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Near-Miss Information Visualization Tool in BIM for Construction Safety

Article  in  Journal of Construction Engineering and Management · December 2015

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001100

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 Near-Miss Information Visualization Tool in
BIM for Construction Safety
Xu Shen, S.M.ASCE 1; and Eric Marks, Ph.D., P.E., A.M.ASCE 2

Abstract: Although the number of fatalities experienced by the U.S. construction industry has been declining, the magnitude of the decrease
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has stagnated in recent years. Several improvements have been realized in visualizing construction-project information through building
information modeling (BIM). One improvement in construction safety can be found in the collection, analysis, and visualization of
safety-leading indicator data including near-miss events. Furthermore, the visualization of reported near misses can assist safety managers
to identify high-frequency and high-severity events within a construction site for mitigation or hazard removal techniques. The objective of
this research is to provide a framework for near-miss data collection and visualization within a BIM platform. A near-miss database was
created in a commercially available BIM design software to allow construction-site personnel to report near misses and visualize within an
existing BIM. Algorithms were created to enable filtering for visualization based on user input properties of each individual near miss. A
feasibility study for the created tool was conducted with an expert review panel of experienced safety managers. Contributions of this research
include a near-miss visualization user interface allows construction personnel to view near misses throughout a construction project to iden-
tify hazardous areas and frequency of near misses as well as feasibility study data of the created tool. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862
.0001100. © 2015 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Construction safety; Data visualization; Near misses; Building information modeling; Labor and personnel issues.

Introduction safety performance of construction-site personnel. The growing

Although the construction industry accounts for 4% of the total
employed workforce in the United States, the industry experienced
19% of the fatalities (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2012). This
disproportionately high number of fatalities indicates the dangers
associated with working in the construction industry. Although the
number of fatalities on construction sites has decreased over time,
the rate of workplace fatalities has stagnated in recent years
(Occupational Safety and Health Administration 2011a). This
research visualizes construction-site-safety data to equip safety
managers to view the location and frequency of hazardous condi-
tions and events.
Building information modeling (BIM) has been described as
one of the most promising recent developments in the construction
industry because of its ability to provide a design, communication,
and project monitoring platform throughout the lifecycle of a
project (Azhar 2011; Eastman et al. 2011). Construction-project
stakeholders are using BIM to integrate many aspects of a project
including building lifecycle, designing (Penttila 2007), planning,
construction (Kymmell 2008), and operation (Akcamete et al.
2010). Because of the hazardous nature of construction sites, safety
management is a critical component to a successful project. By
visualizing hazardous situations and conditions, BIM provides a
platform to aid in safety management and eventually enhance
1
Research Graduate Student, Dept. of Civil, Construction and Environ-
mental Engineering, Univ. of Alabama, 251 H.M. Comer, Tuscaloosa,
AL 35487. E-mail: xshen7@crimson.ua.edu
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil, Construction and Environmental
Engineering, Univ. of Alabama, 251 H.M. Comer, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487
(corresponding author). E-mail: eric.marks@eng.ua.edu
Note. This manuscript was submitted on July 21, 2015; approved on
October 8, 2015; published online on December 16, 2015. Discussion per-
iod open until May 16, 2016; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Construction En-
gineering and Management, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364.
use and implementation of BIM within the construction industry
is transforming the way safety-data management can be ap-
proached, specifically by visualizing safety data including near-
miss reports.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
defines a near miss as “an incident where no property was damaged
and no personal injury sustained, but where, given a slight shift in
time or position, damage and/or injury easily could have occurred”
(Occupational Safety and Health Administration 2002b). OSHA
currently does not require construction companies to record or re-
port near misses (Occupational Safety and Health Administration
2011b). Near misses are categorized as safety-leading indicators
because they are measurements of processes, activities, and condi-
tions that define performance and can predict future accidents
(Hallowell et al. 2013). Safety-leading indicators, including
near-miss reporting and analysis, provide an additional metric of
employee safety performance without requiring an illness, injury,
or fatality event.
A near-miss reporting program was created and implemented by
members of the construction industry institute (Marks et al. 2014).
A complete reporting system with worker feedback was established
to collect, process, and disseminate near-miss information for con-
struction sites in various parts of the world. Other efforts to imple-
ment and encourage near-miss reporting include governmental
standards for near-miss reporting (Health and Safety Executive
2015) and strategies for increasing quality and quantity of near-
miss reports (Cambraia et al. 2010). This additional element of
an existing company safety program allowed safety managers to
proactively identify and mitigate hazardous conditions and situa-
tions based on near-miss reports received from site personnel.
To complement near-miss reporting, the construction industry
needs a data-visualization strategy for near-miss reports. Similar
to hazard identification and site-layout safety planning, near-miss
reporting information would be greatly enhanced through visuali-
zation (Hallowell et al. 2013; Elbeltagi et al. 2004). Because an

