Temporal radiative heat flux estimation and alteration mapping of Tendürek
volcano (eastern Turkey) using ASTER imagery

İnan Ulusoy

PII: S0377-0273(16)30183-4
DOI: doi: 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.06.027
Reference: VOLGEO 5891

To appear in: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

Received date: 17 June 2015

Revised date: 14 June 2016
Accepted date: 30 June 2016

Please cite this article as: Ulusoy, İnan, Temporal radiative heat flux estimation and
alteration mapping of Tendürek volcano (eastern Turkey) using ASTER imagery, Journal
of Volcanology and Geothermal Research (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.06.027

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Temporal radiative heat flux estimation and alteration mapping of

Tendürek volcano (Eastern Turkey) using ASTER imagery

İnan Ulusoy1*

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Hacettepe Univ. Dept. of Geological Engineering, 06800, Beytepe-Ankara,
Turkey

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* Corresponding author; e-mail: inan@hacettepe.edu.tr

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Abstract
Tendürek volcano is a polygenetic, basaltic shield volcano formed by
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successive alkaline basalt flows. It is one of the youngest volcanoes of
Turkey; both historical and Holocene activities have been reported for the
volcano. Continuous hydrothermal and fumarole activity has been observed
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on the twin summit craters located 4.5 kilometres apart. ASTER daytime and
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nighttime satellite imagery acquired between 2001 and 2014 are used to
calculate surface temperature, surface temperature anomaly and relative
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radiative heat flux from the craters to determine a base value for the current
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thermal emission.

Surface temperature and surface temperature anomaly calculations yield a

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heat flux between 14.4 and 35.5 W/m2 at the western crater and between 7.72
and 28.3 W/m2 at the eastern crater. These values are well-correlated with
other known low-level activity volcanoes. The annual and long term
consistency of the thermal pattern is investigated. The location and extent of
surficial hydrothermal alteration within and surrounding the Tendürek craters
is identified by band ratioing and indexing using ASTER visible through
shortwave infrared bands. Spectral identification of gypsum, hydroxides,
sulfates, hydrated sulfates and clay mineralisation indicates pervasive acid-
sulfate alteration due to the activity of fumarole vents around Tendürek
craters.

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Keywords: Tendurek, thermal infrared, TIR, hydrothermal alteration, fumarole

alteration, Eastern Anatolia

1. Introduction

Fumaroles and hot/humid ground on the periphery of volcanic vents are the

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low-level signatures of active volcanic and hydrothermal systems. By

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providing a link to the magma system, surface vent temperatures allow

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qualitative inferences about the magmatic system and calculations of various

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system parameters such as magma depth, volume, mass flux or energy
budget (Harris and Stevenson, 1997). Thermal remote sensing offers a safe

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means of measuring and monitoring vent temperatures on a regular basis
using ground-based, air- or space-borne instruments (Harris and Stevenson,
1997).
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Ground-based and air-borne instruments are in the verge of a new era (eg.
Lewis et al., 2015) providing very high resolution thermal data. Several space-
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borne instrument (eg. MODIS, LANDSAT, ASTER) have the capability of

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mapping thermal infrared spectra in moderate to high resolution. Satellite

imagery provide continuous and qualitative data for measuring geothermal
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and volcanic activity (eg. Coolbaugh et al., 2007; Vaughan et al., 2008; van
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der Meer et al., 2014) and for estimation of radiative heat flux near volcanic
vents (eg. Gaonac’h et al., 1994; Harris and Stevenson, 1997; Ganas et al.,
2010; Vaughan et al., 2012). ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
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Emission and Reflection Radiometer) is an advanced multispectral imager

that was launched on board NASA’s Terra spacecraft in December, 1999. It
covers a wide spectral region with 14 bands from the visible to the thermal
infrared with high spatial, spectral and radiometric resolution (Abrams and
Hook, 2002). The ASTER instrument provides some important capabilities in
the area of sensitive detection of volcanogenic energy anomalies as thermal
precursors of volcanic eruptions (Pieri and Abrams, 2004).

Mount Tendürek is a remote volcano situated in Eastern Anatolia close to the

Turkish-Iranian border between Doğubayezit, Çaldıran and Diyadin towns
(Fig. 1). It is a polygenetic, basaltic shield volcano which has twin cones with
summit craters. The shield has a circular shape in plan view, satellite images
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show that the volcano is built of successive, superimposing lava fields (Byrne
et al., 2009).

Tendürek volcano was relatively accessible to field-based research up until

1990’s; ground-based studies include Pamir (1951), Ota and Dinçel (1975),

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Innocenti et al. (1976), Oruç et al. (1976), Güner and Şaroğlu (1987), Nagao

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et al. (1989) and Ercan et al. (1990). Since 1990’s, accessibility to the volcano

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is restricted due to blind minefields, thus, field-based studies have yielded to
laboratory experiments and remote sensing studies as both techniques

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improved and access declined; those include Tolluoğlu (2006), Byrne et al.
(2009), Bathke et al. (2013) and Bathke et al. (2015).

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Holocene and historical activity, CO2 and H2S emissions and magmatic
contribution to the fumaroles have been reported for the volcano. Mount
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Tendürek is an active volcano in an active tectonic setting yet, detailed
studies on the eruptive history of the volcano are absent, and monitoring of
the activity of the volcano is limited to satellite observations. ASTER satellite
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imagery have been used to investigate the ongoing activity of the volcano.
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TIR (Thermal Infrared) analyses were carried out to calculate the relative
radiative heat flux within the eastern and western craters and spectral
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analysis of VNIR (Visible and Near-infrared) and SWIR (Shortwave Infrared)

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bands were used to map the alteration products related to active fumarole
vents and to interpret the alteration mineralogy.
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2. Study area setting

The radius of the Tendürek volcano is ~12 km and isolated lava flows extend
up to ~22 km to the south. The average elevation of the surrounding terrain is
2300 m and the volcano culminates up to 3533 m. It has a fresh, little eroded
morphology, a large mass and stands on sedimentary (Byrne et al., 2009) and
metamorphic strata.

