Module I

Resume’
A résumé, also spelled resume, is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and
skills. Résumés can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often they are used to secure new
employment.[2]
A typical résumé contains a "summary" of relevant job experience and education, as its French origin
implies. The résumé is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an
application for employment, which a potential employer sees regarding the job seeker and is typically
used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.
The curriculum vitae (CV) used for employment purposes in the UK (and in other European
countries) is more akin to the résumé—a shorter, summary version of one's education and
experience—than to the longer and more detailed CV that is expected in U.S. academic circles.
Generally, the résumé is substantially shorter than a CV in English Canada, the U.S. and Australia.[3]
In South Asian countries such as India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, biodata is often used in place of a
résumé.
Types of Resume’

Reverse chronological résumé

A reverse chronological résumé lists a candidate's job experiences in chronological order, generally
covering the previous 10 to 15 years. Positions are listed with starting and ending dates. Current
positions on a résumé typically list the starting date to the present. The reverse chronological résumé
format is most commonly used by those who are not professional résumé writers. In using this format,
the main body of the document becomes the Professional Experience section, starting from the most
recent experience and moving chronologically backwards through a succession of previous
experience. The reverse chronological résumé works to build credibility through experience gained,
while illustrating career growth over time and filling all gaps in a career trajectory. A chronological
résumé is not recommended to job seekers with gaps in their career summaries.
Functional résumé
A functional résumé lists work experience and skills sorted by skill area or job function.
The functional résumé is used to focus on skills that are specific to the type of position being sought.
This format directly emphasizes specific professional capabilities and utilizes experience summaries
as its primary means of communicating professional competency. In contrast, the chronological
résumé format will briefly highlight these competencies prior to presenting a comprehensive timeline
of career growth through reverse chronological listings, with the most recent experience listed first.
The functional résumé works well for those making a career change, having a varied work history or
with little work experience. A functional résumé is also preferred for applications to jobs that require
very specific skills or clearly defined personality traits. A functional résumé is a good method for
highlighting particular skills or experiences, especially when those particular skills or experiences
may have derived from a role which was held some time ago. Rather than focus on the length of time
that has passed, the functional résumé allows the reader to identify those skills quickly.
Hybrid/combination résume’
The hybrid résumé balances the functional and chronological approaches. A résumé organized this
way typically leads with a functional list of job skills, followed by a chronological list of employers.
The hybrid has a tendency to repeat itself and is, therefore, less widely used than the other two.
Online résumés
As the search for employment has become more electronic, it is common for employers to only accept
résumés electronically, either out of practicality or preference. This has changed much about the
manner in which résumés are written, read, and processed. Some career experts are pointing out that
today a paper-based resume is an exception rather than the rule.
Many employers now find candidates' résumés through search engines,which makes it more important
for candidates to use appropriate keywords when writing a résumé. Larger employers use Applicant
Tracking Systems to search, filter, and manage high volumes of résumés. Job ads may direct
applicants to email a résumé to a company or visit its website and submit a résumé in an electronic
format.
Many employers, and recruitment agencies working on their behalf, insist on receiving résumés in a
particular file format. Some require Microsoft Word documents, while others will only accept
résumés formatted in HTML, PDF, or plain ASCII text.
Another consideration for electronic résumé documents is that they are parsed with natural language
processors. Résumé parsers may correctly interpret some parts of the content of the résumé but not
other parts. The best résumé parsers capture a high percentage of information regarding location,
names, titles, but are less accurate with skills, industries and other less structured or rapidly changing
data. Résumés written in a standard format are more likely to be correctly interpreted by résumé
parsers, and thereby may make the candidate more findable.
One advantage for employers to online résumés is the significant cost saving compared to traditional
hiring methods. Another is that potential employers no longer have to sort through massive stacks of
paper.

Tips for writing effective Resume’

1. Review the Purpose of a Resume

Think of a resume as “self-advertisement” that sums up your experience on one page. Your resume is
one of the most important pieces of your job application. It gives the hiring manager an overview of
the qualifications you have for the job for which you’re applying.

You should also familiarize yourself with the difference between a resume and a cover letter:

 A resume is typically sent with a cover letter, which is a document that provides additional
information on your skills and experience in letter form.
 A resume is a concise, often bulleted summary, while a cover letter highlights and expands on
certain traits or accomplishments that would be unique or ideal assets for the particular job.

2. Start by Doing a Brain Dump of Your Experience

An effective resume lays out a summary of qualifications that will push the hiring manager or
employer to move forward and invite you to interview for the position.

As well as details on skills, education, and work history, resumes can also have optional sections,
such as an objective, summary statement, skills, or career highlights. Those sections can be added
after you’ve compiled all the factual information you need to list on your resume.

For many people, it can be helpful to sit down with a pen and paper, or a blank Word document, and
jot down their work history from start to finish. Of course, if you have been in the workforce for many
years, this is not going to be time-efficient, so you may choose to focus on your most prominent and
relevant positions.

3. Make a List of Your Work Experience

No matter your approach, your goal will be to produce a chronological list of experience that is
relevant to the jobs you’re applying to. Although this should focus on professional work experience,
you can also include awards or accolades, volunteer or community experience, post-grad coursework,
and skills, as well as your college education, which can move to the bottom of your resume once you
get your first job after college.

When you’re working on your brain dump, make sure to include the name of the company, its
location, dates of employment, and several bullet points describing your role and responsibilities for
each position you list. Although you may need to expand on the bullet points later on, you’ll need this
information at the minimum.

4. Focus on Your Achievements

When writing the descriptions for the jobs you’ve held, focus on what you accomplished in each
position rather than what you did. Listing quantifiable achievements in a numerical manner (increased
sales 20%, reduced expenses by 10%, for example) will help your resume stand out.

Be sure to match those accomplishments to the criteria the employer is seeking in the job posting.

If it’s challenging (and it can be!) to write resume descriptions that will catch the attention of the
hiring manager, review these tips for how to make your resume employment history sound better –
and get you picked for an interview.

5. What to Leave Off Your Resume

There are some things that don’t belong on a resume for a job. What you excludeis just as important
as what you include. Ideally, your resume should reflect experience that is relevant to the job you are
applying to, and typically no more than ten to fifteen years in the past. Since your resume should, if
possible, be no longer than one or two pages, you may need to nix certain items.

For example, if you took a job and only stayed there for a month or so, you wouldn’t want to include
that position. If you’ve been out of college for more than five years, it’s generally best to remove any
internships you’ve had, assuming you have other professional work experience to fill the gap.

However, this is a case where you’ll want to use your common sense. If you went to college for
marketing and had a marketing internship your senior year, then worked as a server for the next
several years, you would want to include your marketing internship.

Ultimately, you want to try to strike a balance between including experience that is both timely and
relevant.

6. Choose a Resume Style

There are several basic types of resumes used to apply for job openings. Before you spend time
writing up all the details around each position you’ve had, you should decide what style of resume to
use, as that can affect how you describe, organize, and list your experience, education, skills,
qualifications, and other credentials for employment.

Your options include:

 Chronological - The most common resume type, in which you list your work experience in
reverse chronological order, from the most to the least recent.
  Functional – A functional resume focuses on your skills and abilities rather than your work
history.

 Combination/hybrid – This type of resume lists your skills and experience Start Compiling
Your Resume

Once you’ve decided on a resume type, it’s time to start writing your resume. You don’t have to start
from scratch. First, review examples of the resume type you’ve selected. Then, choose a
template which you can copy and paste into a document, and then fill in with your own work history.

Regardless of the type of resume you choose, aim to tailor your resume to the job you are applying to.
While it's perfectly acceptable to use a resume template, which you adapt to fit each job description,
it's a bad idea to send the same exact resume to multiple openings, even within the same field.

7. Format Your Resume

Once you have written and organized your information according to the type of resume you have
chosen, be sure to format it according to typical professional standards. You should use consistent
spacing throughout, and evenly sized margins on all sides if possible. It’s generally best to stick to
your word processor’s default settings, but in some cases, if you shrink the margins on the left, right,
top and bottom, this can help buy more space to fit your resume on one page.

Although visual or infographic resumes have become trendy in some industries, it is always a safe bet
to stick with traditional formatting: white page, black text, readable font. Choose a basic font such as
Arial, Times New Roman, Calibri, Helvetica, or Georgia. Ideally, your font size should be no larger
than 12 and no smaller than 10.5.

Even if you are only sending in copies digitally, it is a good idea to print your resume (as it’s possible
that hiring managers may be doing so) to be sure it prints on a single page, and is easy to read in
printed form. Reading over a printed copy of your resume will also help you ensure that there is
plenty of white space on the page and it looks professional.

Proofread, Proofread, and Proofread Again

Not even professional proofreaders can easily proofread their own work. Once you've made a typo,
it's hard to catch it yourself. For that reason, it's a good idea to have one or two trusted friends take a
look at your resume before you send it in for consideration. Use this resume proofreading
checklist first, then ask someone else to give it a final review to be sure it’s perfect before you click
send or upload to apply for a job.

8. Think of Your Resume as a Living Document

In the short term, you should tweak your resume based on each job you apply to. For example, if one
position you’re applying to seems to weigh a certain responsibility or focus over another, you should
be sure your resume conveys your expertise in this area.

At the same time, you should be updating your resume with your experience as it develops, adding
any new skills you’ve learned, courses you’ve taken or awards you won.

It is much easier to update your resume periodically than all at once, so even when you’re employed,
set a reminder to refresh your resume every three months, while the information is still fresh in your
head. This will make your next job search much easier, should you decide to switch companies or
careers in the future.
Use these seven simple steps to build a resume to keep yours current and ready to send if you get a
call from a recruiter, or find a job that you’d love to be hired for and want to apply for it right away.

Group Discussion Participation

hat is a Group Discussion?

