Journal of Environmental Psychology (1986) 6, 35-47

HOMESICKNESS AND HEALTH IN

BOARDING SCHOOL CHILDREN*

S H I R L E Y F I S H E R , N O R M A N F R A Z E R and K E I T H M U R R A Y

Stress Research Unit, Department of Psychology, University of

Dundee, Dundee, Scotland

Abstract
Three studies are reported concerning homesickness in children attending a new
boarding school. Homesickness was found to be a complex cognitive/motivational/
emotional state. The first study concerned retrospective reports of 115 pupils at the
end of the first year. Seventy-one per cent of the group reported having experienced
homesickness during the school year. This same group also reported a higher incidence
of non-traumatic ailments during the year and more days off school. Previous board-
ing school experience was found to have an ameliorating effect on reports of home-
sickness. Two further studies are described which involve a diary style of methodology.
The first confirmed incidence levels of 76% and an ameliorating effect of previous
boarding school experience was found. The second study devoted exclusively to
homesickness reporting showed incidence levels of 71%. Homesickness reporting
generally decreased during the two-week period of the diary studies; males showed a
different daily reporting patterns from females; 'very homesick' respondents had dif-
ferent daily and weekly reporting pattern from other respondents. The findings are
elaborated in terms of the risk model developed by Fisher et al. (1985, 3". Environ.
Psychol., 5, 181-195): a geographical move is a necessary but not a sufficient condition
for a homesickness experience; circumstantial and life situations act as 'gate devices'
influencing which variables have a moderating effect.

Introduction
Geographical relocations result in both an interruption of daily life and an encounter
with a new environment. For a person who leaves home to reside in a new place for
educational or vocational reasons both aspects may be influential: there is distancing
from the support normally given by family and friends, loss of the familiar 'routine'
patten o f life and exposure to an implosion of new environmental and psychosocial
factors. University students, college students and children who leave home to board
at school experience these circumstances.
This article is concerned with the effect of leaving home to reside at school. Boarding
schools are a feature of the British primary and secondary educational system. The
schools are generally part o f private sector education and attract a high socio-
economic catchment group. In the primary school sector, children as young as 7 years
may be involved. The age for commencing secondary school is I 1 to 13 years.
There are relatively few data on the effects of leaving home to reside at school for
the first time. F o r the children involved there is simultaneously a transition to a new
school environment which itself may produce new problems (see Brown and Arm-
*This work was supported by a grant from the Economicand Social Research Council.

0272-4944/86/010035 + 13 $03.00/0 © 1986AcademicPress Inc. (London) Limited

36 S. Fisher et aL

strong, 1982) and the need to adjust to a change in residence resulting in loss of direct
contact with family and with the home environment.
A phenomenon noted by teachers and officers of residential institutions, for those
who leave home, is 'homesickness'. It is commonly seen as an adverse reaction with
features in common with depression. Dictionary definitions of the term include 'pining
for home' (Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary, 1954): 'depressed by absence from
home' (Pocket Oxford Dictionary, 1969). In spite of the existence of the term in the
English language (and other languages) and in spite of common understanding of the
term, there is little information available from research about the state of homesickness
and its effect on health and welfare.
An early treatise on the subject of homesickness by Harder (1678)* referred to the
adverse experience of adults experiencing a relocation in terms of 'rnaladie du pays'.
He defined a new term 'nostalgia" from the Greek 'nostos', meaning 'a return home',
and 'algos', meaning pain or sorrow. Harder stated that there are a number of remote,
internal or predisposing causes which implant in the mind strong thoughts about
returning home. These include differences in climate, customs, habits and food.
Studies by Fisher et al. (1985) have suggested that about 60-70% of students report
homesickness in their first weeks at university. Results suggested that a move is a
necessary but not a sufficient condition for a homesickness experience; factors
concerning the new environment (satisfaction with work, social relationships,
residence) combine with personality factors such as cognitive failure levels and per-
sonal control over the move, in influencing the likelihood of the experience. Equally,
factors relating to the geographical transition itself are important; increased distance
is positively associated with homesickness reporting.
At least one reason for adverse reaction following the move to a new school may
be the interruption of old plans which were dominant in life at home. Interruption has
been reported by Mandler (1975) as providing a source of tension. Perhaps home-
sickness, or yearning for aspects of previous life style, occurs because of the potent
effects of interruption. Perhaps homesickness is a prerequisite for later successful
adjustment; old plans are revised and attenuated, to be replaced with plans suitable
for the new environment (see Fisher, 1984). Homesickness seems to have features in
common with the grief reaction produced by the bereaved in which there is high mental
preoccupation with the deceased and with previous life shared with the deceased.
It is also possible that the exposure to the new school environment under conditions
of reduced contact with family and friends, is itself threatening and that the home-
sickness response represents a desire to leave the environment. A child at school is
exposed to a structured, disciplined world dominated by teachers. Parsons (1955)
emphasized that the teacher-dominated world is likely to be different from the parent-
dominated world in that the teacher requires activities and competence and is less likely
to provide a child with emotional support. This argument is supported by Schoggen
(1975) who argues that interactions with parents are sometimes negative but indi-
vidualized and frequent, whereas teachers are more likely to make demands and to
emphasize competence in the activities of the child.
Exposure to a new environment is also likely to be associated with low control. A
school environment where discipline is imposed and regulations must be adhered to
would give the child very little control over his immediate world. The desire for the
*From Rather's translation of 18th Century Medical Essays (1965).
 Homesickness in Boarding School Children 37

