Hannah Swain-Fontaine

Global Perspectives
Ms. Parnell
May 10, 2019

Keeping the Fire Alive: Women’s Sexuality

 Swain-Fontaine 1

Table of Contents
Preface…………………………………………………………….p. 2

Definitions…………………………………………..…………….p. 3

Significance/Justification………………………………………….p.8

Background ……………………………………………………….p.11

Expert……………………………………………………………...p.14

Role of Control Power……………………………………………..p.16

International Organizations………………………………………...p.18

Case Studies:.....................................................................................p.20

Somalia…………………………………………………………….p.20

France.……………………………………………………………..p.24

United States……………………………………………………….p.27

Canadian Connection……………………………………………….p.28

Logic of Evil………………………………………………………..p.31

Religion……………………………………………….…………....p.32

Politics.……………………………………………………………..p.34

Solutions…………………………………………………………....p.35

References…………………………………………………………...p.38
 Swain-Fontaine 2

Preface:

“The suppression of female sexuality can be regarded as one of the most remarkable
psychological interventions in Western cultural history. According to Sherfey’s (1966) respected
statement of this view, the sex drive of the human female is naturally and innately stronger than
that of the male, and it once posed a powerfully destabilizing threat to the possibility of social
order. For civilized society to develop, it was allegedly necessary or at least helpful for female
sexuality to be stifled” (Baumeister, 1). In a world overwhelmingly filled with undeniable gender
discrimination, this quote embodies the skewed philosophical views of which engagement and
participation of the female culture has fueled a source of intimidation. To subdue the
intimidating power of women, thoughts that lessening a female’s overall sexuality to regain
social order, have been rationalized. The ideas embedded in the quote above were those of a
female psychiatrist by the name of Mary Jane Sherfey. She also noted that “the strength of the
sex drive determines the force required to suppress it” (Sherfey, 1). This brings to attention that
men were/are not the only beings responsible for these thinking patterns. Women should not feel
they need to be anything smaller than who they are to fit into a restrictive box of societal ideals.
Women should be able to freely embrace their sexuality and feel safe and free in the process.

Under the broad umbrella of ‘Women Subjugated by their Sexuality’, in-depth research
will be conducted through the prongs of Female Genital Mutilation, involuntary celibates and
sexual assault in court, pertaining to legal and judicial systems. Examining these three issues will
allow for the exposure of different societal aspects which contribute to undermining the full
potential of human female existence and propagating extreme gender inequalities. The blatant
violation of basic human rights through the horrific practice of female genital mutilation
uncovers outdated societal convention, cultural ideals, entrenched belief systems and corrupted
religious practice. The study of incels will allow for close examination of current terrorist attacks
and motivations led primarily by disaffected males. This will expose the power and effectiveness
of the internet as well as the inherent prejudice and hatred towards women as sexual beings.
 Swain-Fontaine 3

Lastly, the investigation of unjust punishment towards the perpetrators of sexual assault against
female victims will incorporate a political depiction and assist in attaining a clarified
understanding of global justice systems.

To adequately fulfill this in-depth research report, a variety of methods and resources
have been utilized to ensure that the content is accurate and substantial. Through the use of
documentaries, videos, a formal discussion in an interview with an expert, various news and
academic journal articles and books, a deep understanding of the presented concepts has been
achieved.

Definition (Female Genital Mutilation):

The terms used to define Female Genital Mutilation as a global issue have been
noticeably controversial. When this practice was first internationally recognized, it was identified
as ‘female circumcision’. This term has been criticized for being related to male circumcision
and has manifested confusion between these two vastly different procedures. The health
implications are extremely different; for example, in African countries, some men are
encouraged to be circumcised to reduce HIV transmission, while FGM can increase the risk of
this disease. It has been argued that the phrase ‘female circumcision’ conceals the serious
physical and psychological effects of female genital cutting. In this report, this practice will be
identified as female genital mutilation(FGM), for this term is used by a wide range of women’s
health and human rights organizations as well as in several United Nations conference
documents. One recent document is the 2016 UN Secretary General’s Report on strengthening
global efforts for the complete abolishment of female genital mutilations. The classification
female genital mutilation provides a distinction from male circumcision and emphasizes that the
practice is a brutal form of child abuse that contradicts basic human rights.

According to one expert, “to cut off the sensitive sexual organ of a girl is directly against
the honesty of nature, a distortion to her womanhood, and an abuse to her fundamental human
 Swain-Fontaine 4

right” (Chidiebere, 2017). Female Genital Mutilation includes unethical procedures that
intentionally cause harm or alter female genital organs for non-medical purposes. Female Genital
Mutilation is an explicit violation of the human rights of girls and women. According to the most
comprehensive studies, procedures of FGM are most commonly carried out as early as a couple
of days after birth, to 15 years of age. FGM has been performed on many girls throughout their
childhood, at the time of marriage, during a woman’s first pregnancy and after the birth of a first
child. These procedures violate a person’s rights to health, security, physical integrity and the
right to be free from torture, cruelty and inhuman or degrading treatment. In the most severe
cases, FGM obliterates a woman’s right to life, when the procedure ends in death. The practice
serves no health benefits, as it negatively impacts not only the physical well-being of a female,
but also their psychological state. Female Genital Mutilation reflects deep-rooted inequalities
between the sexes as well as exposes extreme discrimination against women.

According to the 2016 UN report, there are four commonly practiced types of FGM, and
the risks increase with the severity of the procedure. Type one and two are the most common
procedures, however there are variations among different areas of the world. Female Genital
mutilation practices are done using special knives, scissors, scalpels, sections of glass and razor
blades. Medications to numb/lessen the pain such as anaesthetic and antiseptics are usually not
used. Type one mutilation is referred to as clitoridectomy and it involves the partial or total
removal of the clitoris. Type two is called excision which is the removal of the clitoris and the
labia minora, with or without the labia majora. Type 3 is often referred to as infibulation which is
the narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal. The seal is formed
by cutting and repositioning the labia minora, or labia majora, sometimes through the process of
stitching, with or without the removal of the clitoris. Lastly, Type 4 includes the rest of the
harmful procedures such as: pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterizing the genital
area. Another term to be familiarized with is Deinfibulation, which refers to the practice of
cutting open the sealed vaginal opening in a woman who has undergone infibulation. This
process is necessary for improving health and well being, allows for the mechanics of intercourse
as well as facilitating childbirth. Reinfibulation is the practice of sewing the external labia back
 Swain-Fontaine 5

together after deinfibulation. Incision refers to making cuts in the clitoris, this includes cutting
free the clitorial prepuce and making incisions in the vaginal wall. As explained, these
procedures harm and damage and even remove healthy and normal genitalia. They destroy and
interfere with the natural functions of girls’ and women’s bodies and there are many immediate
complications along with long term complications.

The negative impacts of an FGM procedure depend on circumstance. These

circumstances include the type performed, the expertise/thoughtfulness of the practitioner,
hygiene conditions, the amount of resistance the victim offers and her existing health condition
at the moment she is undergoing the procedure. Promptly after genital mutilation girls may
experience severe pain, excessive bleeding (haemorrhage), swelling of genital tissue, fever,
infections, urinary issues, extreme shock, wound healing problems and in some cases, death.
Long term consequences include urinary problems (urinary tract infections), vaginal problems,
scar tissue and keloid, sexual problems (pain during intercourse, decreased satisfaction),
increased risk of childbirth complications (difficult delivery, newborn deaths, excessive
bleeding), psychological problems (post traumatic stress, depression, anxiety). FGM can also
result in a need for surgery when type 3 is performed. The vaginal opening needs to be surgically
cut again to allow for intercourse and childbirth and this is also known as deinfibulation.

A dialogue taken from Lawrence Hill’s 2007 novel, ​The Book of Negroes​ depicts a
scenario in which a young girl is learning about Female Genital Mutilation in her African
community:

Mama said that some women had their womanly parts cut up and put back together very
badly. I asked what she meant. She smashed an old ceramic pot of no value, pushed apart
the pieces, discarded one or two, and then had me try to reassemble it. I managed to stick
some pieces together, but they were jagged, and stuck out and didn’t quite fit any longer.
“Like that,” Mama said.
“What happens to a woman like that?”
 Swain-Fontaine 6

“She might survive. Or she might bleed too much and die. Or she might die when she
tries to push out her first baby (Hill, 18).

This short conversation outlines the threats and irreversible damage that Female Genital
Mutilation has on the female body. Further on in the story the young girl exhibits curiosity and
slight retaliation as she learns that she must undergo an FGM procedure:

Mama began to speak to me about how my body would change. I would soon start
bleeding, she said,and around that time some women would work with her to perform a
little ritual on me. I wanted to know more about the ritual. All girls have it done when
they are ready to become women, she said. When I pressed for details, Mama said that
part of my womanhood was to be cut off so that I would be considered clean and pure
and ready for marriage. I was none too impressed by this, and informed her that I was in
no hurry to marry and would be declining the treatment. Mama said that no person could
be taken seriously without being married, and that in due time, she and Papa would tell
me about their plans for me. I told her that I remembered what she had said earlier, about
some people having their womanly parts torn apart and put back together improperly. She
carried on with an implacable confidence that left me worried.
“Did they do this to you?” I asked her.
“Of course,” she said, “or your father would never have married me.”
“Did it hurt?”
“More than childbirth, but it didn’t last long. It is just a little correction.”
“But I have done nothing wrong, so I am in no need of correction,” I said. Mama simply
laughed, so I tried another approach. “Some of the girls told me that Salima in the next
village died last year, when they were doing that thing to her.”
“Who told you that?”
“Never mind,” I said, employing one of her expressions. But is it true?”
“The woman who worked on Salima was a fool. She was untrained, and she tried to do
too much. I’ll take care of you when the time comes.”
 Swain-Fontaine 7

We let the matter drop, and never had the chance to discuss it again (Hill, 19).