Tendürek volcano is characterized by alkaline type volcanism with mainly

basaltic-trachytic composition (Ota and Dinçel, 1975; Innocenti et al., 1976,
Ercan et al., 1990, Ölmez et al., 1994; Yılmaz et al., 1998). Ercan et al.

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(1990), dated two trachyandesites as <0.03 Ma and <0.07 Ma and a

trachybasalt as 0.56±16 Ma using K/Ar. Notsu et al., (1995), reports two ages
(K/Ar) for trachyandesite and trachybasalt samples: 0.013±0.002 Ma and
0.40±0.02 Ma. Based on Alishan (1890)’s historical records, Karakhanian et

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al. (2002) described the trembling sounds and sulfuric fumarole activity on the

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volcano during 1855. Şerif (1932) conveys the information that in addition to
the trembling, occasionally cannon like voices coming from the volcano, hot

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gas and vapour periodically jets out from the cracks in the summit crater

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(August of 1931).

The recent hydrothermal system of the volcano is characterized by hot

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springs (40 - 80°C), fumaroles, steam vents, steaming grounds, hot grounds,
degassing and travertine formations (Ölmez et al., 1994). In terms of relative
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chemical content, hot water is classified as HCO3-rich, diluted neutral alkali
chlorite water (Ölmez et al., 1994). Additionally, cold water sources around
the volcano have high fluoride content (Oruç et al., 1976; Oruç, 2008).
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Thermal spring waters around the volcano are mainly of Ca(Na)-HCO3 and
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Ca(Mg)-SO4 types and have high salinity (Pasvanoğlu, 2013). CO2 and H2S
emissions (Ercan et al., 1990; Pasvanoğlu, 2013) have been shown to derive
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in large part from magmatic degassing by helium isotope analysis (3He/4He) of

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Nagao et al (1989). Samples collected and analysed by Mutlu et al (2012)

close to Mount Tendürek are also represented by high 3He/4He ratios which
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are notably greater than the crustal production value and high CO2/3He values
attributed to hydrothermal degassing of the magmatic system.

An arcuate fracture system / caldera of approximately 10x14 km in diameter

encircles the two summits (Fig 1: white lines). This caldera boundary system
was identified by Güner and Şaroğlu (1987) and subsequent work (Yılmaz et
al., 1998; Tolluoğlu, 2006; Byrne et al., 2009; Bathke et al., 2013; Bathke et
al., 2015). Using interferometry, Tolluoğlu (2006) showed that this caldera
system was subsiding at a rate of 15-19 mm/yr between 1993 and 2000. A
combined InSAR and RapidEye satellite visible image morphological study by
Bathke et al. (2013) identified continuing subsidence of 11 mm/yr between
2003 and 2010. The optical data indicate that the arcuate fractures, and
hence the underlying ring fault, were formed at least 13,000 years ago
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(Yılmaz et al., 1998), as they are crosscut by lava flows from the summit
(Bathke et al., 2013). InSAR data and experimental studies reveal that the
area within the ring-fault not only subsides, but also shows substantial
westward directed movement as a consequence of sliding-trapdoor

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architecture of the structural caldera boundary (Bathke et al., 2015).

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The summit craters of Tendürek volcano are 4.5 km apart from each other.

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The eastern crater (3298 meters a.s.l.) is 850 to 780 meters in diameter and
110 meters deep, and the western crater (3533 meters a.s.l.) is 1230 to 1050

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meters in diameter and 386 meters deep. Hydrothermal and fumarolic activity
is present in both craters (Pamir, 1951; Ercan et al., 1990; Ölmez et al.,

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1994).There is an approximately 380 to 240 meter diameter crater lake (3188
meters a.s.l.) in the eastern crater. The lake presents active hydrothermal
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signature, there are hot sources in the lake (Ölmez et al., 1994).
Approximately 50°C water vapour emanates from obvious 1-2 meter sized
fumaroles at the inner edge of the crater (Ercan et al., 1990).The western
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crater is a double crater with a smaller half crater superimposed on the north
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eastern rim of the main crater (Fig. 2). Between them, a white coloured
material which is flowing downward into the crater and forming a fan shaped
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deposit is clearly visible in both aerial and satellite images (Fig. 2). This white
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material, presumably the deposits of the fumaroles, is one of the analysis

targets of this study. Continuous fumarole activity and co-occurring sulphur
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deposition is present within the crater (Pamir, 1951; Ercan et al., 1990).
Similar deposits exist on the northern wall of the eastern crater too (Fig. 2).

3. Materials and Methods

ASTER satellite imagery, ASTER GDEM (Global Digital Elevation Model) and
a NIMA DOI10 (National Imagery and Mapping Agency – Digital Orthorectified
Imagery), 10 m resolution panchromatic satellite image are used to document
active volcanic processes at Tendürek.

Eighteen nighttime ASTER scenes (acquisition and sunset times are listed in
Appendix A) were used to calculate the surface temperature and radiative
heat flux at the eastern and western craters. The daytime image is used to
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derive a simple set of alteration mapping products. The Digital Elevation

Model (GDEM) derived from ASTER in-track stereo pair imagery (version 2 -
ASTER GDEM Validation Team, 2011) of Mount Tendürek and surrounding
regions was used at native 30 m and resampled 90 m resolutions to (1)

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produce the hillshade image, (2) for topographic correction of surface

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temperature images, and (3) to obtain the height data used in the calculation
of radiative heat flux.

