Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Technical Details
Technical Details
Advanced fossil
fuel power
generation
Manuscript completed in September 2014
© European Union 2014
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
Executive Summary
Key messages
• Fossil-fuel power generation is expected to continue to be the biggest
contributor to the EU27’s CO2 emissions in the short and medium term.
Improvements in power plant efficiency are therefore a major factor in reducing
CO2 emissions in Europe.
• Increasing the net efficiency of coal-fired power plants is a major requirement
for the intelligent and cost-effective use of CCS technologies. The most
promising strategies to achieve this are based on boosting steam temperature
and pressure in new AUSC power plants (including attention to materials of
construction), and clean coal technologies based on oxy-combustion and co-
firing technologies, among others.
• The priority grid access granted to renewables means that fossil-fuel power
plants will increasingly move from baseload operation to load-following. The
flexibility of power plants therefore requires special attention in future research.
• Other fields requiring special research attention are fuel pre-treatment and fuel
flexibility, emissions reduction (SO2, NOx and dust), and polygeneration.
This report has been produced as part of the activities of the Energy
Research Knowledge Centre (ERKC). The ERKC project aims to collect,
organise and disseminate validated, referenced information on energy
research programmes and projects and their results from across the
EU and beyond.
The Thematic Research Summaries (TRS) are designed to analyse the
results of energy research projects identified by the Energy Research
Knowledge Centre (ERKC). The rationale behind the TRS is to identify
the most novel and innovative contributions to research questions that
have been addressed by European and national research projects on
a specific theme.
The present TRS provides an overview of the developments for
advanced fossil-fuel power generation, as part of the ERKC priority
area Low-carbon Heat and Power Supply.
Despite efforts to increase the share of renewables in the European
energy mix, fossil fuels account for the largest share of Europe’s total
electricity generation capacity, in both the short and medium terms,
and will continue to do so. Fossil-fuelled power plants are consequently
the biggest contributor to CO2 emissions in the EU27 countries, and
increasing their efficiency is an important way to cut global CO2
emissions.
The average efficiency of coal-fired generation worldwide is expected
to improve from 36% in 2011 to 40% in 2035. In the European Union
the efficiency of coal-fired generation will increase from 38% to 44%
as subcritical plants are almost entirely phased out by 2035.
2
The overall estimated public RD&D expenditure related to fossil fuels
in 2011 in IEA Europe was EUR 358 million, or about 21% of the
total public budget for RD&D on fossil fuels for all the IEA member
countries.
Policy context
The main EU policy documents relevant to advanced fossil-fuel power
generation are:
• Large Combustion Plant Directive (LCPD) (Directive 2001/80/EC);
• Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) (Directive 2010/75/EU) ;
• CHP Directive (Directive 2004/8/EC);
• Renewable Energy Sources Directive (RED) (Directive 2009/28/EC);
• Emissions Trading Directive (2009/29/EC).
The LCPD sets absolute emission limit values for SO2, NOx and dust
for individual new installations (coal or oil/gas-fired plants). The RES
Directive sets a binding target for 20% of EU final energy consumption
to be provided by renewable sources by 2020, with related binding
targets for each Member State. The EU’s emission trading scheme
(ETS) is the most ambitious of its kind in the world and a central pillar
of European climate policy.
1
Biomass co-firing and carbon capture and storage (CCS) are covered under other headings.
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
from coal is another option, yielding not only electricity and heat, but
also chemical feedstocks and alternative fuels for transport.
Based on this background, this TRS considers the following sub-
themes:
• fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility;
• conversion efficiency;
• emissions;
• advanced firing systems, such as oxyfuel combustion;
• polygeneration;
• steam conditions and materials of construction.
Conversion efficiency
In the very long term, direct electrochemical conversion of coal to
electricity via fuel cells could offer significant increases in efficiency
and easier CO2 capture.
High-pressure CFB gasifiers can be fuelled with high-ash coals, but
their efficiency and reliability need to be improved.
Emissions
The gas turbines in the next generation of IGCC power plants may
be able to burn undiluted hydrogen-rich syngas, with benefits for fuel
flexibility and carbon capture.
Innovative SCR-deNOx catalysts for coal, biomass, and co-combustion
are in development. These will improve the removal of NOx and
mercury, while avoiding the formation of SO2 from sulphur in the fuel.
4
High oxygen concentrations in oxyfuel combustion save energy by
reducing the flue gas recirculation rate, allow the use of smaller
boilers, bring new opportunities for using waste heat, and improve
system flexibility. To make this possible, researchers need to check the
effects of high oxygen concentrations on combustion performance and
other important operating characteristics.
Polygeneration
Converting coal into so-called substitute natural gas (SNG) will reduce
dependence on non-European oil and natural gas. An innovative
coal-to-SNG technology based on steam gasification is currently in
development for plants in the 50–500 MWth range. One completed
project has yielded a basic design for a 5 MWth pilot plant. A follow-
up project is targeting a demonstration of the complete process chain
with European coal and lignite. Other products of polygeneration
could include liquid transport fuels, hydrogen, fertiliser and chemical
feedstocks.
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
International developments
The global share of fossil fuels in total power generation is expected
to fall from 68% in 2011 to 57% in 2035. Global coal-fired generation
will increase from 9 140 TWh in 2011 to 12 310 TWh in 2035, despite
coal’s share of total generation falling from 41% to 35%. The average
efficiency of coal-fired generation worldwide will improve from 36%
to 40% in the same period as old plants are retired and replaced by
newer technology. In the EU the efficiency of coal-fired generation will
increase from 38% to 44% by 2035 as subcritical plants are almost
entirely phased out.
Gas-fired generation will rise from 4 847 TWh in 2011 to 8 310 TWh
in 2035, maintaining a constant 22% share of total generation. In the
EU, low electricity demand growth, support for renewables, high gas
prices and low CO2 prices will stifle new gas-fired generation before
2020. After 2020, gas-fired generation will increase as inefficient
coal capacity is retired, CO2 prices rise and more system flexibility is
needed to match the growth in renewables. Compared to coal, gas-
fired generation is cheaper and quicker to build, more flexible to run,
and has lower emissions.