old 'home' environment may additionally reflect the effort of perceived control loss
(see Fisher, 1984).

The Purpose of the Present Research

The purpose of the investigations in this study was to obtain data on the incidence and
main features of homesickness as self-reported by groups of boarding school pupils
in their first term at a new school and to identify some of the factors which differentiate
those who report the experience from those who do not.
There are particular difficulties associated with attempting to undertake this kind
of study. Most boarding schools are concerned to reduce the possibility of homesick-
ness in new pupils. It was felt by some school staff that the provision of information
by new pupils could help to sensitize them towards the experience. Therefore, the
studies reported represent a compromise between ideals and practicalities in this
respect.
Three studies are reported: One study was conducted at the end of the school year
to avoid any problems which might arise from homesickness reporting. This involved
two large schools and is termed the 'retrospective study'. Two different diary studies
involving smaller subject numbers were conducted in the first few weeks of the new
term for new pupils. These are termed the 'diary studies' and provide some further
check on incidence as well as providing more data about some of the main features
of homesickness. The diary studies vary in the emphasis given to the reporting of
homesickness and in the questions asked about it.

Retrospective study (Study 1)

The initial study was retrospective and involved a sample of 117 pupils drawn from two
comparable Scottish boarding schools situated 20 miles apart. The study took place at
the end of the school year when there was relatively less need to be concerned about
whether reporting the experience might sensitize pupils to it. A number of questions
concerning environmental and personal antecedents were provided and the following
hypotheses were formulated.
Environmental factors
(i) It was hypothesized that increased geographical distance between home and
school would be a factor likely to increase homesickness. Fisher et al. (1985) found
that, in university students, increased geographical distance was associated with
increased homesickness reporting. The distance factor was thought to operate to
increase the 'cost' of home contact thus increasing a sense of isolation and loss of
control.
(ii) It was hypothesized that features of the new psychosocial environment which
helped to reduce the sense of isolation and loss o f contact with home might reduced
the likelihood of homesickness. Therefore, the presence o f one or more siblings at the
school was hypothesized to reduce the experience of homesickness.
Control over the decision and personal involvement
(iii) It was hypothesized that a positive attitude towards the move in advance ('want
to come to boarding school') and increased responsibility for the decision to attend
school would be associated with decreased homesickness reporting. There are two
possible reasons: first, a positive attitude could indicate that the transition was desired;
 38 S. Fisher et aL