An average GD usually features 10 to 15 participants. The GD process begins by the announcement of

the topic to the group, which is (usually) followed by a preparation time of 3 to 5 minutes. More than
5 minutes’ prep time may be given only if the GD is a case-study discussion, and has a long case
statement.
At the end of the prep time, the panel signals the group to commence the discussion, and from then on
plays the role of a non-participating observer. This means that the discussion is not moderated or
‘anchored’ by a panellist. The group members must discuss the topic as they deem appropriate
without any kind of suggestion from the panel. The panel expects no particular order of speakers to be
followed nor a minimum or maximum duration of speaking to be followed by individual participants.
The average duration of most GDs is 15 minutes (not including the prep time). In some exceptional
cases (such as IIFT), the GD may continue for up to 45 minutes. One must remember that the longer
the GD goes on, the more seriously the panel looks at the quality of the content (facts, analysis,
explanation and argument) of the participant.
The panel usually consists 3 or 4 panellists, who look at various aspects of the participants’ content
and delivery. Please remember that the panellists may end the GD whenever they want to, and also
extend the GD for as much as they want to. Nobody among the participants is supposed to keep time
for the group or act on the assumption that the GD will end after the 15th minute.
The GD ends in either of the two ways: first, the panel may abruptly stop the GD and announce the
end of the process; second, they may ask a participant (or more than one participant) to summarise the
GD. If you are asked to summarise, do remember what summary means – your summary cannot have
anything in it that was not discussed during the GD. I especially stress this point as the participants
who have been mostly quiet during the GD are usually asked to summarise it, and they tend to take
this opportunity to air their views which are not presented during the discussion. The summary must
be an objective recapitulation of the important points brought up during the discussion, and the
conclusion of the discussion.

What are the various types of Group Discussions?

Most Group Discussions can be divided into 3 kinds:

A) Topical Group Discussions, which are based on current affairs or ‘static’ matters – for example, a
GD on the topic of the recent demonetisation of Rs 500 and Rs 1000 notes would be the former,
whereas a GD on whether India should adopt a presidential model of democracy would be the latter,
as it has no limitation of a time frame.
B) Case-studies, which present the group with a complex business situation that requires a decision to
be made. Such cases usually have multiple problems embedded in the given situation, and both the
individual participants and the group are required to analyse the situation, identify the problems, and
suggest a way out.
C) Abstract Group Discussions, which are called so because they offer us no definite framework of
the topic, and hence no definite direction to take in the discussion. Instead, the participants are
required to interpret the topic in their own ways and demonstrate innovative thinking in doing so.
Such topics could be single-worded, such as ‘Blue’, or a short cryptic sentence, or even an image.
Contrary to popular perception, no one kind of GD is necessarily easier or more difficult than any
other, as the quality of response in any case depends largely on the preparation of the individual and
the way they generally think.

What is the evaluation criteria in a Group Discussion?

The evaluation of participants happens in two broad perspective: Individual qualities and group
skills.

Individual qualities refer to the competencies that you may demonstrate in or outside the context of a
group. They include the following:
A) Content: What you say during the discussion is looked into from two perspectives – relevance and
comprehensiveness. It is possible that a participant has talked a great deal in a GD, but he or she may
have deviated from the topic significantly, in which case the content is deemed largely irrelevant
without the possibility of further evaluation. If the content has been relevant to the topic, the panel
examines whether your treatment of the topic is superficial or in-depth, distinction we shall discuss in
detail in the next few posts.
B) Analytical skills: The panel is of course interested in your facts, but they also like to see whether
or not you can explore the ‘why’ and the ‘how’ of the subject matter. This is put to the sternest test in
a case-study topic.
C) Reasoning skills: The panel looks at how you support your standpoints, and how you respond to
those of the others, how effectively you can ‘strengthen or weaken’ an argument, how logical you are
in your overall approach to the topic.
D) Organisation skills: You may have the facts, the supports, the explanations, but are you able to
present them in the right order so as to maximise the impact of your good content? The panel wants to
examine this.
E) Communication skills: You may have exhibited all the skills stated above, but can you get your
point across to someone in a simple (not simplistic) language they understand, with relevant
illustrations they can identify with?
F) Creativity: Are you able to bring to the table a novel perspective on the topic? Can you look at a
problem differently from ten other participants and suggest a path-breaking solution? Can you
interpret an abstract topic in ways the others cannot? If yes, the panel looks at you as someone with
one of the rarest of human qualities.

You may have observed that the above skills and qualities can also be directly applied in the
evaluation of the WAT response.
On the other hand, the group skills refer to those skills which can only be evaluated in the context of
a group. They include the following:
A) Listening skill: The panel constantly observes whether or not every participant is listening to the
discussion. In my experience, most participants are concerned only with speaking, and feel that they
are done with the job as soon as they have spoken, which is contrary to the spirit of a discussion.
There are many ways a panel may infer that a participant is a poor listener, such as a lack of eye
contact with the group, or a poor summary at the end. It is one of the rarest skills, and a must for a
would-be manager.
B) Leadership quality: In highly-charged discussions, one or two participants usually play the role of
the anchor, in that they define the topic appropriately, offer the initial analysis of the keywords of the
topic, and also try to hold the group together in pursuit of a common goal. Such individuals could
demonstrate effective leadership, and score some extra points. However, one cannot score anything
extra simply because one spoke first in the group, or was the loudest.
C) Body language: While assessing the body language, the panel primarily looks at eye contact and
hand movements. The speaker must maintain a consistent eye contact with the entire group as he or
she speaks, and the listeners must reciprocate. If the either doesn’t happen, you allow the panel to
infer whatever they wish to – from a lack of confidence to a lack of interest in the GD to the lack of
concern for others. All very detrimental to the final score. Hand movements are to your speech what
punctuation is to your writing. If used wisely they beautifully enhance the effect of your words; if
used unwisely they attract unnecessary attention and distract the listener from your words. I
recommend that you simply ‘free’ your hands. Do not engage them with something pointless such as
playing with the pen, or tapping on the desk, or running through your hair (common among female
participants). The body has an intelligence of its own. Just leave your hands alone and focus on the
topic. The hands will start moving naturally. Please remember that body language cannot be faked. A
skilled observer will quickly see through such deception. Just focus on the task at hand and the body
will obediently follow. The panel may also pay attention to your voice modulation. A monotonous
pitch may reduce the impact of even the most powerful words unless you are a Tommy Lee Jones!
Vary the pitch of your voice in order to create emphasis wherever needed.
D) Group behaviour: This is usually assessed in a broad distinction – assertive or aggressive. Avoid
the latter no matter what. Assertiveness is a rational display of conviction of one’s thoughts, while
aggressiveness is a display of domination through subtle intimidation. Assertiveness allows room for
flexibility – which is a desired trait – while aggressiveness leads to irrational rigidity of viewpoint.
Please remember that B-schools are looking for sensitive individuals, not skinhead bouncers.

Now that you know how you will be evaluated, focus on specific areas of improvement during your
practice GDs. Identify with the help of your trainer the strengths and weaknesses. Set clear goals for
yourselves, and do not lose the sight of them during your practice.

Recommended Background Preparation for a Group Discussion

The most vital component of one’s performance in the GD is the content. As current affairs tend to
dominate the GDs, a conscious effort to build the fact-bank of current affairs is necessary. Review the
timelines of important national and international affairs and the subsequent developments therein.
Follow at least 2 local, 2 national, and 2 international newspapers and news channels every day.
Concentrate on information. In newspapers, it is found mostly in the first 4 pages, the finance page,
and the sports pages. You may or may not the read the editorials (which offer opinion, comment and
perspective), but you must read the news. Because you need facts to support your standpoints. For if
you have no facts, you only have opinions, which you may end up merely repeating throughout your
contribution in a GD.
Please remember that the GD is not an elimination process, but only one of the several selection
processes with certain weightage that contributes to the final score.

Interview

What is an Interview?

Interview, in simple terms, is a process where a group of people will make you sit in front of them and
then ask you a variety of questions; some relevant, some irrelevant and then finally decide whether
you have the skills which they are looking for! If they are satisfied, you are In, Congratulations! And
if they are not, you are Out, Sorry! Better luck next time.
Interviews are an important part of a person's life; whether student in search of his first job or a
professional who is eager to improve his current position. Whoever it may be, Interviews have
become a regular affair in this contemporary world and one has to pace himself well to face the
interviewers who judge whether we are fit to be a part of their team or not.
Sometimes it may seem like a pure chance of Luck, but believe me, it's not! There is a To-Do
List before attending the interview which if followed to the point; Success is no more a matter of
chance.

What are Interviewers looking for from You?

In my personal experience and from general discussions with distinguished guests during meetings, I
have realised that everyone is looking forward to knowing you better. But, you see, it's not as simple
as it seems. There's a trick in this simple statement which can be understood better by reading in
between the lines. When they (the Interviewers) say that they are looking forward to knowing more
about you; honestly, what they are really looking forward to is how smart you are, how intelligent you
are, how adept you are and all the bunch of positive qualities that you can put on a display.

So don't go out blabbering everything about yourself from head to toe. Be careful about what to show
about yourself and what to hide. Although you may complain about it and decide to reveal yourself
fully, remember the fact that at every point, they are carefully assessing you and everything that you
say is going to give them an impression about you. So the most important rule to be kept in mind is
choose what to say about yourself because that's the first stumbling block where one may falter very
easily by revealing too much about oneself and thereby reveal some of the qualities that are not
desired or which may show you in poor light.
Hence, carefully plan out what you want to say when they ask you "Tell us about yourself?" This is
the most basic question asked anywhere, in any interview and thus this question may not give you a
shot at the job, but, if answered badly, it will surely be one of the reasons for not selecting you for the
desired position.

How to dress up for Interviews?

Dressing and personal grooming have a small, yet vital role to play during interview process. How
you dress gives the other person an idea about who you are or what are you trying to give out as a
signal. For instance, a t-shirt is an indication of casual and jovial mood while a formal shirt gives an
indication that you mean business and you are serious about what you are doing. In a session of 45min
to 1 hour, the interviewers try to find out everything they can and your dressing forms a first
impression upon them. And as the cliché goes, "First impression is the best impression".

So, basically, the underlying point is that you can't dress whichever way you want. A simple and neat
shirt, not too bright and not very colourful, is very much preferred. Similarly, ironed trousers and
polished shoescan make a perfect combo for the event. Tie is generally not expected, but it's a
personal choice to wear it or not. Dress well, make a good impression and that will surely be an added
asset for you.

Essential points to remember before attending the Interview?

Know about the Firm

Yes, that's very important. Have a pre-requisite knowledge about the company which you are going to
attend. Simple questions such as “What do you know about our company? What kind of products do
we supply?” can stump you all of a sudden if you are not well aware of the company’s profile, their
depth in market and their range of products. So, when you are going for an interview, go with a
thorough knowledge of the firm and when the situation arises bowl them over with your in-depth
knowledge of the working of the company.
It can always come in handy in situations where you are asked as to “Which areas are you interested
to work in? Where do you fit yourself in our company?” Then don’t put up a blank face and look
sheepishly at them asking for clues; explain to them what are your future goals and aspirations and
how it is going to be a win-win situation for both you as well as the company if you are in their firm.

Have a Good C.V.