6
o increase the steam temperature and pressure in new AUSC
power plants (350–370 bar, 700/720°C minimum);
op
romote clean coal technologies, such as oxyfuel combustion
and biomass co-firing, in order to reduce both CO2 capture
losses and the amount of CO2 to be captured and stored.
•A
USC technology has already been in development for 15
years. However, it still requires an extensive materials research
programme; the main outstanding issue is the fabrication of
large components. This research is expected to take more than
ten years, with substantial costs and technical risks. Consortia of
utilities, manufacturers, research establishments must combine
their resources to solve these technical issues and expedite
AUSC technology.
• For both new coal plants and retrofits, oxyfuel combustion seems
a promising option that is expected to minimise the cost of carbon
capture. Attention should be paid to understanding the effects
on corrosion, combustion performance, fuel flexibility, solids
recirculation, materials performance and CO2 compression.
However, this technology is currently unacceptably expensive,
so it is not expected to see commercial use in the near future.
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
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Table of contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 2
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES �������������������������������������������������������� 9
1 INTRODUCTION �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11
2 SCOPE OF THE THEME ����������������������������������������������������������������� 15
3 POLICY CONTEXT ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 18
3.1 EU policy framework ���������������������������������������������������������������� 18
3.1.1 L
arge Combustion Plant Directive ��������������������������������������� 18
3.1.2 Industrial Emissions Directive �������������������������������������������� 19
3.1.3 C
HP Directive ������������������������������������������������������������������� 19
3.1.4 Renewable Energy Sources Directive ���������������������������������� 20
3.1.5 Emission Trading Directive ������������������������������������������������� 20
3.2 Advanced fossil-fuel power generation outlooks �������������������������� 21
4 RESEARCH FINDINGS ������������������������������������������������������������������ 24
4.1 Introduction ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 24
4.1.1 Sources of information ������������������������������������������������������ 24
4.1.2 Technology costs �������������������������������������������������������������� 24
4.1.3 List of projects sorted by sub-theme ���������������������������������� 25
4.2 Sub-theme 1: Fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility ������������������� 26
4.3 Sub-theme 2: Conversion efficiency ������������������������������������������ 28
4.4 Sub-theme 3: Emissions ���������������������������������������������������������� 29
4.5 Sub-theme 4: Advanced firing systems �������������������������������������� 30
4.6 Sub-theme 5: Polygeneration ��������������������������������������������������� 32
4.7 Sub-theme 6: Steam conditions and materials of construction ����� 34
5 INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS ���������������������������������������������� 36
5.1 Synthesis of the research findings ��������������������������������������������� 36
5.2 R
&D challenges for future research ������������������������������������������� 38
6 TECHNOLOGY MAPPING �������������������������������������������������������������� 39
7 CAPACITIES MAPPING ���������������������������������������������������������������� 41
7.1 Coal-fired generation ��������������������������������������������������������������� 41
7.2 G
as-fired generation ���������������������������������������������������������������� 42
7.3 A
USC materials research ���������������������������������������������������������� 43
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ����������������������������������� 44
REFERENCES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46
ANNEXES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 48
Annex 1: Acronyms and abbreviations used in the TRS ��������������������� 48
Annex 2: Complete list of projects relevant to the theme ������������������ 50
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Figure 1: S
hares of different fuels in primary energy consumption (%)
for 2030 and 2050, compared with 2005, for various EU
decarbonisation scenarios (COM(2011) 885 final) ������������������� 22
Figure 2: C
oal-fired power generation by region in the IEA
New Policies Scenario (IEA WEO, 2013) ��������������������������������� 41
Figure 3: S
hare of coal-fired power generation by technology and
average efficiency in selected regions in the IEA New
Policies Scenario (IEA WEO, 2013) ���������������������������������������� 42
Figure 4: G
as-fired power generation for selected regions in the
IEA New Policies Scenario (IEA WEO, 2013) ��������������������������� 43
10
1 Introduction
This publication has been produced as part of the activities of the
ERKC (Energy Research Knowledge Centre), funded by the European
Commission to support its Information System of the Strategic Energy
Technology Plan (SETIS).
The ERKC collects, organises and analyses validated, referenced
information on energy research programmes and projects, including
results and analyses from across the EU and beyond. Access to energy
research knowledge is vastly improved through the ERKC, allowing it
to be exploited in a timely manner and used all over the EU, thus also
increasing the pace of further innovation. The ERKC therefore has a
key role in gathering and analysing data to monitor progress towards
the objectives of the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-
Plan). It also brings important added value to the monitoring data by
analysing trends in energy research at national and European levels,
and deriving thematic analyses and policy recommendations from the
aggregated project results.
The approach to assessing and disseminating energy research results
used by the ERKC team includes the following three levels of analysis:
•P
roject analysis, providing information on research background,
objectives, results, and technical and policy implications on a
project-by-project basis;
•T
hematic analysis, which pools research findings according to
a classification scheme structured by priority and research focus.
This analysis results in the production of a set of Thematic
Research Summaries (TRS);
•P
olicy analysis, which pools research findings on a specific topic,
with emphasis on the policy implications of results and pathways
to future research. This analysis results in the compilation of
Policy Brochures (PB).
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12
installed electricity capacity is based on coal. In the US, 40% of power
generation is based on natural gas. Fossil-fuelled power generation is
consequently the biggest contributor to CO2 emissions; in 2009, for
instance, 35% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions in the EU27 countries
were from power generation (JRC, 2011).
Fossil-fuel power generation uses the heating value of gas, liquid and
solid fossil fuels to create electricity and heat. The fuel is burned in a
combustion chamber, with the resulting hot flue gases either driving
gas turbines directly or used to produce steam, which in turn drives
steam turbines. In each case, the shaft power from the turbines
drives generators to produce electricity. Gains in conversion efficiency
translate to energy savings and cuts in greenhouse gases emissions.