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3.1. Pre-processing

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The primary dataset is radiometrically calibrated and geometrically co-
registered ASTER L1B radiance at sensor. The L1B data must be further
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processed and topographically corrected to obtain Surface Kinetic
Temperature (ST) images, to calculate heat flux, and for alteration mapping.
Imagery were corrected for crosstalk effects using crosstalk correction
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software of ASTER GDS (ground data system). ASTER L1B dataset is

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originally aligned to the angled path of the satellite, thus the images were
rotated to align it to the north using the information in the header. SWIR
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dataset was resampled to 15 m resolution. VNIR and SWIR data has been
atmospherically corrected and were converted to surface reflectance using
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the FLAASH model which is based on the Moderate Resolution Transmittance

radiation transfer code (Adler-Golden et al., 1998). TIR radiance at sensor
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data has been atmospherically corrected using an In-Scene Atmospheric

Compensation algorithm (Hernandez-Baquero, 2000; Johnson and Young,
1998) to yield ground leaving radiance data.

The availability of 5 thermal bands on ASTER makes it possible to identify

wavelength-dependent variations in emissivity so that true kinetic
temperatures can be estimated (Gillespie et al., 1998; Hook et al., 1999). TIR
ground leaving radiance was converted to separate temperature and
emissivity components by applying the emissivity normalization method (Hook
et al., 1992; Kealy and Hook, 1993), deriving separate emissivity and ST
images in Kelvin. Temperature data is then converted into Celsius degrees. A
265x297 pixel subset of the ST images was cropped from the original images
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preserving the original spatial resolution of 90 m/pixel. For the purpose of

topographic correction, ASTER GDEM of the same area was resampled to 90
meter pixels; aspect and slope images were derived from this GDEM.

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3.1.1. Topographic correction of the nighttime imagery

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Thermal effects due to differential solar heating and shadowing are greatly

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reduced on nighttime images (Sabins, 1997). Nevertheless, depending on the

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acquisition time, these effects can persist in the nighttime thermal images.
Different surface materials with specific physical properties (i.e. thermal

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inertia, albedo, emissivity, and moisture content) respond differently to solar
radiation, resulting in surface temperature variations throughout the 24-h cycle
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(Elachi, 1987; Watson, 1973; Coolbaugh et al., 2007; Ulusoy et al., 2012).
Nighttime images of Tendürek volcano which were acquired 2 to 5 hours after
dusk (Appendix A) has been corrected topographically. The topographic
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correction of nighttime Surface Temperature images was carried out with a

normalization procedure (STcorr – Ulusoy et al., 2012). Methodology used in
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STcorr is a semi-empirical, image based, three-step regression; it is used to

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correct the lapse rate, aspect and slope effects in nighttime TIR images
(Ulusoy et al., 2012). Output is a thermal anomaly (θ) image showing the
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relative temperature differences relative to the scene mean; in hilly areas the
temperature patterns are more coherent and artefacts due to altitude, aspect
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and slope are strongly reduced (van der Meer et al., 2014).

3.2. Heat flux estimation

Heat flux is the rate of heat energy transfer through a given surface, i.e. it is
the energy flowing through a surface of 1 m 2 in one second and is a vector
quantity measured in Wm-2. As per section 3.1.1, surface temperature images
of Tendürek volcano were topographically corrected to produce temperature
anomaly images (θ). Knowing the surface temperature anomalies, emissivity
values and vapour pressure, it is possible to calculate relative radiative heat
flux (Qrel) measured at sensor for the Tendürek craters. Following Sekioka

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and Yuhara (1974), Harris and Stevenson (1997), Gaonac’h et al. (1994) and
Ganas et al. (2010) the relative radiative heat flux ‘Qrel’ can be calculated:

Qrel = 4.614 ε [0.52 + 0.065 (e)0.5 ] Δθ ; (1)

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where, ε is the spectral emissivity; e is the vapour pressure in mbar; and Δθ is

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the temperature anomaly difference in between the anomalous area and the

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surrounding area in °C.

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Five TIR emissivity bands (for each ASTER image) produced by temperature-
emissivity separation were used to define the spectral emissivity (ε). The
maximum emissivity value in all five bands (0.96), within the area of the two
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craters was used for the calculation.

The vapour pressure (e) data for each date was obtained from the radiosonde
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inventory of University of Wyoming, Department of Atmospheric Science

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which are available on the internet on a daily basis

(http://weather.uwyo.edu/upperair/ sounding.html). Available data from the
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nearest stations for the relevant dates were used: Erivan station (100 km
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away) for 2001, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2013, 2014 images, Erzurum station (230
km away) for 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 images and Tebriz station (250 km
away) for 2002 image. There is a linear decline of air temperature (T air lapse-
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rate) with altitude up to the tropopause (Fig. 3). Using this linear relationship
and GDEM, a Tair image for the crater altitudes were calculated (Fig. 3). Tair
image allows the calculation of Qrel for an area rather than a single pixel. Then
following the saturation vapour pressure equation (Equation 2; after Tetëns,
1930; Haurwitz, 1945) the vapour pressure (e) image were calculated (Fig. 3).

es = 6.11 × 10 ((7.5×Tair) / (237.7+Tair )) ; (2)

Then the temperature anomaly difference image were calculated by taking the
temperature difference of every pixel with its neighbouring pixels and by
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assigning the maximum difference (Δθ) as the new value of the centre pixel
(Fig. 3). Finally, a Qrel image was produced using the images calculated and
equation 1 (Fig. 3). This procedure was repeated to produce Qrel images for
eastern and western craters and for each image dataset (between 2001 and

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2014).

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3.3. Alteration mapping

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Mapping the spatial distribution of, and identifying the mineralogy of surfical
hydrothermal alteration, in conjunction with the identification of high

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geothermal heat flow locations in the Tendürek craters is important for an
improved understanding of the Tendürek geothermal system and the nature of
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the alteration products. Since the launch of the Terra spacecraft in 1999, the
ASTER instrument with six channels in the shortwave infrared and five
channels in the thermal region has been utilized extensively to produce
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qualitative surface mineral maps; specifically, identification of clay, sulfate,

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carbonate minerals, iron oxides and silica (quartz) are useful to map
hydrothermal alteration facies (van der Meer et al, 2012).
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Using the spectral characteristics of certain alteration mineral groups, we tried

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to remotely estimate the possible mineralisation and co-mineralisation

associated with the fumaroles at Tendürek volcano. We focused on the dense
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alteration product sourcing from the hot spots at the western and eastern
craters which are clearly observed with white colour on visible spectra (Fig. 2:
white arrows). ASTER VNIR and SWIR data were analysed using established
band ratios and indices (Vincent et al., 1972; Goetz et al., 1975; Rowan et al.,
1977; Sabins, 1997) to map four types of mineralisation products related to
hydrothermal input: oxides, sulfates, hydroxides and clay mineralisation.

