http://www.nwlink.

com/~donclark/hrd/Bloom/psychomot
or_domain.html
B l o o m ' s Ta xo n o m y o f L e a r n i n g
Domains

Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of educational

psychologist Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of
thinking in education, such as analyzing and evaluating concepts,
processes, procedures, and principles, rather than just remembering facts
(rote learning). It is most often used when designing educational, training,
and learning processes.

The Three Domains of Learning

The committee identified three domains of educational activities
or learning(Bloom, et al. 1956):

o Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge)

 o Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self)
o Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (skills)

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a
little bigger than we normally use. Domains may be thought of as
categories. Instructional designers, trainers, and educators often refer to
these three categories as KSA (Knowledge [cognitive], Skills [psychomotor],
and Attitudes [affective]). This taxonomy of learning behaviors may be
thought of as “the goals of the learning process.” That is, after a learning
episode, the learner should have acquired a new skill, knowledge , and/or
attitude.

While the committee produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive

and affective domains, they omitted the psychomotor domain. Their
explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in
teaching manual skills within the college level. However, there have been at
least three psychomotor models created by other researchers.

Their compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, s tarting from
the simplest cognitive process or behavior to the most complex. The
divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or
hierarchies that have been devised, such as the Structure of Observed
Learning Outcome (SOLO). However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily
understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.

Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of
intellectual skills (Bloom, 1956). This includes the recall or recognition
of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the
development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major
categories of cognitive an processes, starting from the simplest to the most
complex (see the table below for an in-depth coverage of each category):

o Knowledge
o Comprehension
o Application
o Analysis
o Synthesis
 o Evaluation

The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first
ones must normally be mastered before the next one can take place.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and David Krathwohl revisited
the cognitive domain in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with
perhaps the three most prominent ones being (Anderson, Krathwohl,
Airasian, Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths, Wittrock, 2000):changing the
names in the six categories from noun to verb forms

o rearranging them as shown in the chart below

o creating a processes and levels of knowledge matrix

The chart shown below compares the original taxonomy with the revised one:

This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is

perhaps more accurate. The new version of Bloom's Taxonomy, with
examples and keywords is shown below, while the old version may be
found here
 Table of the Revised Cognitive Domain
Category
Remembering: Recall or
retrieve previous learned
information.
Understanding:
Comprehending the meaning,
translation, interpolation, and
interpretation of instructions and
problems. State a problem in
one's own words.
Applying: Use a concept in a
new situation or unprompted
use of an abstraction. Applies
what was learned in the
classroom into novel situations
in the work place.
Examples, key words (verbs), and technologies for
learning (activities)
Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from
memory to a customer. Recite the safety rules.
Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows,
labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls,
recognizes, reproduces, selects, states
Technologies: book marking, flash cards, rote
learning based on repetition, reading
Examples: Rewrite the principles of test writing.
Explain in one's own words the steps for
performing a complex task. Translate an equation
into a computer spreadsheet.
Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends,
distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends,
generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets,
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes,
translates
Technologies: create an analogy, participating
in cooperative learning, taking notes, storytelling,
Internet search
Examples: Use a manual to calculate an
employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics
to evaluate the reliability of a written test.
Key Words: applies, changes, computes,
constructs, demonstrates, discovers,
manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts,
prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses
Technologies: collaborative learning, create a
process, blog, practice

Analyzing: Separates material
or concepts into component
parts so that its organizational
structure may be understood.
Distinguishes between facts and
inferences.
Evaluating: Make judgments
about the value of ideas or
materials.
Creating: Builds a structure or
pattern from diverse elements.
Put parts together to form a
whole, with emphasis on
creating a new meaning or
structure.
Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by
using logical deduction. Recognize logical
fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a
department and selects the required tasks for
training.
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares,
contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates,
discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates,
infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates
Technologies: Fishbowls, debating, questioning
what happened, run a test
Examples: Select the most effective solution.
Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and
justify a new budget.
Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes,
contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends,
describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains,
interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes,
supports
Technologies: survey, blogging
Examples: Write a company operations or
process manual. Design a machine to perform a
specific task. Integrates training from several
sources to solve a problem. Revises and process
to improve the outcome.
Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles,
composes, creates, devises, designs, explains,
generates, modifies, organizes, plans,
rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes,
revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes
Technologies: Create a new model, write an
essay, network with others
 Cognitive Processes and Levels of Knowledge
Matrix
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy not only improved the usability of it by using
action words, but added a cognitive and knowledge matrix.