These words hold immeasurable weight as the characters discuss the riddance of a
female’s sexual organs as a necessity to be married, and refer to the procedure as a “correction”.
With the thought of Salima, the girl who died during the practice, kept in the back of her mind,
the protagonist wants to “decline the treatment”. However, it is explicitly mentioned that it’s
mandatory she undergo genital mutilation to have a husband and be considered “clean and pure”.

Definition (Incels):
The term incel is also known as ‘involuntary celibate’. These people are most commonly
men, who treat women as nothing but sexual objects and perceive their lack of a ‘sex life’ to be
fueled by their unattractive physical appearance. Incels are blatantly sexist, own terrible attitudes
and possess little to no self awareness. These men believe through obscured perceptions, that
women as species, owe them sex. Many incels have developed internet driven communities with
other men who believe they are inherently unable to engage in romantic or sexual relationships,
despite desiring to be involved in them. These like-minded men gather ideas online,
brainstorming ways to make women have sex with them. These radical/extreme ideas have
provoked action and talk of genocide involving people of colour, genocide of ‘chads’ (the
deemed nickname for men who have sex), taking rights away from women, raping them, and
having intercourse with dead bodies of women(necrophilia). This destructive and dangerous
subculture has existed in dark corners for many years. However, the secret internet lives of Incels
have recently become three dimensional through Alek Minassian’s terrorist attack in Toronto,
inspired primarily by Elliot Rodger's shooting spree in California. These men believe that
women owe them sex and that as men, not having sex, they are being oppressed. These men are
fueled by the belief that women should never be considered superior or equal to men. Incels
typically believe that women are shallow creatures that are only attracted to looks and the
physical appearance of a man: “Therein lies the irony of the incel community. {the website}
r/incels has countless posts objectifying and vilifying women, yet these same men writing these
 Swain-Fontaine 8

posts desperately want to have sex with the women they hate-because they barely view women
as more than sex objects, and more often, antagonists to their goal of sex” (Grinnell College).

Definition (Sexual Assault):

Sexual assault is defined as an assault of a sexual nature that violates the sexual integrity
of the victim. The number of rapes being reported globally continues to increase, however the
number of convictions has fallen. The system is evidently corrupt. The justice system works
differently in every country, but worldwide we still see a pressing problem with securing
deserved justice for women who have been raped or sexually assaulted. Sexual violence is any
violent sexual act or attempt to obtain a sexual act through violence or force. This includes
unwanted touching, sexual comments or advances, as well as selling or attempting to sell
someone for sex. Inappropriate comments and acts of violence directed against an individual
because of their sexuality are also included in this definition. On a global scale, 1 in 3 women are
are affected by sexual violence in their lifetime (The Guardian, 2019). There are no grey areas;
sexual assault is a daily occurence that the human race cannot become desensitized towards.

Significance (FGM):
More than 200 million girls and women alive today have been cut in 30 different
countries. This is an unacceptable human rights violation with devastatingly negative health
impacts. Rates of female genital mutilation are increasing, which is a large reflection of global
population growth. The areas predominantly known for this horrific practice are places in
sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab States. It is also practiced in countries in Asia, Eastern Europe
and Latin America. Female Genital Mutilation is also seen within migrant populations around
Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand. If these despicable procedures continue at
current rates, 68 million girls will be cut between 2015 and 2030. The challenge facing our world
is the ability to not only protect girls/women currently at risk of FGM but also to ensure the
eradication of these procedures so that those born in the future will be free from the dangers of
the practice. This progress is essential due to the prevailing notion that FGM concentrated
countries are experiencing high population growth and high concentrated youth populations. In
 Swain-Fontaine 9

2015 approximately 3.9 million girls were mutilated. These numbers are estimated to rise to 4.6
million annually by 2030. This global issue is even more intensified with the knowledge that
small, innocent children are the targeted demographic undergoing these procedures - children
who can’t ( and if they can, only minimally) defend their rights and themselves. These young
women are left obviously unaware of the physical health implications and life changing/ending
repercussions that mutilation procedures encompass. They are taught to trust their families and
community figureheads, who sentence them to the mutilation of their genital organs, negatively
impacting their lives forever.

Significance (Incels):
The subculture of Incels is growing in significance, to the degree that it needs to be
addressed as a world issue. The internet cult of involuntary celibates has been built up to such an
extent that a distinct language made up of dehumanizing terms is commonly used. ‘Chads’ are
seen as high status men who incels hate because they are successful with women and have lots of
sex. They are muscular and good-looking and, in an incel’s mind, this makes life really easy for
them. Another despised character are the ‘Stacys’. These represent shallow, self obsessed woman
who only pay attention to and want to be with ‘Chads’. The use of these names is an outlet to
express rage and assign blame, and they serve to depersonalize the targets of their rage. They
focus on feminists being the root of their problems. The virtual world of incels is filled with
misogyny and hate, expressed through acts of violence. However, being incel isn’t necessarily
about regaining masculinity, but about the take down of female empowerment. Some Incels call
it the ‘incel rebellion’, when in reality it’s just a retreat to the same classic forms of male
domination. The pressing issue of Incels may be more of a recent problem that has arisen, but
there are many aspects of social climate that manifested these viewpoints decades ago. An
examination on Canadian realities alone, emphasizes the significance of this world issue. There
has been relative silence from the federal government regarding the threat of incels to female
society. A criminologist specializing in hate crimes states: ‘If you look at the...reports on the
terrorist threat in Canada, either far right isn’t mentioned or they’re dismissed out of hand as...
not a threat, not organized, not coherent, and therefore not a risk (Perry, 2019). In the last 30
 Swain-Fontaine 10

years, there has been an estimated 120 instances of incel-related violence, and during the same
30 years there were 7 recorded occurrences of Islamist-inspired extremism. There is an urgent
need for more awareness and government assistance to combat this growing concern. By
authorities, incel attacks are often categorized as being lone wolf attacks that are not an ongoing
threat to public safety.

Such a position does not adequately explain the incident in 2014, when Elliot Rodger, a
student attending the University of California at Santa Barbara killed six people and injured
fourteen others, prior to shooting himself. Rodger’s shooting was fueled by his manifesto that
was rife with the beliefs of incels. A line from the beginning paragraph of his manifesto declares,
“I was cast out and rejected, forced to endure an existence of loneliness and insignificance, all
because the females of the human species were incapable of seeing the value of me” (Rodger,
2014). Elliot Rodger’s manifesto led Alek Minassian to commit a terrorist attack in a rented van,
killing 10 people, 8 of them women. In 2018, Nikolas Cruz killed 17 people at Marjory
Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida, and after the shooting, he shared online a
statement saying, ‘Elliot Rodger will not be forgotten.’ These attacks are threats to national
security, and deeming these threats as merely a fringe movement is a momentous mistake.

Significance (Sexual Assault):

Over the past year, specifically when I was in the thick of the brutal legal process of a
rape trial, I at times felt utterly overwhelmed, and, over and over again, kept finding
solace and strength in knowing that I was only one woman amongst hundreds and
thousands of women fighting back against the men who have committed violence
against them (Smith-Tague, 2018).

Out of every 1000 sexual assaults, only 230 assaults on women are reported to the police.
According to the Criminal Justice System website, the vast majority of sexual assault
perpetrators will not serve time in jail or in prison. In fact, out of every 1000 rapes, 995 offenders
 Swain-Fontaine 11

will walk away without any sentencing or punishment. On average, if 230 perpetrators are
reported to the police, only 46 reports lead to arrest, 9 cases get referred to prosecutors, 5 cases
will lead to a felony conviction and 4.6 rapists will be imprisoned. To demonstrate how
overlooked the significance is, a comparison will be shown, demonstrating how the statistics of
1000 sexual assaults compares to 1000 robberies. Out of 1000 robberies, 619 are reported to the
police, 167 reports lead to arrest, 37 cases get referred to prosecutors, 22 cases will lead to a
felony conviction and 20 robbers will be imprisoned (Rainn, 2019). These numbers are a lot
higher than those regarding sexual assault, and there lies problem within the statistics. Questions
such as why victims of sexual violence receive less justice arise and analysis on the reasoning is
pondered. When research was conducted regarding sexual-violence related crimes that hadn’t
been brought to police attention in the years 2005-2010, victims had many different responses to
explain their reasoning. Many said they feared retaliation, a portion believed that the police
would/could not provide assistance, some thought that it was a personal matter that shouldn’t be
voiced, or that what happened to them wasn’t important enough. The global issue of sexual
violence heavily pertains to women, seeing as one in three females face some sort of sexual
harassment in their lifetime (UN women 2018). Women deserve to feel empowered and to feel as
if their voices will be heard, understood and respected. Legal systems need to support women in
providing them with deserved justice and security.

Background (FGM):
The original starting point of Female Genital Mutilation practices are unclear. It is widely
accepted that Female Genital Mutilation predates the rise of Christianity and Islam. It has been
documented that some Egyptian mummies show evidence of FGM, providing insight as to when
it began. The well known Greek historian Herodotus claimed that, in the fifth century BC, the
Phoenicians, the Hittites and the Ethiopians practiced female genital mutilation. Also, it has been
identified that female genital cutting was performed in tropical zones of Africa, the Philippines,
tribes located in the Upper Amazon, by women of the Arunta tribe in Australia and by some
early Arabs and Romans. There is viable evidence of clitoridectomy being practiced in Western
 Swain-Fontaine 12

Europe and the United States in the 1950s. There have been many reports regarding early
practices of Female Genital Mutilation, however an exact origin is undetermined.

