful inquiry and observation, the extension
agent should be able to identify them. Often, by talking to other farmers
and asking whom they see as the natural leaders in the area, the agent will
be able to identify the key farmers whose support will be invaluable in
promoting extension activities.
102
~
~ The Extension Agent and Local Leaders
~
~
~
0
Extension agents work closely with local leaders and involve them in extension activities
The above lists are not meant as check-lists but do indicate the
importance of selection, and the care that the agent must give to
103
determining the qualities he feels are important. He must then seek out
those farmers in his area who match the qualities.
The extension agent should take great care to develop the qualities men-
tioned above. His own relationship with local leaders will also be impor-
tant and he should always try to be available to support and encourage
their work. There are four main aspects of working with local leaders
which the agent should keep in mind.
Inform local leaders of extension activities and proposals for new pro-
grammes, and keep them supplied with extension literature.
Visit them as often as is necessary - enough to ensure that they are not
isolated or left on their own. Try to make the visits regular so that
.the leader can build them into his own work routine.
Train the local leaders in the aspects of extension activities with which
they may be unfamiliar; formal training sessions can be set up at
whiCh the leaders will learn about a new practice, how to run a
demonstration or how to hold a farmers' meeting.
Encourage local leaders to take the initiative and to begin to act with
some independence. The more they can become recognized and
effective, the better chance the extension agent will have of making
an impact in the area.
While working with local leaders can be of great benefit to the extension
service, there are a number of potential problems the agent should be
aware of. The agent should keep a watchful eye both on his own relation-
ship with the local leaders and also on the performance of the leaders at
field level. If the leaders are carefully selected and supervised, few
difficulties will arise; yet it would be wise for the extension agent to keep
a watch out for the following potential problems.
• If the agent spends too much time or concentrates a lot of effort on one
or more of the local leaders, then the issue of favouritism may arise.
104
• The local leaders function as contact farmers who are expected to pass
on the knowledge they have received from the agent. This flow of know-
ledge from the leader to the other farmers does not always work and the
agent should pay particular attention to seeing that it does. If the leader
is not functioning as a contact farmer, then the agent will need to investi-
gate the reasons why.
• Some local leaders may become overconfident and domineering, and
use their favoured position with the extension agent for their own indi-
vidual gain.
• Some local leaders may be less capable than others and may make mis-
takes and give wrong advice to their fellow farmers. The agent should
always ensure that a leader is well prepared before giving him responsibil-
ity for extension activities.
The above examples of working with local leaders are included, not
to suggest that they will always occur but to remind the extension agent
to keep a watchful eye on his use of local leaders and to be ready to
respond to such problems if they do arise.
The extension agent is the key element in the whole extension pro-
cess; without an agent in the field to guide, direct and supervise local
extension activities, there would be no extension service available to farm-
ers. The agent's role and relationship with the farmers are the _critical
aspects of this process and things cannot always be expected to· go
smoothly.
Extension experience in different parts of the world has stressed the
agent's central importance and has highlighted a number of features
which distinguish an effective extension agent from a less effective one.
An effective agent:
• spends time in developing the skills and attributes of the farmers them-
selves, and does not merely concentrate on extension projects;
• gets out to visit and meet farmers and does not become an office
bureaucrat;
• encourages local initiative and self-reliance and does not adopt a pater-
nalistic attitude toward farmers;
• plans for the long term development of his area, and does not only
seek quick results.
Again, the above are suggested as examples of issues that may arise
in any extension area. In practice, most extension agents are committed
people, working under difficult conditions, often with little support. The
work of an extension agent demands the particular qualities of dedica-
tion, humility and hard work, and extension services should ensure that
an agent is thoroughly prepared before he begins his extension activities.
7. The planning and evaluation
of extension programmes
Extension programmes
In previous chapters, the methods and skills that an extension agent uses
in his work with farmers and their families have been examined. It has
been stressed that all extension activity requires careful planning if it is to
be effective. No extension activity is planned in isolation; every demon-
stration, public meeting or film show is part of an overall extension pro-
gramme through which an extension agent and farmers work toward the
agricultural development of their area. In this chapter, a number of
important principles that should guide the agent in planning and evaluat-
ing extension programmes will be considered.