In plants burning coal, fuel efficiency increases when the steam is
generated at very high temperatures and pressures (advanced
‘supercritical’ (SC) and ‘ultra-supercritical’ (USC) plants). For natural
gas, advanced technologies include ‘combined-cycle’ (NGCC) plants
which use both gas turbines and steam turbines; this is currently the
most efficient type of thermal power plant.
Co-firing biomass in coal plants, and integrated gasification combined-
cycle (IGCC) plants – in which coal or other solid fuels are converted
into combustible gases – have a relatively high emissions reduction
potential, especially when used with carbon capture. Biomass co-firing
and carbon capture and storage (CCS) are covered in other TRS.
This TRS is organised as follows. Chapter 2 provides an overview of
the relevant EU policies. Chapter 3 includes a brief analysis of the
scope of the theme.
Chapter 4 provides an overview of the costs of different technologies,
reports on the results of specific research projects, and examines gaps
and topics for future research identified in the projects. This section is
structured according to six sub-themes (Table 2). Links to the project
websites (if available) are also included.
Sub-theme Description
1 Fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility
2 Conversion efficiency
3 Emissions
4 Advanced firing systems, including oxyfuel combustion
5 Polygeneration
6 Steam conditions and materials of construction
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2 Scope of the theme
The technologies used to generate electricity from fossil fuels can be
categorised based on the fuel used (coal, lignite, natural gas or oil), the
technology used to convert the chemical energy of the fuel into thermal
energy (conventional thermal, fluidised bed, internal combustion, or
gasification), the type of turbine (gas turbine or steam turbine) and,
where applicable, the steam conditions used (JRC, 2013).
In plants based around steam turbines, the heat produced by burning
the fuel is used to generate high-pressure steam that passes through
a turbine to generate electricity. In gas turbines, on the other hand,
hot exhaust gases pass directly through the turbine to generate
electricity. More advanced ‘combined-cycle’ plants include both steam
and gas turbines. Here the fuel is first burned in a gas turbine, which
generates electricity directly. The resulting exhaust gas is then used to
heat water in a boiler, creating steam to drive a steam turbine. Apart
from being burned, fossil fuels can also be gasified to produce ‘syngas’
(a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen). Syngas can be used
directly as a fuel for power generation. Alternatively, the hydrogen can
be separated and used as a fuel in an open- or combined-cycle power
plant (JRC, 2011).
Fossil-fuel power plants produce most of the EU’s electricity, mainly
through pulverised coal combustion (PCC). As fossil-fuel power
generation is the biggest contributor to carbon dioxide emissions, any
gains in conversion efficiency would translate into substantial carbon
dioxide reductions. Each percentage point increase in fossil-fuel power
generation efficiency reduces CO2 emissions by about 2.5% in absolute
terms. Power plant efficiency is therefore a major factor that could be
used to reduce global CO2 emissions (JRC, 2011).
Fuel pre-treatment can improve the efficiency of power plants. As an
example, lignite with an inherent moisture content as high as 30–65%
is used for power generation in some countries. Lignite pre-drying
would give a potential efficiency advantage of about four percentage
points, if a boiler designed for dry feed were used (IEA-CCC Profiles,
2013).
Diversifying fuel can have a marked impact on power plant efficiency,
while minimising the effects of fluctuations in fuel price and availability.
Using the best available technologies can also increase efficiency.
Combined-cycle plants burning natural gas, burning biomass alongside
pulverised coal, and integrated gasification combined-cycle (IGCC)
plants, which turn coal into gas, can all potentially reduce emissions
even further, especially when used with carbon capture2.
2
http://setis.ec.europa.eu/technologies/Advanced-fossil-fuel-production/info
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
16
Further into the future, IGCC with hybrid fuel cells, gas turbines
and steam turbines could possibly reach 60% efficiency, with zero
emissions. For both new PCC plants and retrofits, oxyfuel combustion
is a promising option, using pure oxygen rather than air to reduce the
cost of carbon capture. Polygeneration from coal is another option;
this yields not only electricity and heat, but also chemical feedstocks
and alternative fuels for transport3.
Against this background, this TRS considers the following sub-themes:
• fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility;
• conversion efficiency;
• emissions;
• advanced firing systems, including oxyfuel combustion;
• polygeneration;
• steam conditions and materials of construction.
2
http://setis.ec.europa.eu/technologies/Advanced-fossil-fuel-production/info
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
3 Policy context
3.1 EU policy framework
The main EU policies relevant to advanced fossil-fuel power generation
are:
• Large Combustion Plant Directive (LCPD) (Directive 2001/80/EC);
• Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) (Directive 2010/75/EU) ;
• CHP Directive (Directive 2004/8/EC);
• Renewable Energy Sources Directive (RED) (Directive 2009/28/EC);
• Emissions Trading Directive (2009/29/EC).
Table 4: Emission limit values (ELVs) for existing and new coal plants,
according to the LCPD
SO2 NOx PM10
From 1
Coal plant 400 mg/Nm3 January 2016:
(>500 MWth) old (1300 mg/kWh) 200 mg/Nm3
(650 mg/kWh)
Coal plant 200 mg/Nm3 200 mg/Nm3
(>500 MWth) new (650 mg/kWh) (650 mg/kWh)
Linear reduction
from 1200 mg/
Nm3 (300 MW) 500 mg/Nm3
Coal plant 50 mg/Nm3
to 400 mg/Nm3 (1620 mg/
(>300 MWth) old (160 mg/kWh)
(500 MW) kWh)
(from 3600 to
1300 mg/kWh)
Coal plant 200 mg/Nm3 200 mg/Nm3 30 mg/Nm3
(>300 MWth) new (650 mg/kWh) (650 mg/kWh) (100 mg/kWh)
Standard combustion conditions of 6% O2 and dry gas
Figures for mg/kWh assume an electrical efficiency of 40%
18
The LCPD specifies different types of BAT for old and new installations,
as well as different emissions limits. Both the BAT and the emissions
limits for coal power plants are expected to be updated in 2017.