Background (Incel):
Through investigation by Elle magazine in 2016, it was notified that the first incel on the
internet was a woman. In 1993 a 45 year old management consultant living in Toronto named
Alana, came out as being bisexual. The fire of feeling rejected and unaccepted, fueled her to
blame rigid social norms and in 1997 she created an online site named ‘Alana’s Involuntary
Celibacy Project’, in an attempt to create a community and connect people with common
problems. However, a mostly male audience was attracted and they shared aggressive and
derogatory perspectives that drove Alana to take down her site. But the growing community
eventually found Reddit, the web nest. This includes tens of thousands of users that show
extreme violence against women. Originating from feminism’s earliest beginnings, certain
groups of men have been arguing that maybe men, not women, are society’s real victims
(Gilmore 2001). The men’s rights movement has been known to challenge concepts like reverse
sexism. These male activists have formed groups around issues involving false rape accusations,
circumcision, custody battles and abortion. In recent years, the men’s rights movement has
proliferated due to the Internet’s capability to join like-minded people who connect through
global grievances. Thanks to the internet, the Manosphere is global, and most members never
meet each other, but it is massive and rapidly growing (Poland 2016). Involuntary celibates form
online groups: r/TheRedPill, r/incels, etc. Through these sites men can share links and discuss
trends. Incels have generated subcultural lingo, facilitate daily discussion and share a distinct
language and belief system. The main demographic of incels are heterosexual males at least 21
years of age, and have gone months without a romantic partner.

Background (Sexual Assault):

A rape culture is created when sexual violence becomes normalized and tolerated among
members of society. A rape culture is often formed when the general members of society
perpetuate rape myths, which is largely influenced by media and a popular culture. The term rape
 Swain-Fontaine 13

culture was classified recently, but the concept of rape culture has been in existence for
centuries. This can be evident through history in the stories shared between members of Ancient
Greek, Medieval and Victorian societies.

The term “rape culture” originated after a group of feminists released the film ‘Rape
Culture” in the year of 1975 which raised awareness of the normalization of sexual violence in
society. It was the first documentary to identify the relationship between rape and our culture’s
sexual fantasies by studying popular culture and media. Feminists began to realize that voices
needed to be heard and a stand against rape culture to spread awareness of its consequences are
necessary to promote change. ‘We need to notice this stuff, get outraged, and share our outrage
with others. Staying aware of rape culture is painful work, but we can’t interrupt the culture of
violence unless we are willing to see it for what it is” (Prochuk, 1975). From the 1970’s on, the
term “rape culture” has been used in media and the public to explain the state society is currently
in, with regards to sexual violence.

Examining stories and mythology present in Ancient Greek society it is clear to see that
rape culture has existed since 900 BC. The rape and sexual harassment of women and youth was
a common theme within Greek mythology. One famous story is set at a local lake where Leda is
enjoying a bath when Zeus proceeds to sneak up on her and rape her. Zeus was a powerful God
in Greek culture and was notorious for his sexual encounters with mortal women. Feminist Alana
Prochuk states: “the myths catered for the salacious voyeurism of the ancient Greeks just as the
gossip column of the tabloid press do for us today” (Prochuk, 1975). This story, offers distaste in
encouraging sexual violence among the male community by promoting the act with a well
respected god.

The story of Lucretia and Helen of Troy present ideas which contributed to a rape culture
in the Medieval period. The rape of Lucretia is a story that depicts her as an innocent victim of
malicious sexual desire. One night Tarquinius, son of the Roman King, sneaks into her bedroom
with a sword in hand, as she is sleeping. Lucretia wakes up terrified, and Tarquinius threatens
 Swain-Fontaine 14

her, and then takes advantage of the woman without consent. In those times adultery was
punishable, and as a result, Lucretia ends her life despite being innocent.

An article on the history of rape culture suggests such stories, “end in the fall of a nation
as the result of the social impact of rape or ravishment...their tellers engage with the opposition
between private and public, force and consent, shame and honour, and suffering and desire”
(Rape and Ravishment in the Literature of Medieval England, 152). These stories spark
discussion and the connection of concerns regarding the notion of chastity and consent among
women.

Expert:
Below is an elaboration of an interview with the Honourable Madam Justice Janice
leMaistre who is a federal judge on the Manitoba Court of Appeal. Working in an extremely
powerful and influential judicial role, I asked Judge leMaistre various questions relating her line
of work to the concepts embedded in the report.

Have you encountered any cases of female genital mutilation in your time working?
Her answer was negative and proceeded to explain that “if it happened in Canada it
would be considered physical assault, if it was without the woman’s consent”(leMaistre, 2019).

Have you ever looked at cases involving incels?

Judge leMaistre was unfamiliar with this term, however, after I explained who they are
and how they act, she added : “ the attitudes of incels you are describing are often the types of
attitudes that are encountered when dealing with domestic violence cases and sexual assault
cases” (leMaistre, 2019).

Could you elaborate or provide insight into the process of a prosecution for a sexual assault?
Judge leMaistre explained that after a woman is sexually assaulted they usually do not
take immediate action in calling the police. Women who have been assaulted first seek out
 Swain-Fontaine 15

medical assistance at a hospital, and here, a sexual assault protocol is done by a nurse for
collection of evidence, to keep for court purposes. A complaint or statement to the police is
usually followed up after this and then a sexual assault protocol exam is conducted. At this point,
the woman would be referred to victim services and contacted within 24 hours from someone
from Manitoba Justice. Here they provide support in the form of crisis counselling and refer you
to long term counselling as well. The next step is that the police arrests the person who assaulted
the woman (if they know who did it). Investigators then look into the crime scene to determine if
they can gather any DNA evidence such as hair fragments, semen or fingerprints and once the
police have collected the DNA they send it to a lab where it can sometimes take months to
receive any results. The court process then leads to the accused pleading guilty or pleading
not-guilty. If the accused pleads guilty, then they proceed to a sentencing hearing. Next a victim
impact statement is given as an opportunity for the victim to voice their story. Then there is a
preliminary inquiry if the accused pleads not-guilty and then they go to trial where the judge has
the ultimate decision.

Why do women feel hesitant to voice their sexual assault stories?

The main idea that Judge leMaistre discussed was that the biggest issue is women not
able to hold the perpetrators accountable and failing to bring attention to their situation, which
sparks justice. She explained that there is a ‘psychology of victimization’ (leMaistre 2019) when
it comes to sexual assault. There is a built up stigma associated with the way women behave,
such as a man indicating: “oh she was all dressed up like that...she was basically asking for it”.
These societal attitudes include viewpoints infused with misogyny. Changing these attitudes has
been, and continues to be, a real struggle. Women still feel like that’s how they are going to be
perceived if they complain that they’ve been sexually assaulted. As well, many sexual assaults
occur when women are vulnerable. Date-rape is very common in Canadian society and in these
situations, a man’s thinking patterns may be: “she said no, but she didn’t really mean it” or “I
thought she was giving consent by the way that she was behaving”. A woman who has gone
through that experience may even begin to second guess her own behaviour and blame herself,
 Swain-Fontaine 16

thinking that she did something to lead him on or making it seem like she wanted to have
intercourse when she really did not. Women will second guess and look at their own behaviour
(role reversal) rather than looking at what the man violated. In summary, attitudes about the
reasons women are sexually assaulted are why they are hesitant to voice their experiences as well
as the daunting prospect of reliving their story and explaining every detail to the police. They are
forced to talk about their own behaviour and tell everything to a judge in court. They need to be
prepared to be cross examined and challenged about their behaviour. However, ‘experiencing the
reporting and participating in the justice system’ (leMaistre 2019) is crucial to societal progress.

In 2018 there was a criminal trial in Ireland that fueled global rage. A man was accused of rape,
and his lawyer used her lacy underwear as evidence and as an indication of consent. Have you
heard of this case? What are you thoughts?

Judge leMaistre answered by saying that the lawyer was practically saying that ‘sexy
underwear was an indication of wanting to have sex’ (leMaistre 2019). She proceeded by saying
this was a far step away from logic.

What are some steps communities can take in order to see viable solutions?
In order to reach solutions, Judge leMaistre discussed dismantling the stigma around
sexual assault through education and awareness. Providing support is critical, so women can
cope with what they have been through, and so they know what will be expected of them in
court. Lastly, empowering women to stand up for themselves and fight for their security, and
re-legitimizing the female word, ‘no means NO’, to empower the female community.

Role of Control (FGM):

FGM is usually carried out by elderly people in the community assigned to perform this
task by traditional birth attendants. In some areas traditional health practitioners such as barbers,
herbalists, relatives or members of secret societies are involved. Sometimes medical
professionals perform these procedures; this is recognized as the ‘medicalization of Female
 Swain-Fontaine 17

Genital Mutilation’. UNFPA (the United Nations population Fund) estimates that one of five
girls subjected to genital mutilation were cut by trained health care providers. Many fathers and
men believe that uncut women are promiscuous and inferior to women who have been cut. In
many communities, Female genital mutilation is important to ensure the opportunity for marriage
and for fidelity in marriage. Practices are also fueled through cultural ideals of femininity and
modesty, such as beliefs that girls are beautiful and clean after the removal of dirty and
unfeminine body parts. Religious leaders take varying positions and some promote these
procedures. As well, sometimes local structures of power and authority, community leaders,
circumcisors, and medical personnel support the practice. Women and children have the right to
be protected from harm, in all settings and at all times. Movements to end FGM are often local in
origin and these efforts work towards protecting girls from profound, permanent and completely
unnecessary harm. Women are in need of control over this demoralizing practice and everyone
should care about this issue, as there is undeniable strength and a greater chance of societal
progress through awareness and support.