Just like the way the interviewers judge about your personality by looking at your clothes; similarly,
they a first impression about your academics and life as a student is formed by looking at your C.V.
the Curriculum Vitae.
Generally, the interviewers will question you pertaining to what you have mentioned in the C.V. Also
they don’t have all the time in the world to read your achievements and awards and rewards right
from your kinder-garden days. So, keep your C.V short and yet be precise. Brevity is the most
essential requirement here and it must be done without loss of any point that may give you an edge
over other candidates.

Also don’t bluff. They are not some morons who won’t be able to recognise your fake achievements
and qualifications. So keep this point in mind as well while writing a C.V. If you don’t know some
software skills or you don’t remember them at the time of interview, don’t put it up in your C.V. If
found out, they never take you in and it will remain an embarrassment throughout your career.

Check for expected Questionnaire

It is important to have an idea about the type of questions that may be posed by the interviewers of
that particular company. Of course, they shall never pose that same questions again, but it gives an
idea of what can be the standard and complexity of questionnaire. Also it gives you a chance to
prepare yourself for the interview. And in case some of them are really fired at you, you will be better
prepared to answer them than a candidate who has not done this kind of prior preparation.

So find out about previously posed questions from your seniors, other people who might have
attended the interview for these companies or search for them in various sites which are flooded with
such stuff, which are ever ready to help you with tricky questions. And prepare yourself accordingly.

Be clear about the Fundamentals

This is another aspect to be kept in mind. It is quite easy to say that you have prepared well for the
interview, but it is another thing as to how much has been really done as part of the
preparation. Fundamentals are very important part of any candidate. And the interviewers are also
eager to know how good you are in your basics. It so happens that the company doesn’t expect you to
do well in all areas of your studies, but it expects you to have a sound understanding on the
fundamentals, based on which any number of degrees and certificates can be piled up from thereafter.

It is more or less like building a house. Foundation is the most important aspect of any building and
based on this foundation alone, the number of storeys can be built above is decided. A bad foundation
leads to the collapse of these buildings in some time or the other. So is the case with the studies and
degrees which a person has acquired. That’s what even the interviewers are looking for. They want to
know how good your base is and your selection depends to a large extent on this fact alone.

Some other aspects to be remembered as well

1. Be there before time: Yes, when there’s an interview at 10’o clock, be there by 9:45 itself and not at
exact 10. It gives you a time to relax yourself after reaching the venue and also gauge at other
prospective candidates.

2. Don’t look shabby: Wear decent looking clothes and in order that they don’t get spoilt, leave before
time or take some private transport vehicle.
3. Have a genial face: Other candidates as well as interviewers shouldn't be scared to have a
conversation with you. Be cheerful, have a small smile all the while. It creates a pleasant feeling for
everyone around you and makes the interviewers think for a while before considering your case.

4. Be Confident: Finally, the most crucial aspect that everyone focusses upon; confidence. No matter
how much you know or don’t know, if you wilt under pressure, all your efforts go waste. So, whether
you know an answer or not, have an expression of confidence throughout. It’s easier said than done. I
know that. But, it is equally important to remember this key fact because self-belief has a magic of its
own than can create miracles.

Frequently asked questions

1. Can you tell me a little about yourself?

This question seems simple, so many people fail to prepare for it, but it's crucial. Here's the deal:
Don't give your complete employment (or personal) history. Instead give a pitch—one that’s concise
and compelling and that shows exactly why you’re the right fit for the job. Start off with the 2-3
specific accomplishments or experiences that you most want the interviewer to know about, then wrap
up talking about how that prior experience has positioned you for this specific role.

2. How did you hear about the position?

Another seemingly innocuous interview question, this is actually a perfect opportunity to stand out
and show your passion for and connection to the company. For example, if you found out about the
gig through a friend or professional contact, name drop that person, then share why you were so
excited about it. If you discovered the company through an event or article, share that. Even if you
found the listing through a random job board, share what, specifically, caught your eye about the role.

3. What do you know about the company?

Any candidate can read and regurgitate the company’s “About” page. So, when interviewers ask this,
they aren't necessarily trying to gauge whether you understand the mission—they want to know
whether you care about it. Start with one line that shows you understand the company's goals, using a
couple key words and phrases from the website, but then go on to make it personal. Say, “I’m
personally drawn to this mission because…” or “I really believe in this approach because…” and
share a personal example or two.
4. Why do you want this job?

Again, companies want to hire people who are passionate about the job, so you should have a great
answer about why you want the position. (And if you don't? You probably should apply elsewhere.)
First, identify a couple of key factors that make the role a great fit for you (e.g., “I love customer
support because I love the constant human interaction and the satisfaction that comes from helping
someone solve a problem"), then share why you love the company (e.g., “I’ve always been passionate
about education, and I think you guys are doing great things, so I want to be a part of it”).

5. Why should we hire you?

This interview question seems forward (not to mention intimidating!), but if you're asked it, you're in
luck: There's no better setup for you to sell yourself and your skills to the hiring manager. Your job
here is to craft an answer that covers three things: that you can not only do the work, you can deliver
great results; that you'll really fit in with the team and culture; and that you'd be a better hire than any
of the other candidates.

Module II

Report:

A report is a methodical, well planned document which outlines and evaluates a subject or problem,
and which may include:

• The record of an order of events

• Explanation of the implication of these events or facts
• Evaluation of the facts or results of research presented
• Discussion of the consequences of a conclusion or course of action
• Conclusions
• References

Purpose/Significance: The Reports communicate information which has been compiled as a result of
research and analysis of data and of issues. Reports can cover a wide range of topics, but usually focus
on transmitting information with a clear purpose, to a specific audience.
Types of reports

Reports are written for different purposes. They therefore contain different information and structures,
including headings and subheadings, and these form the outline of the report. The table below shows
the sections commonly found in these types of reports.

Common report structures

Short report Science report Business report

 Title page  Title page  Title page

 Introduction
 Discussion
 Recommendations
 References
Engineering report
 Introduction  Executive summary
 Method & materials  Table of contents
 Results  Introduction
 Discussion  Discussion
 Conclusion  Conclusion
 Appendices  Recommendations
 References  Appendices
 References
Research report

 Title page  Title page

 Executive summary
(optional)
 Introduction
 Objectives
 Analysis
 Discussion
 Recommendations &
action plan
 Conclusion
 Appendices
 References
 Executive summary
 Introduction
 Method / methodology
 Results / findings
 Discussion
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 Appendices
 Bibliography
Module III

Negotiation Skills

Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process by which compromise

or agreement is reached while avoiding argument and dispute.

In any disagreement, individuals understandably aim to achieve the best possible outcome for

their position (or perhaps an organisation they represent). However, the principles of fairness,

seeking mutual benefit and maintaining a relationship are the keys to a successful outcome.
Specific forms of negotiation are used in many situations: international affairs, the legal system,
government, industrial disputes or domestic relationships as examples. However, general
negotiation skills can be learned and applied in a wide range of activities. Negotiation skills can
be of great benefit in resolving any differences that arise between you and others.
Our negotiation pages:

 Describe the common stages in the process of negotiation.

 Describe the different types of negotiation.
 Outline key points for successful negotiation.
 Explain the difference between interests and positions in the negotiation process.
 Recognise why effective communication is essential to negotiation.

Why Negotiate?

It is inevitable that, from time-to-time, conflict and disagreement will arise as the differing needs,
wants, aims and beliefs of people are brought together. Without negotiation, such conflicts may
lead to argument and resentment resulting in one or all of the parties feeling dissatisfied. The
point of negotiation is to try to reach agreements without causing future barriers to
communications.

Stages of Negotiation

In order to achieve a desirable outcome, it may be useful to follow a structured approach to

negotiation. For example, in a work situation a meeting may need to be arranged in which all
parties involved can come together.

The process of negotiation includes the following stages:

1. Preparation
2. Discussion
3. Clarification of goals
4. Negotiate towards a Win-Win outcome
5. Agreement
6. Implementation of a course of action

1. Preparation

Before any negotiation takes place, a decision needs to be taken as to when and where a meeting
will take place to discuss the problem and who will attend. Setting a limited time-scale can also
be helpful to prevent the disagreement continuing.
This stage involves ensuring all the pertinent facts of the situation are known in order to clarify
your own position. In the work example above, this would include knowing the ‘rules’ of your
organisation, to whom help is given, when help is not felt appropriate and the grounds for such
refusals. Your organisation may well have policies to which you can refer in preparation for the
negotiation.
Undertaking preparation before discussing the disagreement will help to avoid further conflict
and unnecessarily wasting time during the meeting.

2. Discussion

During this stage, individuals or members of each side put forward the case as they see it, i.e. their
understanding of the situation.
Key skills during this stage include questioning, listening and clarifying.
Sometimes it is helpful to take notes during the discussion stage to record all points put forward
in case there is need for further clarification. It is extremely important to listen, as when
disagreement takes place it is easy to make the mistake of saying too much and listening too
little. Each side should have an equal opportunity to present their case.

3. Clarifying Goals

From the discussion, the goals, interests and viewpoints of both sides of the disagreement need to
be clarified.
It is helpful to list these factors in order of priority. Through this clarification it is often possible
to identify or establish some common ground. Clarification is an essential part of the negotiation
process, without it misunderstandings are likely to occur which may cause problems and barriers
to reaching a beneficial outcome.

4. Negotiate Towards a Win-Win Outcome

This stage focuses on what is termed a 'win-win' outcome where both sides feel they have gained
something positive through the process of negotiation and both sides feel their point of view has
been taken into consideration.
A win-win outcome is usually the best result. Although this may not always be possible, through
negotiation, it should be the ultimate goal.
Suggestions of alternative strategies and compromises need to be considered at this
point. Compromises are often positive alternatives which can often achieve greater benefit for all
concerned compared to holding to the original positions.

5. Agreement

Agreement can be achieved once understanding of both sides’ viewpoints and interests have been
considered.
It is essential to for everybody involved to keep an open mind in order to achieve an acceptable
solution. Any agreement needs to be made perfectly clear so that both sides know what has been
decided.

6. Implementing a Course of Action

From the agreement, a course of action has to be implemented to carry through the decision.
See our pages: Strategic Thinking and Action Planning for more information.

Failure to Agree

If the process of negotiation breaks down and agreement cannot be reached, then re-scheduling
a further meeting is called for. This avoids all parties becoming embroiled in heated discussion
or argument, which not only wastes time but can also damage future relationships.
At the subsequent meeting, the stages of negotiation should be repeated. Any new ideas or
interests should be taken into account and the situation looked at afresh. At this stage it may also
be helpful to look at other alternative solutions and/or bring in another person to mediate.
See our page on Mediation Skills for more information.