Table 5: Emission limit values (ELVs) for existing and new coal plants,
according to the IED
SO2 NOx PM10
Coal plant 200 mg/Nm3 200 mg/Nm3 20 mg/Nm3
(>300 MWth) old (650 mg/kWh) (650 mg/kWh) (60 mg/kWh)
150 mg/Nm3
10 mg/Nm3
(490 mg/
(30 mg/kWh),
kWh), with
with
Coal plant 150 mg/Nm3 200 mg/Nm3
20 mg/Nm3
(>300 MWth) new (490 mg/kWh) for pulverised
for biomass
lignite
and peat
combustion
(60 mg/kWh)
(650 mg/kWh)
Standard combustion conditions of 6% O2 and dry gas
Figures for mg/kWh assume an electrical efficiency of 40%
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
technologies for combined heat and power (CHP), set the basis for
calculating CHP electricity production and describe the primary energy
savings test that plants must pass to qualify as ‘high-efficiency’ CHP.
Installations other than micro-CHP must achieve primary energy
savings of 10% compared with the separate production of electricity
and heat.
The CHP Directive has set the frame for Member State support through
state aid for environmental protection, thus allowing Member States
actively to support CHP4.
4
http://www.cogeneurope.eu/medialibrary/2011/05/27/3cce5db0/310111-A-quick-guide-
to-the-CHP-Directive.pdf
20
few transitional exemptions, the whole power sector will now
have to buy its emission allowances at auction. The European
Commission expects that at least 50% of all allowances,
corresponding to 1 billion tonnes of CO2, will be auctioned in
2013, and this proportion will rise each year.
• Industrial installations will receive allowances on the basis of
product-specific EU-wide benchmarks, but must purchase at
least 20% of their allowances in 2013. This proportion will rise
to 70% in 2020 and 100% in 2027. Operators at risk of carbon
leakage will receive free allowances up to their benchmark. The
benchmark is based on the average of the 10% most efficient
installations in a given sector.
•T
he EU ETS will cover new industries (such as aluminium and
part of the chemical industry) and two new gases (nitrous oxide
and perfluorocarbons). The capture, transport and geological
storage of all greenhouse gas emissions will also be covered.
The ETS has covered the aviation sector since 2012 and in future
might be further extended, for example to emissions from ships.
5
igh energy efficiency, diversified supply technologies, high renewable energy sources,
H
delayed CCS, and low nuclear scenario.
6
Reference scenario and Current Policy Initiatives (CPI).
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
will have to play a much greater role than now (almost doubling its
share in final energy demand, to 36–39%, by 2050) and will have
to contribute to the decarbonisation of transport and heating/cooling
(COM(2011) 885 final).
Figure 1 shows the proportions of different fuels in primary energy
consumption by 2030 and 2050, compared to 2005, for different EU
decarbonisation scenarios.
Coal in the EU contributes to a diversified energy portfolio and security
of supply. With the development of carbon capture and storage (CCS)
and other emerging clean coal technologies, coal could continue to play
an important role in a sustainable and secure future energy supply.
Substitution of coal (and oil) by gas in the short to medium term could
help to reduce emissions, while still using existing technologies, until
at least 2030 or 2035. Gas demand in the residential sector might
drop by a quarter by 2030 thanks to new energy efficiency measures,
but it will remain high in other sectors, including power generation, for
a longer period. In the Diversified Supply Technologies scenario, for
example, gas-fired power generation accounts for roughly 800 TWh in
2050 – slightly above its current level. With evolving technologies, gas
might play an increasing role in the future.
22
Oil is likely to remain part of the energy mix even in 2050, helping to
fuel long-distance transport of both people and freight. The challenge
for the oil sector is to adapt to changes in oil demand resulting from
the switch to renewable and alternative fuels, and uncertainties
surrounding future supplies and prices. As a fuel for electricity
generation, oil’s share fell from 9% in 1990 to 2.6% in 20107, and this
slow downward trend looks set to continue. Liquid fuels for transport
are hard to replace, but oil is not a good choice as a fuel for power
plants oil – it combines high cost (like gas) with high carbon emissions
(like coal).
Carbon pricing can provide an incentive to develop efficient, low-carbon
technologies across Europe. A higher carbon price creates stronger
incentives for investment in low-carbon technologies, but may increase
the risk of carbon leakage. The scenarios show that carbon pricing can
coexist with instruments designed to achieve particular energy policy
objectives, notably research and innovation, promotion of energy
efficiency and development of renewables (COM(2011) 885 final).
7
European Environment Agency,
www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/gross-electricity-production-by-fuel-5 and
www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/gross-electricity-production-by-fuel-1
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
4 Research findings
4.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the research results, their benefits and policy
implications.
8
http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/energy
9
http://cordis.europa.eu/coal-steel-rtd
24
4.1.3 List of projects sorted by sub-theme
Table 7 presents the projects considered within this TRS, sorted by
sub-theme.
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
26
The final result of this project will be a power plant design that is
ready to demonstrate high-efficiency, utility-scale power generation
with CCS, burning a large variety of indigenous and imported coals
– from lignite to anthracite – as well as co-firing biomass. The main
novelty is the combination of the latest advances in CFB boiler design
with a supercritical once-through steam cycle, an air separation unit
to produce oxygen and a CO2 capture unit.
The project has developed new simulation tools to support the FLEXI
BURN CFB concept. A demonstration at 30 MWth scale proved that an
oxygen-fired CFB boiler can be operated in a reliable, controllable and
safe manner. Based on this and other tests at scales up to 30 MWth,
and field measurements at a 460 MWe coal-fired plant in Lagisza,
Poland, the project team developed the concept to commercial scale.
FLEXI BURN CFB is a first-generation CFB plant that is capable of
operation with either air or oxygen. Second-generation oxyfuel CFB
plants will use only oxygen for combustion. An example of such a
second-generation plant is the FP7 project O2GEN (see section
4.5), which aims significantly to reduce (by around 50%) the overall
efficiency penalty imposed by CO2 capture.