Role of Control (Incels):

The role of control analyzing the online subculture of incels can be perceived in many
different lights. Men, most commonly over 21 years of age have control over this global issue,
but as ironic as it seems, this reality of control has been derived from their personal ‘powerless’
feeling. These groups of like-minded men share grievances such as rejection, unworthiness and
loneliness. To gain a sense of control they started online communities targeting women and
blaming them for the absence of romance in their lives. Involuntary celibates are blatantly
persecuting women through unreasonable hatred. Higher power authority figures should attempt
to gain control of incels through government initiatives and blocking access to these websites
before they congregate into communities or to hinder further development of terrorist attacks or
acts of violence.
 Swain-Fontaine 18

Role of Control (Sexual Assault):

The role of control regarding sexual assault in courts can also be perceived in different
lights. In the material act of committing sexual assault, a man usually takes on a role of control
over a woman. Through deep-rooted gender inequalities men have had, and continue to have, a
sense of control over females; men’s words accepted to hold more truth and men’s actions being
wrongfully dismissed. Women need to find control through discovering their voices and
empowering the female community to stand up against sexual violence. The early incels
attempted to counter this tendency by fostering a healthy commenting culture which maintained
a mixed-gender user base, it banned misogynistic content and provided advice on how to
overcome shyness in the outside world. However, the dominance of the current incel community
has the opposite effect and takes the intrinsic negativity of the online community and focuses its
resentment on women.

Role of Control regarding sexual assault and rape culture can also be observed from the
hands of societal normalizations. Our society’s obsession with the appearance of women’s
bodies sustains rape culture. Girls learn from a young age that what matters most about them is
the way they look, and boys are wrongfully taught to value this in a girl. Due to a culture’s
relentless focus on appearance, women are constantly turned into inanimate objects. This kind of
objectification contributes to the broadened culture of rape, societal pressures, ideals and
unethical standards for women.

International Organizations (FGM):

There exist many examples of international involvement to eliminate female genital

mutilation have been put into action. The World Health Organization has initiated groups that
monitor this global issue and introduce resolutions which condemn the practice. They also look
over legal frameworks and cultivate political support and awareness to end FGM. Research has
 Swain-Fontaine 19

demonstrated that if communities decide to stop genital mutilation, the entire practice can be
abolished quickly.

In 1997, the WHO (World Health Organization) issued a statement condemning the
practice of female genital mutilation in conjunction with UNICEF (United Nations Children’s
Fund) and UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund). Since this public statement, great efforts
have been made to combat FGM through education and research, work within communities and
changes in public policy. The year 2007 marked the beginning of UNFPA and UNICEF of the
joint programme to end practices of genital mutilation. In 2008, the WHO, along with nine other
United Nations partners, adopted resolution on eliminating FGM. In December of 2012, the UN
General Assembly came to terms with a resolution on eliminating female genital mutilation. In
May of 2016, the WHO and UNFPA-UNICEF joint programme, released the first evidence
based guidelines on the management of health complications from FGM. These guidelines
provided the best available evidence on health interventions for women who have been cut. To
support and carry through with the guidelines, the WHO is creating tools for front-line
health-care workers to improve knowledge, attitudes and skills of health experts working to
prevent genital mutilation. In 2008 the World Health Organization passed a resolution on the
elimination of FGM, outlining the demand for action in health, education, finance, justice and
women’s affairs sectors. WHO efforts include: strengthening health sector response such as
medical care, tools and training. Building evidence and educating by generating cause and
consequence of the practice and how to eliminate it. Lastly, they work to increase advocacy by
creating communication tools for international as well as local efforts.

The abolishment of the oppression of women through their physical sexuality will require
intensive and sustained collaboration from all of the different branches that make up the tree of
society. These components include families, communities, religious and other leaders, the
abundant forms of media, governments and international community relations. A lack of
assistance and effort from these branches will result in a dying tree, the indicator of minimal
progress regarding the abandonment of this despicable subjugation.
 Swain-Fontaine 20

Case Studies:

Case Study One: Somalia

The World Health Organization estimates that at least 90 million females in Africa have
undergone a Female Genital Mutilation procedure. In 2012, Somalia introduced a new
constitution, implementing the abolishment of FGM practices.

However, to this day, there is little follow up and UNICEF estimates that an astonishing
98 percent of girls and women have been cut in this country. The cutting procedure in this
country is typically performed by people who are not medically trained. Many activists are
hesitant to pursue efforts in ensuring medical professionals to perform FGM, because it is seen as
legitimizing the procedure. However, “trained health professionals who perform Female Genital
Mutilation are violating girls’ and women’s rights to life, physical integrity and health” (Dahir,
2019).

Approximately two-thirds of girls who experience FGM in Somalia are subjected to

infibulation, which is one of the most extreme forms of Female Genital Mutilation. Following
an excision of the clitoris, girls are left with their labias stitched together. The implications are
very severe and can make urination and menstruation impossible tasks. In the many countries
around the world where FGM is prevalent, there is usually a presence of deep rooted stigma
against those who do not go through the procedure. FGM is often considered to be a crucial part
of a ‘coming of age’ ceremony.

Somalia’s constitution prohibits although does not outlaw Female Genital Mutilation
procedures. In Somalia, the prevalence of FGM in women aged 15-49 is an astounding 97.9%.
Central, as well as southern regions of Somalia have the highest prevalence at 99.2%. Most
girls’ genitalia are cut between the ages of 5 and 9. Approximately 80% of women have
 Swain-Fontaine 21

undergone Type III which is infibulation also known as Pharaonic circumcision in Somalia
which is usually performed by traditional practitioners. An astounding 64.5% of women aged
15-49 believe FGM should continue.

The domestic legal framework around FGM in Somalia is very vague, and leaves room
for misinterpretation as well as danger. The constitution strictly prohibits Female Genital
Mutilation, however it does not prohibit violence against women and girls and harmful practices.
Somalia’s National Legislation fails to: provide a clear definition of FGM, criminalise the
performance of FGM, criminalise the procurement, arrangement and/or assistance acts of FGM,
criminalise the failure to report incidents of FGM, criminalise the participation of medical
professionals in acts of FGM, and criminalise the practice of cross -border FGM. Lastly, the
government does not have a strategy to abandon these practices. However, the government state
of Puntland has implemented a strategy. Puntland does not want to be an independent entity, but
it is declared an autonomous state and wishes to be a federal part of Somalia.

The federal Republic of Somalia is taken to comprise five federal states including
Puntland and Somaliland-which declared independence from Somalia in 1991. Somaliland has
its own government, but its self declared independence remains unrecognized by the United
Nations and Somalia continues to consider Somaliland as a federal member state. Puntland has
made more progress in recent years towards ending FGM regarding its law and strategies
implement towards the hindernace of this procedure.

Civil law, Islamic law and customary law (referred to as Xeer) make up Somalia’s legal
system. After the Shari’ah, the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia is the supreme
law of the country. Rules regarding the protection of human dignity and equality can be found
under articles 15 and 29 of the constitution:

Article 15: “Circumcision of girls is a cruel and degrading customary practice, and tantamount to
torture. The circumcision of girls is prohibited” (art. 15, 2012).
 Swain-Fontaine 22

Article 29 elaborates the rights of women and children as it states: ‘Every child has the right to
be protected from mistreatment, neglect, abuse or degradation” (art. 29, 2012).​ ​However, there is
currently no national legislation in Somalia that expressly criminalises and punishes the FGM
procedures. Important dates of attempted progress and implementation of law include April 2
1964 when the Penal Code came into force and it’s applicable to all jurisdictions in Somalia and
makes it a criminal offence to hurt human beings in a way that damages them physically, and or
mentally. In the year of 2015, it was reported that work had begun to initiate a bill criminalising
Female Genital Mutilation in Somalia. The Ministry of Women Affairs and Human Rights
declared that it would introduce FGM abolishment laws, but there is no specific bill established
yet.

In Puntland currently, there is FGM legislation waiting parliamentary approval. In 2016,

the Sexual Offences Act addresses these harmful practices. As well Islamic ruling, referred to as
Fatwa thats is against Female Genital Mutilation. It bans the practice, but fails to define, assist
acts of FGM, or report was has/is happening.

There has been an increase of medicalised FGM in Somalia, meaning girls being cut by
health professionals or in a medical environment. This is a result of wealthier families as well as
more educated families believing that with a health expert, procedures will be safer. There is no
law in place that criminalises or punishes the medicalisation on the practice.

In countries where practices of FGM have become illegal, many have gone to maximum
extents such as crossing borders where the existence and enforcement of anti-FGM laws vary.
For example, many Somalis live in the border regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, and since there is
no national legislation banning FGM in Somalia, families move across the borders to avoid
prosecution. As well, many Somali women from the Western diaspora such as the USA or the
UK are taken to Somalia for FGM for no legal risk.
 Swain-Fontaine 23

In terms of punishing the perpetrators of Female Genital Mutilation, Somalia is

struggling. In the Penal code it states ‘the penalty for causing hurt to another is imprisonment for
three months to three years. Where the hurt is deemed to be ‘grievous’, the penalty is
imprisonment for three to seven years, rising to six to twelve years where the hurt is deemed
‘very grievous’(Penal Code, Article 440). Yet, there have been no reports of arrests or court
proceedings in Somalia regarding Female Genital Mutilation cases. As well, there is no evidence
of the Penal Code being used to prosecute perpetrators of FGM. Countless girls have bled to
death during these procedures, however, there is limited awareness about such occurrences
because it is failed to be brought to the public’s attention. These cases are kept secret and are
settled in private, usually involving the family, medical practitioners and sometimes with the
supervision of community members.