Reflectance and absorbance characteristics of library spectra from the

ASTER Spectral Library – v.2.0 (Baldridge et al., 2009) were utilized to target
spectral features of the possible mineral groups within Tendürek crater
spectra. The spectra of alunite (KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6), natroalunite
(NaAl3(SO4)2(OH)6), jarosite (KFe3+3(SO4)2(OH)6), natrojarosite
(NaFe3+3(SO4)2(OH)6), anhydrite (Ca(SO4)), and barite (BaSO4) were used to
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map anhydrous sulfates; gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), hydrated Mg-/Fe- sulfates

(such as hexahydrite - Mg(SO4).6(H2O) and epsomite - Mg(SO4).7(H2O)) to
map hydrated sulfates; gibbsite (Al(OH)3) and brucite (Mg(OH)2) to map
hydroxides; kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite and smectite to map clays and

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various Fe-/Mg- oxides to map the oxidation were presented in Appendix B.

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4. Results

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4.1. Temporal radiative heat flux

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Surface temperature (ST), surface temperature anomaly (θ) and radiated heat
flux (Qrel) have been calculated for Tendürek volcano. Figs. 4 and 5 show ST
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(1st column), θ (2nd column) and Qrel (3rd column) images and their change
over time both for western and eastern craters (see Appendix C for extended
timeline). Both craters have thermally active spots which have presented
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stable output during the time span covered by the ASTER data. Table 1
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summarizes the highest and lowest values for the calculated temperatures
and radiative heat flux.
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Between 2001 and 2014, nighttime images show that the inner part of the
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western crater is clearly hotter than the surrounding area. The highest thermal
anomaly observed is at the northeastern wall of the crater (Fig. 4, red
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coloured pixels). That high anomaly spot is the origin of fumarole alteration
observed with white colour on the panchromatic and VNIR images (Fig. 2).
Observed maximum surface temperature is -8.1 to 16.5 °C and maximum
temperature anomaly is 2.3 to 10.9 °C (Table 1). Due to thermal mixing of
small scale thermal features with colder background materials within 90×90
m pixels (Vaughan et al., 2012), these values are almost always lower than
the actual temperature of the thermal features in the pixel. Calculated
radiative heat flux is 14.4 to 35.5 W/m2 (Table 1) from the highest output pixel
within all the nighttime images (Fig. 4).

Interpretation of the surface temperature data is more complex for the eastern
crater. There are two reasons for that complexity. First, radiant temperature

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from the lake surface in the daytime image is less than the land surface but in
the nighttime images, this situation is reversed (Fig. 5). This is a known
phenomenon called thermal crossover. Secondly, the method used to
calculate the radiant heat flux is a relative method that takes the neighbouring

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pixels into account (Δθ). When calculating Δθ, as a consequence of nature of

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the nighttime image, the lake surface present the highest value, because the
surrounding land have lower radiant temperature after thermal crossover.

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Thermal anomalies exist on the land area of the eastern crater too (Fig. 5)

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and they can be best observed in the 2009 dated image due to high
temperature contrast. These anomalies are on the northern crater wall (where

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the white coloured alteration products are located in visible imagery, Fig. 2:
white arrows), the south and southeast outer flanks of the crater and on the
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southeast rim. ST ranges between -16.9 to 17.1 °C and θ is between 0.14 to
6.0 °C (Table 1); none of these anomalies are as strong as observed at the
western crater. The calculated maximum Qrel for the land area of the eastern
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crater is between 7.7 to 28.3 W/m2 (Table 1).

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4.2. Hydrothermal alteration

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The eastern and western craters of the Tendürek volcano are thermally active
with alteration products apparent in visible imagery (Fig. 2: white arrows).
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Aster 4/6 and 1/4 band ratio results are presented in Fig. 6 and additional
index derivatives are presented in Fig. 7.

ASTER 4/6 band ratios are useful for identifying areas of thermal alteration
and highlight altered clay-rich rocks (Hellmann and Ramsey, 2004). The 4/6
band ratio image of Tendürek volcano is given as a red-blue color mapped
image in Fig. 6a. Alteration coincident with the hot spot in the western crater
(Fig. 6a-i) is highlighted by values between 1.35-1.47, are well correlated with
the values obtained by Hellmann and Ramsey (2004) (1.34-1.78) at
Yellowstone. Weathered basalt surfaces with values of (>1.5) are represented
by red trending colours around the volcano (Fig. 6a).

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Altered hydrothermal areas inside the Tendürek craters (Fig. 6b-i, 6b-ii) are
highlighted by a 1/4 band ratio which exploits hydrated Mg- and Fe- sulfate
spectral features. Fumarole related alteration zones within the craters show
1/4 band ratio values (0.7-1.45) which are a clearly greater than the unity

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(<0.5) all around the volcano (Fig. 6b).

