Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environment International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envint

Review article

Production of bioplastic through food waste valorization T

a,1 b,1 c,1 a d,1 e
Yiu Fai Tsang , Vanish Kumar , Pallabi Samadar , Yi Yang , Jechan Lee , Yong Sik Ok ,
Hocheol Songf, Ki-Hyun Kime, , Eilhann E. Kwonf, , Young Jae Jeong
⁎ ⁎

a
Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong
b
National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI), S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab 140306, India
c
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-Ro, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
d
Department of Environmental and Safety Engineering, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea
e
Korea Biochar Research Center, O-Jeong Eco-Resilience Institute (OJERI), Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul,
Republic of Korea
f
Department of Environment and Energy, Sejong University, Seoul 05006, Republic of Korea
g
Department of Microbiology, Pukyong National University, Pusan 48513, Republic of Korea

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The tremendous amount of food waste from diverse sources is an environmental burden if disposed of in-
Food waste appropriately. Thus, implementation of a biorefinery platform for food waste is an ideal option to pursue (e.g.,
Valorization production of value-added products while reducing the volume of waste). The adoption of such a process is
Biorefinery expected to reduce the production cost of biodegradable plastics (e.g., compared to conventional routes of
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
production using overpriced pure substrates (e.g., glucose)). This review focuses on current technologies for the
Biopolymer
Bioplastic
production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) from food waste. Technical details were also described to offer clear
insights into diverse pretreatments for preparation of raw materials for the actual production of bioplastic (from
food wastes). In this respect, particular attention was paid to fermentation technologies based on pure and mixed
cultures. A clear description on the chemical modification of starch, cellulose, chitin, and caprolactone is also
provided with a number of case studies (covering PHA-based products) along with a discussion on the prospects
of food waste valorization approaches and their economic/technical viability.

1. Introduction
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
reported that around 1.3 billion tons of food is lost or wasted every year
globally. It is found that this amount corresponds to one-third of all
food resources produced for human consumption. Note that sources of
food waste include household, commercial, industrial, and agricultural
residues, while the compositional matrix of food wastes varies broadly
based on source and type (Xue et al., 2017). Food waste means a sub-
stantial loss of other resources such as land, water, energy, and labor.
FAO defines food waste as “food losses of quality and quantity through the
process of the supply chain taking place at production, post-harvest, and
processing stages.” In more specific terms, food losses occurring at the
end of the food chain correspond to “food waste (FW),” which is con-
tingent on consumer behavior, purchase intention, and retailer mar-
keting strategy. In general, the most FW is being disposed of via land-
filling, composting, and fermentation. Although European Union
guidelines stated that food waste should preferentially be used as an-
imal feed, it became illegal because of disease control concerns
(Salemdeeb et al., 2017; Cerda et al., 2018). Thus, the valorization of
food waste through production of value-added products can be an ideal
and practical end use.
Depending on geographically-specific circumstances, the generation
patterns of FW may differ greatly across the world. In broad terms,
waste generation is affected by a list of variables, including crop pro-
duction options/models, internal infrastructure/capabilities, distribu-
tion chains/channels, and purchase/usage habits of consumers. Table 1
summarizes the types of FW and their origins in the food industry. In
the UK, 15 million tons of food were wasted annually (Salemdeeb et al.,
2017). In Malaysia, it is estimated that 6.7 million tons of FW are

