The main steps in quantitative research

The fact that we start off with theory signifies that a broadly deductive approach to the
relationship business researcher collects data. The specification of hypotheses to be tested, The
next step entails the selection of a research design, Step 4 entails devising measures of the
concepts in which the researcher is interested. The next two steps entail the selection of a
research site or sites and then the selection of subjects/respondents. Step 8 simply refers to the
fact that, once information has been collected, it must be transformed into ‘data ‘Step 9—the
analysis of the data. In this step, the researcher is concerned to use a number of techniques of
quantitative data analysis to reduce the amount of data collected, to test for relationships between
variables, to develop ways of presenting the results of the analysis to others. On the basis of the
analysis of the data, the researcher must interpret the results of the analysis. It is at this stage that
the ‘findings’ will emerge. Then the research must be written up. In writing up the findings and
conclusions, the researcher is doing more than simply relaying what has been found to others:
readers must be convinced that the research conclusions are important and that the findings are
robust. Thus, a significant part of the research process entails convincing others of the
significance and validity of one’s findings. Once the findings have been published, they become
part of the stock of knowledge (or ‘theory’ in the loose sense of the word) in their domain.
Concepts and their measurement

What is a concept?
Concepts are the building blocks of theory and represent the points around which business
research is conducted. Just think of the numerous concepts that are mentioned in relation to just
some of the research examples cited in this book:
Structure, Agency, Deskilling, Organizational size, Technology, Charismatic
leadership, Followers, TQM, Functional subcultures, Knowledge, Managerial identity,
motivation to work, Moral awareness, Productivity, Stress management, Employment
relations, Organizational development, Competitive success.

Reliability and validity

Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. A
specific measure is considered to be reliable if its application on the same object of
measurement number of times produces the same results.
Internal reliability assesses the consistency of results across items within a test.in other words
it is to which the measure is consistent within itself.
Stability
It means the measure is stable over time ? This involves administering a test or measure on
one occasion and then read-ministering it to the same sample on another occasion, i.e.
T1 T2
Obs1 Obs2
Inter-observer consistency
It is the repeated measure by different observer on the same subject.it means the is the measure is consistent between observers.
Validity refers to the accuracy of an assessment -- whether or not it measures what it is supposed
to measure. In simple words Do the result of study accurately reflect the truth? The concept of
validity who stated that a test is valid if it measures what it claims to measure.

For example a test of intelligence should measure intelligence and not something else (such as
memory).

Face validity

if it "looks like" it is going to measure what it is supposed to measure.

Concurrent validity
It can also refer to the practice of concurrently testing two groups at the same time, or asking
two different groups of people to take the same test.
Convergent validity
Convergent validity in research is the measurements where a test being used provides related
results as another test that has been shown to be valid. If a group of people take two different
tests to determine personality traits and they both give similar results, then they are showing
convergent validity.
Predictive validity
Predictive validity is the extent to which one test can be used to predict the outcome of another
on some criterion measure
Construct validity researcher is encouraged to deduce hypotheses from a theory that is relevant
to the concept. For example, draw-ing upon ideas about the impact of technology on the
experience of work, the researcher might anticipate that people who are satisfied with their jobs
are less likely to work on routine jobs; those who are not satisfied are more likely to work on
routine jobs.
The main preoccupations of quantitative researchers.
Measurement
quantitative researchers are primarily interested in collecting
numerical data,which means they are essentially concerned
with counting social phenomena, which will often require
concepts to be operationalised.
Causality

In most quantitative research there is a strong concern with explanation: qualitative researchers
are more concerned with explaining why things are as they are, rather than merely describing
them (which tends to be the focus of more qualitative research).
It follows that it is crucial for quantitative researchers to effectively isolate variables in order to
establish causal relationships. There is a very strong concern in most quantitative research with
explanation. Quantitative researchers are rarely concerned merely to describe how things are, but
are keen to say why things are the way they are.

Generalization
Quantitative researchers tend to want their findings to be representative of wider populations,
rather than the just the sample involved in the study, thus there is a concern with making sure
appropriate sampling techniques will be used

If a study is repeatable then it is possible to check that the original researchers’ own personal
biases or characteristics have not influenced the findings: in other words, replication is necessary
to test the objectivity of an original piece of research.

Quantitative researchers tend to be keen on making sure studies are repeatable, although most
studies are never repeated because there is a lack of status attached to doing so

Replication
If a study is repeatable then it is possible to check that the original researchers’ own personal
biases or characteristics have not influenced the findings: in other words, replication is necessary
to test the objectivity of an original piece of research.

Quantitative researchers tend to be keen on making sure studies are repeatable, although most
studies are never repeated because there is a lack of status attached to doing so.

Criticisms of quantitative research

Quantitative researchers fail to distinguish people and social institutions from ‘the world of
nature’
The measurement process possesses an artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy.
The analysis of relationships between variables creates a static view of social life that is
independent of people’s lives.
Difficulty in data analysis
Expensive and time consuming
Limited outcomes in a quantitative research