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Several indices and ratios to identify clay minerals (kaolinite, illite, smectite,

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and montmorillonite), kaolinite index (Ninomiya, 2003) and kaolinite indice
(Yamaguchi and Naito, 2003) yielded ratios greater than unity within the crater

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(Appendix B; Fig 7a). Similarly, index images of hydrated sulfates (Appendix
B; Fig. 6b), jarosite (and natrojarosite), anhydrite, gypsum, brucite and

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gibbsite (Appendix B; Fig. 7b-f) highlighted the hydrothermally altered areas
within the craters. At the western crater, spectral anomalies observed for
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(Na)jarosite, gypsum, brucite and hydrated sulfate (1/4) ratios highlight
regions throughout the crater, while kaolinite, gibbsite, anhydrite and 4/6 (clay
alteration) ratio anomalies are concentrated on the thermal hot spot and
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downslope regions (Fig. 6 and Fig 7). At the eastern crater, spectral
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anomalies are more spatially restricted, still, (Na)jarosite (>1.9), gypsum (>1)
and hydrated sulfate (0.7-1.45) ratios show intense anomalies coincident with
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the highly altered zones identified on high resolution visible imagery (Fig. 2,
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Fig 6 and Fig 7). None of the predefined ratios and indexes tested to map Fe-
oxides gave significant results for Tendürek volcano craters.
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5. Discussion

5.1. Thermal imagery and Total relative radiative heat flux

Both of the Tendürek craters have areas of active geothermal heatflow,

detectable on TIR imagery analysed between 2001 and 2014 (Figs. 4 and 5).
The western crater thermal spot on the northeastern crater wall is spatially
and temporally stable in all the images analysed. The eastern crater thermal
anomalies disappear and re-appear over time suggesting that they are not as
strong as the spot observed on the western crater. Thermal spots at the

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eastern rim and at the southern flanks of the eastern crater are clearly
highlighted on the 2009 nighttime surface temperature anomaly (θ) image
(Fig. 5); those anomalies are associated with alteration markers on the
daytime images, band ratio and index images as well.

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2009-nighttime image is a late autumn, early winter time image. Sparse,

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powdery snow cover around the craters which is visible in the daytime ASTER

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and MODIS images of the following days also appears on the thermal image
(Fig. 4b and 5b: red stars). On this image, the high temperature contrast

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between the fumaroles/hot spots and the surrounding area is enhanced. The
effect of thermal crossover is lower on the 2009 image when compared to

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other images.

Table 2 compares the maximum surface temperature and heat flux values
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obtained for other volcanoes around the world. It summarizes the highest
values for the calculated maximum surface temperature anomaly (θ),
maximum temperature anomaly difference (Δθ) and maximum relative
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radiative heat flux (Qrel-max) for the Tendürek anomalies. Additionally, the total
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relative radiative heat flux calculated by two different approaches are listed
(Table 2: Total RHFA and Total RHFB). Total RHFA is calculated by assuming
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maximum Qrel (Qrel-max) or the averages of Qrel-max is radiating throughout the

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area of the thermal zone; in Tendürek's case this is the area of the craters and
the lake. Total RHFA calculations potentially overestimate the thermal output
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area resulting in overestimated Total RHFA values. A more precise calculation

is achieved by calculating every single pixel’s Qrel and taking the pixel area
into account (Table 2: Total RHFB). As expected, Total RHFB is lower than
Total RHFA.

The Qrel values obtained for Tendürek volcano craters are well-correlated with
the values previously obtained for other active volcanoes (Table 2: Vulcano,
Yellowstone, Stromboli and Nisyros) and represent continuous output over the
timespan covered by the ASTER images.

Fig. 8 shows the seasonal variation of surface temperature, surface

temperature anomaly, surface temperature anomaly difference and relative
radiative heat flux calculated on the anomaly at the western crater. Colder in
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the winter and warmer in the summer, surface temperature is well correlated
with the seasonal temperature pattern throughout the year (Fig. 8a). Surface
temperature anomaly on the other hand reverses this relationship (Fig. 8b),
which may be due to the increase in the water vapour and humidity around

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the hydrothermal area during the wet/snowy seasons. One of the main

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contributors of the Qrel calculation is ΔƟ ; thus, as expected both surface
temperature anomaly difference (Fig. 8c) and relative radiative heat flux (Fig.

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8d) present similar pattern. Surface temperature anomaly difference between

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the anomalous pixel and the surrounding pixels is continuous throughout the
year with an average of ~6.5 °C. It is also important to note that the extremely

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high contrast between snowy pixels and thermally high pixels in wintertime
results in anomalously high ΔƟ thus high Qrel (Fig. 8c,d: first data point).
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Ganas et al. (2010), analysed the effect of water vapour pressure and spectral
emissivity to the Qrel. They showed that Qrel changes by over 30% when
vapour pressure in the atmosphere increases from 20 to 60 mbar and
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changes by 10% when the surface emissivity increases from 0.92 to 0.99.
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Radiosonde data collected closer to the volcano would provide more accurate
Qrel calculations (Ganas et al., 2010). An addition of 1.0 °C temperature
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difference (Δθ) results in 11% change in Qrel (Ganas et al., 2010). While
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calculating the Qrel, an area comprising the Tendürek craters was defined and
using radiosonde data Tair was calculated for every pixel in the craters. Using
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the residuals of the linear fit to estimate this T air image, the water vapour
pressure was re-calculated and the resulting error for the Qrel was estimated
(Fig. 9). This value corresponds to an error for Qrel less than 0.04 W/m2 for the
images dated between 2001 and 2013.

5.2. Remote sensing of acid-sulfate alteration

ASTER images analysed in areas with a known geological setting, can

potentially identify new mineralogical exploration targets, identify alteration
suites and confidently contribute to production of preliminary alteration maps
(Di Tommaso and Rubinstein, 2007). Alteration mineralogy related to the
fumaroles at the Tendürek craters has been studied with multiple algorithms
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exploiting the VNIR-SWIR spectral range of ASTER. Band ratio analysis

returned positive results for jarosite, gypsum, anhydrite, kaolinite, smectite
and hydrated Mg-, Fe- sulfates and indications that hydroxides such as
brucite and gibbsite may also be present in the alteration products. These

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alteration mineralogy assemblages in a basaltic environment likely represent

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moderately to high temperature/acidic fumarole environments as defined by
Hynek et al. (2013): including sulphur, gypsum, silica as major phases and

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iron-oxide, alunite, jarosite, hydrated sulfates and phyllosilicates as minor

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phases. Native sulfur deposition was previously documented on Tendürek
craters (Pamir, 1951; Ercan et al., 1990).