An extension programme is a written statement which contains the
fallowing four elements:
A written programme is also useful when staff changes bring a new agent
into the area. The new agent can use the programme to carry on from
where his predecessor finished, thereby ensuring continuity of activities.
All organizations involved in agricultural development have their
own procedures for planning, which can vary considerably. In particular,
they can differ in the extent to which plans are made at national or local
level. When considering the planning of extension programmes, two dif-
ferent forms can be distinguished.
Planning from below. Farmers, with their extension agents, make plans
for developing local agriculture on the basis of local needs and potential,
and then make requests for specific assistance from national and regional
authorities.
~ National
~ Programmes:
~
~ objectives
~ Extension
0 priorities Programme:
resources objectives
means of Extension
Activities
Local achievement
Situation: resources
Action Agricultural
work/plan by farmers Development
needs
· resources
potential
give these crops a high priority in his own programme. National pro-
grammes will also make funds and inputs available for particular kinds of
activity, which will influence the agent in his local planning decisions. But
agricultural improvement comes from the willing action of farmers as
they try to increase their own output and living standards. Local needs,
therefore, provide the motivation for agricultural development, and must
be taken into account in the planning of local extension programmes.
Even in cases where the agent's freedom of decision is limited by national
policy and directives, he must still prepare a programme that will enable
him to fulfil these directives within his area.
In planning his extension programme, the agent should, therefore,
balance national and local requirements. On the one hand, he should
take note of national objectives but on the other hand, he should also
work with local people so that the programme that emerges is theirs, and
reflects their needs and what they want to see happen in the area and on
their farms. This local involvement in planning is an important part of the
educational process of extension. It stimulates a close analysis of farming
problems and helps to build up motivation and self-confidence in using
local resources to tackle them.
In some countries, agents work with formal, local-level committees
when planning extension programmes. However this local involvement is
achieved, the agent must take care that those who are involved can really
represent the views and interests of all groups in the area. Committees
often contain a high proportion of the more progressive, larger-scale
farmers and are therefore inclined to promote programmes that fit the
interests of these particular groups.
The extension agent's programme must satisfy farmers' needs as well as official policy
108
This will then lead to a review of the situation and the planning of a
new programme, which should build on the achievements and learn from
the failures of the previous one.
The different stages of extension programme planning are interre-
lated and the planning does not always proceed neatly from one stage to
another. Provisional objectives, for example, may be set during the situa-
tion analysis stage, but they may later be altered as new facts are collected
and a deeper analysis leads to fuller understanding of the situation.
Objectives may have to be altered still further as unexpected difficulties
arise while the programme is being implemented. However, it is useful
for the agent to think of programme planning as involving these five
activities, each of which will be considered in more detail, as each can be
broken down into smaller steps.
Situation analysis
Collecting facts
There is a good deal of information that the agent will need about the
people in the area, their farming systems, natural resources and the
facilities available for local development. The agent will need informa-
tion in order to have a good understanding of the situation with which he
is dealing, for example, on social structure and local culture, farming sys-
tems, education and literacy levels, size of farms, local channels of com-
109
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'fl;
'j'lf;
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,if f /1
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. I
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Analysing facts
Facts do not speak for themselves. It is necessary to ask why things hap-
pen in the way they do. If farmers report that yields have declined in
recent years, the agent must look for other information that would
suggest an explanation. Is it because of low rainfall, declining soil fertil-
ity, or poor seed? The agent must also separate fact from opinion and
guesswork. He may obtain conflicting information from two different
sources, and must judge which is the more reliable.
It should now be possible to decide what the main problems facing farm-
ers in the area are, and what potential there is for agricultural improve-
ment. This is where the agent's technical knowledge becomes important.