second, decreased control might intensify threat (see Fisher, 1984) and exacerbate
negative feelings on arrival.
Previous experience
(iv) It was hypothesized that previous boarding school experience might help to
reduce the effects of homesickness because the pupil would be used to leaving home;
thus some of the stress produced by the distancing from the support and contact with
parents would be reduced. This was given anecdotal support by observations made
by some of the staff interviewed at schools during the course of the studies.
(v) It was hypothesized that some individuals might be vulnerable to life stresses
because of unstable background factors associated with loss of one or both parents
by death or divorce at an early age (see Fisher, 1984). Previous studies by Fisher
et al. (1984) and Fisher et al. (1985) produced no evidence that this was a factor in
homesickness but the issue is such an important one that it was felt worthwhile asking
the questions again.
Homesickness and physical health
(vi) It was hypothesized that general unhappiness, likely to be a feature of home-
sickness, might affect physical health increasing the proportion of non-traumatic
ailments during the year. This is in keeping with the view that social and psychological
change are preconditions for illness (Totman, 1979; Fisher, 1985).

Diary of daily problems and homesickness (Study 2)

The second investigation was conducted during the first two weeks at a new boarding
school. A diary study by Fisher et al. (1985) conducted along similar lines showed that
when the term 'homesickness' was not introduced as a heading for daily reports in a
diary, only 16% of boarding school pupils spontaneously introduced the term. How-
ever, although the number of reported problems concerning the 'school' environment
exceeded the number of problems concerning the 'home' environment, in terms of the
periods spent worried and preoccupied, the latter exerted a greater intrusive effect on
pupils. It was conceivable that homesickness was experienced by pupils but not
labelled as such.
The diary study reported here involved presentation of the term 'homesickness' on
a check sheet for endorsement on a daily basis. This provided a means of checking
the incidence of homesickness when reporting was coincident with the experience and
the term was provided for possible endorsement.
A second purpose of the diary was to examine some of the environmental and
personal factors likely to be associated with homesickness reporting.

Diary study of the 'anatomy' of homesickness (Study 3)

The second diary study had the same aims as the first but concentrated exclusively on
homesickness and the conditions reported as associated with it. This provided a further
check on incidence in conditions where the study was conducted concurrently with the
new term experience but when information about homesickness was specifically re-
quested.
In addition, the study enabled details of the phenomenology of the homesickness
experience to be obtained. Research questions included details on circumstance at the
time a homesickness experience was reported.
 Homesickness in Boarding School Children 39

From informal observations provided by school staffthere was some suggestion that
people are more likely to feel homesick if left alone and involved in passive behaviour
such as lying on the bed, waiting for meals or lessons. There was some feeling that
sharing sleeping accommodation and keeping a high level of daily activity would help
ward off homesickness because the pupils would have 'less time to think'.

Method

Retrospective study (Study 1)

Two boarding schools were involved in this study. One was an all female school; one
was predominately male with a small proportion of girls. The number involved in the
study was 117. The subjects were children between the ages of 11 and 14 years. There
were 58 girls and 57 boys in the sample, the total of first year pupils in both schools.
The pupils were asked by the investigators by complete two questionnaires which
were randomly presented. Approximate testing time was 20 minutes. The question-
naires were distributed to assembled classes, completed in privacy and then collected
by the investigators.
The first questionnaire elicited the following information: (i) distance of school from
home; (ii) responsibility for the decision to go to boarding school; (iii) whether the
pupil had wanted to attend boarding school; (iv) whether the pupil had brothers or
sisters at the school; and (v) whether the pupil had previous boarding school ex-
perience. In addition each pupil was asked to provide a definition of the term 'home-
sickness' and to indicate whether it had been experienced since attending school.
The second (health) questionnaire required the following information to be
provided: (i) any ailments or illness experienced during the year; (ii) number of days
affected by it; (iii) number of days on which school activities were missed as a result;
and (iv) number of occasions a doctor was consulted. The information was freely
recalled by pupils.

Diary investigation of problems~worries and homesickness (Study 2)

The investigation involved the cooperation of the school staff and pupils in a mixed
sex boarding school. The subjects were children between the ages of 13 and 17 years,
in the first term of their first year. The children cooperated on a voluntary basis.
The project was first instigated by a personal visit to the Headmaster. It was decided
that only half of the first year intake would be given diaries, to minimize any adverse
effects or increased demands on teaching staff. A selection of subjects was chosen by
random selection of names from a list of the first-year entries. A total of 18 subjects
(8 females and 10 males) were then issued with diaries to be kept anonymously and
returned to a collection file in the school after two weeks. Out of those diaries given
to subjects, one diary was returned without completion.
A booklet was designed so that pupils could record the details of problems on a daily
basis. It was A5 size, cardboard backed and contained complete explanations for the
provision of data on life history events, personal details, daily problems and associated
worry periods.
40 S. Fisher et al.

