Transformer:

Transformer is a static device or stationary apparatus which transforms alternating

voltage from a lower level to a higher level or then from a higher level to a lower
level with corresponding decrease or increase in current is called transformer.
Transformer steps up or steps down the alternatin coltage without any change in
frequency and power. It means:
For a transformer input power = output power
And frequency of input voltage= frequency of output voltage
A transformer is also used for a variety of purposes in communication purposes e.g
voltage sampling current sampling, impedence transformation etc ) but in this
course we will consider only the power(system) transformer.
Construction of transformer:
A transformer basically consists of two (or perhaps more) windings wound around
a core. The core is made of ferromagnetic material (e.g iron) in order to ensure a
high calue of magnetic flux. The vertical portion of the core are reffered to as
limbs or legs, and the top and bottom portions as yokes.
The purpose of laminating a transformer core is to reduce eddy current loss. One of
the transformer windings is connected across AC source and is known as primary
or input winding and the second (or perhaps 3rd) transformer winding is connected
across load and is known as secondary or output winding.if there is a third winding
on the transformer , it is known ans tertiary winding.
Note: a ferromagnetic material posses a high permeability for a magnetic flux and
low hysteresis loss.
The primary and secondary windings are insulated from one another and also from
the core by means of a paper. Similarly the core kaminations are insulated from
one another by means of a thin layer of varnish or thin oxide layer.
 Fig:1 construction of transformer
*the dotted line inside core represents the mean path follosed by the flux.
Note that the primary and secondary windigs are not connected
directly/electrically. They are connected magnetically (i.e by means of common
magnetic flux passing through the core). Hence electrical energy is transferred
from primary to secondary winding magnetically bymeans of common magnetic
flux or in other words by mutual induction.

Fig: 2 symbol for a two winding transformer

Working principle of a transformer:
Transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s Law Of Electromagnetic
induction”. Such that:-
When an alternating coltage is applied to primary winding of a transformer it
produces an alternating magnetic flux through the core. This alternating magnetic
flux links both the primary ad secondary winding. Hence according Farday’s law
of electromagnetic induction it induces a emf E1 in the primary winding and E2 in
the secondary winding. E1 is the self induced emf where E2 is the mutually
induced emf.
Types of transformers (depending upon their use in power system):
Power transformer are given a variety of different names, depending upon their use
in power systems. For example:
1. Unit transformer
 2. Substation transformer
3. Distribution transformer

1. Unit transformer
A power transformer connected to the output of a alternator (AC generator) in a
power station and used to step its voltage up to transmission levels called a unit
transformer.
2. Substation transformer:
The transformer connected at the other end of the transmission line in a substation
and is used to steps the voltage down from transmission levels to distribution levels
(from 2.3 to 34.5 kV), is called a substation transformer.
3. distribution transformer:
a power transformer that takes the (primary) distribution voltage and steps it down
to the voltage suitable for consumers loads i.e 110V(US),230V(EUROPE) is called
a distribution transformer.

Generation
S/N Substation Distribution
(KV)
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
13.8 KV & 18 500 KV & 220 132 KV & 66
1. 11 KV 230 V
KV KV KV

Table.1 showing different voltage ranges at different levels

Types of transformers on the basis of their construction
1. core type transformers
2. shell type transformers

1. core type transformers

In the core type the windings are wound around two legs of a rectangular
magnetic core.
 2. shell type transformers
in the shell type the windings are wound around the center leg of a three-
legged core(in case of single phase transformers).

The shell type construction is preferred over core type construction because it
results in a relatively leakage flux.
Voltage ratio or transformation ratio of an ideal transformer:
Consider the situationa s shown in the Fig.1
V1= alternating voltage applied to primary winding or input voltage
V2= terminal voltage or secondary voltage or output voltage or load voltage
I1= primary current or input current
I2= secondary current or output current or load current
ɸ = common magnetic flux setup through the core
N1, N2 = number of primary and secondary turns respectively

Now since the full load efficiency of a transformer is nearly 100% (practically
97-98%) we can write as:
Primary input power = secondary output power
P1=P2
V1cos ɸ1=V2cos ɸ2
But at full load primary power factor = secondary power factor
V1I1=V2I2

𝑉2 𝐼1
 = 2
𝑉1 𝐼2
Similarly at full load:
Primary ampere turns = secondary ampere turns
N1I1=N2I2

𝑁2 𝐼1
 = 3
𝑁1 𝐼2
Combining 2 and 3 we get

𝑉2 𝑁2 𝐼1
= = 4
𝑉1 𝑁1 𝐼2
This equation is called the transformation ratio of a transformer.
If N2>N1 then transformer is called step up transformer
If N1>N2 the transformer is called a step down transformer

EMF EQUATION OF TRANSFORMER:

The flux ɸ set up through the core by the primary current I1 is also alternating and
sinusoidal in nature. Let ɸm be the max calue of flux in webers and frequency be f
hertz. As shown below:

When the flux ɸ changes from its zero calue to +ɸm in one uarter of a cycle
then:
ɸm−0 ɸm
Average rate of change of flux= 𝑇 = 1
−0 4𝑓
4

= 4𝑓ɸm wb/sec
𝑑ɸ
Average rate of change of flux per turn= 𝑁 = 4f ɸm volts (as N=1)
𝑑𝑡
Since the flux ɸ varies sinusoidally (as it is produced by a sinusoidally carrying
current I1) and for sinusoidally varying quantity we have
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Form factor = =1.11
average value

 RMS value = 1.11* average value

Hence RMS value of induced EMF per turn= 1.11*4f ɸm volts
= 4.44 f ɸm volts
Hence
RMS value of EMF induced in N1 turns of primary winding (E1) =4.44 f ɸm volts
RMS value of EMF induced in N2 turns of secondary winding (E2)=4.44 f ɸm volts

ALTERNATE METHOD OF DERIVATION:

Let ɸi= instantaneous value of flux in Weber
= ɸm sin 𝜃
= ɸm sin𝜔𝑡
= ɸm sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡
𝑑ɸ 𝑑
Average rate of change of flux per turn= 𝑁 = (ɸm sin 2πft)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ɸ
Average value of emf induced per turn= = 2πfɸm cos⁡2πft
𝑑𝑡

= 2πfɸm sin 2πft

Where 2πfɸm is the maximum value of emf induced per turn
1
RMS value of emf induced per turn = × max 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
√2
= 0.707 × 2πfɸm
= 4.44fɸmvolts
RMS value of emf induced in N1 turns of primary winding=4.44 N1fɸmvolts
RMS value of emf induced in N2 turns of primary windings=4.44 N2fɸmvolts
Where f is the frequeny of “ɸ”( which equals the V1 and I1)
Example 35.1 (Hughes book---- page# 674)
Note:
For and ideal transformer( having no losses i.e. no copper losses, no core losses)
we can use:
V1≅E1
V2≅E2
Whereas for practical transformer:
V1=I1Z1+E1
E2= I2Z2 + V2
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD :

An ideal transformer is a transformer which has no losses where no losses means:

1. No copper or I2R losses
Here the primary and secondary winding of an ideal transformer are
assumed to have no ohmic resistnce i.e R1,R2=0
2. No core losses
Here no eddy current losses and no hysteresis losses
In other words an ideal transformer cinsists of two purely inductive coils wound on
a loss free core. It may however be noted that it is impossible to realize such a
transformer in practice yet for convenience we will start with such a transformer
and step by step approach to an actual transformer.
In other words an ideal transformer is put on no load (i.e secondary winding is
open) and primary winding is fed with alternating voltage V1 the primary draws a
magnetizing current I only.this current is very small im magnitude and lags V1 by
exactly 900 ( beause the primary winding is purely inductive )
The function of this magnetizing urrent is just magnetise the core i.e. too set up and
alternating magnetizing flux through the core.
Note(page 685 Hughes book)
The exact phase relationship of V1 V2 E1 and E2 with ɸ depends upon the
polarities of primary and secondary voltages (i.e. V1 and V2 of the transformer).
However in practice the normal procedure is that V1 and V2 are in phase with each
other whereas E1and E2 are in phase with one another but in phase opposition with
V1 and V2 respectively. Only a few transformers depart from this arrangement.
However if V1 and V2 were drawn in phase with one another, the diagram would
become cluttered and therefore for convenience it is useful to show E1 and E2 in
phase opposition with one another thus ensuring that V2 appears in opposite
quadrant if the phasor diagram from the V1. This just gives the appearance that the
voltages V1 and V2 are in anti phase but it should be remembered that the of
drawing (V1 and V2) in antiphase is just for convenience only and they are in fact
in phase,
 E1 is the counter or back Emf of primary winding
 E2 is the counter or back Emf of secondary winding
For drawing the phasor diagram of a transformer the core flux “ɸ” is taken as
reference phasor because it is common to both primary and secondary windings.
The relative to this reference phasor ɸ other phasors are drawn.
Phasor diagram of a transformer on No-Load With Losses But No Magnetic
Leakage.
When an actual transformer is put on no load it draws a very small amount of
primary current Io. And os called no load primary current. This no load primary
current Io has two rectangular components i.e.
 One is Im which is in phase with the core flux ɸ but in quadrature with V1
and is known as the exciting or magnetizing or reactive component of Io. Its
function is just to manetize the core (i.e. to produce and alternating magnetic
flux ɸ through the core).
Mathematically Im=Io sin ɸo
 the other component is IL which is in phase with V1 and is known
is active or the power loss component of Io. Its function is to cause
iron/core losses (i.e. eddy current loss and hysteresis loss) in the
transformer core plus a negligible amount of copper loss in the
primary winding (only the secondary winding being open)
mathematically IL= Io cos ɸo