The FECUNDUS project aimed to integrate the co-gasification of coal,
biomass and wastes with processes for CO2 separation and capture.
Both fluidised bed and entrained-flow gasification processes were
considered because of their suitability for different feedstocks. The
project’s nine partners undertook seven work packages, including
tailoring gasification schemes for integration with CO2 separation,
and developing materials for gas cleaning, char upgrading, and CO2
separation.
DemoCLOCK aims to demonstrate the technical, economic and
environmental feasibility of high-temperature, high-pressure, packed-
bed chemical looping combustion (CLC)10 in large power plants. A 500
kWth fixed-bed reactor will be designed, built and operated within
an existing integrated gasification combined-cycle (IGCC) power
plant in Puertollano, Spain. The packed-bed CLC unit will convert raw
10
hemical looping combustion (CLC) uses two or more reactions to oxidise hydrocarbon-
C
based fuels. In its simplest form, a chemical species (normally a metal) is first oxidised in
air to form an oxide. This oxide is then reduced using a hydrocarbon in a second reaction.
In recent years, interest has been shown in CLC as a carbon capture technique. Carbon
capture is facilitated by CLC because the two redox reactions generate two intrinsically
separated flue gas streams: a stream from the oxidiser, consisting of atmospheric N2
and residual O2, but sensibly free of CO2; and a stream from the reducer containing
CO2 and H2O with very little diluent N2. The oxidiser exit gas can be discharged to
the atmosphere with minimal CO2 pollution. The reducer exit gas contains almost all
of the CO2 generated by the system, so CLC can be said to exhibit ‘inherent carbon
capture’. Water vapour can easily be removed from the reducer flue gas via condensation,
leading to a stream of almost pure CO2. This gives CLC clear benefits when compared
with competing carbon capture technologies, as the latter generally involve a significant
energy penalty associated with either post-combustion scrubbing systems or the work
input required for air separation plants. This has led to CLC being proposed as an energy-
efficient carbon capture technology (Wikipedia).
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
28
4.4 Sub-theme 3: Emissions
The overall objective of the H2-IGCC project is to provide and
demonstrate technical solutions to allow the use of state-of-the-art
gas turbines (GTs) in the next generation of IGCC plants. The goal is
to enable combustion of undiluted hydrogen-rich syngas with low NOx
emissions, high fuel flexibility, high efficiency and high reliability. The
challenge is to operate a GT on hydrogen-rich syngas in a stable and
controllable manner, with emissions and processes similar to current
state-of-the-art GTs running on natural gas. The project aims to tackle
this challenge, as well as that of fuel flexibility, by enabling the burning
of back-up fuels, such as natural gas, without harming reliability.
H2-IGCC is divided into four sub-projects:
•C
ombustion: Demonstrate the use of (undiluted) high-hydrogen
syngas in typical natural gas combustion systems, with minimal
modifications, so as to conserve the ability to burn a variety of
fuels; demonstrate the safe use of (undiluted) high-hydrogen
syngas in lean premixed combustion at comparatively low
emission levels.
•M
aterials: Demonstrate cost-effective materials and coatings
technologies to overcome the component life-limiting problems
of overheating and hot corrosion, resulting from the higher
temperatures and from residual contaminants in the syngas
respectively; validate materials performance data, life prediction
and monitoring methods applicable to industrial implementation
in advanced IGCC plants.
•T
urbomachinery: Deliver a compressor design with a stability
margin enabling the switch between fuels without compromising
its efficiency; deliver a turbine design and cooling system capable
of coping with the resulting heat transfer environment dominated
by water vapour; verify designs using large-scale virtual testing
environment to meet industrial standards.
•S
ystem analysis: provide a detailed system analysis that
generates realistic technical and economic results for future
IGCC plants based on GTs.
The DEVCAT project addresses the control of NOx, SO3 and mercury
(Hg) emissions from power plants. The goal is to develop special deNOx
catalysts for selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for coal, biofuels and co-
combustion, targeting efficient NOx reduction and mercury oxidation,
while also ensuring low conversion of SO2– to SO3–. Existing catalyst
technology will be further developed with innovative designs for biofuel
applications, including the use of nanotechnology.
Various studies have shown that SCR also enhances the oxidation of
elemental mercury in the flue gas, and so improves mercury retention
in both wet flue gas desulphurisation and dry adsorption processes.
A major part of the project is to study the interaction of the three
types of parallel reaction: NOx reduction, Hg oxidation, and SO2/
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11
www.vattenfall.com/en/ccs/index.htm
12
www.ciuden.es/index.php/en/technologias
13
www.callideoxyfuel.com/What/CallideOxyfuelProject.aspx
30
reducing conditions were considered. The process parameters were
chosen to reflect operation in the USC regime. Further tests on 12
alloys and a coating were carried out to simulate conditions at the
cold end of a power plant, resulting in more than 100 specimens.
The results from this project should be of use in developing advanced
process layouts and boiler design strategies to increase efficiency and
reduce maintenance costs in oxyfuel power stations.
The RELCOM project focuses on the key issues that need to be
addressed to pave the way for full-scale deployment of oxy-coal firing.
The project will undertake systematic and focused applied RD&D,
involving both experimental studies and combustion modelling,
to resolve existing technical uncertainties and barriers that inhibit
commercial deployment of the technology. Attention will be paid to
generating design rules and methods which can be employed to scale
up results from pilot and laboratory studies. The data obtained from
the experiments and models will be integrated to produce detailed
designs for a retrofit oxy/coal/RFG system for an existing boiler, as
well as a novel design for a new plant. The project will therefore enable
full-scale early demonstration plants to be designed with greater
confidence, and will improve assessments of the commercial risks and
opportunities.