Diary study of "the anatomy of homesickness' (Study 3)

The investigation was the same in all respects as Study 2, with the exception that the
diary had a different format.
The format chosen for daily recording of the presence o f absence o f homesickness
involved a grid with four headed columns with cells represented against a time scale.
The subject was required to indicate at the top of the page whether or not he had felt
homesick. He was then required to indicate by means of printed crosses in the cells
on the first column, how often during that day he had felt homesick and then to report
whether he was alone or with friends, what activity he was engaged in and where he
was at the time by means of crosses in the remaining columns.
The subjects were 21 male children between the ages of 12 and 16 years, who were
newly resident at an all male school. Children cooperated on a voluntary basis and
record books were anonymous. The subjects were selected by means of random
procedure from a school list. The booklets were given out by staff at the school and
were returned via a central collection point. All diaries were completed anonymously.
Two dependent variables can be identified. The first is the decision that home-
sickness has been experienced that day (homesickness problem). The second is the
frequency of entries for any day in which a homesickness problem is reported (worry
units or 'homesickness' episodes).

Results

Study 1: the retrospective study

The first study showed the incidence of homesickness to be 71%; there were 83
homesick and 34 non-homesick individuals. In order to establish that the two groups
did not differ in the meaning attributed to the term 'homesickness', each definition
provided was analysed into each of its constituent features. Consensus was reached
between all three investigators in this respect. Some definitions provided had only one
feature such as for example 'homesickness means missing home'. Other definitions
contained multiple features such as for example 'homesickness means being lonely in
a new place, crying at night and missing home'. In the latter case three constituents
would be extracted 'being lonely', 'crying at night' and 'missing home'. It was also
necessary to ensure that the meaning provided by homesick and nonhomesick
individuals did not differ in the number o f constituent features involved.
Table 1 shows the main features from the definitions provided by 115 respondents;
two subjects failed to provide definitions. It indicates the percentage of times that each
listed feature was reported. As illustrated by the Table, missing parents, family and
people at home, was reported by over 65% in both groups. In addition, 34-46% of
respondents in each group included the features o f 'missing home environment' and
'missing house, home and area'.
There were no differences between those who reported homesickness and those who
did not in terms of either the number of component features provided or the principal
component features identified.
Table 2 lists the main results of interest. Neither distance from home nor decisional
involvement influenced whether or not homesickness was reported. Those who
reported that they wanted to come to school were less likely to report homesickness
 Homesickness in Boarding School Children 41

TABLE 1
Features utilized in definitions of homesickness for homesick and non-homesick school pupils
Frequency of reported features and
percentage of subjects reporting each
feature
Feature categories from Homesick (n = 82) Non-homesick (n = 33)
definitions provided F (%) F (%)
'Missing parent family'; 'longing
for people at home' 54 (65-9) 25 (75.8)
'Missing home environment'; 'missing
house, home, area, etc.' 28 (34-1) 12 (36.4)
'Wanting to go home'; 'feeling a need
to return home' 21 (25.6) 10 (30.3)
'Missing friends'; 'longing for friends' 12 (14.6) 1 (3.0)
'Feeling of loneliness' 10 (12-2) I (3.0)
'Crying' 3 (3.7) 3 (9.1)
'Unsettled' 4 (4-9) 1 (3.0)
'Hating the present place' 4 (4.9) 1 (3.0)
'Feeling unhappy' 4 (4.9) 1 (3-0)
'Not getting on with people' 3 (3.7) 0 (0-0)
'Dissatisfaction with present situation' 3 (3.7) 0 (0.0)
'Feeling depressed' 2 (2.4) 1 (3.0)
'Disorientation'; 'feeling lost in new
environment' 2 (2.4) 0 (0.0)
'Regret that life had changed', 'A feeling
of regret' 2 (2-4) 0 (0.0)
'Never been away from home before' 2 (2.4) 0 (0.0)
'Feeling ill' 2 (2.4) 0 (0.0)
'Unable to do anything' 2 (2.4) 0 (0-0)
'Feeling unloved' 0 (0-0) 2 (6.1)
The following features were endorsed by only one person in the following groups. Homesick: 'problem
at school'; 'missing someone close to talk to'; 'obsession with thoughts of home'; 'looking for familiar
company and faces'; 'feeling isolated'. Non-homesick: 'feeling uneasy'; 'unable to cope'; 'feeling full and
weary'; 'thinking home is better than here'.