While Bloom's original cognitive taxonomy did mention three levels of

knowledge or products that could be processed, they were not discussed
very much and remained one-dimensional:

o Factual - The basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline
or solve problems.
o Conceptual – The interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger
structure that enable them to function together.
o Procedural - How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills,
algorithms, techniques, and methods.

In Krathwohl and Anderson's revised version, the authors combine the

cognitive processes with the above three levels of knowledge to form a
matrix. In addition, they added another level of knowledge - metacognition:

o Metacognitive – Knowledge of cognition in general, as well as awareness and

knowledge of one’s own cognition.

When the cognitive and knowledge dimensions are arranged in a matrix, as

shown below, it makes a nice performance aid for creating performance
objectives:

The Cognitive Dimension

The Knowledge Dimension Remember Under-stand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create

Factual
Conceptual
Procedural
Metacognitive
However, others have identified five contents or artifacts (Clark, Chopeta,
2004; Clark, Mayer, 2007):

o Facts - Specific and unique data or instance.

o Concepts - A class of items, words, or ideas that are known by a common name,
includes multiple specific examples, shares common features. There are two types
of concepts: concrete and abstract.
o Processes - A flow of events or activities that describe how things work rather than
how to do things. There are normally two types: business processes that describe
work flows and technical processes that describe how things work in equipment or
nature. They may be thought of as the big picture, of how something works.
o Procedures - A series of step-by-step actions and decisions that result in the
achievement of a task. There are two types of actions: linear and branched.
o Principles - Guidelines, rules, and parameters that govern. It includes not only what
should be done, but also what should not be done. Principles allow one to make
predictions and draw implications. Given an effect, one can infer the cause of a
phenomena. Principles are the basic building blocks of causal models or theoretical
models (theories).

Thus, the new matrix would look similar to this:

The Cognitive Dimension

The Knowledge Dimension Remember Under-stand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create

Facts
Concepts
Processes
Procedures
Principles
Metacognitive
An example matrix that has been filled in might look something like this:

The Knowledge
Remember Under-stand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Dimension
Facts list paraphrase classify outline rank categorize
Concepts recall explains show contrast criticize modify
Processes outline estimate produce diagram defend design
give an
Procedures reproduce relate identify critique plan
example
different-
Principles state converts solve conclude revise
iates
Meta-cognitive proper use interpret discover infer predict actualize

B l o o m ' s Ta xo n o my : T h e P sy c h o m o t o r
Domain

The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical

movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.
Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of
speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. Thus,
psychomotor skills rage from manual tasks, such as digging a ditch or
washing a car, to more complex tasks, such as operating a complex piece
of machinery or dancing.

The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the
most complex:

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Examples: Detects non-verbal

Perception (awareness): The ability to
use sensory cues to guide motor
activity. This ranges from sensory
stimulation, through cue selection, to
translation.
communication cues. Estimate where a
ball will land after it is thrown and then
moving to the correct location to catch the
ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct
temperature by smell and taste of food.
Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift
by comparing where the forks are in
relation to the pallet.

Key Words: chooses, describes, detects,

differentiates, distinguishes, identifies,
isolates, relates, selects.

Examples: Knows and acts upon a

sequence of steps in a manufacturing
process. Recognize one's abilities and
limitations. Shows desire to learn a new
Set: Readiness to act. It includes
process (motivation). NOTE: This
mental, physical, and emotional sets.
subdivision of Psychomotor is closely
These three sets are dispositions that
related with the “Responding to
predetermine a person's response to
phenomena” subdivision of the Affective
different situations (sometimes called
domain.
mindsets).
Key Words: begins, displays, explains,
moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states,
volunteers.