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 interactive visualization and communication platform already
exists in BIM, a database and user interface are required to visualize
and analyze near-miss reports.
The current state of near-miss reporting requires an automated
data-visualization method for real-time access to near-miss infor-
mation including location, description of event, and mitigation
strategies. The goal of this research is to visualize reported near-
miss data within BIM. By allowing data-visualization capabilities
to safety managers, reported unsafe situations and conditions can be
addressed before an injury, illness, or fatality occurs. The primary
objective of this research is to create a tool functional in BIM soft-
ware to visualize and analyze near-miss information. Subobjectives
of this research include creating algorithms and user interfaces for
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results from the work environment (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration 2011b). Company-reported incidents fall into cat-
egories shown in Table 1 as defined by OSHA (Occupational Safety
and Health Administration 2011b). These categories are character-
ized as safety-lagging indicators because their measurement and
assessment occur after a negative safety event occurs (Occupational
Safety and Health Administration 2013). Measures of safety-
lagging indicators are incapable of predicting hazards, assigning
severity of an event, or identifying event causation (Flin et al. 2000).
The construction industry experienced 856 fatalities in 2013,
which represented 18.7% of all fatalities experienced by the
U.S. private sector. These values were slightly lower for 2011 with
781 fatalities that constituted 16.6% of all fatalities experienced by

safety managers to navigate and analyze reported near-miss data. A
set of best practices for visualizing safety information on construc-
tion projects was identified and assembled. The created near-miss
data-visualization tool is intended to visualize near-miss informa-
tion, but any desired safety categorical data including hazard iden-
tifications, injuries, or illnesses can be viewed within a BIM.
The scope of this research is limited to near-miss information
collected by construction-site personnel. User interfaces of the
created tool are focused toward use by safety managers and other
management personnel in the construction industry. The selected
communication and data-analysis platform is limited to commer-
cially available BIM software. The use of automated data-analysis
systems provides more accurate data than manual collection and
analysis systems and inevitably increases communication about
safety across all construction-project stakeholders accessing the
BIM. Other industrial sectors in the United States (e.g., manufactur-
ing) that record safety data (including near misses) could use this
visualization concept and proposed methodology for their specific
safety program.
This paper presents a user interface and database created for
near-miss visualization within a BIM and algorithms for data trans-
fers and analysis. The results indicate that safety data including
near misses can be assessed and visualized within a BIM. Exper-
imental results are discussed as well as experienced limitations and
future research topics extending from near-miss visualization.
Background
The U.S. construction industry continues to experience a high num-
ber of workplace fatalities. Much research has been performed in
construction safety, including safety applications for BIM, in an
attempt to improve construction-worker-safety performance. These
academic and industry research results are presented as part of this
literature review. A research needs statement is derived from the
findings to conclude this section.
the U.S. private sector (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2013). Although
fatalities are the most negative safety event, injuries and illnesses
also negatively affect the success of a construction project. The
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that the construction in-
dustry experienced 117 recordable cases for every 10,000 workers.
In 2011, the median number of days missed due to injury or illness
was approximately 8 (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2012). The con-
struction industry experienced 179,100 nonfatal injuries, which
was marginally lower than the nonfatal injuries reported in 2011
(Bureau of Labor Statistics 2013). These recordable incidents
can have a negative impact on a construction project’s success
through lost work time, decreased productivity, increased medical
costs, and in some cases, loss of life.
Safety-Leading Indicators
As previously discussed, OSHA regulations require construction
companies to record and periodically report safety-lagging indica-
tors (Occupational Safety and Health Administration 2013). Safety-
leading indicators differ from safety-lagging indicators because
safety-leading indicators do not require a negative safety event
to occur. Safety-leading indicators are measurements of processes,
activities, and conditions that define performance and are capable
of predicting future results (Hinze et al. 2013; Hinze 2006). Active
safety-leading indicators can periodically monitor the level of
employee safety performance on construction sites (Hinze et al.
2013). This includes evaluating progress of newly implemented
components of a safety program or innovative safety implements
(Hallowell and Gambatese 2009). Safety-leading indicators have
been linked with data-visualization and communication platforms
to improve safety planning and performance (Chantawit et al.
2005). Location of an event has been identified as a necessary
safety measure for identifying and mitigating hazards in a visuali-
zation environment (Chantawit et al. 2005). Examples of safety-
leading indicators that enhance construction safety are shown in
Table 2.

