2.

L INEAR M APS ON E UCLIDEAN S PACES

AND M ATRICES

Definition
A map f : Rn → Rm is said to be a linear if

f (αx + βy) = αf (x) + βf (y) ∀ α, β ∈ R, x, y ∈ Rn .

Examples:
Projection map πi : Rn → R; inclusion map
Rn → Rn+t ; multiplication by a fixed scalar
dot product by a fixed vector in Rn gives a linear map
from Rn to R; what about the converse?
f : Rn → Rm linear ⇔ fi linear for each i = 1, . . . , m.
Distance travelled is a linear function of time when
velocity is constant. So is the voltage as a function of
resistance when the current is constant.
|x|, x n (n > 1), sin x, etc. are not linear
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Exercise:
(i) Show that if f : Rn → Rm is a linear map then
k
X k
X
f( αi xi ) = αi f (xi ) ∀ xi ∈ Rn and αi ∈ R.
i=1 i=1

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Exercise:
(i) Show that if f : Rn → Rm is a linear map then
k
X k
X
f( αi xi ) = αi f (xi ) ∀ xi ∈ Rn and αi ∈ R.
i=1 i=1

(ii) Show that the projection on a line L passing through

the origin defines a linear map of R2 to R2 and its
image is equal to L.

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Exercise:
(i) Show that if f : Rn → Rm is a linear map then
k
X k
X
f( αi xi ) = αi f (xi ) ∀ xi ∈ Rn and αi ∈ R.
i=1 i=1

(ii) Show that the projection on a line L passing through

the origin defines a linear map of R2 to R2 and its
image is equal to L.
(iii) Show that rotation through a fixed angle θ is a linear
map from R2 → R2 .

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Exercise:
(i) Show that if f : Rn → Rm is a linear map then
k
X k
X
f( αi xi ) = αi f (xi ) ∀ xi ∈ Rn and αi ∈ R.
i=1 i=1

(ii) Show that the projection on a line L passing through

the origin defines a linear map of R2 to R2 and its
image is equal to L.
(iii) Show that rotation through a fixed angle θ is a linear
map from R2 → R2 .
(iv) By a rigid motion of Rn we mean a map f : Rn → Rn
such that
d(f (x), f (y)) = d(x, y) ∀ x, y ∈ Rn .

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Exercise:
(i) Show that if f : Rn → Rm is a linear map then
k
X k
X
f( αi xi ) = αi f (xi ) ∀ xi ∈ Rn and αi ∈ R.
i=1 i=1

(ii) Show that the projection on a line L passing through

the origin defines a linear map of R2 to R2 and its
image is equal to L.
(iii) Show that rotation through a fixed angle θ is a linear
map from R2 → R2 .
(iv) By a rigid motion of Rn we mean a map f : Rn → Rn
such that
d(f (x), f (y)) = d(x, y) ∀ x, y ∈ Rn .
Show that a rigid motion of R3 which fixes the origin
is a linear map.
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Structure of linear maps
L(n, m) = Set of all linear maps from Rn to Rm

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Structure of linear maps
L(n, m) = Set of all linear maps from Rn to Rm
For f , g ∈ L(n, m) define αf and f + g by
(αf )(x) = αf (x); (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

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Structure of linear maps
L(n, m) = Set of all linear maps from Rn to Rm
For f , g ∈ L(n, m) define αf and f + g by
(αf )(x) = αf (x); (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
If f ∈ L(n, m) and g ∈ L(p, n), then f ◦ g ∈ L(p, m)

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Structure of linear maps
L(n, m) = Set of all linear maps from Rn to Rm
For f , g ∈ L(n, m) define αf and f + g by
(αf )(x) = αf (x); (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
If f ∈ L(n, m) and g ∈ L(p, n), then f ◦ g ∈ L(p, m)
If f , g ∈ L(n, 1), then define fg : Rn → R by
(fg)(x) = f (x)g(x).
Does fg ∈ L(n, 1)?

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Structure of linear maps
L(n, m) = Set of all linear maps from Rn to Rm
For f , g ∈ L(n, m) define αf and f + g by
(αf )(x) = αf (x); (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
If f ∈ L(n, m) and g ∈ L(p, n), then f ◦ g ∈ L(p, m)
If f , g ∈ L(n, 1), then define fg : Rn → R by
(fg)(x) = f (x)g(x).
Does fg ∈ L(n, 1)?
Let ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0) (standard basis
elements). If x ∈ Rn , then x = ni=1 xi ei .
P

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Structure of linear maps
L(n, m) = Set of all linear maps from Rn to Rm
For f , g ∈ L(n, m) define αf and f + g by
(αf )(x) = αf (x); (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
If f ∈ L(n, m) and g ∈ L(p, n), then f ◦ g ∈ L(p, m)
If f , g ∈ L(n, 1), then define fg : Rn → R by
(fg)(x) = f (x)g(x).
Does fg ∈ L(n, 1)?
Let ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0) (standard basis
elements). If x ∈ Rn , then x = ni=1 xi ei .
P

If f ∈ L(n, m), then

X
f (x) = xi f (ei )
i

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Conversely, if given v1 , . . . , vn ∈ Rm , define a (unique)
linear map f by assigning f (ei ) = vi