Informal Negotiation

There are times when there is a need to negotiate more informally. At such times, when a
difference of opinion arises, it might not be possible or appropriate to go through the stages set
out above in a formal manner.

Nevertheless, remembering the key points in the stages of formal negotiation may be very helpful
in a variety of informal situations.
In any negotiation, the following three elements are important and likely to affect the ultimate

outcome of the negotiation:

1. Attitudes
2. Knowledge
3. Interpersonal Skills

Attitudes
All negotiation is strongly influenced by underlying attitudes to the process itself, for example
attitudes to the issues and personalities involved in the particular case or attitudes linked to
personal needs for recognition.
Always be aware that:

 Negotiation is not an arena for the realisation of individual achievements.

 There can be resentment of the need to negotiate by those in authority.
 Certain features of negotiation may influence a person’s behaviour, for example some people
may become defensive.

Knowledge

The more knowledge you possess of the issues in question, the greater your participation in the
process of negotiation. In other words, good preparation is essential.
Do your homework and gather as much information about the issues as you can.
Furthermore, the way issues are negotiated must be understood as negotiating will require
different methods in different situations.

Interpersonal Skills

Good interpersonal skills are essential for effective negotiations, both in formal situations and in
less formal or one-to-one negotiations.
These skills include:

 Effective verbal communication.

See our pages: Verbal Communication and Effective Speaking.
 Listening.
We provide a lot of advice to help you improve your listening skills, see our page Active
Listening.
  Reducing misunderstandings is a key part of effective negotiation.
See our pages: Reflection, Clarification and The Ladder of Inference for more information.
 Rapport Building.
Build stronger working relationships based on mutual respect. See our pages: Building
Rapport and How to be Polite.
 Problem Solving.
See our section on effective Problem Solving.
 Decision Making.
Learn some simple techniques to help you make better decisions, see our section: Decision
Making.
 Assertiveness.
Assertiveness is an essential skill for successful negotiation. See our page: Assertiveness
Techniques for more information.
 Dealing with Difficult Situations.
See our page: Communicating in Difficult Situations for some tips and advice to make difficult
communications, easier.

What is BATNA?
BATNA is an acronym that stands for Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement. It is defined as
the most advantageous alternative that a negotiating party can take if negotiations fail and
an agreement cannot be made. In other words, a party’s BATNA is what a party’s alternative is if
negotiations are unsuccessful. The term BATNA was originally used by Roger Fisher and William
Ury in their 1981 book entitled “Getting to Yes: Negotiating Without Giving In.”

Importance of BATNA

BATNA is often used in negotiation tactics and should always be considered before a negotiation take
place. Therefore, it is never wise to enter into a serious negotiation without knowing your BATNA.
The value of knowing your best alternative to a negotiated agreement is that:

1. It provides an alternative if negotiations fall through.

2. It provides negotiating power.
3. It determines your reservation point (the worst price you are willing to accept).

Illustration of BATNA

The following diagram illustrates each party’s best alternative to a negotiated agreement (seller and
buyer):

Where:

 ZOPA stands for “Zone Of Potential Agreement.” It is the overlap between the seller’s and
buyer’s settlement range.
 Seller’s settlement range is a biddable range by the seller.
 Buyer’s settlement range is a biddable range by the buyer.
 Buyer’s/Seller’s worst case is the reservation point of respective parties.
If: Buyer offers a price that is lower than the seller’s worst case, seller is better off going with an
alternative.

 Seller offers a price that is higher than the buyer’s worst case, seller is better off going with an
alternative.

Here is a process developed by Harvard Law School to develop the best alternative to a negotiated
agreement:

1. List all alternatives to the current negotiation – what could you do if negotiations fall
through?
2. Evaluate the value of each alternative – how much is each alternative worth to me?
3. Select the alternative that would provide the highest value to you (this is your best alternative
to a negotiated agreement).
4. After determining your BATNA, calculate the lowest-valued deal that you’re willing to
accept.

Module IV

8 Factors That Impact Cross-Cultural Communication in the Workplace and Beyond

In this age of globalization, workplaces are increasingly integrated. This makes communication and
cross-cultural understanding more crucial for everyone, including executives, business leaders,
workplace managers, and employees. In order to develop skills as communicators, we must gain
practical knowledge of the factors that make communication across cultures succeed or fail.
According to experts in the field, some of those factors include:
1. Cultural identity
2. Racial identity
3. Ethnic identity
4. Gender roles
5. Individual personalities
6. Social class
7. Age
8. Roles identity
This article is a very basic discussion of how these eight factors work together that effect cross-
cultural communication.

Cultural Identity
Culture can be defined as the values, attitudes, and ways of doing things that a person brings with
them from the particular place where they were brought up as a child. These values and attitudes can
have an impact on communication across cultures because each person's norms and practices will
often be different and may possibly clash with those of co-workers brought up in different parts of the
world.

Racial Identity
Racial identity refers to how one's membership to a particular race affects how they interact with co-
workers of different races.
According to an article by Professor Daniel Velasco, published in the 2013 Asian Conference on
Language Learning Conference Proceedings, there are exercises for intercultural training that asks
participants to describe, interpret, and evaluate an ambiguous object or photograph. "If one is going to
undertake the unpleasant goal of uncovering underlying racism in order to learn how to better
communicate with other cultures," Velasco writes, "it is necessary to engage in exercises that confront
racism head-on." His method, called E.A.D., asks participants to objectively describe what they see
first and evaluate what they see. "By moving backwards through the . . . process, we are able to
confront underlying racism, which will hopefully pave the way for self-awareness, cultural respect,
and effective intercultural communication."

Ethnic Indentity
Ethnic identity highlights the role ethnicity plays in how two co-workers from different cultures
interact with one another. In the United States, white European Americans are less likely to take their
ethnicity into account when communicating, which only highlights the importance of addressing
different ethnicities in a workplace as a way of educating all co-workers to the dynamics that may
arise between individuals of the same or different ethnic groups.
So what is the difference between race and ethnicity? According to experts from PBS, "While race
and ethnicity share an ideology of common ancestry, they differ in several ways. First of all, race is
primarily unitary. You can only have one race, while you can claim multiple ethnic affiliations. You
can identify ethnically as Irish and Polish, but you have to be essentially either black or white."

Gender Roles
Another factor that impacts intercultural communication is gender. This means that communication
between members of different cultures is affected by how different societies view the roles of men
and women. For example, this article looks at the ways that western cultures view government
sanctioned gender segregation as abhorrent. A Westerner's reaction to rules that require women in
Saudi Arabia to cover themselves and only travel in public when accompanied by a male family
member as repressive and degrading. This is looking at the world through a Western lens. Saudi
women generally view themselves as protected and honored. When studying gender identity in Saudi
Arabia it is important that we view the Saudi culture through a Saudi lens. Women in America
struggle with these traditional stereotypes, while women in Saudi Arabia embrace their cultural roles.

Individual Identity
The individual identity factor is the fifth factor that impacts cross-cultural communication. This
means that how a person communicates with others from other cultures depends on their own unique
personality traits and how they esteem themselves. Just as a culture can be described in broad terms as
"open" or "traditional," an individual from a culture can also be observed to be "open-minded" or
"conservative." These differences will have an effect on the way that multiple individuals from the
same culture communicate with other individuals.

Social Class
A sixth factor which influences intercultural communication is the social identity factor. The social
identity factor refers to the level of society that person was born into or references when determining
who they want to be and how they will act accordingly.
According to professors Judith N. Martin and Thomas K. Nakayama, authors of Intercultural
Communication in Contexts (McGraw-Hill ), "scholars have shown that class often plays an important
role in shaping our reactions to and interpretations of culture. For example, French sociologist Pierre
 Bourdieu (1987) studied the various responses to art, sports, and other cultural activities of people in
different French social classes. According to Bourdieu, working-class people prefer to watch soccer
whereas upper-class individuals like tennis, and middle-class people prefer photographic art whereas
upper-class individuals favor less representational art. As these findings reveal, class distinctions are
real and can be linked to actual behavioral practices and preferences."

Age
The age identity factor refers to how members of different age groups interact with one another. This
might be thought of in terms of the "generation gap". More hierarchical cultures like China, Thailand,
and Cambodia pay great deference and respect to their elders and take their elders' opinions into
account when making life-changing decisions. Cultures like the United States are less mindful of their
elders and less likely to take their advice into account when making important decisions. Such
attitudes towards age cause the age identity factor to impact intercultural communication in the
workplace.

The Roles Identity Factor

The roles identity factor refers to the different roles a person plays in his or her life including their
roles as a husband or wife, father, mother or child, employer or employee, and so forth. How two
members of a workforce from two different cultures view these various roles influences how they will
interact with their fellow colleague or counterpart.

What is culture shock?

It's common to experience culture shock when you're transplanted into a foreign setting. This is a
normal reaction to a new environment where you are no longer in control as you have been at home.
You may experience a range of emotions when adapting to a foreign culture, from excitement and
interest to frustration, depression and fear of the unknown. Culture shock is a term used to describe
what happens to people when they encounter unfamiliar surroundings and conditions.

Symptoms of culture shock

People differ greatly in the degree to which culture shock affects them, but almost everyone is
affected by it in one way or another. Symptoms vary, but can include:

 boredom
 withdrawal (e.g. spending excessive amounts of time reading; avoiding contact with host nationals)
 feeling isolated or helpless
 sleeping a lot or tiring easily
 irritation over delays and other minor frustrations
 suffering from body pains and aches
 longing to be back home
 unduly criticizing local customs or ways of doing things

Stages of culture shock

The five stages of culture shock are:

1. The Honeymoon Stage - You are very positive, curious, and anticipate new exciting
experiences. You even idealize the host culture.
2. Irritability and Hostility - You start to feel that what is different is actually inferior. The
host culture is confusing or the systems are frustrating. It's a small step from saying that they
do things in a different way to saying that they do things in a stupid way. You may blame
your frustrations on the new culture (and its shortcomings) rather than on the adaptation
process.
3. Gradual Adjustment - You feel more relaxed and develop a more balanced, objective view
of your experience.
4. Adaptation of Biculturalism - You feel a new sense of belonging and sensitivity to the host
culture.
5. Re-entry Shock - You go home and it isn't what you expected it to be.
6. Transcript of Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism and Stereotypes
7. Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge another culture by the standards of one’s own culture.
Ethnocentrism usually entails the notion that one’s own culture is superior to everyone else’s.
When many different cultures live together in one society, misunderstandings, biases, and
judgments are inevitable—but fair evaluations, relationships, and learning experiences are
also possible. Cultures cannot remain entirely separate, no matter how different they are, and
the resulting effects are varied and widespread.
Cultural Relativism
The opposite of ethnocentrism is cultural relativism—the examination of a cultural trait
within the context of that culture. Cultural relativists try to understand unfamiliar values and
norms without judging them and without applying the standards of their own culture
Culture Shock
WHAT IS A STEREOTYPE?
A stereotype is a thought that may be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain
ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality.
A fixed, commonly held notion or image of a person or group, based on an oversimplification
of some observed or imagined trait of behavior or appearance.
A stereotype arises as a result of ethnocentrism.
Stereotyping- Example
All Indians want to immigrate to the U.S.A

All Indians are either Engineers or Doctors

Indians are obsessed with skin color - A light skinned Indian is considered superior and
believed to be of noble origin.

Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism And Stereotyping

Example
Americans
tend to value technological advancement, industrialization, and the accumulation of wealth.
An American, applying his or her own standards to a culture that does not value those things,
may view that culture as “primitive” or “uncivilized.” Such labels are not just statements but
judgments: they imply that it is better to be urbanized and industrialized than it is to carry on
another kind of lifestyle.

People in other cultures, such as some

European
cultures, also see American culture through the lens of their own ethnocentrism. To members
 of other cultures, Americans may seem materialistic, brash, or arrogant, with little intellectual
subtlety or spirituality. Many Americans would disagree with that assessment.
Example
In India, the concepts of dating, love, and marriage differ from those in the United States.
Though love is important, parents choose their children’s spouses according to similarities in
educational levels, religions, castes, and family backgrounds. The families trust that love will
develop over time but believe that a wedding can take place without it.
From an American ethnocentric perspective, arranging marriages appears to be a custom that
limits individual freedom.
On the other hand, a cultural relativist would acknowledge that arranged marriages serve an
important function in India and other cultures.
Characteristics of Ethnocentrism
An individual with an ethnocentric view-
Identifies strongly with in - group ethnicity, culture etc
Feels proud, vain, superior about in-group
Views economic, political, social events from the point of their in-group
Culture shock is the surprise, disorientation, and fear people can experience when they
encounter a new culture.

Culture shock can be an excellent lesson in relative values and in understanding human
differences. The reason culture shock occurs is that we are not prepared for these differences.
Because of the way we are taught our culture, we are all ethnocentric.

Xenophobia is Not Racism

Many people use the word 'xenophobia' when referring to other people that they believe are racist,
using the words as synonymous with each other. However, they are not synonyms even if some of the
behaviors are the same.
Racism means that a specific race dislikes and looks down upon other races because they feel
superior. For example, racism could be people in Australia feeling superior to ones in New Zealand.
Xenophobia actually means to fear or dislike other races, cultures, ways of life, and people not
similar to one's own. Xenophobia essentially translates to ''fear of strangers''. Xenophobia includes
straight people being afraid and disapproving of gay people.
It is important to keep in mind that xenophobia has this name for a reason. Note the '-phobia', like
claustrophobia (fear of confined spaces) or arachnophobia (fear of arachnids like spiders). This phobia
can make people act out in response to uncomfortable situations that illicit strong emotional
responses. This specific phobia is one of the few that can result in violence and abuse towards others.

Symptoms of Xenophobia
Its important to know behaviors and symptoms of xenophobia:

 Being afraid to be near people that are not similar.

 Being angry and volatile near others that are different, even if it is just the culture and not the
person.
 Jumping to conclusions and stereotypes about others seen as different
 Inability to trust or create relationships with others that are different.
 Gaining pleasure from the maltreatment of others that are different.
 Avoidance of areas where dissimilar people congregate in large groups.
Keep in mind that these behaviors are not premeditated, but instead are in reaction to irrational fears
that the person has about others. Although the behaviors can be against a certain race, it is not based
on race specifically, but more an internal fear of others that they don't understand.
The reason why people are xenophobic is unknown, much like other phobias. It could be their
upbringing, a bad experience, or just the environment they are in.
This behavior escalates until Anne attacks Molly in the hallway because she is angry and scared of
who Molly is.
Obviously this is not about race, this is purely the fear of one student and her inability to understand
the new student and her culture, which means the student may suffer from xenophobia.

Top Ten Tips for... Effective Cross-Cultural Communication

In today’s diverse workplace, communication issues can take on an added dimension of complexity.
Every culture has its own set of tacit assumptions and tendencies when it comes to face-to-face
interactions, and trying to get your point across effectively can sometimes be difficult. Even when a
language barrier doesn’t exist, cross-cultural communication can be challenging. Here are our top ten
tips for effective cross-cultural communication:

1. Maintain etiquette
Many cultures have specific etiquette around the way they communicate. Before you meet, research
the target culture, or if time allows, do some cross cultural training. For example, many cultures
expect a degree of formality at the beginning of communication between individuals. Every culture
has its own specific way of indicating this formality: ‘Herr’ and ‘Frau’ in Germany, reversing family
and given names in China and the use of ‘san’ in Japan for men and women etc. Be aware of these
familiarity tokens and don’t jump straight to first name terms until you receive a cue from the other
person to do so.

2. Avoid slang
Not even the most educated non-native English speaker will have a comprehensive understanding of
English slang, idioms and sayings. They may understand the individual words you have said, but not
the context or the meaning. As a result you could end up confusing them or at worst, offending them.

3. Speak slowly
Even if English is the common language in a cross cultural situation it’s not a good idea to speak at
your normal conversational speed. Modulating your pace will help, as will speaking clearly and
pronouncing your words properly. Break your sentences into short, definable sections and give your
listener time to translate and digest your words as you go. But don’t slow down too much as it might
seem patronising. If the person you’re speaking to is talking too quickly or their accent is making it
difficult for you to understand them, don’t be afraid to politely ask them to slow down too.

4. Keep it simple
In a cross cultural conversation there’s no need to make it harder for both of you by using big words.
Just keep it simple. Two syllable words are much easier to understand than three syllable words, and
one syllable words are better than two syllable words. Say “Please do this quickly” rather than “Please
do this in an efficacious manner.”

5. Practice active listening

Active listening is a very effective strategy for improving cross cultural communication. Restate or
summarise what the other person has said, to ensure that you have understood them correctly, and ask
frequent questions. This helps build rapport and ensures that important information doesn’t get missed
or misunderstood.

6. Take turns to talk

Make the conversation flow more freely by taking it in turns to speak. Make a point and then listen to
the other person respond. Particularly when people are speaking English as their second language it’s
better to talk to them in short exchanges rather than delivering a long monologue that might be
difficult for them to follow.

7. Write things down

If you’re not sure whether the other person has understood you properly, write it down to make sure.
This can be particularly helpful when discussing large figures. For example, in the UK we write a
billion as 1,000,000,000 but in the USA, it’s written as 1,000,000,000,000.

8. Avoid closed questions

Don’t phrase a question that needs a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer. In many cultures it is difficult or
embarrassing to answer in the negative, so you will always get a ‘yes’ even if the real answer is ‘no’.
Ask open-ended questions that require information as a response instead.

9. Be careful with humour

Many cultures take business very seriously and believe in behaving professionally and following
protocol at all times. Consequently they don’t appreciate the use of humour and jokes in a business
context. If you do decide to use humour make sure it will be understood and appreciated in the other
culture and not cause offence. Be aware that British sarcasm usually has a negative effect abroad.

10. Be supportive
Effective cross cultural communication is about all parties feeling comfortable. In any conversation
with a non-native English speaker, treat them with respect, do your best to communicate clearly and
give them encouragement when they respond. This will help build their confidence and trust in you.

Module V

5 Essential Elements in Successful Public Speaking+

The delivery of your speech in public relies on various elements from overcoming a fear of crowds to
your knowledge on a topic. Whether you’ve delivered speeches before, or it’s your first time, it is
important that you say it effectively in order to maximize the impact on your audience. The following
are elements you should have to ensure your speech is not just well done, but manages to get its
message across expertly.

#1 Overcoming Your Fear

Public speaking is an overwhelming affair. In fact, it is the number one fear in North
America! Overcoming this takes a number of steps. Begin by identifying what it is you are afraid of
and finding a way to face it. Also ensure adequate preparation and practice, either in front of a mirror
or with increasing frequency of the speeches you give. Tearing down your fear for public speaking is
a gradual process but it is important as it affects your level of confidence with an audience.

#2 Knowing Your Audience

Your audience will have certain expectations of you, and in order to fulfill them, you need to know
certain details about them. Aside from knowing how many there are, you should have a good idea
what their age-group is and how much they understand the subject or topic you’ll be presenting.
Whether they are experienced or novices in the subject, your delivery should be holistic enough to let
them learn something new and emphasize on obvious points without undermining their intelligence.

#3 Researching Your Topic

An essential part of your presentation is in the knowledge you convey. For this reason, research
should entail much of your preparation. Knowing your topic works well in your delivery and ability to
answer questions from participants. In-depth knowledge of a topic keeps you from making sweeping
statements and from having awkward moments in the middle of your speech or when questions come
up, all of which can make your audience lose confidence in your capability to talk about the subject at
hand.

#4 Having a Personality

You need to be relatable and impressionable to your audience. Personality is conveyed through your
tone, body language and the general sense of expression. Find ways to squeeze in some personal
opinions on the subject you’re delivering. You could illustrate points in your speech with stories
drawn from personal experience so that your audience is also able to apply the knowledge you’re
imparting to them in their own lives. Your tone should be clear and friendly, even in professional
circumstances. Move up and down the stage to keep yourself from being stale in your delivery.

#5 Encouraging Audience Participation

Depending on the kind of speech you’re delivering, you might consider finding a way to engage with
your audience. Small groups could be given room to ask questions or a platform to make brief
statements that are moderated. If you’re dealing with a large group of attendees, you could have a
catch word that they chant in response to points you make, to keep them alert and to emphasize the
message of the talk you’re giving. Your speech then becomes less monotonous and focus shifts from
you towards the people you’re addressing.

With a calm and collected resolve, public speaking can be a fun exercise. Skills acquired are also
important in other areas of your life. It enhances your reputation, boosts your self-confidence, and
helps you think and speak on your feet. Public speaking can go on to open up various opportunities
for further engagement.

Four P’s in Public Speaking

There is a message in your voice!