Current Construction-Safety Statistics Near-Miss Reporting

Construction companies in the United States are required to report One such safety-leading indicator is a near miss, which is defined
all fatalities, injuries, and illnesses that occur during the workday or as an incident where no property damage and no personal injury

Table 1. Categories of Reported Accidents

Recordable category Description
Total recordable cases Sum of all recordable occupational injuries and illnesses, including lost-workday cases and
nonfatal cases without lost workdays
Total lost-workday cases Sum of cases involving days away from work and/or days of restricted activity
Nonfatal cases without lost workdays Sum of cases that are recordable injuries or illnesses, which do not result in
death or lost workdays, but only either days away from work or days of restricted activity
Deaths Sum of fatality of wounded employees resulting from an unsafe act or the workplace environment

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 Table 2. Safety-Leading Indicator Examples
Safety-leading indicator
Behavior-based safety
Jobsite hazard analysis
Safety training
Risk quantification
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Description
Implementing the science of human behavior to improve construction-worker-safety performance
(Fang and Huang 2004; Choudhry et al. 2007; Zohar and Luria 2003)
Technique that focuses on job tasks as a way to identify hazards before they occur (Hallowell and
Gambatese 2009; Rozenfield et al. 2010; Occupational Safety and Health Administration 2002a)
The action of training employees in safety regulations, best safety behavior practices, common hazards,
and other safety-related material (Agnew and Daniels 2011; Burke et al. 2006; O’Connor et al. 2005)
A quantitative analysis of assessing potential risk present on a given construction site (Hallowell and
Gambatese 2009; Fortunato et al. 2011; Ho and Dzeng 2010)