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Conversely, if given v1 , . . . , vn ∈ Rm , define a (unique)
linear map f by assigning f (ei ) = vi
Examples:

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 Conversely, if given v1 , . . . , vn ∈ Rm , define a (unique)
linear map f by assigning f (ei ) = vi
Examples:
1. Given a f ∈ L(n, 1), if we put u = (f (e1 ), . . . , f (en )),
n
then for each x ∈ RP we can write
f (x) = i xi f (ei ) = u.x

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 Conversely, if given v1 , . . . , vn ∈ Rm , define a (unique)
linear map f by assigning f (ei ) = vi
Examples:
1. Given a f ∈ L(n, 1), if we put u = (f (e1 ), . . . , f (en )),
n
then for each x ∈ RP we can write
f (x) = i xi f (ei ) = u.x
2. Consider a system of linear equations

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = b2
... ...
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn = bm

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 Conversely, if given v1 , . . . , vn ∈ Rm , define a (unique)
linear map f by assigning f (ei ) = vi
Examples:
1. Given a f ∈ L(n, 1), if we put u = (f (e1 ), . . . , f (en )),
n
then for each x ∈ RP we can write
f (x) = i xi f (ei ) = u.x
2. Consider a system of linear equations

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = b2
... ...
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn = bm

The set of all solutions of the j th equation is a

hyperplane Pj in Rn . Solving the system means
finding the intersection P1 ∩ . . . ∩ Pm of these
hyperplanes.
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On the other hand the LHS of each of these
equations can be thought of as a linear map
Ti : Rn → R, which associates to (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn the
scalar ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + . . . + ain xn in R.

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On the other hand the LHS of each of these
equations can be thought of as a linear map
Ti : Rn → R, which associates to (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn the
scalar ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + . . . + ain xn in R. Together, they
define a linear map
T ∈ L(Rn , Rm ) given by T = (T1 , . . . , Tm ).

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On the other hand the LHS of each of these
equations can be thought of as a linear map
Ti : Rn → R, which associates to (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn the
scalar ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + . . . + ain xn in R. Together, they
define a linear map
T ∈ L(Rn , Rm ) given by T = (T1 , . . . , Tm ).
Solving the system of linear equations corresponds
to determining x ∈ Rn such that T (x) = b,
where b = (b1 , . . . , bm )
Henceforth, we will think of Rn as the collection of
column vectors
 
x1
 x2 
 ..  = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )T
 
 . 
xn
Here the superscript T stands for transpose.
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Matrix representation of a linear map
As before, let ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)T , with 1 in the
i th place and 0 elsewhere , be standard basis vectors.

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Matrix representation of a linear map
As before, let ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)T , with 1 in the
i th place and 0 elsewhere , be standard basis vectors.
Given linear map f : Rn → Rm we get n column
vectors (of size m) viz., f (e1 ), . . . , f (en ). Place them
side by side:

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Matrix representation of a linear map
As before, let ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)T , with 1 in the
i th place and 0 elsewhere , be standard basis vectors.
Given linear map f : Rn → Rm we get n column
vectors (of size m) viz., f (e1 ), . . . , f (en ). Place them
side by side:
Thus if f (ej ) = (f1j , f2j , . . . , fmj )T , then we obtain
 
f11 f12 . . . f1n
 f21 f22 . . . f2n 
Mf =  .. ..  .
 
 . . 
fm1 fm2 . . . fmn

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Matrix representation of a linear map
As before, let ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)T , with 1 in the
i th place and 0 elsewhere , be standard basis vectors.
Given linear map f : Rn → Rm we get n column
vectors (of size m) viz., f (e1 ), . . . , f (en ). Place them
side by side:
Thus if f (ej ) = (f1j , f2j , . . . , fmj )T , then we obtain
 
f11 f12 . . . f1n
 f21 f22 . . . f2n 
Mf =  .. ..  .
 
 . . 
fm1 fm2 . . . fmn

This array is called a matrix with m rows and n

columns.
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Matrix representation of a linear map
As before, let ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)T , with 1 in the
i th place and 0 elsewhere , be standard basis vectors.
Given linear map f : Rn → Rm we get n column
vectors (of size m) viz., f (e1 ), . . . , f (en ). Place them
side by side:
Thus if f (ej ) = (f1j , f2j , . . . , fmj )T , then we obtain
 
f11 f12 . . . f1n
 f21 f22 . . . f2n 
Mf =  .. ..  .
 
 . . 
fm1 fm2 . . . fmn

This array is called a matrix with m rows and n

columns. We say matrix Mf is of size m × n.
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Notation: Mf = ((fij ))

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Notation: Mf = ((fij ))
Matrices are equal if their sizes are the same and the
entries are the same.