While speech is how you use words, voice is how you create sound. To your listeners, your voice is a
part of who you are and what you believe. Below are our 4 P’s for using your voice effectively when
you are delivering a presentation.
Pace

The pace is clearly the speed at which we speak. Speaking too quickly tires and frustrates the audience
and speaking too slowly bores and can frustrate the audience. The pace needs to vary during the course
of a presentation to maintain the interest of the audience in what we are presenting. Sports commentators
give admirable examples of this during the course of their work. When you want to emphasize an
important point, slow down and speak distinctively. When you want to cover less important points it’s
ok to speed up. A successful presenter speaks at a moderate pace.

Pitch

The pitch of our voice could also be called the ‘musicality’. It is the tone or inflation in your voice. If
you speak in a monotone, it is guaranteed to send your audience to sleep! What we need to do is to vary
our pitch according to the importance of the expression we are using. For instance: when we are excited
our pitch goes up and when we are serious or somber, it drops. Use the tone in your voice to emphasize
specific points in your presentation. If you have a problem with pitch, you must work on modulation.

Power

Power speaks for itself. And motivation of an audience certainly calls for the ability to increase the
power of our voice. But remember that it is possible to ‘whisper’ and still be heard! It’s the relative
sound that counts from the audience’s side not yours! The optimum power depends on the factors like
the size of the room and the size of the audience. A successful presenter speaks loudly enough for the
people further back to hear but not too loud for the people in the front row and varies the volume from
soft to loud for a more interesting voice.

Pause

The last – but arguably the most important – of our 4 P’s, please pause from time to time – for everyone’s
sake and to get breath for your own sake. Pausing allows the listeners to collect and digest the speaker’s
statement. Pauses are part of the pace and they are potent. They make you want to know more. They
make you stop and listen. Pauses give people time to catch up with what you are saying, they give them
time to think about what you are saying and most importantly, pauses give the listener time to form an
opinion of what is being said. There is value in silence.

The Importance of Audience Analysis

The Benefits of Understanding Your Audience

The more you know and understand about the background and needs of your audience, the better you
can prepare your speech.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain why it is important to understand your audience prior to delivering a speech

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points
  Knowing your audience —their general age, gender, education level, religion, language,
culture, and group membership—is the single most important aspect of developing your
speech.
 Analyzing your audience will help you discover information that you can use to build common
ground between you and the members of your audience.
 A key characteristic in public speaking situations is the unequal distribution of speaking time
between the speaker and the audience. This means that the speaker talks more and the audience
listens, often without asking questions or responding with any feedback.

Key Terms

 audience: One or more people within hearing range of some message; for example, a group of
people listening to a performance or speech; the crowd attending a stage performance.
 audience analysis: A study of the pertinent elements defining the makeup and characteristics
of an audience.
 Audience-centered: Tailored to an audience. When preparing a message, the speaker analyzes
the audience in order to adapt the content and language usage to the level of the listeners.

Benefits of Understanding Audiences

When you are speaking, you want listeners to understand and respond favorably to what you are
saying. An audience is one or more people who come together to listen to the speaker. Audience
members may be face to face with the speaker or they may be connected by communication
technology such as computers or other media. The audience may be small and private or it may be
large and public. A key characteristic of public speaking situations is the unequal distribution of
speaking time between speaker and audience. As an example, the speaker usually talks more while the
audience listens, often without asking questions or responding with any feedback. In some situations,
the audience may ask questions or respond overtly by clapping or making comments.

What Are the Five Organizational Patterns for Public Speaking?

Some people may find giving a presentation to a group of people nerve-wracking, while others enjoy
the opportunity to communicate their messages to others. For both professional and novice public
speakers, however, there are five organizational patterns that can be used when developing a speech
or presentation you'll deliver to a group of people, to give the speech structure and flow.

Logical or Topical Pattern

If you are giving a speech or presentation that contains several ideas that are interrelated in such a
way that one flows naturally to the next, the logical pattern of organization can be used. As the name
implies, you'll be organizing the information in a logical manner according to topic. This
organizational pattern can also be used in a speech that discusses several sub-topics under the banner
of a primary topic – just attack them all in a logical sequence.

Chronological or Time-Sequence Pattern

When information in a speech follows a chronological sequence, then the information should likewise
be organized chronologically. For example, a speech on the development of a new technology should
begin with its origin, then continue along the same time-line as events occurred. This organizational
pattern is typically used in any speech addressing a subject from an historical perspective.
Spatial or Geographical Pattern
If you wish to evoke an image of something that has various parts, and those parts are distinguished
by geography, then organize your speech using a spatial pattern. Spatial patterns are suited for
speeches about a country or city, or even a building or organization, provided that the organization
occupies a specific geographical location, such as a hospital or university.

Causal or Cause-and-Effect Pattern

Another way of organizing a speech on a particular topic is to look at the subject in terms of cause and
effect. For example, a speech about providing foreign aid to victims of a natural disaster in another
country would discuss the disaster itself (the cause) and the impact the disaster had on the nation's
people (the effect). In this particular example, a further effect would be found in discussing the details
of how foreign aid can help the victims.

Problem-Solution Pattern
The problem-solution organizational pattern is similar to the cause-and-effect pattern, but is typically
used when the speaker is trying to persuade the audience to take a particular viewpoint. In essence, the
speaker introduces a problem, and then outlines how this problem can be solved. For example, a
speech on leaving a smaller carbon footprint could begin by detailing the problems associated with
climate change. These points could then be followed by information on how these problems have
been or are being addressed, with a summation indicating a plan of action the audience can take.
Whichever organizational structure you use, it should be clear to the audience how all the topics you
are covering are related. Slides and images are a great way of showing how the various speech
elements fit together, and you should be sure to practice your speech so you're confident that all of the
elements follow a logical pattern.
There are four ways in which a speaker can deliver his or her information. Once can speak from his
head, commit every word to memory, read from a script or use a blended approach.

Choosing the Right Speech Delivery

So, you are asked to perform a speech before your graduating class. No biggie. Just get up on stage
and speak your piece. People will love it. They may even throw roses at the stage.
Well, that may be the case if you are familiar with your audience and, well, they are a very forgiving
bunch of fellows. That's mostly because there is more to giving a speech than the actual content. Sure,
facts must be accurate. The message should be important, and the speaker must be engaging and well-
groomed. That's the stuff Public Speaking 101 is made of.
A good speaker will also think about the delivery method, or the way in which the speech will be
conveyed to the audience. There are a few ways in which this is done:

 Impromptu
 Extemporaneous
 Manuscript
 Memorized

Let's explore them now.

Impromptu Speeches
Suppose while attending your best friend's wedding, the guests begin chanting your name followed by
the words 'Speech, Speech, Speech!'
Frightened at the possibility of having leftover prime rib thrown in your direction, your first thought is
to hide behind a potted plant. After all, it is your friend's wedding and you are the best man, so you
reluctantly get on stage and begin yapping. You might talk about your friendship, his many former
girlfriends, all of which you liked, his wife's mother and her facial mole, and the nasty creamed
spinach that was served with dinner.
Pat yourself on the back! You just performed an impromptu speech. This is a speech that has no
advanced planning or practice. Reflecting back on your speech, you are probably thinking about what
you could have done better. Your black eye may very well be the catalyst for your regret in making
those word choices. Well, lucky for you, if you are ever asked to speak before a crowd without
advanced notice again, here are a few tips you can use:

 Think for a second about what you are going to say.

 Keep your points brief and to the point.
 Take a few seconds between thoughts to compose yourself.

If you take your time and think about what you would like to say, you probably will never put your
foot in your mouth again. Some speeches play it a little safer. They are a combination of a researched
speech and an off-the-cuff speech.

Extemporaneous Speeches
We learned that the impromptu speech can be tricky. Finding the right words without advanced notice
may not be for every speaker. No need to worry. The extemporaneous speech is a perfect balance.
This speech involves the speaker's use of notes and some embellishment to deliver a speech. To clear
this up, a speaker who uses this method would have note cards or prompts that guide him from point
to point, but he uses his own words as he goes along. What makes this different than an impromptu
speech is that he has a loose guideline for his speech. He did not memorize anything; he just used cues
to know where to go next.
There are advantages and disadvantages to this type of speech. For one, the audience will think you
are a genius. You used few notes and appeared to know everything about the topic. But this is not
something that can be done quickly. The same fact finding and research used for other types of
speeches must be used here. The speaker also must rehearse this speech for timing, rhythm and flow.
Now, if shooting from the hip is not your style, you may want to consider reading your speech.

Manuscript Speeches
In a manuscript speech, the speaker reads every word from a pre-written speech. This seems easy
enough. Well, if your audience enjoys a bedtime story, it may work. Reading directly from the pages
of a script has its benefits. You won't miss a single word or important fact. The downside? It can be
boring. Without eye contact, animation or movement on stage, the audience may become
disinterested. This is especially true if the speech is about a drab topic.
Relax, you can still use this method, but with a few tweaks.

Memorization
The memorization method involves memorizing a speech word for word. This can run the risk of
sounding as mechanical as the manuscript method. As in the manuscript method, memorizing key
talking points gives the speaker a more personal approach. Add personality with voice inflection, eye
contact and facial expressions.
Verbal, Vocal, Visual – Body Language and You
A woman says to a man, “Oh, you’re such a brute.” What does she mean? Well, it
depends. The words have meaning in themselves but the way they’re delivered also
counts for something.

Let’s say that she delivers the line with an aggressive posture, a scowl on her face, and
a harsh tone in her voice. Most of us would conclude that the man should take her
words literally; she’s angry and the man should back off.

On the other hand, let’s say she delivers the same line wi th a smile on her face, a
flirtatious giggle in her voice, and a soft, inviting posture. She uses the same words but
delivers them in a very different way. Most people would conclude that she doesn’t
mean for her words to be taken literally. What she does mean may not be crystal clear
but it’s probably not the literal words she speaks. (By the way, I adapted this example
from an excellent article in New Scientist).
This is what Albert Mehrabian, the father of the so -called 7%-38%-55% rule, was
studying. Mehrabian was trying to identify how face -to-face communication actually
transpires, especially when the words are ambiguous. He ident ified three basic
components: 1) the words themselves; 2) tone of voice; and 3) body language,
including facial expressions. These are often summarized as the three V’s – verbal,
vocal, visual.
In ambiguous situations, especially when discussing feelings, how do you sort out what
the other person means? Mehrabian calculated that the words themselves account for
7% of the meaning (from the perspective of the receiver). Tone -of-voice accounts for
38% of the meaning, and body language accounts for 55%. To dete rmine whether
you’re really a brute or not, you should probably pay less attention to what the woman
says and more attention to how she says it. (For more on the multiple meanings of
simple words, click here).