was sustained, but where, given a slight shift in time or position,
damage and injury easily could have occurred (Bureau of Labor
Statistics 2013). The safety pyramid created by Heinrich provides
the motivation for collecting and analyzing near misses. Heinrich
hypothesized that a multitude of near misses are a prerequisite
for a workplace injury or fatality to occur (Overseas Shipholding
Ground 2009). Consequently, safety managers desire to identify
and mitigate near-miss events before an injury, illness, or fatality
occurs. Other industrial sectors including manufacturing, medical,
and energy production have adopted near-miss reporting in an at-
tempt to improve employee safety performance (Cambraia et al.
2010; Sullivar and Sheffrin 2003; Henneman and Gawlinski
2004; Schaaf and Kanse 2004). Private sector companies in the
United Kingdom are required to submit near-miss reports as part
of their safety records (Health and Safety Executive 2015).
Near misses are typically measured as single events or instances
rather than hours of exposure as other hazards (Hinze and Godfrey
2003). Near misses should be quantifiable, easily understood, per-
ceived as credible, and signal the need for action (Hallowell et al.
2013). Near-miss reporting and analysis enables construction
workers to be educated on strategies to prevent future lagging
indicators (Hinze 2002). Near-miss reports provide opportunities
for safety managers to identify areas of improvement within safety
performance (Hinze 2006). By measuring and assessing near-miss
reports, safety managers strive to successfully prevent all serious
injuries (Huang and Hinze 2006; Weinstein et al. 2005).
BIM Safety Applications for Construction
The construction industry has recently started implementing tech-
nological systems to promote safety. Safety applications have been
created within information and communication technologies
(e.g., BIM, virtual design, and geographic information systems;
Zhang et al. 2013; Kunz and Fischer 2009; Bansal 2011). Other
researchers have utilized the resource-tracking capabilities of
global positioning system (GPS) to detect spatial conflicts between
construction workers and heavy equipment, which can benefit from
four-dimensional visualization for identification of hazardous areas
(Pradhananga and Teizer 2013; Behzadan et al. 2008). Virtual real-
ity technology was selected to simulate typical construction tasks
based on actual construction-site conditions for hazard planning
(Su et al. 2013). These advances and applications of technological
systems were implemented to assist in improving safety perfor-
mance on construction sites.
Construction-project stakeholders are utilizing BIM to integrate
many components of a construction project including building life-
cycle (Azhar 2011), designing (Penttila 2007), planning, construc-
tion (Kymmell 2008), and operation (Akcamete et al. 2010). There
are several advances in applications for BIM platforms such as four-
dimensional structural clash detection (Eastman et al. 2011) and au-
tomated safety rule checking (Kymmell 2008). These enhancements
enable stakeholders to view project data and generate analysis in-
formation in real time. This equips project stakeholders to improve
decision making through increased accuracy and locational aware-
ness of valuable project information.
Past researchers have exploited communication and data-
analysis capabilities of BIM for improving safety. Safety concerns
in structural design including element conflicts have been visual-
ized and alleviated in four-dimensional environments (Zhang and
Hu 2011; Hu et al. 2008). Construction-safety researchers have in-
tegrated topics of prevent-through-design (PtD) into BIM by creat-
ing a tool to evaluate construction-worker safety during a project’s
design phase (Sulankivi et al. 2010). Furthermore, BIM has been
established as a safety-data-collection platform with PtD applica-
tions (Hadikusumo and Rowlinson 2004). Other researchers cre-
ated a framework for simulating and identifying hazards by linking
BIM software and a virtual reality environment (Park and Kim
2013).
Need for Near-Miss Data Visualization
Previous research ventures have identified the need for incorporat-
ing BIM with safety in construction (Ku and Mills 2010). Although
a substantial body of research exists for applications of digital tech-
nologies to construction-safety issues, very few tools and applica-
tions have been created for construction safety (Zhou et al. 2012).
Advances in construction safety can be realized through advances
in technology and innovation. Although several technological ap-
plications have been created and implemented for BIM, safety data
and information have yet to be included in the communication and
visualization capabilities of BIM. A need exists in the construction
industry to visualize safety data and analyze safety information
(specifically near misses) within a BIM. By having a positive in-
fluence on current practices in safety planning, technological sys-
tems including BIM can provide pivotal information to reduce
safety incident rates (Teizer et al. 2010; Cheng et al. 2011).
Research Methodology and Framework
Framework for the Near-Miss Data-Visualization Tool
A near-miss data-visualization tool utilizes a methodology of infor-
mation flow from user input (either by manual input or from an
external database) to the near-miss database and can be output
through three different trajectories: (1) queried data at the request
of the user; (2) visualization within the BIM in two- or three-
dimensional viewpoints; and (3) exported to external databases.
The user interface and database communicate via programming
codes specifically for near-miss data visualization and manage-
ment. The flowchart for this information is shown in Fig. 1.
This visualization tool is functional in most commercially avail-
able BIM software. The tool was created using the open application

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Fig. 1. Filtering capabilities of reported near misses