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Notation: Mf = ((fij ))
Matrices are equal if their sizes are the same and the
entries are the same.
If m = 1 we get row matrices; if n = 1 we get
column matrices

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Notation: Mf = ((fij ))
Matrices are equal if their sizes are the same and the
entries are the same.
If m = 1 we get row matrices; if n = 1 we get
column matrices
M : L(n, m) → Mm,n
f 7→ Mf
is one-one and called matrix representation of linear
maps

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Notation: Mf = ((fij ))
Matrices are equal if their sizes are the same and the
entries are the same.
If m = 1 we get row matrices; if n = 1 we get
column matrices
M : L(n, m) → Mm,n
f 7→ Mf
is one-one and called matrix representation of linear
maps

Mf +g = Mf + Mg ; Mαf = αMf

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Examples:

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Examples:
1. MId

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Examples:
1. MId= I or In where
1 0 ... 0
 0 1 ... 0 
I =  ..
 
.. 
 . . 
0 0 ... 1

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Examples:
1. MId= I or In where
1 0 ... 0
 0 1 ... 0 
I =  .. ..  = ((δij ))
 
 . . 
0 0 ... 1

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Examples:
1. MId= I or In where
1 0 ... 0
 0 1 ... 0 
I =  .. ..  = ((δij ))
 
 . . 
0 0 ... 1
δij = 1 if i = j and = 0 otherwise

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Examples:
1. MId= I or In where
1 0 ... 0
 0 1 ... 0 
I =  .. ..  = ((δij ))
 
 . . 
0 0 ... 1
δij = 1 if i = j and = 0 otherwise
(Kronecker delta)

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Examples:
1. MId= I or In where
1 0 ... 0
 0 1 ... 0 
I =  .. ..  = ((δij ))
 
 . . 
0 0 ... 1
δij = 1 if i = j and = 0 otherwise
(Kronecker delta)

2. Linear T : R2 → R2 which interchange coordinates is

represented by

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Examples:
1. MId= I or In where
1 0 ... 0
 0 1 ... 0 
I =  .. ..  = ((δij ))
 
 . . 
0 0 ... 1
δij = 1 if i = j and = 0 otherwise
(Kronecker delta)

2. Linear T : R2 →R2 which

 interchange coordinates is
0 1
represented by
1 0

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Examples:
1. MId= I or In where
1 0 ... 0
 0 1 ... 0 
I =  .. ..  = ((δij ))
 
 . . 
0 0 ... 1
δij = 1 if i = j and = 0 otherwise
(Kronecker delta)

2. Linear T : R2 →R2 which

 interchange coordinates is
0 1
represented by
1 0
3. Corresponding to multiplication by α ∈ R is

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Examples:
1. MId= I or In where
1 0 ... 0
 0 1 ... 0 
I =  .. ..  = ((δij ))
 
 . . 
0 0 ... 1
δij = 1 if i = j and = 0 otherwise
(Kronecker delta)

2. Linear T : R2 →R2 which  interchange coordinates is

0 1
represented by
1 0
3. Corresponding to multiplication by α ∈ R is the
diagonal matrix D(α, . . . , α)

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Examples:
1. MId= I or In where
1 0 ... 0
 0 1 ... 0 
I =  .. ..  = ((δij ))
 
 . . 
0 0 ... 1
δij = 1 if i = j and = 0 otherwise
(Kronecker delta)

2. Linear T : R2 →R2 which  interchange coordinates is

0 1
represented by
1 0
3. Corresponding to multiplication by α ∈ R is the
diagonal matrix D(α, . . . , α) = ((αδij ))

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4. The rotation through an angle θ about the origin

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4. The rotation through an angle θ about the origin
 
cos θ − sin θ
←→
sin θ cos θ

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4. The rotation through an angle θ about the origin
 
cos θ − sin θ
←→
sin θ cos θ

Linearity can be shown by:

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4. The rotation through an angle θ about the origin
 
cos θ − sin θ
←→
sin θ cos θ

Linearity can be shown by:

Law of congruent triangles;

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4. The rotation through an angle θ about the origin
 
cos θ − sin θ
←→
sin θ cos θ

Linearity can be shown by:

Law of congruent triangles;
Alternatively, write down the image of e1 and e2
under rotation,

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4. The rotation through an angle θ about the origin
 
cos θ − sin θ
←→
sin θ cos θ

Linearity can be shown by:

Law of congruent triangles;
Alternatively, write down the image of e1 and e2
under rotation, write down the matrix M

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4. The rotation through an angle θ about the origin
 
cos θ − sin θ
←→
sin θ cos θ

Linearity can be shown by:

Law of congruent triangles;
Alternatively, write down the image of e1 and e2
under rotation, write down the matrix M and then
show that rotation takes (x, y )T to M(x, y )T .

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4. The rotation through an angle θ about the origin
 
cos θ − sin θ
←→
sin θ cos θ

Linearity can be shown by:

Law of congruent triangles;
Alternatively, write down the image of e1 and e2
under rotation, write down the matrix M and then
show that rotation takes (x, y )T to M(x, y )T .

5. the inclusion map R2 → R3

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4. The rotation through an angle θ about the origin
 
cos θ − sin θ
←→
sin θ cos θ

Linearity can be shown by:

Law of congruent triangles;
Alternatively, write down the image of e1 and e2
under rotation, write down the matrix M and then
show that rotation takes (x, y )T to M(x, y )T .

5. the inclusion map R2 → R3

 
1 0
←→  0 1 
0 0

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