Farmers may know what their problems are, but the agent can bring his
own perception of local problems based on a more scientific understand-
ing of farming. He will be able to explain problems more fully and relate
them to processes which farmers may not realize are in any way con-
nected. Because of his training and experience, he will also have more
suggestions to make about how the resources of the area could be used
more productively.
Throughout the situation analysis, the agent should avoid either,
relying totally on his own expertise when interpreting facts and identify-
ing problems, or leaving it entirely up to farmers to define local needs and
possibilities for change. It should be a joint effort, with agents and farm-
ers bringing their own experience and knowledge together to reach a
full understanding. If farmers are not fully involved in these activities, the
agent runs the risk of misinterpreting facts, wasting time in analysis and,
almost certainly, of failing to gain the full support of farmers for the pro-
gramme.
A full situation analysis is not needed every year. The basic facts
about the area and the people will, in most situations, not change very
much from year to year. However, the agent should review basic informa-
tion each year and decide which parts of it need to be updated.
Setting objectives
Once the existing situation has been analysed, decisions can be made
about the changes that should be brought about through an extension
programme. The key questions are how will local problems be solved and
how will local potential be developed. Solutions will require clear, realis-
tic objectives which should be set in three stages.
111
Finding solutions
Applied research is a valuable source of ideas for local extension programmes. These lettuce
farmers in Hamala, Bahrain, are being trained in new cultivation practices with extension
assistance
112
Selecting solutions
When selecting from among the range of solutions and possible improve-
ments, agent and farmers should ensure that proposed solutions are:
The agent may find that some problems will have no feasible or
acceptable solution that can be implemented locally within the period of
the extension programme. They may require legislation, action at other
levels and by other agencies, or more research. The agent should lessen
the effect of such problems where possible and act as a channel for putting
forward the case for changes to those who have the power to make them.
Stating objectives
Preferred solution c
Objective Raise yields by 30 percent on 20 percent of the farms in
the area in the first year.
the programme period. He will decide what knowledge and skills the farm-
ers will need; what additional technical information will be required from
specialists and research workers; what extension methods should be
used; and what resources and support he will need from his own and other
agencies.
The simplified example on page 113 shows how the agent can
develop an extension programme into a schedule of field-level activities.
When the planning is completed for other programme objectives,
the agent can compile all the plans into an overall annual work plan. He
may find that he cannot possibly do everything that all the individual
plans require, so some of the lqwer priority objectives may have to be
dropped, or scaled down. The annual work plan does not specify what the
·agent will be doing on each day during the year, but it should indicate
when each extension activity will begin and end, and what resources will
be needed for each.
Implementation
Evaluation
The agent will be constantly reviewing and evaluating his progress during
the year. At the end of the year, a more thorough evaluation should be
carried out in which the agent identifies how fully each objective has been
achieved, and the reasons for any lack of progress. This evaluation,
together with an up-dated situation analysis, provides the basis for plan-
ning the next year's programme.
Inputs. Were all the planned inputs available and, if not, why?
Levels of evaluation
The extension
agent's records help
to evaluate the
programme
gramme. The plan of work is then used as the basis for evaluation at the
end of the month. Did he do all that he planned? Did he encounter any
problems that he should take into account in the future? Is he on target
in terms of progress toward his annual extension programme objectives?
This procedure may be combined with a monthly meeting of agents in a
particular district at which progress and problems in each area are dis-
cussed.
Whatever the formal procedures in a particular organization, how-
ever, the agent should think of evaluation as an attitude of mind. He
should develop a readiness to ask what happened, why it happened and
how it could be done better in the future. In this way, he will continue to
learn and improve his extension work.
8@ Extension and special target groups
Rural extension is concerned with the whole farming family, and exten-
sion programmes should cater for the needs and interests of the different
members of the family. The present guide deals with extension in general
and the principles and approaches it suggests should be relevant to all
rural extension work. However, as was suggested in earlier chapters, dif-
ferent members of the family and of the community face their own par-
ticular obstacles and have their own special needs which should be taken
into account in extension programmes.