The prominent leading governments responsible for work to stop the progression of FGM
are: The Ministry of Women and Human Rights Development (MOWHRD), Ministry of
Women’s Development and Family Affairs, Ministry for Religious Affairs and Endowment,
Ministry of Health (MOH) and the Ministry of Youth. Beginning in 2015, the MOWHRD and
the MOH have collaborated and held meetings to coordinate anti-FGM work. However, progress
has been next to impossible, due to the inability to obtain details of a government strategy to end
Female Genital Mutilation nationwide.

In 2009, Somalia became part of the UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on Female

Genital Mutilation Cutting (UNJP). This organization works to engage communities, develop
communication strategies, provide protection and support services for girls and women affected,
establish religious leaders’ networks and support efforts to develop policy and anti-FGM
legislation.

There is an astounding prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in Somalia, ranking as

the highest in the world, and explicit evidence suggests that there has been little change over
time. The prohibition of FGM under the Somali constitution is a small start, yet not even close to
 Swain-Fontaine 24

enough. The absence of a national law criminalising and punishing FGM continues to undermine
efforts of groups and individuals working to end it. Abolishing FGM in Somalia is, and will
continue to be a tremendous challenge. The implementation of the national legislation is a key
piece to abolish the practice. This will demonstrate the government’s commitment to ridding
FGM and protecting women and girls’ rights and freedoms.

The national legislation of Somalia must be heavily revised. The law needs to include
clear definitions of all types of FGM practiced across Somalia. It needs to criminalise and punish
perpetrators of the practice, including those who perform, procure, aid, or abet FGM.
Medicalised and cross-border practices must be considered as well. Laws need to protect victims
and address the failure to report FGM that has taken place. This is all a key for the
consideration of protecting women and girls through national law.

Case Study 2: France

“On April 24, 2017, a 28 year old man met an 11 year old girl in a park in Montmagny,
just north of Paris, after which, he took her home where he had oral and vaginal sex with her”
(Doezema, 2018). After the act, the child reached out to her mother to describe the story. The girl
thought that while the situation played out, she didn’t have the right to protest, and that if she
did, it would not make a difference. The accusations reported on the case were of an adult raping
a child which is a crime, in France, that can lead to a 20 year prison sentence, when the victim is
15 years old or younger. At first, the act was not charged in this manner, initially when the case
reached the court in September, the man only faced charges of ‘sexual infraction’, a crime that
could receive punishment of a maximum of 5 years in jail and a $75 000 fine. The case went
back to court in February and the perpetrator’s attorney did not deny the sexual encounter but
they argued that the girl had been capable of consenting. The defense lawyer said: ‘she was 11
years and 10 months old, so nearly 12 years old’ ... and ‘we are not dealing with a sexual
predator on poor little faultless goose’ (Goudarzian, 2017). Through these quotes the defense
attorney is attempting to assign blame to a girl who was raped at 11 years old, through the tactic
of clarifying her specific age and implying that she was not innocent in the situation. The child’s
 Swain-Fontaine 25

defense representative re-buttles: ‘It is indefensible that an 11 year old girl could be considered
consenting with a 28 year-old man. This is shocking’ (Ronai 2017). The case provoked an
unprecedented backlash resulting in France considering a change to longstanding, anomalous
features of its law: such as having no legal age of consent for sex.

Under French law, a lack of having a legal age of consent for sex means there is no
presumption of coercion if a sexual minor is involved. The French law defines rape as: “any act
of sexual penetration, of whatever nature, committed on the person of another by violence,
coercion, threat or suprise”(Doezema 2018). Most countries in Europe such as Spain, Belgium,
Britain, Switzerland, Denmark and Austria have a solidified legal consent age in their law. So, in
a sense, France is behind, and less legally prudent than other established countries in its
continent.

Identifying a specific age and consent means that children and adolescents below the
fixed age can not, regardless of the circumstance, be considered consenting to sex, as their age
makes them incapable to make the decision. Therefore, in most European countries, if someone
has sex with another person who is under the legal age, they will be charged with rape,
regardless of whether violence or force was used. This law needs to be included and
implemented, there have been many behavioural and scientific studies that have concluded that
children are developmentally unprepared to give informed consent/decisions. These scenarios
put children in an impossible situation where it is hard for them to fight back against people in
positions of authority and power. Sexual abuse on children is often a unique phenomenon and
dynamics are drastically different compared to adult sexual abuse, so this type of act can not be
handled in the same manner. Adult perpetrators praying on children rarely use physical force or
violence and instead, manipulate and deceive the child to hide the abuse. The World Health
Organization defines child sexual abuse as ‘the involvement of a child in sexual activity that he
or she does not fully comprehend, is unable to give informed consent to, or for which the child is
not developmentally prepared and cannot give consent, or that violates the laws or social taboos
of society’ (WHO, 2018).
 Swain-Fontaine 26

One reason the French legal system seemed reluctant to set a specific age of consent due
to attitudes that followed May 1986, when student protests against capitalism, consumerism, and
other values and institutions considered unjust, led to significant civil unrest. Protests led to a
cultural revolution that left imprints of France’s identity. Attitudes began to shift and children
were viewed as having the right to be considered sexual beings. A presence of ‘a general
atmosphere of sexual freedom and a liberalization of lifestyles’ was introduced, and ‘a
movement in favor of pedophilia was brought to the table’ (Dechaux, 2014).

Public opinion in France has evolved in recent decades, yet the country’s legal
institutions have been apparently slow to catch up. The legal status quo leaves too much up to the
subjectivity of judges. ‘There are some {professionals} who have very good instincts from
experiences or simply their humanity. There are others who have had training but don’t have the
humanity to go with it’(Diebolt, 2018). ​ ​Protecting children from sexual abuse cannot be left up
to the discretion of judges without the support of legislation and legalization to support the
offence.

In France during the 1970s and 1980s, the question of the relationship between adults and
children and the issues of rights and the autonomy of minors were recurrent in the press” he
wrote. “The identification of the potentially sexual nature of the relationship between adults and
children was one of the ways of going against the bourgeois order”(Verdrager 1)​.

The Montmogny case, involving an 11 year old girl being stripped of her innocence and
completely destroyed, exposed a silver lining through a very dark and horrific situation. The case
raised great awareness of the absence of a legal consent age in France. In this country and other
places, a certain privilege is given to perpetrators in positions of power, which leads to a certain
tolerance of these crimes in society. It contributes to minimize, excuse and relativize rapes and
sexual assault.
 Swain-Fontaine 27

Case Study 3: The United States of America

“What incels want is extremely limited and specific: they want to be able to have sex on
demand with young, beautiful women. They believe that this is a natural right” (Zender, 2018).
In America, sex has become a deregulated marketplace, fueling some dangerous emotions.
Commonly speaking, men, not unlike women, blame the opposite sex if they feel undesirable.
Over the years as women have gained economic as well as cultural power allowing them to
choose their own partners, the incel community has grown. These like-minded men have
generated ideas about self -improvement that rise from pure rage.

Beginning around the 1960’s, there was a sexual revolution​ ​that empowered women to seek
liberation and independence, and the self esteem movement taught women their value beyond
prejudice and convention. The rise and normalization of feminism instilled certainty within
women and taught them the understanding that they can and should choose who they have
intercourse with.

Quite recently, a subset of straight men referred to as ‘incels’ have constructed a violent
political ideology around the injustice of women not having sex with them. This online
subculture often subscribes to notions of white supremacy and are diabolically misogynistic.

Elliot Rodger, in 2014, in Isla Vista, California, murdered six and injured fourteen
women in an attempt to impose a “War on Women” for “depriving me of sex” (Rodger, 2014).
This terrorist attack led to the killing of nine innocent people in 2015, done by Christopher
Harper-Mercer who left behind a manifesto, praising Rodger’s work. A poster created by a group
of American incels reads “Women are the ultimate cause of our suffering, they are the ones who
have UNJUSTLY made our lives a living hell….we need to focus more on our hatred of women.
Hatred is power”.

Canadian Connection (FGM):

 Swain-Fontaine 28

Living in a place of freedom and extreme privilege, many people in Canada are oblivious
to the fact that issues regarding Female Genital Mutilation are occurring on our home soil.
However, it is an issue affecting women and girls in Canada and all across the globe. Canadian
women are being taken out of the country to have procedures performed, and immigrants living
in our country are not being provided with support to cope with issues that arise after FGM has
occurred. In the summer of 2017, a project revealed the prevalence of FGM within Canadian
borders. The study conducted surveyed 385 women around the world- mainly from the Dawoodi
Bohra community, and discovered that 18 of these women (5%) lived in Canada and had all
undergone FGM, and two of the women had the procedure done in Canada.

Approaching FGM in Canada requires a holistic response in the same way as other issues
that only affect women, that means dealing with the crime, but also the victim and other
potential victims. Even if a practitioner is prosecuted and sent to jail, it doesn’t change
the fact there were countless victims already (Rempel, 2018).