Guided Response: The early stages in Examples: Performs a mathematical

learning a complex skill that includes
imitation and trial and error. Adequacy
of performance is achieved by
practicing.
Mechanism (basic proficiency): This
is the intermediate stage in learning a
complex skill. Learned responses have
become habitual and the movements
can be performed with some confidence
and proficiency.
Complex Overt Response (Expert):
The skillful performance of motor acts
that involve complex movement
patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a
quick, accurate, and highly coordinated
performance, requiring a minimum of
energy. This category includes
performing without hesitation, and
automatic performance. For example,
players are often utter sounds of
satisfaction or expletives as soon as
they hit a tennis ball or throw a football,
because they can tell by the feel of the
act what the result will produce.
Adaptation: Skills are well developed
and the individual can modify
movement patterns to fit special
requirements.
equation as demonstrated. Follows
instructions to build a model. Responds
hand-signals of instructor while learning to
operate a forklift.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react,
reproduce, responds
Examples: Use a personal
computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a
car.
Key Words: assembles, calibrates,
constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,
fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates,
measures, mends, mixes, organizes,
sketches.
Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight
parallel parking spot. Operates a
computer quickly and accurately. Displays
competence while playing the piano.
Key Words: assembles, builds,
calibrates, constructs, dismantles,
displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
manipulates, measures, mends, mixes,
organizes, sketches.
NOTE: The Key Words are the same as
Mechanism, but will have adverbs or
adjectives that indicate that the
performance is quicker, better, more
accurate, etc.
Examples: Responds effectively to
unexpected experiences. Modifies
instruction to meet the needs of the
learners. Perform a task with a machine
that it was not originally intended to do
 (machine is not damaged and there is no
danger in performing the new task).

Key Words: adapts, alters, changes,

rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.

Examples: Constructs a new theory.

Develops a new and comprehensive
Origination: Creating new movement
training programming. Creates a new
patterns to fit a particular situation or
gymnastic routine.
specific problem. Learning outcomes
emphasize creativity based upon highly
Key Words: arranges, builds, combines,
developed skills.
composes, constructs, creates, designs,
initiate, makes, originates.

Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies

As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the
psychomotor domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is
by Simpson (1972). There are two other popular versions by Dave (1970)
and Harrow (1972):

Dave (1975):

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Examples: Copying a work of art. Performing a

Imitation — Observing and
skill while observing a demonstrator.
patterning behavior after
someone else. Performance may
Key Words: copy, follow, mimic, repeat,
be of low quality.
replicate, reproduce, trace

Examples: Being able to perform a skill on one's

Manipulation — Being able to own after taking lessons or reading about it.
perform certain actions by Follows instructions to build a model.
memory or following instructions.
Key Words: act, build, execute, perform

Precision — Refining, becoming Examples: Working and reworking something,

more exact. Performing a skill so it will be “just right.” Perform a skill or task
within a high degree of precision without assistance. Demonstrate a task to a
beginner.

Key Words: calibrate, demonstrate, master,

perfectionism

Examples: Combining a series of skills to

produce a video that involves music, drama,
Articulation — Coordinating
color, sound, etc. Combining a series of skills or
and adapting a series of actions
activities to meet a novel requirement.
to achieve harmony and internal
consistency.
Key Words: adapt, constructs, combine, creates,
customize, modifies, formulate

Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel

parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and
Naturalization — Mastering a
accurately. Displays competence while playing
high level performance until it
the piano. Michael Jordan playing basketball or
become second-nature or
Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball.
natural, without needing to think
much about it.
Key Words: create, design, develop, invent,
manage, naturally

Harrow (1972):

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Reflex Movements — Reactions that Examples: instinctive response

are not learned, such as a
involuntary reaction Key Words: react, respond

Examples: perform a simple task

Fundamental Movements — Basic
movements such as walking, or
Key Words: grasp an object, throw a ball,
grasping.
walk

Examples: track a moving object, recognize

Perceptual Abilities — Response to
a pattern
stimuli such as visual, auditory,
kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.
Key Words: catch a ball, draw or write
Physical Abilities (fitness) —
Stamina that must be developed for
further development such as strength
and agility.
Skilled movements — Advanced
learned movements as one would
find in sports or acting.
Nondiscursive communication—
Use effective body language, such as
gestures and facial expressions.
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html#three_domains
Bloom's Taxonomy: The Affective Domain
Examples: gain strength, run a marathon
Key Words: agility, endurance, strength
Examples: Using an advanced series of
integrated movements, perform a role in a
stage play or play in a set of series in a
sports game.
Key Words: adapt, constructs, creates,
modifies
Examples: Express one's self by using
movements and gestures
Key Words: arrange, compose,
interpretation
 The affective domain is one of three domains in Bloom's Taxonomy,
with the other two being the cognitive and psychomotor (Bloom, et al.,
1956). For an overview of the three domains, see theintroduction.