In this final chapter, three special groups will be examined briefly-.
women, rural youth and the landless. The kinds of problems and issues
which may arise with them both in agricultural and non-agricultural
extension work will be identified. It should be stressed again that the basic
content of the guide is relevant to extension work with all members of the
farming community. It is felt, however, that these three groups do pre-
sent particular problems for extension, which it would be useful to iden-
tify.
and skills they need to improve their ac-tivities. In fact, over the past
decade there has been an increasing concern to examine the role of
women in rural development, to understand the particular contribution
that women can and do make to this development, and to implement
programmes and projects designed to improve women's lives. Until
recently rural women have been neglected both in terms of our under-
standing of the particular kinds of problems that they face and also in
extension action directed toward their problems. Most extension agents
are men, and they perhaps lack a basic understanding of a woman's posi-
tion in rural society. This position can be understood better by first con-
sidering the three basic roles of rural women.
Status. Women are generally accorded a lower status than men and are
not encouraged or expected to play an active role in extension activities.
Poor rural women find it almost impossible to break out from their
ascribed status in order to have some voice in development.
When talking of rural youth, both boys and girls are intended.
Although there are no strict definitions, practice has shown that the boys
and girls referred to are between 12 and 18 years of age. Many countries
now have special extension efforts directed at these young people. Exam-
ples include the Village Polytechnics in Kenya, the Jamaican Youth
Corps and the Youth Voluntary Service in India. The spirit of these pro-
grammes is to "catch them while they are still young", to show concern for
the future of young people, and to try to get them started and established
in the rural area.
Rural youth presents the extension worker with a number of particu-
lar problems. The agent must first try to understand these problems and
how they affect young people's chances of self-improvement before
embarking upon any youth-oriented extension activities. Extension
experience with youth in different parts of the world has revealed the fol-
lowing kinds of common problems:
Training. Many young people will have been formally educated but still
lack the skills required to make a living in the rural areas. Often youth is
ill-prepared and ill-equipped for the demands of rural development.
Involvement. Often young people feel isolated and unable to get involved
in local rural development activities. They have no representation and no
means of making their voice heard.
Obviously an agent will not be able to solve all these types of prob-
lems immediately but he can at least determine to give youth extension
activities priority in his extension programme. He should make and main-
tain contact with the youth in his area, and he should quickly give some
thought to developing stimulating extension activities for them. These
activities often take the form of a club for young people, with specific pro-
jects particularly for their benefit.
Recreational. Not all the activities of the club should be serious. It should
also encourage recreational activities and social events, e.g., sports, day-
trips and even dances. In this way, the young people will enjoy the club,
and will see it as an important part of their leisure time.
The agent should consult people locally before he forms a club, and
ensure that it has the support of parents'. He should also find a meeting-
place and allocate some resources for its functioning. The agent's work
with a club is very similar to his work with farmers' groups, and similar
issues arise (see Chapter 5).
Two important aspects are the selection of a club leader and the
internal organization of the club. Often the club leader will be a local,
progressive farmer or even a teacher. The leader is not a member of the
club and his task is to help to guide and support the club's activities. The
leader (or leaders) will manage the club, help in the selection of projects
and generally work in an advisory role to the club members. As the club
develops, young people will need to be involved in its organization. This
could be in the form of a committee of members, with a chairman, treas-
urer and secretary as committee officials. It is important for the agent to
encourage the club to adopt an internal organization to provide some
structure for discussion and for project work.
Project work, either with the clubs or with rural youth in general, is the
means by which young people can learn to do something instead of just
listening to talks or lectures. The agent should encourage project
activities with young people and allocate part of his local budget for such
activities. These projects can be on an individual or a club basis, and
should not be too ambitious initially. In terms of the approach to proj-
ect work and to the steps involved in planning and implementation, the
agent can consult other sections of this guide (see particularly Chapters 1
and 7).