This being said there has never been a criminal prosecution for Female Genital
Mutilation in Canada. There are other ways that Canada has attempted to respond to the problem
of FGM outside of prosecution. For example, Canada announced a commitment of $650 million
to sexual and reproductive health and rights in July 2017; these funds went to initiatives to
respond to sexual and gender based violence, including Female Genital Mutilation. Violence
against women is addressed in Canada’s strategy to prevent and address gender-based violence.
Pertaining to FGM more directly, the government granted $350 000 to an organization working
to raise awareness about the practice and to support its survivors. A plan must be implemented
into Canada’s Strategy to Combat Gender-Based Violence. Under this outlet, a formulated plan
should be achieved, awareness and outreach, increased training for law enforcement officials,
general training on how to handle reports of FGM and an action plan for the Canadian healthcare
system to support survivors.

Canadian Connection (Incels):

 Swain-Fontaine 29

Incels are a real and present threat for Canadians. A vivid example is the horrific event
that occurred in Toronto on April 23rd, 2018. For his actions on this date, 26 year old Alek
Minassian is facing 10 counts of first degree murder, and 16 counts of attempted murder.

April 23, 2019 marks the one year anniversary of the deadly van attack on a busy Toronto
sidewalk, perpetrated by an involuntary celibate. This violent act has launched a nationwide
conversation revolving around internet culture in Canada. Alek Minassian’s trial on 10 counts of
first degree murder and 16 counts of attempted murder is expected to begin in 2020. The attack,
carried out in a rental van, mainly targeted women, and most of the victims - dead and injured -
were female. Involuntary celibates feel they are socially and sexually rejected by women. They
see females as inferior, and that it is their responsibility to make themselves available to sexually
satisfy and gratify men. In 2014 a similar attack occurred, perpetrated by Elliot Rodger. This
incel went on a killing spree in California murdering 6 people in his car and running over
innocent pedestrians before killing himself. He posted a video saying he wanted to punish
women for rejecting him, and that he envied sexually active men, and wanted to punish them as
well. On April 23, 2018 hours before Alek Minassian’s van attack, he uploaded a facebook post
announcing “...the incel rebellion has already begun! We will overthrow all Chads and Stacys!
All hail the Supreme Gentleman Elliot Rodger!”(Minassian, 2018). This reveals a sense of
community and interconnectedness between the motives of incels and how they praise one
another for performing violent acts targeting women. As Minassian states ‘All hail the Supreme
Gentleman Elliot Rodger!’ it is evident that he thinks of this man as a god-like figure-head,
foreshadowing his own attack. Similarly, after Alek Minassian committed deadly murder,
messages of praise and support appeared on the internet. These were seen on incel forums such
as the website 4Chan, a platform well known for hosting hateful rhetoric. Many people referred
to him as a hero, yet again exposing the prevailing community and common goal of involuntary
celibates.

After the van attack in 2018, many articles from Canadian and international news outlets
had content shining a spotlight on the movement. Governments and police forces promised to
 Swain-Fontaine 30

fight it, but it has been a year since the devastating act occurred and activists are encouraging
more involvement and change. Beth Malcom, who is the vice president of community initiatives
working for the Canadian Women’s Foundation, has explained that the van attack that occurred
last year initially sparked discussion about the impact violent movements, such as incels, have on
society. Malcom says: “We talked about the violence against women and the misogyny a lot at
the time, and then people had forgotten about it,” (Malcom, 2019). She tries to portray the
message that these violent hate crimes must not be brushed aside or simply ‘forgotten about’
because they continue to be a threat to society. Discussion around this topic to create awareness
is an important step in dealing with eradicating violence against women. Evan Balgord of the
Canadian Anti-Hate Network said the government needs to pull up their pants and take more
action. He argues, “Little has changed in the last year from the government - no new legislation,
no meaningful government investments and very little action from law enforcement” (Balgord
2019). Indeed there has been a bit of research funding, but there is a lack of resources, plans and
ideas to counter and abolish hate groups. Balgord says that his organization- The Canadian
Anti-Hate Network has found success in monitoring and countering hate groups. They attempt to
stop the problem before it becomes drastic, by targeting sources of hate propaganda to reduce
radicalization leading to violent acts. According to Balgord, “...we’re a new, positive
development, but we can’t be everywhere at once”(Balgord 2019). It is a difficult and
challenging task to stop online hate with the world wide web being so expansive. For example,
websites such as 4chan and 8chan, often referred to as the “darkest reaches” of the internet, are
the homes of hateful messages where topics of white supremacy and misogyny are rationalized
and openly discussed. The threats and discussions of violence online are ample. As well, users
that are on these sites are usually very technologically advanced so it can be difficult for law
enforcement to track their location or determine who they are. A former FBI agent named agent
Michael German says that it astounds him how openly people discuss violence on websites like
4chan and 8chan. “These channels leave breadcrumbs that law enforcement and researchers can
track” (German, 2019). He notes that threatening posts can be substantial evidence if an attack is
carried out.
 Swain-Fontaine 31

Logic of Evil (FGM):

Straying away from the concentrated focus on the negative implications that Female
Genital Mutilation has on women across the globe, the discovery of why these procedures are
performed is essential to an educated understanding of the global issue. In areas where Female
Genital Mutilation is performed, it is often social convention to fit into the ‘norm’, which fuels
the continuance of the practice. Citizens often feel pressure to conform to what people have done
and what they are currently doing. They feel as if they will be socially accepted if they carry
through with the mutilation, and are reassured as to not be rejected by the community. In many
areas, genital mutilation is universally performed and unquestioned. FGM is often considered a
necessary and mandatory part of raising a girl. It is a method to prepare her for adulthood and
marriage. The practice is often motivated by beliefs about what is deemed to be acceptable
sexual behaviour for women. The goal of the procedure is to ensure premarital virginity and a
faithful marriage. Many communities believe that FGM reduces a women’s libido which helps
her to resist extramarital sexual acts. When type 3 genital mutilation is performed, the vaginal
opening is covered or narrowed, instilling a fear of the pain of opening it. This further
discourages extramarital sexual intercourse among women. As well, being cut often increases
chances in having a husband, and becoming married. Female Genital Mutilation is associated
with cultural ideals of femininity and modesty. There is a strong believe that women are clean
and beautiful after unfeminine, unclean and masculine body parts are removed.

Logic of Evil (Incels):

A male spokesperson defending the incel community he is a part of gives his perspective
of the movement. He explains it as a place where men can get together and speak about subjects
openly, without fear of being insulted, bullied or belittled. He explains that the incel movement
does not have a solidified goal, rather it is a support group for men who struggle with women in
regards to the dating scene and who have trouble having sexual intercourse. He defends incels by
saying that the misogyny seen does not come from a majority of the men in the ‘support group’.
He attempts to reassure listeners that the hate is fueled only by a small amount of people with
 Swain-Fontaine 32

radical views and that these perspectives do not represent the mindset of the incel community as
a whole.

Religion (FGM):
Many practitioners believe that Female Genital Mutilation has an element of religious
support attached to it. Religious leaders approach FGM differently. Some encourage the practice,
some deem it irrelevant to religion and some even contribute to its elimination. Local structures
and powers of authority, such as community leaders, religious figureheads, circumcisors and
some medical personnel contribute to the sustainability of the practice. In many societies it is
considered a cultural tradition, which contributes to the continuation of genital mutilation. As
well, recent adoptions of this old practice is connected to mimicking the traditions of
neighboring communities or started as a part of a wider religious or traditional revival
movement. Prevalence of FGM is often seen predominantly within Muslim communities.

The relationship between religious obligations and Female Genital Mutilation can be
explored while analyzing data from Burkina Faso, a religiously and ethnically diverse country
located in West Africa. In Burkina Faso, approximately three-quarters of adult women are
circumcised. To be more specific, 77% of Burkinabe women ages 15-49 have experienced
Female Genital Cutting (ORC Macro, 2004). Religious variation in being subjected to Female
Genital Mutilation can be explained by specific religious beliefs rather than individual
characteristics. It is proven that Muslim women are more likely to have their daughter
circumcised, yet there is more importance of a collective rather than one Muslim identity for the
continuation of the practice. The prevalence of Female Genital Circumcision is higher among
Burkinabe Muslims than among citizens practicing Christianity or other traditional religions. It is
specific beliefs, individual religious affiliation and collective religious identity which mold the
behaviour related to FGM.

Data from the 2003 Burkina Faso Demographic Health Survey helps to examine religious
variation in the intergenerational transmission of Female Genital Mutilation. Results show that
 Swain-Fontaine 33

differences between Christians and practitioners of traditional religion are largely divided by
sociodemographic differences and specific religions beliefs.

Burkina Faso lies between the highly Islamized countries of the Sahel and the West Coast
of Africa, where Muslim populations exist. Approximately 60% of adult women in this country
are Muslim, 23% Catholic, 5% Protestant and 10% belong to traditional religions (ORC Macro,
2004). Female Genital Cutting is most common among Muslims in Burkina Faso: 82% of adult
Muslim women are cut (ORC Macro, 2004).

Religious scripture specific to Female Genital Cutting contributes to differences in

circumcision practices. It is suggested by some that Islam requires cutting. This is because some
readings of the hadith( the accepted teachings or sayings of the Prophet Mohammed) seem to
require or support these procedures. This interpretation however, is controversial and debated by
religious leaders who disagree about whether Islam requires, encourages, permits or discourages
the practice(Al-Awa 2012). A well-researched study conducted by Muslim scholars in Egypt
concluded that the sources which associate FGM with Islam are unreliable and therefore
condemned the practice as having no basis of support in Islam (Al-Awa 2012). This appears to
be the position held by most Muslim religious leaders. The Christian views on FGM are also
debated as the Bible contains no content supporting or prohibiting against genital mutilation. In
many parts of Africa Christian missionaries made converts promise not to circumcise their
daughters as a requirement for baptism (Murray, 1976). Despite strong opposition to genital
mutilation, it is practiced within Christian communities all across Africa such as: Ethiopia, Egypt
and Sudan. Therefore, tradition and religion have been identified as providing explanations on
the continuation/prohibition of FGM.