HETMOC will develop and demonstrate highly efficient tubular
membranes to produce oxygen for oxyfuel combustion. Compared
to traditional combustion in air, oxyfuel combustion has the potential
significantly to reduce the efficiency losses associated with carbon
capture and to improve the overall process economics. However, it
requires large quantities of oxygen to be extracted from air: according
to the HETMOC project partners, a 500 MW power plant would need
around 16 000 tonne/day of oxygen. Conventionally this would be
obtained by liquefying and distilling air at temperatures down to –195°C
– a surprisingly energy-efficient process in modern air separation plants,
thanks to close attention to heat recovery. Membrane separation of
gases, however, can be even more energy-efficient when high purity is
not required. HETMOC aims to develop two types of oxygen transport
membranes and to test their performance and durability.
One of the main drawbacks of CCS is the additional energy it uses for
operation. This energy penalty reduces the power plant’s efficiency,
increasing both the cost of electricity and the use of resources (mainly
fossil fuels but also water, raw materials and additional equipment).
Reducing the efficiency penalty associated with CCS is therefore a
major challenge for the years to come. The objective of the O2GEN
project is to demonstrate the concept of second-generation oxyfuel
combustion that halves the overall efficiency penalty of CO2 capture
in power plants, from approximately 12 to 6 percentage points. The
concept focuses on the use of higher oxygen concentrations in oxyfuel
combustion, reducing the flue gas recirculation rate and the energy
penalty. The use of higher oxygen concentrations has other important
advantages: smaller boilers with lower capital and operating costs,
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
32
a substantially simplified gas cleaning system based on carbonate
scrubbing that will substantially increase process efficiency compared
to current state-of-the-art systems. The single-stage pressurised
water/carbonate scrubbing process simultaneously removes CO2,
sulphur and tar.
Gasification tests carried out at an existing 500 kW heatpipe reformer
(HPR) plant yielded a highly compatible syngas for the production of
SNG. Methanation tests showed full conversion of CO in a compact
honeycomb methanation reactor, with a very high selectivity for
methane. A commercially available and economically feasible catalyst
was identified for large-scale application. The researchers also used
ASPEN and IPSEpro simulation packages to confirm the feasibility of
an efficient 5 MWth coal/lignite-to-SNG plant with parallel production
of electric power. The simulated total coal-to-SNG efficiency reached
69.1% (3.20 MWth SNG plus net electricity production of 254.5 kW).
The SNG produced meets the standard specification and so could be
injected into the gas grid. A chemical scrubber was identified as the
best option for removing CO2 from the raw SNG.
CO2freeSNG now plans to use this process to produce SNG in a
planned 5 MWth demonstration plant based around a heatpipe
reformer. The investment cost is estimated at around EUR 12 million,
while the lifetime cost including CO2 emissions and electricity sales
revenues is estimated at EUR 17.2 million. The plant is likely to be
built in Germany or Greece; the criteria for choosing a site are coal
availability and characteristics, logistics costs, existing infrastructure,
water management, ash disposal issues, and SNG management.
Initial discussions with site owners, operators, authorities and project
developers are under way.
The project has concluded that larger SNG plants based on this
technology should be profitable. Thermodynamic evaluation of plants
rated at 50 MWth and above showed a simulated SNG efficiency of
about 63%, with a production cost of EUR 50 /MWhSNG(HHV) (or
EUR 54 /MWhSNG(HHV) when CO2 emissions costs are taken into
account). Based on detailed cost estimates, including a sensitivity
analysis, it was concluded the 50 MWth plant could be an economically
viable investment.
The follow-up project CO2freeSNG2.0 aims to demonstrate a complete
process chain for the technology developed within CO2freeSNG, using
European coal and lignites.
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14
Source: Nicol, 2013.
34
The ENCIO project is an important step before a 700°C power plant
can be built. ENCIO will install a test facility at an ENEL power plant
in Fusina, Italy. The test components will be installed in loops of
pipework added to the existing plant, allowing them to be isolated
quickly in the event of any problems. Four test loops will be dedicated
to, respectively, techniques for repairing damaged pipework; tests
on thick-walled parts made by the technique known as hot isostatic
pressing; different nickel-based alloys; and cast alloys used for steam
turbine blades. The project will focus on practical investigations,
aiming to prove manufacturing, welding, repair and life assessment
techniques for thick-walled components. ENCIO can be seen as a
transition from pilot plants towards large-scale demonstrations.
The MACPLUS project aims to boost the efficiency of coal-fired plants
by increasing the performance and reliability of critical components,
such as combustion chambers, boiler and superheater tubes, steam
headers and pipework, and by reducing manufacturing costs. The project
partners are working to develop refractory materials used in combustion
chambers, especially for oxyfuel applications at temperatures up to
1800°C. Other areas studied include crack repair techniques for steel
steam pipes; measures to prolong the life of nickel-based superheater
components and boiler tubes subject to harsh conditions when co-firing
biomass; and the relationship between manufacturing techniques and
defects that limit the service life of components. Full-scale prototypes
will be tested under realistic conditions.
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
5 International
developments
5.1 Synthesis of the research findings
Fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility
CFB technology, with its intrinsic advantages of fuel flexibility and low
emissions, appears to be ideally suited to oxygen-fired combustion.
CFBs will allow the use of indigenous coals and biomass with CCS,
thus addressing the need both for security of supply and reduced
dependence on imported coal.
High-temperature, high-pressure chemical looping combustion (CLC)
in packed beds for large-scale plants is currently under investigation.
Compared to currently available techniques, packed-bed reactor
technology is expected to open new possibilities in using multiple fuels
(such as coal, petroleum coke and biomass), and to deliver power
cost-effectively with a lower energy penalty for CO2 avoidance.
Conversion efficiency
Direct electrochemical conversion of coal to electricity offers
theoretically significant increases in efficiency, with consequent
reductions in CO2 emissions, plus easier CO2 sequestration. Such a
system is, however, a long way from fruition (Henderson, 2014a).
Current activities are directed towards developing combined coal-fuel
cell conversion technology, with a focus on increasing scale, improving
cell design, finding new catalysts and addressing durability.