A useful way of beginning project work is to take young people on a
visit to a farmer, or to other agricultural projects, where they can see a
particular activity for themselves. Local farmers are often most willing to
collaborate with a group of keen club members. In addition, the agent
could arrange for talks by other local people, or demonstrations to ex-
128
In many areas where extension agents work, there will be farm families
who are landless. The term landless includes not only people who have no
land at all, but also families whose landholding is insufficient even for sub-
sistence farming. Both these types of family are obliged to sell their family
labour in order to make a living. It is not possible in this guide to give facts
and figures on landlessness worldwide. The evidence is, however, that
landlessness is quite common and increasing in many parts of the world,
and it presents extension with a particular set of problems.
So far in this guide when extension and farmers have been discussed,
and new technology, ideas and practices referred to, it has usually been
assumed that farmers have access to the means (such as land) to take
advantage of such innovations. Yet in many parts of the world a lot of
farm families do not have direct access to the means of using the agricul-
tural innovations suggested by the extension service. The question "What
is extension's responsibility toward these families" must, therefore, be
asked. These families present extension agents with an enormous chal-
lenge, which they can begin to confront if they try to understand the
characteristics of landless families.
129
• The landless lack al) economic base on which to build any kind of
future.
• They are dependent upon others for their livelihood, under conditions
over which they have little control.
• The landless family's livelihood is precarious.
• They have little contact with extension or other government services.
• They have no influence over the decisions that affect their family's
livelihood.
• Few organizations represent their interests.
lems of the landless. These efforts have been based on three main
activities:
COOMBS, P.H. &AHMED, M. Attacking rural poverty. World Bank, Johns Hopkins Univer-
1974 sity Press.
FOSTER, G. Traditional cultures and the impact of technological change. New York, Harper.
1962
LELE, U. The design of rural development. World Bank, Johns Hopkins University Press.
1979
LONG, N. An introduction to the sociology of rural development. London, Tavistock.
1977
WORLD BANK. The assault on world poverty: problems of rural development. Baltimore,
1975 Johns Hopkins University Press.
CROUCH, B.R. & CHAMALA, S. Extension education and rural development. Chichester,
1981 W. Sussex, Wiley. 2 vols.
JONES, G.E. & ROLLS, M.J. Progress in rural extension and community development.
1981 Chichester, W. Sussex, Wiley.
MAUNDER, A.H. Agricultural extension: a reference manual. Rome, PAO.
1972 '
SAVILE, A.H. Extension in rural communities. Oxford University Press.
1965
Extension practice
BATTEN, T.R. Non-directive approach to group and community work. Oxford University
1967 Press.
132
BENOR, D. & HARRISON, J.O. Agricultural extension: the training and visit system.
1977 Washington, World Bank.
DfAZ BORDENAVE, J.E. Communication and rural development. Paris, Unesco.
1977
FAO. Small farmers development manual. Rome. 2 vols.
1979
FuGLESANG, A. About understanding-ideas and observations on cross-cultural communica-
1982 tion. Uppsala, Sweden, Dag Hammarskjold Foundation.
HAVELO CK, R. G. Training for change agents. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, Institute
1973 of Social Research:
O'SULLIVAN-RYAN, J. & KAPLUN, M. (eds). Communication methods to promote grass-
1980 roots participation. Paris, Unesco.
STUART, M. & DUNN, A.M. Extension methods. In HAWKINS, M.S. Agricultural livestock
1982 extension. Canberra, Australian Universities International Development Pro-
gramme, Vol. 2.
Journals
Case-study 1
The slogan that misfired
mended, even though advice and demonstration on this matter have been
going on almost as long as on the other matters. Since this practice
reduces not only the yield but also the grade (and hence price and sale-
ability) of the crop, the ministry has embarked on a massive publicity cam-
paign including widespread use of posters and slogans.