( P < 0-001). Whilst the presence of one or more siblings at school did not influence the
reporting of homesickness, previous boarding school experience had an ameliorating
effect ( P < 0-05).
The results in Table 2 illustrate that homesick subjects reported more non-traumatic
ailments such as colds, headaches and feeling sick (P<0.05). The days affected are
significantly greater for the homesick group (P < 0-02). However, the difference is not
significant when the ratio of number of days per ailment provides the basis of
comparison. The homesick group also report having more visits to a doctor than the
non-homesick group (P<0"05). By contrast there are no differences in reported
number o f traumatic disorders (sprains, breakages, muscle damage, etc.), in days
affected or visits to a doctor.

Study 2: Diary study of problems, worries and homesickness

Overall, 13 out of 17 subjects reported at least one period o f homesickness. This
represents 76.4% incidence overall (males, 80%; females, 71.4%). Homesickness
42 S. Fisher e t al.

TABLE2
Variables associated with homesickness reports for boarding school pupils
Homesick Non-homesick
(n = 83) n = 34) P (One-
Variable ~ S.D. ~ S.D. t tailed)
Age (years) 12.58 1.06 12.84 0.91 1-28 NS a
Distance from home (miles) 374-61 394.66 453.50 407.48 0"89 NS

Responsibility for decision 0.84 0.57 0-97 0-63 1-06 NS

Wanted to come 0.77 0.43 0.97 0.18 3.56 <0-001
Siblings at school 0-37 0.49 0.35 0.49 0.21 NS
Boarding experience 0"36 0.48 0"56 0"50 1.95 < 0.05

N0n-traumatic ailments 2.95 1.62 2.38 1-28 1-83 < 0-05

Days affected 27.28 45-72 14.53 12.71 2.30 < 0.01
Activities affected 3.94 11-59 6-09 10.16 0.07 NS
Number of times doctor seen 1-88 1.49 1.32 1.17 1.94 < 0.05

Traumatic ailments 0.06 0.24 0.09 0.29 0.34 NS

Days affected 1.95 10.99 1.53 5.23 0.28 NS
Activities affected 1-95 11.11 0.73 3.68 0.88 NS
Number of times doctor seen 0-06 0.24 0-09 0.29 0.54 NS
L a r g e r m e a n s indicate h i g h e r scores o n the a t t r i b u t e s listed.
aNS = N o t significant.

reports were greater than any other problem category. There were a total of 90 reports
of homesickness across all subjects for the 14 days, and 201 worry units associated.
Males had 27 reports of homesickness with 87 associated worry units. Females had
63 reports of homesickness with 114 associated worry units. The difference was not
significant statistically.
Because of the relatively small sample of subjects, within group comparison between
the homesick (N = 13) and non-homesick group (N = 4) must be treated cautiously.
Geographical distance, sex, age, control over the decision to go away to school and
the presence of siblings at the same school did not differentiate between the homesick
and non-homesick groups. The only significant results were that for males, previous
boarding school experience was negatively correlated with homesickness (rs = - 0-58,
P < 0.01) and the presence o f one or more siblings at the school increased the number
of problems reported (P < 0.01).
A distinction was made by the investigators as to whether according to the subject's
own description of a problem, it was 'school' or 'home' orientated. School orientated
problems were then further divided into those which were concerned with work (e.g.
'worried about Maths lesson'), social (e.g. 'worried about whether my class teacher
likes me') or general (e.g. 'worried about whether I will find the dining room for
lunch'). Home orientated problems (e.g. 'worried about my dog at home') are listed
separately from reports of homesickness. A small percentage of personal or health
problems which did not fit with the above categories were assigned to an extra 'other"
category. The number of problems was divided by the number o f worries on an i n -
dividual subject basis. This resulted in a derived ratio, the problem/worry ratio. There
 Homesickness in Boarding School Children 43