Politics (Sexual Violence):

The executive director at Women Against Violence Against Women Rape Crisis Centre
explains: “The insidious nature of rape culture lies in its pervasiveness, as it permeates all
 Swain-Fontaine 34

aspects of society especially the very structures of politics” (Tsepnopoulos-Elhaimer, 2014). The
normalization of rape culture is cemented by politics through policies and practices. Devastating
impacts on the anti-violence sector and on women through backlash from all levels of
government have been experienced. Over the years, feminist activism has demanded
accountability and action from political leadership. These demands are a prominent attempt to
shift society. To change attitudes, beliefs and behaviours supported by rape culture at the
individual level, changes must first be made at the structural, institutional level where power is
centralized. If attitudes, beliefs and behaviours were changed and integrated at this level, positive
changes regarding rape culture can be implemented.

While analyzing the effects Canadian politics have on Women’s rights, shocking information
was attained. When in power, the Conservative government of Prime Minister Stephen Harper
closed 14 of the 16 Status of Women Canada offices, a co-operative whose efforts focused on
Women’s rights, and the equality project. The equality project was removed from SWC (Status
Women Canada ), and eliminating this formally blocked collective resistance to institutional,
structural, and systemic power at all levels of politics. This means the cooperative can no longer
advocate for women. Another issue is that research is not funded. Since 1993, there has been no
research on violence against women from SWC, and the court challenges program was
abolished, which had provided funding for activists to stand up and challenge Matrimonial law
for indigenous women.

However, these cuts did not occur without the presence of political protest from men and
women across Canada. There were sit-ins, rallies, protests, letter writing campaigns and groups
of women who met with politicians to protest and advocate against the SWC cuts. Yet no groups
were allowed to meet with Prime Minister Harper at the time.

There were also provincial cuts to women’s services such as the de-funding of
women-serving organizations across the provinces. Severe cuts were also made to the Federal
Refugee Health programs that predominantly impact women escaping countries where
 Swain-Fontaine 35

sexualized violence and war have been a reality. The elimination of the only free standing
Ministry for Women’s Equality, in British Columbia, resulted in the women’s agenda being
erased. The various programs as well as funding to support the needs of victimized women, and a
strategy to end violence was decimated.

Cuts to women’s services leaves advocacy organizations unsupported. Services need to

be available to women surviving sexual violence. In the Canadian political system, tax dollars
paid to governments are from citizen’s pockets. Women who require critical, essential help like
sexual assault services, are being denied these services that they are paying for. As discovered,
politics plays a major role in working to dismantle rape culture. Political decisions made by
leaders greatly impact support programs. In order for progress, political support must be present.

Solutions:

Rape Stigma/Culture/Injustice:
The real problems need to be identified as well as emphasized, such as violent
masculinity as a means of asserting and securing power. Although frightening, women need to
speak their stories and share their experiences with sexual assault. This is the best tactic in
receiving justice as well as the empowerment women feel with the knowledge that they are not
alone and they are not powerless or any less human. A supportive community must be
established, where services and compassionate and understanding ears are available to listen to
victims. Lastly, an understanding that consent is mandatory and every sexual interaction must be
consensual-no excuses, must be achieved. Continuing education is key.

Incels:
A juxtaposition lies with the rise and expansion of the world wide web manifesting
exciting, yet terrifying concepts. However, in conquering communities such as incels, who have
commited deadly hate crimes, prevention is key and necessary. Action against the incel ideology
 Swain-Fontaine 36

can not just be monitored, but it must target the root of the problem. The vice president of
Community Natives at the Canadian Women’s foundation states, “There has to be prevention,
but it also has to be tackling the issue of violence against women and misogyny” (Malcom,
2019). Combating the ideology is one battle but to properly dismantle the problem, more needs
to be done to prevent young men from being attracted/drawn to this movement. More research
must be accomplished to discover why young people are drawn in to this movement and drawn
into the incel community. The common phrase, “it takes a village to raise a child” is taken into
consideration as more education needs to be provided to schools about healthy relationships.
Young people need to know that men do not automatically have the right to have sex with a
women. They need to understand that healthy relationships develop with mutual trust and respect
and that consent must be attained before any sexual acts are initiated. A relationship should never
be fueled by fear, threats or hateful speech. Internet safety also needs to be emphasized in
educational curricula. Young people should be aware of sites to veer away from and how screen
violence can, and has turned into horrific terrorist attacks. A solution would be to intervene as
early as possible with people who seem susceptible to these kinds of messages and thinking
patterns. Keegan Hankes of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) says, “Individuals who
imbibe this stuff and sit in these echo chambers - it’s a little bit like a downward spiral” (Hankes,
2019). She also states that “once you’ve accepted some of these axioms - it’s women’s fault that
these things are happening to me, or some other protected class is the reason my life isn’t going
as well as it should- it only does down from there and you can start getting more extreme”
(Hankes, 2019). Reaching these young men, before they become integrated into the incel
community will be a tremendous step in the right direction. Discrimination can not be tolerated
or treated any differently when it is displayed online. Hate speech and discriminatory messages
on the internet must be countered immediately.

FGM:
It will take the power of community, family and government to end Female Genital
Mutilation for good. It is necessary to dispel the myth that FGM is a religious necessity. People
 Swain-Fontaine 37

need to challenge the discriminatory reasons FGM is practiced and the perceived need to control
female sexuality must be dismantled. Traditions must be reconsidered and females should be
educated on their right to decide and delegate what happens to their own body. Children deserve
the opportunity to be well informed to stand up for themselves and find their voice. The risks and
realities of genital mutilation need to be openly discussed and made aware so girls and women
do not have to suffer in solidarity. "I too think it should be stopped." says Alima. "Even if
nobody listens to you and just carries on, you have to stand firm and maintain the dialogue. Such
an ingrained custom can only be changed through perseverance” (Alima, 1). Communication will
begin to tackle the secrecy that allows cutting to continue. Lastly, the human population must
join together in advocating a push for the abolishment of FGM. As noted children’s author
Theodor Geisel wrote in ​The Lorax,​ ​ “​Unless​ someone like you ​cares a whole awful lot​, nothing
is going to get better. It's not” (Seuss, 1971).

In a broad sense, women need to feel empowered to end the subjugation of sexuality. They need
to feel strength, they need to have a voice and they must stand up, and stand together.
 Swain-Fontaine 38

References

Aalai, Azadeh (2016). “When Politics and Rape Culture Collide: Enough is enough, let’s speak
out against rape culture.” ​Psychology Today.​ Retrieved April 20 2019 from
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-first-impression/201610/when-politics-an
d-rape-culture-collide

Acosta, W., & McPherson, Herbert A., Jr. (1999). “Female Genital Mutilation in the United
States: Implications for Women's Health.” ​American Journal of Health Studies​, 15(1),
47-52. Retrieved April 28 2019 from
https://explore.proquest.com/elibrary/document/210471618?accountid=142829

Al-Awa, Mohamed Selim (2012). “FGM In The Context of Islam.” Retrieved April 30 2019
from
https://egypt.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/d9174a63-2960-459b-9f78-b33ad7954
45e.pdf

Andro, A., & Lesclingand, M. (2016). Female Genital Mutilation. Overview and Current
Knowledge. ​Population (English Edition, 2002-),​ ​71(​ 2), 216-296. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/44135271

Asere, Samora (2013). “Female Genital Mutilation Behind the Headlines.” ​New Internationalist.
Retrieved April 27 2019 from
http://newint.com/features/web-exclusive/2013/11/29/female-genital-mutilation-samburu

Ashiana (2016). ​“Case Study 3, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM).” ​Ashiana Sheffield.​
Retrieved March 31 2019 from
www.ashianasheffield.org/case_studies/case-study-3-female-genital-mutilation-fgm/
 Swain-Fontaine 39

Associated Press (2018). “10-year-old Somali Girl Dies after Female Genital Mutilation.” ​The
Associated Press.​ Retrieved May 1 2019 from
https://www.apnews.com/d59937d063aa4063b9c8ccdd00974515

Azra (2010). “FGM in Sembene’s Moolade.” ​Muslimah Media Watch. ​Retrieved March 3 2019
from
https://www.patheos.com/blogs/mmw/2010/08/fgm-in-sembene%E2%80%99s-moolaade
/

Baird, Vanessa. (1996). ​Eye to Eye-Women.​ Hong Kong: New Internationalist Publications.