High-pressure CFB gasifiers have the advantage that they can be
fuelled with high-ash coals. However, the efficiency and reliability
of such gasifiers still need to be optimised. The focus, among other
things, is on developing strategies to avoid particle agglomeration,
investigating corrosion risks, increasing fuel flexibility and developing
efficient ash disposal systems.
Emissions
The ability to burn undiluted hydrogen-rich syngas in the next
generation of IGCC plants will benefit the downstream carbon
sequestration process. Work is ongoing to provide and demonstrate
technical solutions to allow the use of state-of-the-art, highly efficient
and reliable gas turbines with low NOx emissions and high fuel flexibility.
Attention has been directed, among other things, towards using
(undiluted) high-hydrogen syngas in typical natural gas combustion
systems with minimal modifications; demonstrating cost-effective
materials and coatings technologies to overcome problems that limit
36
component life; designing compressors with a stability margin to
allow switching between fuels without compromising efficiency; and
generating realistic techno-economic results for future gas turbine-
based IGCC plants.
Innovative SCR-deNOx catalysts for coal, biomass and co-combustion
are in development, with the objective of reducing NOx, SO3 and
mercury emissions efficiently. A major aspect of the investigation
is the interactions between the parallel reactions of NOx reduction,
mercury oxidation and SO2/SO3 conversion. Minimising investment
and operating costs, avoiding catalyst deactivation by biofuels or
co-combustion and regenerating deactivated catalysts are of special
interest.
Polygeneration
The conversion of coal into substitute natural gas (SNG) will reduce
dependence on non-European natural gas resources. An innovative
coal-to-SNG technology based on steam gasification is currently in
development for the medium-scale power range (50–500 MWth). One
project has already been finalised, resulting in, among other things, a
basic design for a 5 MWth coal-to-SNG pilot plant. A follow-up project
is in progress, aiming to demonstrate the complete process chain with
European coal and lignite (see also Section 4.6).
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
38
6 Technology mapping
According to the International Energy Agency RD&D Statistics
Database, overall estimated public expenditure on fossil-fuel RD&D in
2011 in IEA Europe15 amounted to EUR 358 million16. This represented
about 21% of the total public budget for RD&D on fossil fuels for the
IEA member countries as a whole. The IEA divides RD&D spending on
fossil fuels into two parts, relating respectively to oil and gas and to coal.
Oil and gas RD&D involves mainly enhanced oil and gas production,
refining, transport, storage, non-conventional oil and gas production,
combustion, and conversion. Coal-related activities consist mainly
of coal production, preparation and transport, combustion (including
IGCC), conversion (excluding IGCC), and CCS.
Table 8 presents total RD&D expenditure by selected Member States,
plus Norway and Switzerland, in these areas in 2011.
Table 8: Total RD&D expenditure on oil and gas, coal, and related
conversion routes in 2011 for selected European countries (million
EUR, with 2012 prices and exchange rates) (IEA RD&D, 2013)
Country AT DK FI FR DE HE IT
Fossil fuels 1.131 3.963 8.678 112.532 34.351 0.716 30.514
Oil and gas 0.099 3.763 2.461 58.194 5.086
Oil and gas 0.074 0.860 0.009 5.086
combustion
Oil and gas 0.012 3.781
conversion
Coal 0.505 6.218 0.167 2.034
Coal 0.474 2.429 2.034
combustion
(incl. IGCC)
Coal
conversion
(excl. IGCC)
Country NL NO PO SE CH UK
Fossil fuels 9.337 82.547 0.052 0.994 14.139 52.632
Oil and gas 5.808 51.812 0.007 10.812 2.921
Oil and gas 1.451 10.812
combustion
Oil and gas 4.863
conversion
15
ustria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
A
Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Turkey and the United Kingdom (Luxembourg excluded due to missing data)
(IEA, 2013)
16
2012 prices and exchange rates (EUR 0.778 = USD 1)
39
A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
40
7 Capacities mapping
41
A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
42
flexibility becomes greater (to complement the large-scale deployment
of renewables). Despite higher gas prices in the European and Asia-
Pacific markets, gas-fired generation still has characteristics that make
it an attractive option relative to the alternatives, notably lower capital
costs, shorter construction times, greater operational flexibility and
lower emissions (IEA WEO, 2013).
The AUSC material programmes in the US, China, Japan and India
have largely completed stage 1 (except for long-term creep tests) and
are progressing towards stage 2. The European programme is still at
stage 2 after encountering technical difficulties. By 2018, results from
stages 1 and 2 will provide enough technical data to decide how the
technology will progress to stage 3. Full-scale demonstration projects
are planned to start up in 2021, followed by five years of operation
to qualify the materials and verify the performance of the technology.
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
8 Conclusions and
recommendations
Key messages
• Fossil-fuel power generation is expected to continue to be the biggest
contributor to the EU27’s CO2 emissions in the short and medium term.
Improvements in power plant efficiency are therefore a major factor in reducing
CO2 emissions in Europe.
• Increasing the net efficiency of coal-fired power plants is a major requirement
for the intelligent and cost-effective use of CCS technologies. The most
promising strategies to achieve this are based on boosting steam temperature
and pressure in new AUSC power plants (including attention to materials of
construction), and clean coal technologies based on oxy-combustion and co-
firing technologies, among others.
• The priority grid access granted to renewables means that fossil-fuel power
plants will increasingly move from baseload operation to load-following. The
flexibility of power plants therefore requires special attention in future research.
• Other fields requiring special research attention are fuel pre-treatment and fuel
flexibility, emissions reduction (SO2, NOx and dust), and polygeneration.
•A
s a result of the priority grid access given to renewables, fossil-
fuel power plants will move increasingly from baseload to load-
following operation. The operating flexibility of these plants
therefore requires special attention in future research.
•T
he additional energy required for CCS reduces the efficiency
of the whole plant, increasing the cost of electricity and use of
resources. Reducing the efficiency penalty associated with CCS
is therefore a major challenge for the coming years.