Mehrabian’s findings may be accurate in the very specific case of conveying feelings
in face-to-face communication. Unfortunately, far too many “experts” have over -
extrapolated the data and applied it to all communications. When you give a speech,
for instance, they may claim that 93% of what the audience receives comes from tone -
of-voice and body language.

If that were really true, then why speak at all? If 93% of meaning comes from non -
verbal channels, a good mime should be able to deliver a speech just as well as you
can. Indeed, if 93% of communication is non -verbal, then why do we bother to learn
foreign languages?

Fortunately or unfortunately, even Marcel Marceau (pictured) can’t effectively deliver

an information-laden speech without words. Words are important – use them wisely and
use them sparingly. Body language is also important. The best advice on body language
is simple: you should appear comfortable and confident to your audience. If you don’t,
your audience will wonder what you’re hiding. If you do appear comfortable and
confident, your audience will attend to your words – for much more than 7% of the
meaning.
 Module VI

The six general types of meetings:

 Status Update Meetings
 Information Sharing Meetings
 Decision Making Meetings
 Problem Solving Meetings
 Innovation Meetings
 Team Building Meetings

Here is a break-down of the six general types of meetings with examples of the main activities involve
in each type. Knowing what type of meeting you are planning will increase the success of your
meeting.

Meeting Type 1: Status Update Meetings

Status update meetings is one of the most common meeting types. This category includes regular team
and project meetings, where the primary goal is to align the team via updates on progress, challenges,
and next steps. Commonly found group activities in these kinds of meetings are problem
solving, decision making, prioritization, and task assignment.
Check out our post about how to run status update meetings.
Meeting Type 2: Information Sharing Meetings
Presentations, panel debates, keynotes, and lectures are all examples of information sharing meetings.
The primary goal of these meeting is for the speakers to share information with the attendees. This
could be information about things like upcoming changes, new products and techniques, or in depth
knowledge of a domain. Visual communication tools, like slides and videos, are powerful tools for
making the shared information more memorable.

At information sharing meetings the attendees have historically been passive listeners. With new
technologies like MeetingSift they can use their smart devices to go from passive spectators to
active participants, making the meeting more engaging and productive for all.

Check out our post about how to run information sharing meetings.
Meeting Type 3: Decision Making Meetings
The vast majority of business decisions are made by groups in meetings. While small decisions are
made in all kinds of meetings, the more important decisions often get their own dedicated meetings.
There are different types of group decision making processes, and care should be taken to choose a
process that best matches the situation. A decision making process can include group processes like
information gathering and sharing, brainstorming solutions, evaluating options, ranking preferences,
and voting.
Check out our post about how to run decision making meetings.
Meeting Type 4: Problem Solving Meetings
Problem solving meetings are perhaps the most complex and varied type of meetings. Whether the
meeting is addressing an identified problem, or it is focusing on creating strategies and plans to
navigate the future, there are a rich arsenal of group processes that can be used. Scopes and priorities
need to be defined, opportunities and threats need to be identified, and possible solutions should
be brainstormed, evaluated, and agreed upon.
Check out our post about how to run problem solving meetings.
Meeting Type 5: Innovation Meetings
Innovation meetings and creative meetings often start with thinking outside the box, by brainstorming,
associating, and sharing ideas in a broad scope. Meeting participants can then use various techniques
and processes to reduce the diverse pool of ideas to a more focused short list. Through
ranking, evaluations, and decision making the most suitable idea, or ideas, are identified, and
recommendations and tasks can be assigned based on this.
Check out our post about how to run innovation sharing meetings.
Meeting Type 6: Team Building Meetings
All meetings should contribute to team building, strengthening relationships and corporate culture.
However, now and then team building activities should be the main focus for a meeting. This category
include meetings like include all-hands meetings, kick-off meetings, team building outings, and
corporate events. Have participants feel like essential parts of their unit, team, department, branch,
and company has all kinds of positive impact on their engagement, performance, and satisfaction.
Check out our post about how to run team building meetings.
How to run successful meetings

Meetings represent a huge value to both companies and employees, so when planning and running
meetings you should not wing it and hope for the best. Instead, earning a reputation for running
efficient and successful meetings is good for you and your career. To help you make good use of your
meeting participants’ valuable time, our meeting scientists have put together a road map on how to
run successful meetings.

The Purpose of Meetings: 7 Important Meeting Purposes

Ever wondered how to run effective meetings?

It all comes down to your meeting purpose.

You see, the purpose of meetings is what determines how useful a meeting is.

And today, we’ll look at 8 meeting purpose examples. By using this list, you can make sure that every
meeting you run is effective and productive.

Ready to read more? Let’s go.

Meeting Purpose #1: Sharing Information

The first meeting purpose?

Sharing information.

You see, meetings are all about communication.

If you can communicate something more effectively, you shouldn’t run a meeting.

But if a meeting is the best way to communicate, then that’s the way to go.

And information-sharing is one of those things that meetings work great for.

Now:

A lot of information is shared in any organization.

So naturally, not all information should be shared in a meeting.

Some information is better shared through other communication methods. Tools like email, your
internal chat or whatever other content-sharing systems you use.

But what information should be shared in meetings?

Here’s what you need to know:

When should you run a meeting?

The information you want to share during information meetings is information that is better
communicated to a group of people in-person rather than sharing it by other means.

So:

Information that leads to questions.

For example: You’re re-structuring your organization. People will have questions about their roles
and what their future will look like.

But information-sharing meetings could also be simple status update meetings. Here you might share
recent updates and hold a Q&A session to share information with all participants, at once.

Meeting Purpose #2: Making Decisions

Next:

Decision-making meetings.

This is an excellent reason to run meetings because you get a chance to talk about your project face-
to-face.

That said, not every decision requires a meeting.

Just the decisions that require some back-and-forth and would be impractical to make in any other
way.

Here’s the thing, though.

Decision-making meetings often end up being time-wasters because meeting attendants get bogged
down with irrelevant details.

Fortunately, there are steps you can take to prevent this from happening.

Here’s what you need to do:

How to make decisions during meetings

What’s key to making decisions in meetings?

That’s right. Preparation.

Come prepared for your meeting. And ask others to come prepared, too.

This means:

Share an agenda and ask everyone to prepare their talking points and questions before the meeting.

That way, you only need to sit down and discuss the decision… Not prep each other on anything else
around the decision.

Meeting Purpose #3: Creating Solutions

The third meeting purpose?

That’s right. solving problems by coming up with solutions.

How to run a successful brainstorming meeting

Now, like with any other meeting, brainstorming meetings don’t just happen.

There are certain characteristics of a successful meeting that need to be met.

You need to prepare and ask meeting participants to think about the problem before the meeting.

Plus, there are a few specific steps you need to take to make this meeting successful.

First:

Clarify, research and formulate challenges.

These are steps you take before getting your co-workers onboard.

Then, prep them before the meeting so they have a chance to familiarize themselves with the problem.

At this stage, all meeting participants start brainstorming solutions. These ideas are then presented
during the meeting.

In other words:

You don’t start generating ideas during your meeting.

Instead, you combine and evaluate the ideas.

When you’ve discussed your ideas you draw up an action plan.

Last, this action plan is implemented. And how do you make sure the project doesn’t just fizzle out?

Follow up on your meeting decisions.

This way, you make sure your meeting has a clear purpose.

Meeting Purpose #4: Building Relationships

Next:

The purpose of meetings isn’t just to share information or make decisions.

Nope, meetings can also be about something as vague as building relationships.

You see, communication in an organization depends on the relationships within that organization.

If you want better teamwork, you need to help people build relationships.

The same goes for people outside of your organization.

Want to cooperate? Sell?

Build relationships.

And meetings are a great way to do just that.

How to build relationships in meetings

So how do you make sure your meetings build meaningful relationships?

There are a few basic principles. These are:

#1: Allow others to talk first.

Instead of offering your opinion or advice upfront, ask others to speak up first. This gives them a
chance to express themselves and feel heard.

#2: Give specific praise.

How good doesn’t it feel to hear positive feedback? Praising others is a great way to build
relationships. Just note one thing: Your praise needs to be authentic, specific and preferably show the
impact of this person’s actions.
#3: Ask questions.

Relationship-building meetings aren’t about you. Instead, they’re about the person you want to build a
relationship with. If it’s your team, act more like a coach than a meeting leader. Ask questions and
challenge them to think deeper. If it’s a client or someone else outside your organization, show you’re
interested in them by listening more than you talk.

Meeting Purpose #5: Sharing Inspiration

Here’s the deal:

Meetings don’t have to be dull or dry.

Some of the most meaningful meetings are all about sharing inspiration and getting inspired.

Motivational talks, sharing results and wins, having a guest speaker…

There are plenty of ways to create an inspiring meeting.

And no, inspiring others doesn’t need to be the focus of your meeting. It could be a regular, but
inspirational, team meeting.

How to run an inspirational meeting

But how do you make sure your meeting is inspirational?

Here’s how:

Give people ideas. Challenge them to think in new ways and develop themselves.

For example:

During a meeting, ask meeting attendants to set up a specific goal based on what you discussed in that
meeting.

What do you think happens when they achieve that goal and can share it with everyone else?

That’s right. They feel more motivated than ever.

Meeting Purpose #6: Negotiating

The seventh meeting purpose?

Negotiating, influencing, and persuading others.

For example:

Sales meetings or meetings where you need to convince another department or co-worker about your
ideas and suggestions.

How to negotiate

For your negotiation to be purposeful, it needs to lead somewhere.

That’s why you first need to learn how to negotiate.

#1: Listen to the other party.

The first rule of any negotiation is to listen to the other person. What do they want out of a deal? How
is it useful to them? What value will they get? A negotiation isn’t a situation where the “winner takes
it all.” Instead, it’s a way to find out how you and the other person can help each other.

#2: Come prepared.

Purposeful meetings require that you come prepared. This applies even more to negotiations. If you
want to make sure your negotiation is productive and effective, make sure you know exactly what you
want out of a deal and what you can offer.

#3: Don’t get stuck on a specific issue.

Look:

Negotiations could drag on and on if both parties got stuck on every issue. That’s why you want to set
aside any issue where you feel stuck and come back to it once your deal is almost done. When you
have a bigger overview of the deal you’re negotiating, it’s easier to find a solution to smaller issues.

#4: Ask questions.

Whenever you feel you need more information or the discussion isn’t moving forward, ask questions.

Meeting Purpose #7: Educating Others

Last:

The purpose of meetings in business can be to educate.

This could be an internal meeting to prep a team on a new project.

Or it could be more general.

For example:

A workshop or talk with a thought leader.