One of the posters most favoured by the ministry, produced with the
assistance of the local university's art school, clearly shows a large
number of people eating from a very small communal bowl of food, all
looking rather hungry. The slogan reads: "If too many try to eat from one
bowl there is not enough for all-THIN YOUR CROP". Supplementary
posters, to reinforce the message, showing, for example, better growth of
plants in small clumps rather than in large ones, all carry the same slogan.
Large numbers of posters were printed and distributed to agricultural
offices, schools, village meeting-places and so on.
Although distributed in good time before the sowing season, the
posters seem to have had no effect on farmers' actions. Worse, many of
the recipients have not exhibited the posters, and other posters put up
have been torn down or even defaced at night. What can be the trouble?
There could be a number of explanations.
1. The people have never been appealed to before by posters and do not
understand their use or their message.
2. One of the faces depicted may resemble that of a respected notable.
3. The people are anti-government and see a political purpose in the
poster.
4. There may be a deeper reason, which could be found out by investiga-
tion.
Fifty percent of the men and 15 percent of the women of the area are
literate, and all the schoolchildren can read such a slogan. The people are
of Islamic religion, relatively prosperous and not known to be anti-gov-
ernment to any abnormal extent.
Their cash crop is cotton, but they also grow more than their own
requirements of grain and vegetables and keep a number of goats, sheep
and cattle on the available grazing land. Most cropping is under irrigation.
Crop residues and weeds are fed to animals.
Reasons come to mind why the cultivators may sow too heavily (e.g.,
if the soil forms a hard crust, a group of seedlings will break through more
easily than a single one), but the resistance here is more than passive and
· based on more than technical objections.
Why do you think the local people have been so little influenced by
the ministry's campaign, and what mistakes do you think were made?
How might the extension service tackle the situation?
135
Case-study 2
A11 agent's dilemma
Case..study 3
Credit: asset or liability
Case-study 4
A problem of cattle
The people of the Sinkar tribe, occupying large lowland plains in Africa,
are very independent and follow a nomadic way of life with their cattle.
Their food is milk, or blood and milk, augmented by grain grown by the
women at rainy-season camps. They occasionally eat meat at festivals.
They are not very interested in cloth and they barter their cattle as
exchange for wives and other needs. The result is that few cattle reach the
market. Veterinary and other services are provided at government
centres, and schools are also available to them. However, they do not
change their tribal way of life and cattle numbers have increased alarm-
ingly in recent years, so that pasture is seasonally scarce.
Background information
At the last census, tribal population was about 10 000 with 15 cattle per
head, or upward of 150 000 cattle. This may be a serious underestimate
as the tribe may be trying to evade cattle tax. The tribe's grazing area is
137
Case-study 5
Introducing a cooperative
Republic X lies somewhere in Southeast Asia. Most of the land is flat and
fairly densely settled, especially in the neighbourhood of the capital, and
yields paddy and other food and export crops. Although not wealthy, the
people are developing at a modest rate and appear to be generally happy.
138
However, there are also up-country hill areas, more thinly popu-
lated, inhabited by aboriginals of the country, whose language and cul-
ture are different from those of the rest of the country. Their areas have
not been subjected to change and have in fact been rather neglected by
government. Forty miles from the main lowland road and its trading
centres, a secondary track leads to a village where about 80-90 families
(about 600 people of all ages) live largely by subsistence farming. The vil-
lage enjoys no regular services but there are two village shops, owned by
merchants from outside, where they can sell their surplus produce and in
return buy tools and other small wants (cloth, salt and non-essentials) for
cash and seasonal credit.
An eminent overseas journalist has just visited the village and has
written that the people have many complaints. They say that they are all
in debt to the outside merchants, who overcharge them for their needs,
charge heavy interest for credit, and make over 300 percent profit on the
produce (mostly grain) which they buy from the farmers. Moreover, since
there is no school, the children and adults are illiterate and unable to keep
track of the merchants' records, so they fear that the merchants have been
cheating as well.
If true, this report could have political repercussions, so a meeting is
held at the provincial capital to consider what might be done in the vil-
lage, which is typical of so much of the province. At this meeting, the pro-
vincial cooperative officer suggests that a cooperative society might be set
up in the village on the following basis.