Fig. 2. User interface initial screen for the near-miss visualization tool

programming interface (API) within a widely used BIM software.
The API aided in creating a new set of applications to create and
manipulate near-miss data including a user interface (Fig. 2). A
commonly used multiparadigm programming language was used
to create and customize the near-miss data-visualization tool user
interface. The programming language was C#. This coding lan-
guage is available upon request to the authors. Table 3 displays
the functions of the user interface created by coding and existing
algorithms within the API.
Near-Miss Data-Visualization Tool for BIM
The near-miss data-visualization tool was created to improve deci-
sion making for safety managers and other construction-project
stakeholders by accessing and analyzing near-miss information
within an active BIM. The usability of the tool was designed
for personnel not necessarily familiar with the intricacies of a de-
sign model such as BIM. For example, all user interactions with the
tool are simply decision criteria and data entry that require basic
computing skills. The following sections describe the functionality
of the near-miss data-visualization tool and discuss specifically
how near-miss information would be viewed and analyzed with
a BIM.
A functional interface for the BIM near-miss visualization tool
was created for end users to facilitate the input and data analysis of
near-miss information. The user interface enables safety managers
to do the following functions: (1) create a near-miss report; (2) view
and edit information for each existing report; (3) visualize the
spatial location of a near-miss report; and (4) filter near misses
by various parameters. To create a near miss, the user accesses
the Near Miss tab within a BIM platform as shown in Fig. 2. Using
this initial interface, the user can create a near-miss report, assign a
severity value, access information of previously reported near
misses, and query near-miss information.
In total, 22 different categories are available for data entry
including the following: date and time of the near miss, a unique
near-miss identification number, project name, company name,
crew involved, employees involved, event description, associated
tasks, and reviewer names and dates reviewed. Other available in-
put categories are described in Table 4.
These categories are assembled in a similar database template
created by the Construction Industry Institute (Marks et al. 2014).
Information within this template for each near miss can be viewed
Table 3. User Interface Functions
Algorithm Description
Ribbon Add new applications to the software’s original interface
Select Choose or select the near-miss event in two- or
three-dimensional view
TaskDialog Provide warnings or allow end users to input information
Event Enable a function to notify other functions when
something of interest occurs (e.g., clicking a tab invokes
the function of making a query)
Filtering Make a query based on a certain criterion
Windows Create the near-miss report
forms

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 Table 4. Select Categories for Near-Miss Data Input
Category Description
Identification classification Near misses can be classified based on their cause using the Eindhoven classification technique that was adopted
and category for the construction industry (Marks et al. 2014; Kaplan et al. 1998; McKay 2013)
Investigative team Record the members of the near-miss investigative team for each near miss reported and investigated
Severity User ranks the severity of a near miss on a company-specific scale or using relative measures to historical near misses.
The scale allows for a range of three different severity scoring options
Root cause The chain-of-events that led to the reported near miss
Contributing cause Any other events or set of conditions that led to the reported near miss that were not identified as the root cause
Resolution description A summary of the mitigation strategy developed by the investigative team to be implemented and observed
Picture Users can upload a picture taken of the location of the near miss to observe existing and surrounding conditions
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and manipulated within a BIM at the near-miss location. This near-
miss template is shown in Fig. 3.
The created tool allows for near misses to be reported through a
few different methods. The user can input near-miss information
manually as previously described. Another option, and probably
the most preferred, is that users can identify a location within a BIM
and start the information-input process based on location-based
data of the individual near miss. This location-based data entry
within a BIM can be achieved in both three- and two-dimensional
views. In the prototype shown in Fig. 4(a), the small filled
sphere represents the location of the near miss. Fig. 4(b) shows the
location of a near-miss report in both two- and three-dimensional
viewpoints.
A database linking input information with the existing model is
established. Most BIM platforms provide query functions that are
accessed by the created visualization tool. The query capabilities
can be exported into common file formats for further analysis
by other software programs if so desired by the user. Likewise,
previously generated databases of near-miss information can be
uploaded into the BIM platform database for visualization and
analysis using the created tool. For this transition to be effective,
external input database information should be formatted such that
each information category fits with the template within the BIM
near-miss visualization tool. A sample screenshot of an exported
near-miss database created using the BIM near-miss visualization
tool is displayed in Fig. 5.
Filtering collected near-miss data is an important component to
convert collected data into usable information for safety managers.
The created user interface allows for user filtering of near-miss data
by severity level, near-miss identification, time of day, equipment
involved, and other quantifiable project-specific parameters input
by the user. This data filtering allows safety managers and other
project stakeholders to identify only high-severity near-miss reports
for immediate mitigation or group only near misses associated with
a particular root cause. Users can also simply search for a specific
reported near miss by filtering based on identification number.
Fig. 6 shows the user-interface display when implementing a query
for a near-miss data set.