was no overall difference between school oriented and home oriented problems in
terms of problem/worry ratio. Pupils with at least one sibling at school had higher
problem reporting levels overall (P < 0-01) and lower problem/worry ratios for school
problems ( P < 0-05).
Spearman rank correlations showed that there was a negative relationship between
time o f day and worrying for males but generally a positive relationship for females.
However, the correlations for males were only significant in the case of the 'work'
category (rs = - 0-48, P < 0-05) and only significant for females in the case of 'home'
categories (rs = 0.70, P < 0-01) and homesickness (r~ - 0.71, P < 0-01). Chi-square test
results showed that part of the overall significance is attributable to the last two cells
available on the time scale for recording worries: 2300 and 2400 hours were not much
used. Without these categories, the analysis for hours 0700-2200 is significant only for
females ( P < 0-01).
In terms of homesickness there was also a different pattern for females as compared
with males. Females reported more homesickness as the day progresses (P < 0-01), but
the pattern was bimodal in character for males.
Analysis of the distribution of reported problems across the 14 days of the diary
study in terms o f Spearman rank correlations showed that in general there was lowered
problem reporting as the duration of the diary study increased. This was true for males:
school problems (re = - 0"59, P < 0"05), home problems (rs = - 0.72, P < 0.01). For
females the correlations were negative (school re = - 0"33; home re = - 0"34) but not
significant. With regard to reports of homesickness specifically, the correlation was
negative both for males (re = 0"78, P < 0"01) and females rs = 0.45, P < 0.05).
There were few significant correlations between life history events and the incidence
of problems in different categories. There was however a significant negative correla-
tion between the reporting of unpleasant events and the reported incidence of home-
sickness but only for females (re = -0"722, P<0"05).
On the basis of reported worry levels, a highly homesick group of three subjects
(scores greater than 1.5 times the average worry unit level for the homesick group) was
further identified. In view of the small number of subjects in this sample, some caution
must be attached to the findings: The subjects reported more problems overall
(significant on a Mann Whitney comparison: P<0.01). They reported more home
orientated problems (P < 0-05) and more problems in the 'social' category of school
orientated problems (P < 0.05). They reported higher worry levels for home problems
and more worries attached to a 'social' and 'general' categories of school orientated
problems ( P < 0-05).

Study 3: the anatomy of homesickness

Of the 21 subjects, only six reported no homesickness. The incidence was thus 71%.
A total o f 58 reported problems and 322 episodes of worry units occurred across
subjects. Two subjects accounted for 82% of all episodes. These were identified by
means of a criterion of greater than (1.5 × mean) episodes for the group as a whole.
For all subjects, there was a significant negative Spearman Rank Correlation
between reported homesickness problems and time within the 14 day study period
(r~ = - 0.732; P<0.001). However, the correlation between episodes and time was
positive but not significant statistically for the group overall (re = 0"494). When the
two very homesick subjects' results were removed, the correlation for the remainder
44 S. Fisher et al.