The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner
in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values,
appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, andattitudes. The five major
categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Examples: Listen to others with

Receiving Phenomena: Awareness,
willingness to hear, selected attention.
respect. Listen for and remember
the name of newly introduced
people.
Key Words: acknowledge, asks,
attentive, courteous, dutiful, follows,
gives, listens, understands

Examples: Participates in class

Responds to Phenomena: Active
participation on the part of the learners.
Attend and react to a particular phenomenon.
Learning outcomes may emphasize
compliance in responding, willingness to
respond, or satisfaction in responding
(motivation).
discussions. Gives a presentation.
Questions new ideals, concepts,
models, etc. in order to fully
understand them. Know the safety
rules and practice them.
Key Words: answers, assists, aids,
complies, conforms, discusses,
greets, helps, labels, performs,
presents, tells

Valuing: The worth or value a person Examples: Demonstrates belief in

attaches to a particular object, phenomenon,
or behavior. This ranges from simple
acceptance to the more complex state of
commitment. Valuing is based on the
internalization of a set of specified values,
while clues to these values are expressed in
the learner's overt behavior and are often
the democratic process. Is sensitive
towards individual and cultural
differences (value diversity). Shows
the ability to solve problems.
Proposes a plan to social
improvement and follows through
with commitment. Informs
identifiable.
Organization: Organizes values into
priorities by contrasting different values,
resolving conflicts between them, and
creating an unique value system. The
emphasis is on comparing, relating, and
synthesizing values.
Internalizes Values(characterization): Has a
value system that controls their behavior.
The behavior is pervasive, consistent,
predictable, and most important
characteristic of the learner. Instructional
objectives are concerned with the student's
general patterns of adjustment (personal,
social, emotional).
management on matters that one
feels strongly about.
Key Words: appreciates, cherish,
treasure, demonstrates, initiates,
invites, joins, justifies, proposes,
respect, shares
Examples: Recognizes the need for
balance between freedom and
responsible behavior. Explains the
role of systematic planning in
solving problems. Accepts
professional ethical standards.
Creates a life plan in harmony with
abilities, interests, and beliefs.
Prioritizes time effectively to meet
the needs of the organization,
family, and self.
Key Words: compares, relates,
synthesizes
Examples: Shows self-reliance
when working independently.
Cooperates in group activities
(displays teamwork). Uses an
objective approach in problem
solving. Displays a professional
commitment to ethical practice on a
daily basis. Revises judgments and
changes behavior in light of new
evidence. Values people for what
they are, not how they look.
Key Words: acts, discriminates,
displays, influences, modifies,
performs, qualifies, questions,
revises, se
 Learning Strategies or
Instructional Strategies
Learning or instructional strategies determine the approach for achieving
thelearning objectives and are included in the pre-instructional activities,
information presentation, learner activities, testing, and follow-through. The
strategies are usually tied to the needs and interests of students to enhance
learning and are based on many types of learning styles (Ekwensi,
Moranski, &Townsend-Sweet, 2006).

Thus the learning objectives point you towards the instructional strategies,
while the instructional strategies will point you to the medium that will
actually deliver the instruction, such as elearning, self-study, classroom, or
OJT. However, do not fall into the trap of using only one medium when
designing your course. . . use ablended approach.

Although some people use the terms interchangeably, objectives,

strategies, and media, all have separate meanings. For example, your
learning objective might be "Pull the correct items for a customer o rder;" the
instructional strategies are a demonstration, have a question and answer
period, and then receive hands-on practice by actually performing the job,
while the media might be a combination of elearning and OJT.

The Instructional Strategy Selection Chart shown below is a general

guideline for selecting the learning strategy. It is based on Bloom's
Taxonomy (Learning Domains). The matrix generally runs from the passive
learning methods (top rows) to the more active participation methods
(bottom rows. Bloom's Taxonomy (the right three columns) runs from top to
bottom, with the lower level behaviors being on top and the higher
behaviors being on the bottom. That is, there is a direct correla tion in
learning:

o Lower levels of performance can normally be taught using the more passive
learning methods.
o Higher levels of performance usually require some sort of action or involvement by
the learners.
 Instructional Strategy Selection Chart
Instructional Strategy Cognitive Domain Affective Psychomotor
(Bloom, 1956) Domain Domain
(Krathwohl, (Simpson, 1972)
Bloom, & Masia,
1973)

Lecture, reading, 1. Knowledge 1. Receiving 1. Perception

audio/visual, phenomena
demonstration, or guided 2. Set
observations, question
and answer period

Discussions, multimedia 2. Comprehension 2. Responding to 3. Guided

CBT, Socratic didactic phenomena response
method, reflection. 3. Application
Activities such as surveys, 4. Mechanism
role playing, case studies,
fishbowls, etc.