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Hydrothermal solutions also produce secondary silica (Zimbelman et al.,
2005) comprising amorphous silica and SiO2 in form of cristobalite and
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tridymite (Hynek et al., 2013), opal-C; opal-CT and Opal-A (Zimbelman et al.,
2005).
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6. Conclusion

There is a continuing low-level thermal activity on the Tendürek craters which

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is associated with alteration around the vents. This alteration is detectable on

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visible images by its dominant white colour. Analysis of ASTER VNIR and
SWIR images leads to the conclusion that in addition to the sulfur reported
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before, it is possible to suspect silica, gypsum, anhydrite, hydrated sulfates,

jarosite and phyllosilicates, yet this assumption lacks ground truthing.

Surface temperature (ST), surface temperature anomaly (θ), Surface

temperature anomaly difference (Δθ) and relative radiative heat flux (Qrel) for
the craters of Tendürek volcano have been calculated using ASTER TIR data
over a period of 14 years.

Both craters have active geothermal sources that appear prominently within
the resolution of the 90 m TIR pixels, yielding over a decade of thermal
analysis. Relative radiative heat flux values estimated for the Tendürek
craters are within the range of values calculated by similar approaches for
other active volcanoes around the world. Since accessibility to the Tendürek

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volcano is severely restricted, satellite-based thermal imagery provides an

efficient platform to monitor this Quaternary, and potentially Holocene active
volcano remotely, yielding, in this study, temporal variations of surface
temperature and relative radiative heat flux, defining a background value for a

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period of 14 years using ASTER satellite imagery. This background value can

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be basis for further studies to monitor and assess any potential future
changes in the behaviour of this volcano. Providing nearly simultaneous and

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regular data, thermal remote sensing can be sensitive to subtle changes that

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may be related to volcanic, tectonic, or hydrothermal processes for both
geothermal and volcano monitoring applications (Vaughan et al., 2012).

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Remote sensing data allows us for mapping of a currently off-limits area, and
allows for continuing remote monitoring of the volcano and the possibility for
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detecting changes in the geothermal system that could be systematic of
changes in the magmatic system.
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Acknowledgements
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This work was funded by TÜBİTAK research project no: 113Y032. Our
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gratitude to NASA, ASTER Team and Japan Space Systems should be

mentioned for releasing the ASTER dataset for scientific research. The author
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is grateful to Janet Harvey for her constructive remarks and for improving the
English of the manuscript. I most certainly wish to thank two anonymous
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reviewers for constructive criticism on the manuscript, their guidance

improved the scientific quality of the manuscript considerably.

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Table Captions

Table 1. Surface temperature (ST), Surface temperature anomaly after

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topographic correction (θ), Maximum temperature anomaly

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difference with neighbouring pixels (Δθ) and relative radiative heat

flux (Qrel) calculated for Eastern and western craters of Tendürek
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volcano. * indicates overestimated values for daytime image due to

overcorrection effect. ** indicates values for the hotspot (which is
located using nighttime images; Fig. 6: black arrow).
Table 2. Maximum surface temperature anomaly (θmax), maximum surface
temperature anomaly difference (Δθmax) and maximum relative
radiative heat flux (Qrel-max) values calculated for eastern and
western Tendürek craters in comparison with Yellowstone, Nisyros,
Stromboli and Vulcano. Total radiative heat flux (Total RHF)
calculated by two different approaches are given. Total RHF A is
calculated by Qrel-max x Area or by Qrel-avg x Area. Total RHFB is
calculated by multiplying every single pixel’s radiative heat flux by

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unit pixel area (Qrel-1 x Apixel-1 + Qrel-2 x Apixel-2 + ……… + Qrel-n x Apixel-
n).

Figure Captions

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Figure 1. Simulated true colour composite ASTER satellite image of

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Tendürek volcano and location of the volcano in Turkey. Red arrows

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indicate the older lava flows and flow directions while white arrows

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indicate the younger lava flows and directions. White line marks the
arcuate shaped structural caldera boundary. Coordinate system in
all figures with maps/images is UTM, datum WGS84.

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Figure 2. Hillshade, NGA pan and ASTER VNIR images of eastern and
western Tendürek craters. Red line with triangles are indicating the
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crater rim, white arrows are pointing the white coloured alteration
products.
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Figure 3. Illustration showing the workflow used to calculate the relative

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radiative heat flux image. The lapse-rate relationship extracted from

the radiosonde data and DEM is used to calculate a Tair image of the
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craters. Then, equation 2 is used to extract vapour pressure (e)

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image. Topographically corrected surface temperature anomaly

image (θ) is used to derive temperature difference image (Δθ). Qrel
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image representing an area is then calculated by equation 1 using e

image and Δθ image.

Figure 4. Temperature and heat flux at the western crater. A matrix of

Surface temperature images (ST), Surface temperature anomaly
images after topographic correction (θ) and Relative radiative heat
flux (Qrel) images for nighttime images dated between 2001 and
2013. Red stars in the 2009 ST image show the dark blue colored
areas representing the remnant thin snow cover (appear in the
daytime image of the same day).

Figure 5. Temperature and heat flux at the eastern crater. A matrix of surface
temperature images (ST), surface temperature anomaly images after

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topographic correction (θ) and relative radiative heat flux (Q rel)

images for day and nighttime images dated between 2001 and 2013.
The grey line drawn in the crater shows the lake contour. Red stars
in the 2009 ST image show the dark blue colored areas representing

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the remnant thin snow cover (appear in the daytime image of the

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same day).