of the subjects was negative and significant (rs = - 0-673; P < 0.004). The two subjects
(S1 and $7) reporting high homesick episode levels showed significant positive
correlations (S1 rs = + 852, P<0-001; $7, r s = + 756, p<0.001). Therefore, two
subjects appeared to be getting worse as the diary study progressed, the remainder were
improving.
The number of worry units showed a negative relationship with time of day for the
hours 0700-2400 (rs = -0.728; P<0-001); 0700-2200 ( r s = - 0 - 6 1 0 , P<0-01).
However, removal of the two very homesick subjects lowered the correlation for the
remaining subjects and it was no longer significant (rs = 0.286). Examination of the
two very homesick subjects showed that the more severe case (defined by number of
episodes) had a correlation which was not significant (r~ = - 0"313) whereas the less
severe case had a positive correlation which was significant (r~ = 0.719, P<0.001).
None of the demographic variables predicted the homesick response on this
occasion. The only finding that was significant was that less reporting of positive life
events in the last six months was associated with increased homesickness episodes
(rs = - 0.505, P<0.01).
Out of a total of 322 reported episodes of homesickness, 145 were given descriptive
details which enabled further investigation concerning associated circumstances. The
low proportion was due to the reporting characteristics of one of the two very
homesick individuals who reported so many episodes that there was a natural
inclination to use ditto marks or not report circumstances.
A consensus was reached by the investigators as to whether each reported activity
was mentally 'active' or 'passive' and physically 'active' or 'passive'. Statistical ~
comparisons are not possible because there is no way of generating an expected
distribution of activities. Over 70% of homesickness episodes were associated with
periods of mental and physical passivity.
Of the 145 descriptions of social conditions prevailing at the time of a homesickness
episode, 78% were reported as occurring when respondents were in the presence of one
or more people.
The distribution of reported episodes across reported venues suggested two
prominent modes are 'the dormitory' (46% of cases) or 'other school buildings' (31%
of cases). Again, it is impossible to generate an expected distribution of where pupils
spend their time. In the particular school studied there are four or more pupils to a
dormitory. A high proportion of time during the day is in the classrooms for teaching
purposes or on game fields or in communal eating and leisure rooms.

Discussion

Homesickness appears to be a complex 'umbrella' term embodying a large number of

cognitive, motivational and emotional features centred largely on missing and yearn-
ing for family and home. Some of the features reported are symptoms (such as 'crying');
others are antecedents (such as 'not wanting to leave home').
The results of the retrospective study confirm the results of a study with university
students by Fisher et al. (1985) that homesick and non-homesick respondents do not
differ in personal meanings attributed to the term. However, informal comparison
shows that in contrast with the meanings provided by students, school pupils gave
 Homesickness in Boarding School Children 45

more reports of 'missing parents' (66-76%; compared with students, 30-33%).

A main point of interest is that across all three studies the incidence of reported
homesickness was approximately 70% irrespective of whether the decision was made
retrospectively (Study 1) or at the time of the experience as in the two diary studies.
The experience of homesickness was found to be associated with increased self
report of non-traumatic ailments. The effect is not due to reporting bias because there
was no association with the reporting o f traumatic ailments. One obvious interpretation
is that unhappiness due to homesickness is associated with increased risk of infection.
This would fit with the growing literature suggesting that negative life events are
associated with poor physical health (see Fisher, 1985; Totman, 1979). However, it
may be the case that minor illnesses create homesickness because love and attention
of family members if sought by a pupil who feels ill. Fisher et al. (1985) found no
evidence o f increased reporting of non-traumatic ailments in a homesick as compared
with non-homesick populations of university students. It is possible that the intensity
of the homesick experience is greater in a younger population.
N o age or sex differences were found in the reporting of homesickness in the school
populations. This confirms results by Fisher et al. (1985) with university students. If
there are vulnerability factors they do not appear to be age or sex-linked.
Two environmental factors were proposed as likely to be associated with home-
sickness reporting. The first was geographical distance; it was proposed that increased
distance should increase a sense of isolation from home due to the increased difficulty
of visits home. Although this was found to be the case for the students studied by
Fisher et al. (1985), it was not the case for the school pupils in this study. One plausible
explanation is that at school, visits home are restricted, therefore the distance factor
is not irrelevant.
Perhaps for similar reasons, whereas decisional control was found to be a factor
influencing homesickness reporting in students (Fisher et al., 1985), it was not found
to be a factor influencing homesickness reporting in the school pupils. Perhaps
circumstantial variables act to allow or 'gate out' the influence of such variables;
younger children may be used to less decisional involvement in life. Therefore, the
absence o f decisional control is not operative in the lives of children.
The finding that previous boarding school experience has an ameliorating effect on
homesickness may be explained in two ways: Either the child has grown used to the
idea of separation from home or has grown used to some o f the features of boarding
school life so that the features of the new environment are no longer so strange and
threatening. Studies on the different profiles of geographical transitions in the lives of
boarding school pupils are now needed. O f particular interest is whether all moves
away from home, even for holidays, predispose a person to be less homesick or whether
only previous experience at a boarding school is influential.
The diary studies although involving relatively small numbers provided information
about homesickness experiences. First, the lack of relationship between problem
reporting and homesickness (Study 2) argues against the view that stressful elements
of the new environment are critical factors determining in adverse reaction. This is
important in view of the findings of Stokols et al. (1983) who reported dissatisfaction
with a new environment to be a major factor in poor adjustment to a geographical
move in adults. The authors argued that the 'congruence' of the environmental
domains (the extent to which they support personal goals) and the temporal context of
46 S. Fisher et ai.