Fig. 3. Information template for reported near misses within BIM

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Fig. 4. (a) Three-dimensional and (b) two-dimensional view of the near-miss sphere in circle

Fig. 5. Exported near-miss database

Near-Miss Data-Visualization Tool Implementation

A prerequisite for implementing and maintaining the near-miss
data-visualization tool is a fully integrated and functioning BIM
for the design and construction process. Another prerequisite for
experiencing success using the near-miss data-visualization tool
is to have a fully implemented safety program that assesses safety
performance based on safety-leading indicator metrics including
near misses. Without an active and foundational safety program,
collecting and analyzing near-miss data would be premature.
The near-miss visualization tool can be linked as an additional
component to many commercially available BIM software and
existing database software.
Fig. 6. (a) Filtering capabilities of reported near misses by severity;
Depending on the company’s specific near-miss reporting
(b) searching near miss by unique identification number
program, the safety personnel and other managers should provide

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Fig. 7. Near-miss events visualized within a BIM
adequate training to all site personnel concerning the near-miss
reporting process. Training materials and time for the near-miss
data-visualization tool should be limited to personnel with acces-
sibility to BIM. Effort levels of training for the tool can be tailored
toward the specific user. For example, crew supervisors collecting
near-miss reports may not necessarily be interested in how to link
external near-miss databases to the BIM. Regardless, all site per-
sonnel should know that managers are able to visualize near-miss
data. Furthermore, near-miss reporters should experience feedback
from their near-miss report to encourage future reporting.
Simulated Data Case Study
A sample BIM was used to test and validate the near-miss data-
visualization tool prototype. The model was used to create a design,
facilitate the construction process, and maintain the facility during
operation of an engineering building on the University of Alaba-
ma’s campus in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. The BIM software used for
both the model and near-miss data-visualization tool was Revit. A
list of 20 randomly generated near-miss events was structured for
visualization. Information about these near-miss events followed
the template shown previously in Fig. 7 so that each category
was populated. The near misses were entered into the visualization
tool using the following methods:
• Step 1: Manual entry through the user interface (single-
event entry).
• Step 2: Link the external database to the created tool (multiple-
event entry).
Each near-miss event was verified that it appeared in the BIM
and the corresponding near-miss information was accessible. Infor-
mation was also queried based on quantifiable data provided in the
created near-miss template. The events were queried by severity,
data, company, project, task associated, and near-miss identifica-
tion number. A similar methodology was used for another BIM
used for an engineering building (new construction). The resulting
near-miss visualization within the model is shown in Fig. 7.
Results from the case study indicate that near-miss events can be
captured and visualized through BIM. New methods were devel-
oped to populate and automatically visualize near-miss informa-
tion. The near-miss data-visualization tool has been successfully
implemented on several real project models and all created capa-
bilities were demonstrated. The conducted research illustrates that
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collected safety data can be visualized and accessible to all project
stakeholders by integrating with BIM.
Expert Review Panel Feasibility Study
Seven safety managers for construction companies were given a
demonstration of the created near-miss visualization tool. Members
of the expert review panel were all Certified Safety Professionals
and have a minimum of 8 years of experience as a safety manager.
The safety managers were all employed by construction companies
with a minimum of 1,700 employees. The OSHA total recordable
incident rate of these companies ranged from zero to two with an
average value of 0.6.
Each participant was provided a description of the study, a
description of the created tool, and a demonstration of the tool
in the BIM shown in Fig. 7. The demonstration included instruc-
tions and presentations of all available functions of the near-miss
visualization tool. In addition, several near-miss reports were ran-
domly generated to demonstrate query functions and near-miss
visualization within the model. After the demonstration, expert
review panel members discussed the feasibility and functionality
of the tool and responded to survey statements about the created
tool. Comments from these discussions were recorded and ana-
lyzed to identify the content and frequency of each statement.
For each statement, panel members were asked to score their per-
ceptions and understanding of the tool based on the following scale:
(1) strongly disagree; (2) disagree; (3) unsure/neutral; (4) agree;
and (5) strongly agree. Table 5 provides a statistical analysis of each
answered question.
Most of the discussions of the safety experts focused on the
feasibility and ability to implement the created tool. The safety
experts discussed strategies on implementing the tool and specifi-
cally cited that existing methods would satisfy all implementation
needs. For example, employees would receive training and be
educated on the use of the tool as well as on the objective of im-
plementing the tool. All agreed that if implemented, the visualiza-
tion tool would be a useful enhancement to their existing safety
program.
A majority of the safety expert review panel members scored
favorably (e.g., agreed or strongly agreed) with all mentioning