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Figure 6. Band ratio images of Tendürek ASTER daytime image with applied

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red-blue color map. a) Band 4 / Band 6 ratio often used for mapping
clay alteration and b) Band 1 / Band 4 ratio indicating Mn-Oxides,
magnetite, sulphides in unoxidised environments and hydrated Mg-,

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Fe-sulfates. Small images marked with ‘i’ and ‘ii’ are zoomed
windows of western and eastern craters respectively.
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Figure 7. Index images for possible hydrothermal alteration minerals showing
both craters. a) Kaolinite index image, b) Jarosite and Natrojarosite
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index image, c) Anhydrite index image, d) Gypsum index image, e)

Brucite index image, f) Gibbbsite index image.
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Figure 8. Graphs showing the annual thermal pattern of hot spot detected on
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the western crater. Annual change of a) Surface Temperature, b)

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Surface Temperature Anomaly, c) Surface Temperature Anomaly

Difference and d) Relative radiative Heat flux observed on the
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western crater hot spot.

Figure 9. Graph showing the relationship of residuals of the linear lapse-rate

fit and resulting error in calculated Qrel due to the residuals. At the
height of the western crater (3533 m), residual errors observed
(between radiosonde data and linear fit) are plotted on the graph for
all the images analysed.

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Table 1

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ST (°C) θ (°C) Δθ (°C) Qrel (W/m2)

CR
Date
(Y.M.D) St
Site Min Mean Max Min Mean Max St Dev Mean Max St Dev Mean Max St Dev
Dev

US
2001.06.29 1.99 5.17 12.6 1.79 -1.96 1.35 7.08 1.45 1.78 8.14 1.4 5.51 25.23 4.35
2002.06.23 3.22 4.55 11.49 1.48 -3.58 -1.45 5.04 1.29 1.08 4.9 0.82 3.41 15.57 2.66

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- -

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2003.11.17 -6.24 4.41 -10.63 -1.13 10.94 5.14 4.45 10.27 2.35 12.47 28.61 6.57
26.61 18.07
2005.07.17 5.79 9.73 14.85 1.61 -4.79 0.14 6.4 1.65 1.89 6.19 1.6 6.35 20.56 5.33

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2008.08.03 11.08 13.11 16.54 1.06 -2.81 -0.38 2.34 0.83 1.06 4.21 0.9 3.64 14.38 3.08

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-
2009.11.10 -6.94 2.66 3.38 -7.35 -1.99 7.96 3.5 2.28 7.41 1.42 7.13 23.33 4.49
12.67

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West 2010.09.17 2.53 4.88 12 1.49 -5.29 -1.85 5.42 2.41 1.66 5.77 1.26 5.51 18.65 4.12
Crater 2011.01.16 -32 -23.4 -8.1 4.7
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-12.63 -6.84 9.12 4.36 2.89 12.76 2.35 8.06 35.5 6.53
2011.05.08 -4.89 -3.72 3.89 1.17 -0.78 0.52 8.45 1.33 0.8 7.24 1.01 2.32 21.14 2.95
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2011.05.31 -1.11 1.26 6.78 2.04 -2.4 -0.32 5.36 1.7 1.29 4.83 1 4.13 15.47 3.22
- -
2011.12.18 -3.72 2.73 -7.83 -3.76 5.51 2.79 1.68 7.46 1.42 4.94 21.92 4.17
17.84 12.29
2012.06.02 -0.95 1.27 8.29 1.84 -3.37 -0.53 6.23 1.75 1.41 7.08 1.14 4.3 21.53 3.46
2012.10.01 -0.89 1.22 7.33 1.48 -5.23 -2.39 2.63 1.32 1.51 5.72 1.02 4.91 18.53 3.3
- -
2012.12.27 -4.45 7.05 -19.29 -6.02 10.61 7.94 5.89 8.44 3.61 17.63 25.22 10.83
32.19 19.05

37
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-
2013.03.10 -15.5 -5.48 3.46 -9.93 -3.4 8.06 4.05 2.92 10.16 2.15 8.24 28.71 6.06
20.33

T
IP
2013.04.27 -6.58 -4.51 3.44 1.92 -2.81 -0.14 8.54 2.08 1.35 8.25 1.27 4.08 24.81 3.82
2013.07.07 5.28 8.75 14.87 2.06 -5.93 -2.48 3.25 1.77 1.56 4.67 0.96 5.18 15.42 3.2

CR
2014.06.01 1.64 3.96 9.44 1.35 -3.33 -0.38 4.78 1.39 1.28 5.19 0.86 4.08 16.46 2.76

US
2001.06.29 2.14 5.36 6.95 3.38 -4.29 0.24 4.47 3.68 3.29 8.53 3.33 10.22 26.52 10.36
2002.06.23 4.38 6.35 7.94 1.65 -2.61 -0.02 1.85 0.73 1.68 3.34 1.45 5.36 10.69 4.7

N
- - -
2003.11.17 1.43 -1.52 1.36 4.37 1.64 1.81 3.97 1.15 5.08 11.14 3.22

MA
19.79 16.87 14.04
2005.07.17 -0.52 6.9 11.3 3.52 -10.87 -3.33 1.37 3.69 2.52 6.8 1.66 8.27 22.97 5.64

D
2008.08.03 11 13.12 12.65 1.49 -3.36 -0.95 2.02 1.57 1.77 4.77 1.45 6.12 16.47 5

TE
2009.11.10 -8.07 -4.8 -1.01 1.83 -2.38 1.38 4.86 1.85 1.92 4.57 1.07 6.22 14.4 3.39
East 2010.09.17 2.48 5.83 12.27 2.44 -3.91 -0.5 2.05 0.78 2.45 4.19 1.99 8.27 13.66 3.42

P
Crater
- - -
(Land 2011.01.16
area)
32.55 24.55 16.85
4.13 CE
-11.84 -4.97 0.14 3.07 3.98 9.52 2.39 11.12 26.59 6.67