the move may be critical factors. Fisher et al. (1985) also showed that for university
students, homesickness reporting was associated with reduced levels of satisfaction
with the new environment•
However, against this view; the strongly homesick subjects (N = 3, in Study 2) were
found to report more home orientated problems and more problems in the 'social'
category of school orientated problems. They also reported higher worry levels for
'home' problems and higher worry levels for 'social' and 'general' categories of school
problems. The results suggest that whereas mild homesickness may not be linked with
perceived stress in new environments, in cases of more severe reaction, there is a
positive relationship. One possibility is that the severely homesick person becomes
homesick and distressed because of problems in the new environment: the lonely, lost
person may experience the need for the comforts of home as a focus for distress. The
presence of a sibling in the same school might have been expected to reduce feelings
of isolation and therefore ameliorate adverse effects. In fact if anything, the presence
of a sibling appeared to produce different problems for individuals concerned perhaps
because of the increasing competitive demand created.
The pattern of homesickness reporting across the hours of the day proved interesting
in that females differed from males in reporting more episodes later in the day, whereas
males generally report less. Broadbent (1983) reported (in a quite different context)
a sex difference in arousal pattern not inconsistent with the above finding. However,
as our data depend on diary recording, it remains possible that males and females
adopt different recording techniques•
Very homesick individuals were shown in the third study to have a changed pattern
of episodes. Firstly, one of the two respondents reported himself as homesick all day
and often endorsed every available time cell. This pupil wrote an emotional note to the
investigators at the end of the diary indicating his severe homesickness and desperate
feelings• The second strongly homesick subject showed an increase in homesickness
reporting as the day progressed; a reversal of the previously established pattern for
males•
Whereas, in most cases homesickness reporting decreased across the two weeks of
the diary studies; this was not true for the strongly homesick subjects who increased
their reporting during the diary study. Taken collectively these results suggest that
those who are severely homesick have some early 'pathology' in their reporting
patterns which can be easily detected.
The association with passivity is worthy of further investigation• A problem is that
passivity may be the cause or consequence of being homesick; we cannot recommend
that keeping new pupils active is necessarily a means of controlling homesickness•
Equally, the pupils' reports of social conditions at the time of homesickness episodes
indicate that being alone is not a necessary condition; most episodes were reported as
occurring whilst the pupils concerned were in the company of others.
In summary, a two-stage risk model proposed by Fisher et al. (1985) continues to
provide a working framework; an environmental move is likely to be a necessary but
not a sufficient condition for a homesickness experience• Of all the factors so far
examined it appears that previous experience of boarding school has ameliorating
effects and that problems created by the new environment may be augmenting.
Comparisons with the study of university students by Fisher et al. (1985) suggests
that particular circumstances of the life style of individuals determines which variables
influence homesickness reporting• In the case of university students factors such as
 Homesickness in Boarding School Children 47

decisional control over the move to university and the geographical distance involved
were influential. In the case of the children at boarding school, these factors were not
influential, perhaps because of the restrictions of parental and school authorities on
the life o f a child there is in effect no choice. A child cannot go home because she/he
is not allowed to, therefore geographical distance o f homesick becomes immaterial.
By comparison, a student is free to go home and so the perceived sense of distancing
and cost become influential.
A model is needed which allows background and life style circumstances to provide
gating devices for determining the relevant environmental variables which influence
homesickness experiences. It is concluded that a geographical move provides a
necessary but not a sufficient condition for homesickness response and that back-
ground and life-style circumstances determine or gate out the influence of moderator
factors.

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Manuscript received: 31 October 1985

Revised manuscript received: 12 November 1985