And why not ask employees to share their skills and knowledge with each other?

Note- Tie the topic to your co-workers’ jobs. That way, they feel they’re developing themselves and
participating in the meeting becomes a lot more interesting.

Agenda- An agenda is a list of meeting activities in the order in which they are to be taken up,
beginning with the call to order and ending with adjournment. It usually includes one or more specific
items of business to be acted upon. It may, but is not required to, include specific times for one or more
activities. An agenda may also be called a docket, schedule, or calendar. It may also contain a listing of
an order of business.

Role of Chairperson/Participants

Role of Chairperson and Participants in Conducting a Business Meeting

Role of Chairperson and Participants in Conducting a Business Meeting!

In conducting a meeting, If a meeting is found necessary, its purpose, its objective has to be clear. Is it

a legal requirement, a routine or a necessity of the time?

Only the essential parties should be called, and all required persons should be called. Sometimes there

are outsiders to the organisation that are called to a meeting – the auditor, the solicitor, etc. The call to

attend has to be clear and timely and under proper authority. The time has to be fixed according to the

occasion and the convenience of the members. Further, the duration should be sufficient but not too

long. One has to select a place suitable for holding it. The place may have to be prepared for the meet.

To achieve the objective of the meeting, the convenor has to visualize the specific points over which

there is to be a discussion. Again he/she has to set out the manner of discussion – informative,

consultative or persuasive.

Role of the Chairperson in a Meeting:

1. Take overall charge of the proceedings:

Once the convenor has (generally in consultation with the chair) set out the agenda of the meet, the

chairperson has to see that the agenda and the objective are fulfilled in the meet.
2. Make sure he is competent:

He should accept to chair the meet only if he feels competent to run it. The chairperson’s post is often

rotated.

3. “Don’t do it yourself’:

The chairperson is there mainly to encourage a discussion, not supply it all. His skill lies in making

the members feel that they have collectively decided issues.

4. Use of directive verbs:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The chairman can use stimulating verbs to make members give out the necessary inputs at the meet:

substantiate, evidence, shorten, reword, classify, define, explain, elaborate, illustrate, review, describe,

summaries, rephrase, simplify.

5. Use names:

He can get more from the members by using their names for addressing them to generate intimacy

(according to the prevailing culture and custom).

6. “Be a traffic cop”:

The chairperson has to direct the traffic of ideas. He should not be defensive (a goalkeeper) or a

preacher (lecturer).

7. State the purpose:

At the start of the meet he should state the purpose and again at the introduction of every new item of

the agenda, so that the members are clear as to what they are supposed to do – examine, suggest or

accept.

8. “Don’t reveal your preference”:

The chairman should reserve his own opinion for the end.

9. Restrict the talk to the issue:

Members may be talkative, they may be stuck-up. The chairman has to stop the one type and

encourage the other.

10. Follow procedure:

An organisation – or the law – may require that a certain procedure be followed. The chairman needs

to know it and implement it.

11. Maintain time:

The meet should start on time, cover the agenda with proportionate time to all issues, and close on

time. In practice, the early items get too much time and the last items are rushed.

12. Speak no more than 20% of the time:

He has to link the various items and direct the members. For this he is the lead talker. But experience

tells that in the name of fairness, 20% is the limit for his talking.

13. Respond to the mood:

This is really the crux of the task. The chairman can set the mood, and if some event or some

member’s talk has set a wrong mood, he has to transform it. He may use humour, even a diversion,

and extend all of his personality to keep the mood right. Decisions are taken when the members are

ready for them.

14. Intervene in disputes:

If members dispute among themselves, the chairperson has to step in and bring them on the track.

15. Arrange for proper recording:

The proceedings of a meet have to be factually recorded. The chairman has to ensure this during the

meet. The job should be with a competent person and he may have to be supervised. He should sit

near the chairperson.

16. Attend to those present:

He has to focus on those who are present and not those who are absent. This applies especially for

starting a meet with a low attendance. Of course, the meet may require a quorum (necessary minimum

attendance).

17. Deal with spot issues:

He has to have the expertise and the presence of mind to tackle issues that arise during the meet,

especially when the meet is open to new issues with his permission.

18. Say “no” with tact:

Using analogies, quotes, precedents, common sense, and goodwill, the chairman has to tackle

unwanted issues. (A senate member once proposed, “The war is over, we should reduce the army to

half.” The chair replied, “And we should at the same time resolve that the enemy should also reduce

his army to half.”)

19. After the meet:

The chairman should see to it that timely follow-up action is taken to fulfill the obligations arising

from the decisions taken. He should get the minutes written and checked.

Role of participants in a meeting:

1. Do homework:

Once the purpose of a meet is known, the attendee has to visualize his/her role and gather information

and inputs for use in the meet to make it productive. He/she may consult other members to allocate

roles.

2. Be punctual:

We in India have to specially stress the need to be on time. Our trains, buses and airplanes will run on

time when we learn to be punctual for routine meets.

3. Participate actively:

A member should listen carefully (so that he may be able to summaries what is being said). He should

plan what to speak and say it concisely and precisely.

4. PREP formula:

He should be rational and forceful. PREP means:

State your Position

Reason it out

Give Examples
Restate your Position

5. Showcase your talent:

A meet is an opportunity to showcase one’s talent and get credit for giving useful ideas.

6. Take initiative:

There may be occasions when a member may propose a motion or second a motion when it sounds

right. This requires quickness. Francis Bacon says, “Conference makes a ready man.”

7. Follow rules:

He should speak when permitted to. He should avoid cross-talk.

8. Take responsibility:

When tasks are being assigned, a member should come forward to take up suitable responsibilities. If

a task is assigned to him/her, then a willing acceptance is also a sign of dynamism.

9. Disagree agreeably:

All differences should be expressed with courtesy and a friendly feeling.

10. Help to steer the meet:

If the meeting is going off the track, he/she may remind the chairman to keep it on course.

11. Stay related to previous discussion:

Any contribution to the meeting must be made in the context of the previous discussion. An idea that

is already proposed need not be repeated, but one can amend it or improve it.

12. Be involved:

The member should, in his higher self-interest, be involved in collectivism. A good participant

becomes a good leader – just as a good soldier makes a good general.

Agenda

Method of Writing Agenda:

1. Give your agenda a title.

2. Include "who?", "where?", and "when?" information in the header.
 3. Write a brief statement of the meeting objective(s).
4. Write a schedule outlining the main elements of the meeting.
5. Allocate time in the schedule for any special guests.
6. Leave extra time at the end of the meeting for Q&A.
7. Check the agenda for errors before distributing it.

Format of Agenda:

MEETING AGENDA – [MEETING TITLE]

MEETING INFORMATION

Objective:

Date: [01/01/2000] Location: [Enter Room Number]

Time: 6:00 AM Meeting Type: [Type of Meeting]
Called By: [Name] Facilitator: [Name]
Timekeeper: [Name] Note Taker: [Name]
Attendees: [List Names]

PREPARATION FOR MEETING

Please Read:

Please Bring:

ACTION ITEMS FROM PREVIOUS MEETING

Item/Responsible/Due Date
1. [Item Description] / [Responsible]/[Due Date]
2.

AGENDA ITEMS

Item/Presenter/Time Allotted
1. [Agenda Item] / [Presenter Name]/[Time Allotted]
2.
3.

NEW ACTION ITEMS

Item/Responsible/Due Date
1. [New Item] / [Responsible]/[Due Date]
2.

OTHER NOTES OR INFORMATION

Minutes of Meeting
 Minutes, also known as protocols or, informally, notes, are the instant written record of a meeting or
hearing. They typically describe the events of the meeting and may include a list of attendees, a
statement of the issues considered by the participants, and related responses or decisions for the issues.

Minutes are required in order to:

 confirm any decisions made

 record any agreed actions to be taken
 record who has been allocated any tasks or responsibilities
 prompt action from any relevant attendees
 provide details of the meeting to anyone unable to attend
 serve as a record of the meeting's procedure and outcome

Format
Minutes for [Organization Name]

Call to Order
A [meeting type] meeting of [organization name] was held on [date] at [location]. It began at
[time] and was presided over by [chairman’s name], with [secretary’s name] as secretary.

Attendees
Voting members in attendance included [list voting members here]
Guests in attendance included [list guests here]
Members not in attendance included [list members who did not attend]

Approval of Minutes
A motion to approve the minutes of the previous [date] meeting was made by [name] and seconded
by [name].

Officers’ Reports
[Report name] was presented by [name of presenter].
[Report name] was presented by [name of presenter].

Other Reports
[Report name] was presented by [name of presenter]. The following resolution was adopted:
[resolution].

Main Motions
Motion: Moved by [name] and seconded that [state the motion here]. The motion [carried or
failed] with [number of yea’s] in favor and [number of nay’s] against.
Motion: Moved by [name] and seconded that [state the motion here]. The motion [carried or
failed] with [number of yea’s] in favor and [number of nay’s] against.
Motion: Moved by [name] and seconded that [state the motion here]. The motion [carried or
failed] with [number of yea’s] in favor and [number of nay’s] against.

Announcements
Adjournment
[Name of mover] moved that the meeting be adjourned, and this was agreed upon at [time of
adjournment].

Secretary Date of Approval

[Organization Name]

Here are five differences between a circular and a notice.

1. Typically you would print very few copies of a notice (possibly

only one), but you might print thousands of copies of a circular.

2. A notice is usually posted on a wall or similar fixed structure,

while a circular is designed to be distributed in various locations,
or mailed.

3. A notice is generally intended to be read by many people; each

circular is likely to be read by one person: a circular goes to
people, but people come to a notice.

4. Since a notice is designed to be read by groups of people, it is

likely to be printed in a larger typeface so that it can be read at a
distance; a circular can be printed in small type, since it will be
hand-held by individuals.

5. A notice is more likely to have legal standing than a circular,

since it is difficult to prove that circulars have reached their
target audience, while a notice that is prominently posted may be
assumed to have been read by the public.

Notice

Written or formal information, notification, or warning about a fact, required to be made in law or
imparted by an operation of law. A party is deemed to have cognizance of a fact if the party (1) has
actual knowledge of it, (2) has received notice of it, (3) ought reasonably to know it, (4) knows about a
related or associated fact, or (5) would have known by making reasonable enquiries about it.

Circular

A letter that circulates or announces the some information or message to a large number of people at a
time is called a circular letter or a circular. when it is used for external communication for conveying
messages to customers and suppliers, it is called a circular letter or a trade circular and when it is used
for internal communication or within the organization, it is called an office circular letter.