44
•T
he intelligent and cost-effective use of CCS technologies requires
new strategies to increase the net efficiency of coal-fired power
plants. The most promising strategies are:
o increase steam temperature and pressure in new USC power
plants (350–370 bar, 700/720°C minimum);
op
romote clean coal technologies based (for example) on
oxyfuel combustion and co-firing, with a continuous increase
in the percentage of biomass mixed with coal, in order to
reduce CO2 capture losses and the amount of CO2 to be
captured and stored.
•A
USC technology has already been in development for 15 years.
However, it still requires an extensive and complex materials
research programme, with the main outstanding issue being the
fabrication of large components. This research programme is
expected to last for more than ten years, at a substantial cost
and with high technical risk. Consortia of utilities, manufacturers
and research establishments need to combine their individual
strengths and resources to solve the technical issues and expedite
AUSC technology.
•F
or both new coal plants and retrofits, oxyfuel combustion using
pure oxygen rather than air seems a promising way to cut the cost
of carbon capture. Attention should be directed towards critical
corrosion parameters in oxy-coal combustion, demonstrating and
analysing the effect of high oxygen concentrations in combustion
performance, fuel flexibility, controllability of solids recirculation
within the boiler, materials performance, and the effects on the
CO2 compression unit. However, this technology would currently
result in costs too high for the industry to bear, so it is not
expected to enter the market in the near future (Glazer, 2014).
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A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
References
•B
eurskens, L.W.M., M. Hekkenberg (2011) Renewable energy
projections as published in the National Renewable Energy
Action Plans of the European Member States; Covering all 27 EU
Member States. ECN-E--10–069, February 2011.
•E
uropean Commission, Communication COM(2011) 112 final:
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament,
the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee
and the Committee of Regions; A Roadmap for moving to a
competitive low carbon economy in 2050.
•E
uropean Commission, Communication COM(2011) 885 final:
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament,
the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and
the Committee of Regions; Energy Roadmap 2050. December
15, 2011.
•E
uropean Parliament and Council (2001): Directive 2001/80/EC
of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October
2001 on the limitation of emissions of certain pollutants into the
air from large combustion plants.
•E
uropean Parliament and Council (2004): Directive 2004/8/EC
of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 February
2004 on the promotion of cogeneration based on a useful heat
demand in the internal energy market and amending Directive
92/42/EEC.
•E
uropean Parliament and Council (2009): Directive 2009/28/EC
of the European Parliament and the Council of 23 April 2009 on
the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and
amending and subsequently repealing Directive 2001/77/EC and
2003/30/EC.
•E
uropean Parliament and Council, Directive 2009/29/EC of the
European Parliament and the Council of 23 April 2009 amending
Directive 2003/87/EC so as to improve and extend the greenhouse
gas emission allowance trading scheme of the Community.
•E
uropean Parliament and Council (2010): Directive 2010/75/
EU of the European Parliament and the Council of 24 November
2010 on industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention
and control).
• Glazer, M. (2014): Personal communication. June 30, 2014.
•H
enderson, C. (2013): Upgrading and efficiency improvement in
coal-fired power plants. IEA Clean Coal Centre, ISBN 978–92–
9029–541–9, August 2013.
46
• Henderson, C. (2014a): Personal communication. June 25, 2014.
•H
enderson, C. (2014b): Increasing the flexibility of coal-fired power
plants. https://www.brighttalk.com/webcast/7129/120447,
August 6, 2014.
• I EA-CCC Profile (2013): Upgrading and efficiency improvement in
coal-fired power plants. IEA Clean Coal Centre, No 13/9, August
2013.
• IEA RD&D Statistics Database 2013, www.iea.org/statistics/
topics/rdd
• I EA WEO: World energy outlook. ISBN: 978–92–64–20130–9,
2013.
• J RC (Scientific and Technical Reports), 2011 Technology Map
of the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan),
Technology Descriptions, JRC 67097, ISBN 978–92–79–21630–
5, 2011.
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•o
f the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan),
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icol, K. (2013): Status of advanced ultra-supercritical pulverized
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549–5, December 2013.
47
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Annexes
48
CTL Coal-to-liquids
DCFC Direct carbon (or coal) fuel cell
ELV Emission limit value
ER Enhanced recovery
ESP Electrostatic precipitator
ETS Emissions trading scheme
FBC Fluidised bed combustion
FSDP Full-scale demonstration plant
F-T Fischer-Tropf
GT Gas turbine
GTL Gas-to-liquids
HHV Higher heating value
HPR Heatpipe reformer
IED Industrial Emissions Directive
IGCC Integrated gasification combined cycle
LCPD Large Combustion Plant Directive
LHV Lower heating value
MCFC Molten carbonate fuel cell
Mo Molybdenum
NGCC Natural gas combined-cycle
NOx Nitric oxides
O&M Operation and maintenance
PC Pulverised coal
PCC Pulverised coal combustion
RED Renewable Energy Sources Directive
RFG Recycled flue gas
SC Supercritical
SCR Selective catalytic reduction
SNG Substitute natural gas
SO2 Sulfur dioxide
USC Ultra-supercritical
WEO World Energy Outlook
49
A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
Sub-theme 3: Emissions
Project acronym Project title Type/start-end Budget (EUR) Project website
Low emission gas turbine technology for hydrogen-rich FP7-ENERGY
H2-IGCC 17 191 876 www.h2-igcc.eu
syngas 2009–13
Development of high performance SCR-catalysts related to RFCS
DEVCAT 2 359 856 http://devcat.eu-projects.de
different fuel types 2010–13
50
Sub-theme 5: Polygeneration
Project acronym Project title Type/start-end Budget (EUR) Project website
Substitute natural gas from coal with internal sequestration RFCS
CO2freeSNG 1 879 655 www.co2freesng.eu
of CO2 2009–12
Advanced substitute natural gas from coal with internal RFCS www.co2freesng.eu/index.php/
CO2freeSNG2.0 1 834 169
sequestration of CO2 2013–16 co2freesng2-0
51