• A cooperative assistant, trained for such work, will be posted for six
months, free of charge, to the village to set up the society.
• A local committee will be set up to manage the society.
• A contribution to the initial working capital of one year's per caput
gross domestic product (currently about US $50) per registered member
will be made by the government in order to get things moving.
• After the initial six months, the assistant will be withdrawn but periodic
advice, assistance and audit supervision will be given by visiting members
of the provincial cooperative office.
What do you need to find out and what questions will you need to
ask?
Based on what you find out, what do you think your recommenda-
tion might be?
Case-study 6
The wells that failed
Viru is a rural community of about 2 000 people which lies in a fertile val-
ley of the same name on the coast, 483 km (300 miles) north of Lima, the
capital of Peru in South America. The Peruvian coast is bathed by the
cold Humboldt current which, among other things, deprives the coastal
region of rainfall and has created a narrow desert literally hundreds of
kilometres long. However, intensive agriculture has been practised in
Viru, and in many other villages in the same geographical situation, for
thousands of years, thanks to a small river which flows from the Andes
and enables irrigation to take place during the rainy season in the high-
lands (December to May). The water is often insufficient to irrigate all the
fields. Yields are frequently low and crops sometimes fail altogether.
With a more regular and abundant water supply, the farmers could har-
vest two crops a year rather than one.
Most of the farmers of Viru are too poor to undertake irrigation pro-
jects of their own, but through their political representatives they had
been soliciting the Peruvian government for aid for many years. Many
promises had been made but few had ever been fulfilled. Finally, the
Government decided to drill six wells in strategic parts of the valley. The
well-water was to be piped to the village for household needs and to
implement a sewage system, and also to augment the supply of water for
irrigation at those times when the river would be dry. A geological com-
mission surveyed the area and selected the sites most likely to yield water.
The first was on private land near the main irrigation ditch, but before
operations could start it was necessary to repair and widen a road to haul
the equipment to the drilling site. Although this was a community respon-
sibility under the terms of the agreement and people were available, few
offered to help. Indeed, the villagers hardly cooperated with the drilling
team at all. Few villagers visited the site and general comments were
highly critical of the whole operation. The technicians were smnewhat
surprised by such hostile attitudes and lack of interest, since the well was
not costing the village anything. One well was drilled with considerable
difficulty, but the project was abandoned in view of the lack of help and
unfavourable response from the people of Viru.
140
Background information
Radio, 48-51
Magnetic boards, 64 check-lists for recording pro-
Maize, 30, 39 grammes, 50, 51
Marketing, 15, 111 limitations, 48-49
Mass media, 45-59 local broadcasting, 49
advantages,45-46 programmeformat,50
characteristics, 45 radio forums, 50
pre-testing, 48 use by the agent, 50
principles of, 46-48 Record keeping, 71, 87, 109
producers of, 48 Religion, 24-25, 28, 123
use in extension, 45 Reluctance to change, 37-40
Meetings (see Groll)p meetings) Report writing, 100, 117
Models, 61 · Research, 11, 1_5, 111
Motivation, 12, 17, 117, 125, 130 Rural development, 2-8, 15-16
organizations, 15-16
principles, 7-8
Needs, 13-14, 17, 70, 107 problems, 5-6
Nepal, 30, 129 role of extension, 8
Newspapers, 56 strategies, 6-7
144
Whiteboards, 62
Tape recorders, 50, 51-52 Women, 24, 121-24
Target groups, 16, 77, 121-30 constraints faced by, 123
Taste of new crop varieties, 38-39 extension and, 24, 121-24
Telephone calls, 74 projects for, 124
Television, 54 role and responsibilities, 24, 121-22
Timing
of extension activities, 32-33, 37,
85, 114 Youth, 15-16, 17, 124-28
of farm operations, 31 clubs, 126-27
Tours, 88-89 project, 127-28