statements such as “the proposed tool would improve safety man-
agement,” “the tool is implementable,” and “the tool would be easy
J. Constr. Eng. Manage.
 Table 5. Safety Expert Review Panel Responses
Posed statement description
A need exists to integrate safety data into existing project management tools
It is useful for safety managers to visualize safety information in three-dimensional models
The proposed tool would be easy to use
The proposed tool is implementable in my company
The proposed tool would enhance near-miss reporting
The proposed tool would be effective in safety-data management
The proposed tool would improve safety management
to use.” One barrier identified by a safety manager is the learning
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curve and implementation of technology that has proven difficult
for this panelists’ company. Specifically, this company has histor-
ically been slow to implement new technology and innovation due
to a resistance to change among employees. This panelist gave the
only two scores (e.g., disagree) received in the study. To overcome
this barrier, it was suggested by other panelists that an increased
time and money investment for the initial training element could
be advantageous. One panelist suggested an experiential exercise
where employees complete the near-miss reporting process through
BIM to realize the benefits.
Members of the safety expert review panel also discussed the
tool postdemonstration. Statements that were repeated and agreed
by a majority of the panel are recorded in the following:
• Members identified the potential promotion of safety across the
company by integrating database capabilities of BIM with
safety data.
• The tool is valuable for promoting safety and could greatly as-
sist companies already doing a satisfactory job of generating and
collecting near-miss reports to automate their data collection
and analysis process.
• The tool gives safety managers a simple way to identify loca-
tions where most near misses are occurring and reported.
• The concept would be beneficial not only to safety profes-
sionals, but also to anyone associated with project management
on construction sites.
The suggestions/opinions of this panel indicate an identified
industry desire for the created tool. During the interview, many pan-
elists requested a version of the reporting tool and research results
when completed, indicating the immediate use of the created tool.
Other concepts including incorporating other safety data (e.g., haz-
ard identification) into a similar tool were also discussed.
Discussion
Several near misses from active construction sites were input and
tested by the interface successfully. Users were able to create, show,
and query the near misses with an easy accessible database. Expe-
rienced safety managers provided positive feedback based on a
demonstration of the tool. By using this prototype, construction-site
personnel have the ability to view near misses throughout a con-
struction project to identify hazardous areas and frequency of near
misses.
Limitations of the created near-miss data-visualization tool were
identified through case studies and implementation within a BIM.
These limitations are as follows: (1) near-miss data visualization is
dependent on accurate observation from site personnel, which can
introduce human error and subjective judgment to the near-miss
reporting process; and (2) adding an entry into the visualization
tool through either linking an external database or manual entry
using the user interface requires a substantial effort of recording
keeping, which is the case with many other safety-data-collection
© ASCE 04015100-8
J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 04015100
Minimum score Maximum score Average score
3 5 4.6
3 5 4.2
3 5 3.6
3 5 3.8
2 5 3.4
3 5 3.8
2 5 3.8
tools. Lastly, a more comprehensive tool is necessary to collect all
pertinent safety data including injuries, hazard identifications, and
stop work authorities.
Future research could address these barriers to increase the ef-
ficiency of near-miss reporting and safety-data visualization. The
integration of BIM and spatial location-tracking technology can im-
prove the efficiency and safety this reporting (Stowe et al. 2014).
These technologies, including radiofrequency identification, GPS,
and laser scanning can eventually automatically collect and store
near-miss information and other safety data. In addition, the
near-miss reports can be linked to other useful functions in BIM
including schedule correlation, which can enable near-miss report
information to be available to safety managers during activity-
based hazard analysis procedures.
Conclusion
This research outlined a framework for a near-miss data-
visualization tool to collect, manipulate, and disseminate near-miss
information. Near-miss reporting and analysis provides an addi-
tional metric for assessing worker safety performance. The created
tool enables safety managers and other project stakeholders to visu-
alize and communicate about safety data within a project BIM. The
feasibility of this approach has been shown by integrating the near-
miss data-visualization tool in an existing BIM design software.
By utilizing this tool, hazardous situations and conditions can
be reported as near misses and visualized by anyone accessing
the BIM. This visualization of construction-safety data during a
project’s duration promotes safety within a company and within
an active construction site. Contributions of this research include
the creation of a near-miss visualization user interface, which al-
lows construction personnel to view near misses throughout a con-
struction project to identify hazardous areas and frequency of near
misses as well as feasibility study data of the created tool. From a
safety management viewpoint, time and effort of safety staff and
engineers can be focused and optimized by visualizing critical
safety data such as near-miss reports.
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