Bate, Marisa (2018). “If Alek Minassian was Inspired by the Misogynistic Incel Movement
Rather than ISIS, it Still counts as Terrorism.” ​The Independent.​ Retrieved April 3 2019
From
https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/alek-minassian-toronto-attack-incel-movement-ms
ogynist-elliot-rodger-a8321711.html

Beauchamp, Zack (2019 April 23). “Our Incel Problem: How a support group for the dateless
​ etrieved April 27 2019
became one of the internet’s most dangerous subcultures.” ​Vox. R
from ​https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/4/16/18287446/incel-definition-reddit

Bosch, X. (2001). “Female genital mutilation in developed countries.” ​The Lancet​, 358(9288),
1177-1179. doi:​http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06262-6

Calderwood, Imogen (2017). “India Rules Sex with a Child Bride is Always Rape in a Massive
Win for Girls’ Rights.” ​Global Citizen​. Retrieved May 2 2019 from
https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/india-child-marriage-rape-court-outlawed/

Casey, Liam (2019 April 22). “Witnesses Say They Are Still Struggling Nearly 1 Year Since the
 Swain-Fontaine 40

Deadly Toronto Van Attack.” ​Global News.​ Retrieved February 27 2019 from
https://globalnews.ca/news/5189731/yonge-street-van-attack-witnesses-say-they-are-still-
struggling/

Chelala, C. (1998). “An alternative way to stop female genital mutilation.” ​The Lancet​,
352(9122), 126. Retrieved March 6 2019 from
doi:​http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)85042-3

Chidiebere, Joseph Osuigwe (2017). “7 Quotes About Female Genital Mutilation.” ​Devatop
Centre for Africa Development.​ Retrieved March 6 2019 from
https://devatop.org/7-quotes-about-female-genital-mutilation-by-joseph-osuigwe-chidieb
ere/

Denim Day (n.d.). “End Rape Culture Today!” Retrieved April 27 2019 from
https://www.denimdayinfo.org/15-ways-to-end-rape

Department of Justice (2017, August 08). “Age of Consent to Sexual Activity.” Retrieved March
25 2019 from ​https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/other-autre/clp/faq.html

Doezema, M. (2018, March 10). “France, Where Age of Consent Is Up for Debate.” ​The
Atlantic.​ Retrieved March 10 2018 from
https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/03/frances-existential-crisis-over-
sexual-harassment-laws/550700/

Ebert, Roger (2007).“Moolaade” (Movie Review & Film Summary). ​RogerEbert.com.​ Retrieved
February 27 2019 from ​https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-moolaade-2007

Elmi, Hodan (2018). “Was it a blessing when they cut me?” ​Care.​ Retrieved May 1 2019 from
https://www.careinternational.org.uk/stories/fgm-was-it-blessing-when-they-cut-me
 Swain-Fontaine 41

End FGM (2017). “FGM Through Poetry.” ​End FGM European Network.​ Retrieved May 1 2019
from ​http://www.endfgm.eu/news-en-events/blog/fgm-through-poetry/

Female genital mutilation. (2011). Abingdon: RM Education, Ltd. Retrieved February 22

2019 from
https://explore.proquest.com/elibrary/document/1960674644?accountid=142829

Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (2018). Ann Arbor: ProQuest. Retrieved May 2 2019 from
https://explore.proquest.com/elibrary/document/1959814792?accountid=142829

Fujihara, Ayako (2016 ). “The role of NGOs in contributing to the reduction of FGM: Case
Studies of Togo and Benin.” Retrieved March 31 2019 from
https://www.28toomany.org/blog/guest-blog-by-ayako-fujihara-the-role-of-ngos-in-contri
buting-to-the-reduction-of-fgm-case-studies-of-togo-and-benin/

Futrelle, David (2018, April 27). “Can the radicalization of 'incels' be stopped?” ​The Globe and
Mail.​ Retrieved April 2 2019 from
https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-can-the-radicalization-of-incels-be-sto
pped/

Grinnell College (n.d.). “Subcultures and Sociology: Incels.” Retrieved May 3 2019 from
http://haenfler.sites.grinnell.edu/subcultures-and-scenes/incels/

Grojec, Anna (2018). “Girls are Saying No to FGM - and They Need political Champions.”
Retrieved April 20, 2019 from
https://www.unfpa.org/news/girls-are-saying-no-fgm-and-they-need-political-champions

Halls, Eleanor. (2018, April 25). “Who are the 'incels'? The involuntary celibates who want
 Swain-Fontaine 42

women punished.” ​GQ​. Retrieved May 1 2019 from

https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/article/incel-meaning-explained

Hayford, S. R., & Trinitapoli, J. (2011). Religious differences in female genital cutting: a case
study from Burkina Faso. ​Journal for the scientific study of religion,​ ​50(​ 2), 252–271.

Healy, Melissa (28 Sept. 2018). “Here’s What Experts Who Study Sexual Violence Say About
the Credibility of Christine Blasey Ford’s Testimony.” ​New York Times.​ Retrieved March
31 2019 from
https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-ford-testimony-credibility-memor
y-20180928-story.html

History of Rape Culture. (n.d.). Retrieved May 1 2019 from

http://historyofrapeculture.weebly.com/history-of-rape-culture.html

Kaplan, Claire (n.d.). “The Political/Social Context of Sexual Assault.” Retrieved April 3 2019
from ​http://www.gmu.edu/resources/facstaff/facultyfacts/2-1/politicl.html

Joseph, R., & Abedi, M. (2019, April 23). “One year after Toronto van attack, experts say
outrage over incel movement 'forgotten'.” Retrieved April 25 2019 from
https://globalnews.ca/news/5185600/toronto-van-attack-incel-ideology-movement/

Marchildon, Jackie (2018). “The Truth About the Secretive Practice of 'FGM' In Canada.”
Retrieved April 6 2019 from ​https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/fgm-in-canada-2/

Martin, Andy (2018, May 05). “The incel rebellion - how involuntary celibates are dangerous in
​ etrieved May 5 2018 from
their desires.” ​The Independent. R
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/incel-what-is-involuntary-celibates-ellio
t-rodger-alek-minassian-canada-terrorism-a8335816.html
 Swain-Fontaine 43

Nichols, M. (2014, May 20). “A GoodTherapy.org Review of 'What Do Women Want?'” ​Good
Therapy.​ Retrieved March 30 2019 from
https://www.goodtherapy.org/blog/feminist-sexologist-review-of-dan-bergners-what-do-
Women-want-0627134

Office on Women’s Health (April 2019). “Female Genital Cutting.” ​Womenshealth.gov

Retrieved
March 18 2019 from
https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/female-genital-cutting

O'Grady, S. (2018, July 20). “Most girls in Somalia experience genital mutilation. The ritual just
killed a 10-year-old.” Retrieved March 31 2019 from
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2018/07/20/most-girls-in-somalia
-experience-genital-mutilation-the-ritual-just-killed-a-10-year-old/?utm_term=.54e7a023
5e4a

Parmar, Pratibha (1993). ​Warrior Marks​ - a documentary about Female Genital Mutilation.
Retrieved February 28 from ​https://www.kanopy.com/product/warrior-marks-0

Plan International (n.d.) ​“​7 ways to end FGM.” Retrieved April 27 2019 from
https://plan-international.org/sexual-health/7-ways-to-end-fgm-for-goo​d

RAINN (n.d.). “National Resources for Sexual Assault Survivors and their Loved Ones.”
Retrieved April 3 2019 from
https://www.rainn.org/national-resources-sexual-assault-survivors-and-their-loved-ones

RAINN (n.d.). “The Criminal Justice System: Statistics.” Retrieved May 2 2019 from
https://www.rainn.org/statistics/criminal-justice-system
 Swain-Fontaine 44

Semu-Banda, Pilirani (2017).“For Many Girls, School Holidays Means FGM ‘Cutting Season’”.
UNFPA. Retrieved April 27 2019 from ​https://www.unfpa.org/cuttingseason

​Smith-Tague, K. (2018, October 07). “This Is What I Told The Court Before
My Rapist Was Led Away To Prison” (Blog). Retrieved March 25 2019 from
https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/keira-smith-tague/rape-conviction-legal-system_a_235512

Sushmita (2018). “Her Traditional Night.” ​Deliriums.​ Retrieved April 30 2019 from
https://malaiseunboxed.wordpress.com/2018/02/07/her-traditional-night-a-poem-against-
female-genital-mutilation/

Thomson Reuters Foundation ( July 2018). ​Somalia: The Law and FGM.​ Retrieved March 3
2019 from
https://www.28toomany.org/static/media/uploads/Law%20Reports/somalia_law_report_(
july_2018).pdf

Tolentino, Jia (2018, May 15). “The Rage of the Incels.” ​The New Yorker.​ Retrieved April 6
2019 from ​https://www.newyorker.com/culture/cultural-comment/the-rage-of-the-incels

Tsepnopoulos-Elhaimer, Irene (2014). “Rape Culture in Politics.” ​WAVAW.​ Retrieved April 30

2019 from ​https://www.wavaw.ca/rape-culture-in-politics/

UNFPA (2018). “Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions.” Retrieved April
2 2019 from
https://www.unfpa.org/resources/female-genital-mutilation-fgm-frequently-asked-questio
ns
 Swain-Fontaine 45

UN Women (2018). ”Facts and figures: Ending violence against women.” Retrieved April 28
2019 from
http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-figur
es

Wakabi, W. (2007). “Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history.” ​The Lancet​,
369(9567), 1069-70. Retrieved March 30 2019 from
doi:​http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60508-X

Women’s Legal Education and Action Fund (2019). “The Law of Consent in Sexual Assault.”
Retrieved March 6 2019 from ​https://www.leaf.ca/the-law-of-consent-in-sexual-assault/

World Health Organization (2018). “Fact Sheets: Female Genital Mutilation Key Facts.” ​World
Health Organization.​ Retrieved March 4 2019 from
www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation

World Health Organization (2016 June 1). “Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): Prevalence of
FGM” ​World Health Organization​ ​Sexual and Reproductive Health.​ Retrieved February
28 2019 from ​www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/

World Health Organization (2014). “Slow Progress in ending Female Genital Mutilation.”
Bulletin of the World Health Organization.​ Retrieved March 30 2019 from
https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/92/1/14-020114/en/

​World Vision Staff (January 2019). “7 Ways to Empower Women and Girls.” Retrieved March
28 2019 from
https://www.worldvision.org/gender-equality-news-stories/seven-ways-empower-women
-girls
Swain-Fontaine 46