2011.05.08 -5.16 -4.1 -2.07 0.77 -0.78 0.2 2 0.77 0.8 2.64 0.58 2.34 7.72 1.68
AC

2011.05.31 -0.47 2.25 4.83 1.53 -2.55 0.48 2.79 1.5 1.82 4.95 1.14 5.88 15.96 3.67
-
2011.12.18 -15.8 -8.92 1.79 -3.57 -1.35 3.56 1.62 1.68 6.41 1.26 4.94 18.87 3.71
12.75
2012.06.02 1.48 3.18 8.87 2.14 -1.73 0.47 5.5 1.94 1.47 5.24 1.51 4.5 16.05 4.62
2012.10.01 -1.21 1.81 2.14 2.36 -5.2 -1.84 3.77 2.68 2.74 8.09 2.3 8.93 28.32 7.49
- -
2012.12.27 -16.8 1.7 -2.08 2.11 6 2.05 2.06 4.92 1.36 6.18 14.74 4.09
13.98 10.65

38
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

- -
2013.03.10 -18.8 2 -3.8 -0.46 3.35 1.94 1.96 4.84 1.29 5.57 13.74 3.64
16.06 12.33

T
IP
2013.04.27 -5.59 -3.99 -0.16 1.37 -1.14 0.43 4.39 1.37 1.22 4.4 1.05 3.68 13.31 3.17
2013.07.07 8.57 10.95 17.1 2.42 -3.35 -0.65 5.16 2.73 2.2 7.49 2.34 7.31 24.44 7.8

CR
2014.06.01 3.83 5.3 7.0 0.65 -0.86 0.4 4.53 1.48 1.02 5.04 1.02 3.4 16.11 3.18

NUS
MA
D
P TE
CE
AC

39
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Table 2

T
θ Δθ Qrel-max Qrel-tot

IP
Field Site Year Maximum Temperature Maximum Area Total RHFA Total Reference Instrument

CR
ST anomly RHF (m2) (MW) RHFB
anomly diff. (°C) (W/m2) (MW)
(°C)

US
2001.06.09 7.08 8.14 25.2 15.7
2002.06.23 5.04 4.90 15.6 9.7

N
2003.11.17 10.94 10.27 28.6 17.8

MA
2005.07.17 6.40 6.19 20.6 12.8
2008.08.03 2.34 4.21 14.4 9.0

D
2009.11.10 7.96 7.41 23.3 14.6

TE
2010.09.17 5.42 5.77 18.7 11.6
2011.01.16 9.12 12.76 35.5 22.1

P
West 2011.05.08 8.45 7.24 21.1 13.2
Tendürek 623700 3.49 This
volcano
Crater 2011.05.31 5.36 CE 4.83 15.5 9.6
Study
ASTER
2011.12.18 5.51 7.46 21.9 13.7
AC
2012.06.02 6.23 7.08 21.5 13.4
2012.10.01 2.63 5.72 18.5 11.6
2012.12.27 10.61 8.44 25.2 15.7
2013.03.10 8.06 10.16 28.7 17.9
2013.04.27 8.54 8.25 24.8 15.5
2013.07.07 3.25 4.67 15.4 9.6
2014.06.01 4.78 5.19 16.5 10.3
East Land 2001.06.09 7.0 8.5 26.5 356400 9.5 1.27

40
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Crater 2002.06.23 7.9 3.3 10.7 3.8

T
2003.11.17 -14.0 4.0 11.1 4.0

IP
2005.07.17 11.3 6.8 23.0 8.2
2008.08.03 12.7 4.8 16.5 5.9

CR
2009.11.10 -1.0 4.6 14.4 5.1
2010.09.17 12.3 4.2 13.7 4.9

US
2011.01.16 -16.9 9.5 26.6 9.5
2011.05.08 -2.1 2.6 7.7 2.8

N
2011.05.31 4.8 5.0 16.0 5.7

MA
2011.12.18 -8.9 6.4 18.9 6.7
2012.06.02 8.9 5.2 16.1 5.7

D
2012.10.01 2.1 8.1 28.3 10.1

TE
2012.12.27 -10.7 4.9 14.7 5.3
2013.03.10 -12.3 4.8 13.7 4.9

P
2013.04.27 -0.2 4.4 13.3 4.7
2013.07.07 17.1 CE7.5 24.4 8.7
2014.06.01 7.0 5.0 16.1 5.7
AC

Vaughan
1.1 to 2.0
Yellowstone −13 to 24 ~21 to ~37 et al. ASTER
GW
(2012)
2001 19.4 10.0 32.87 36 ± 6
Stefanos 2002 jun 28.6 8.2 28.60 Lakki Ganas
Nisyros crater 2002 oct 23.2 9.0 31.59 Plain: et al. ASTER
volcano
2005 32.4 9.0 32.42 1200000 (calculated (2010)
Polivotis using the
2001 16.6 8.3 27.29

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crater 2002 jun 26.8 8.7 30.41 average

Qrel: 30

T
2002 oct 21.9 8.1 28.46
W/m2)

IP
2005 30.4 7.0 25.21
2001 13.5 4.0 13.15

CR
Kaminakia 2002 jun 25.3 7.0 24.54
crater 2002 oct 18.6 4.8 16.88

US
2005 27.8 4.4 15.85
Anomaly 2 28.85 8.5 29 ± 5 43000 1.2 ± 0.2

N
Stromboli
volcano Anomaly 3 25.85 6.0 21 ± 4 77000 1.6 ± 0.3 Ganoac'h

MA
Landsat
12.2 ± et al.
Vulcano 30.35 10.5 37 ± 5 330000
1.7 (1994)

D
TE
P
CE
AC

42
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Research Highlights

T
Mt. Tendürek is one of the youngest volcanoes of Turkey.

R IP
Continuous hydrothermal activity on the twin summit craters.

SC
Surface Temperature, Surface Temperature Anomaly and Relative Radiative

NU
heat-flux calculated temporally.

Relative Radiative Heat flux between 14.4 and 35.5 W/m2 at the western
MA
crater

Relative Radiative Heat flux between 7.72 and 28.3 W/m2 at the eastern
D

crater.
P TE
CE
AC

43