On-the-Job-Training 4. Analysis 3. Valuing 5. Complex

(OJT), practice by doing response
(some direction or
coaching is required),
simulated job settings (to
include CBT simulations)

Use in real situations. 5. Synthesis 4. Organize 6. Adaptation

Also may be trained by values into
using several high level priorities
activities coupled with
OJT.

Normally developed on own 6. Evaluation 5. Internalizing 7. Origination

(informal learning) through values
self-study or learning
through mistakes, but
mentoring and coaching can
speed the process.
The chart does not cover all possibilities, but most activities should fit in.
For example, self-study could fall under reading, audio visual, and/or
activities, depending upon the type of program you design.

Instructional Design — Media, Strategies, &

Methods
Media, strategies, and methods are the various tools that not only deliver
the instruction, but also foster the acquisition of performance.

Media
Media is the plural of medium, which in learning and training environments,
is the means of communicating and transferring a learning concept or
objective to another individual. Media are the replicable “means”, forms, or
vehicles by which instruction is formatted, stored, and delivered to th e
learner (Schwen, 1977).

There are normally two types of training media within a learning program.
The first is the instructional setting or major media. For example, you might
have your learners go to classroom training for 2 days or have an elearning
program delivered to them. The second is the delivery systems within the
major medium. These are the various instructional methods that take place
within the instructional setting. In the two day class you might have several
types of media, such as lectures, videos, programmed instruction,
coaching, etc. Another example is an elearning platform with several types
of media within it, such as videos, readings, and simulations incorporated
into it.

Note that it is not unusual for a medium to carry another medium as in the
above examples. McLuhan (1964) gave the example of a television (one
form of media) carrying the spoken word (another form of media) of the
thoughts of a person. The second medium, the spoken word, can change to
best deliver the message, for example rather than speaking the person can
draw, act, or write the message.
Just as people use a variety of tones, pitches, rhythm, timbre, loudness,
inflections, gestures, etc. to communicate ideas to others; you should also
use a variety of media to aid in the transfer of learning. This is also referred
to as Blended Learning. Although no one medium is better than another, a
particular medium is normally better in certain situations.

For example, showing an engine with labels naming each of the parts is
probably more preferable than a long audible file explaining a car and its
various parts.

The strategies and methods that will best promote the intended learning are
normally selected first , and then the media that will best deliver the
learning platform are selected (Clark 2001). This is because some media
work better that others when it comes to delivering certain content and
contexts.

However, you must know your constraints. For example, shortly after 9/11 a
lot of corporations placed restrictions on travel, which meant their
employees could not travel to classrooms. And during bad economic times,
corporations may have to curtail their budgets, which means you have to
find extremely efficient media to transport the content, such as elearning
rather than classroom training. Thus it is wise to know you media
constraints, so you can plan the methods accordingly.

Methods
Learning methods are the conditions which can be implemented to foster
the acquisition of competence (Glaser, 1976). It helps to shape information
that compensates for or supplants the cognitive process necessary for
achievement or motivation (Clark, 2001).

For example, Keller's Personalized of Instruction (PSI) is normally

presented in text, which is the medium. It then uses methods to structure
and self-pace the lessons in order to increase the possibility of learning.

A method is normally thought of as a particular procedure for

accomplishing or approaching a task. On the other hand, a strategy is more
of a comprehensive plan of action designed to achieve a major goal.

Thus learning methods are normally parts of the overall strategy. For
example, you use certain learning methods to teach a skill, but your
strategy has to include evaluation methods to ensure the learners actually
learned the skills and retention methods to ensure that the new skills do not
fade away before the learners can put the new skills to productive use.

Strategies
Learning strategies determine the approach for achieving the learning
objectives and are included in the pre-instructional activities, information
presentation, learner activities, testing, and follow-through. The strategies
are usually tied to the needs and interests of students to enhance learning
and are based on many types of learning styles (Ekwensi, Moranski, &
Townsend-Sweet, 2006).

Learning strategies basically encompass the entire spectrum of a learning

environment, to include processes, such as media, methods, technologies,
andstyles.

And most importantly, strategies tie in both the learning methods and media
to ensure they meet the needs of the organization's goals