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: kkim61@hanyang.ac.kr (K.-H. Kim), ekwon74@sejong.ac.kr (E.E. Kwon).
1
These authors contributed equally to this study.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.03.076
Received 11 January 2019; Received in revised form 10 March 2019; Accepted 30 March 2019
0160-4120/ © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY/4.0/).
Y.F. Tsang, et al.
Table 1
Types of wastes and their origins in the food industry.
Order Types of FW
1 Waste from preparation, processing, and rendering of
meat, fish, and other food stuffs originating from animals
2 Waste from preparation and processing of fruit,
vegetables, grain, edible oil, cocoa, coffee, and production
of canned foods.
3 Waste from sugar factory
4 Waste from dairy factory
5 Waste from production of baked foods and sweets
6 Waste from production of both non-alcoholic and
alcoholic beverages
generated annually in 2020 (Bong et al., 2017). Approximately 567 to
726 million tons of FW (equivalent to up to 40 wt% of the total food
production) are generated annually in the USA (US EPA, n.d.). This
quantity of FW is equivalent to USD 218 billion (Gunders and Bloom,
2012). Likewise, it is also comparable to the annual energy loss of over
456,250 cal per capita, which is enough to support a male adult (daily
calorie intake = 2500) for 180 days (Buzby et al., 2014). In Spain (an
agriculturally-focused country), about 8 million tons of FW were pro-
duced in 2014 (González-Torre and Coque, 2016). If such waste was
properly converted into value-added products, huge economic and en-
ergy losses can be saved. In France, the government has already im-
plemented a policy for stimulating valorization of FW through recovery
of energy (e.g., biogas) and value-added materials (e.g., bioplastic) with
a punitive law amid a FW epidemic (De Clercq et al., 2017); im-
plementation of this policy was estimated to save 88 million tons of FW
per year with a corresponding cost of USD 167 billion (Gore-Langton,
2017).
Although several papers reported the simultaneous conversion of
FW into energy and bioplastics, most of them emphasized bioplastic
production processes, operating conditions, and new bacterial/archaeal
species used in the fermentation process (Khanna and Srivastava, 2005;
Chee et al., 2010; Chen and Patel, 2011; Bugnicourt et al., 2014; Kiran
et al., 2014; Koutinas et al., 2014; Salgaonkar and Bragança, 2017).
Among them, only a limited number of studies reported the potential
production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) from a single species of
FW, such as waste cooking oil (Desroches et al., 2012) and cheese whey
(Valentino et al., 2015).
The production of synthetic plastic from the irreversible process
(e.g., petroleum extraction) is an environmental burden (e.g., compared
to bioplastic). Also, microorganisms in nature have not evolved to ef-
ficiently degrade petroleum-derived polymers (Harding et al., 2007).
The average energy requirement of bioplastics production is obviously
less than traditional petro polymer (57 MJ kg−1 compared to
77 MJ kg−1) to be beneficial toward global warming problem (Gironi
and Piemonte, 2011). Therefore, due to similar functions of bioplastic
and conventional polymer, bioplastic is an ideal alternative in the
context of environmental sustainability. Over the past decade, en-
ormous efforts have been put into converting FW into PHA as a prac-
tical option for FW valorization (Fig. 1). Indeed, with increased atten-
tion on sustainable development and renewable materials worldwide,
issues of efficient conversion of FW into PHA have been gaining more
attention. Yet, the technical completeness to convert FW into PHA is an
initial stage of development. However, it shows great potential for
commercialization with economic viability. Therefore, this review
highlights the potential of FW processing techniques for production of
bioplastics (e.g., PHA) and their economic viabilities. Specifically, we
reviewed 193 studies, including 145 articles published after 2010, to
summarize the current knowledge about valorization techniques for FW
with the main emphasis on PHA production. Special case studies are
also provided at the end of this work.
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
Origins Reference
Slaughter house, butcher shops, fish processing plants, egg processing plants, (Jayakumar et al., 2008)
tallow processing plants
Fruit and vegetable processing plant; starch manufacturer; malt house; grist and (Preethi et al., 2012)
husting mill; oil mill; manufacturer of coffee, tea, cocoa, and canned foods;
tobacco processing plants.
Sugar manufacturers (Albuquerque et al.,
2010)
Dairies (Bosco and Chiampo,
2010)
Bakeries, confectioners, candy producers (Leung et al., 2012)
Breweries, wineries, liqueur producers, distilleries, and non-alcoholic beverage (Preethi et al., 2012)
and fruit juice producers
2. Current status of bioplastic production and food waste
feedstock collection and sorting
2.1. Desirable bioplastic production from food waste
FW is being generated from all stages of the food supply chain in-
cluding post-production, handling/storage, manufacturing, wholesale/
retail, and consumption stages (Ravindran and Jaiswal, 2016). In gen-
eral, around 30 wt% food becomes FW. In 2015, 39.6 million tons of FW
(15.1 wt% of MSW) were generated in the US, but only 5.3 wt% of them
is used for anaerobic digestion and composting (Gunders and Bloom,
2012). The European Union generates 90 million tons of FW annually.
Among them, 38 wt% is originated from the food manufacturing sectors
(Pfaltzgraff et al., 2013). Thus, the conversion of FW into value-added
chemicals can be the desired end use of food waste for increasing global
sustainability. The water content of FW generally ranges from 75 to
85 wt%. The mass portion of organic matters is 60 to 70 wt% (dry basis)
(Rhu et al., 2003). Table 2 summarizes the properties of FW that are
suitable for production of bioplastics and bioenergy. Fig. 2 provides a
full-screen of not only process of bioplastics production but also routes
of waste biomass transfer and energy consumption. Starch, cellulosic,
oily plant, human being, and livestock interacted with each other for
energy transfer through physical/chemical/biological way during the
conversion process. The figure provides an ideal and economic platform
to optimize expense and energy (fuels) recovery.
Production of bioplastics such as PHA is an ideal strategy for FW
disposal. One reason for this is that FW is landfilled and yields un-
desirable results, such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and
groundwater contamination. Production of bioplastics from FW is a
renewable sustainable process, in which materials are synthesized from
the carbon neutral resources. Some bioplastics are biodegradable and
compostable under industrial conditions (Dietrich et al., 2017). Com-
postable bioplastics break down by 90% in several months but can also
undergo industrial composting processes (Siracusa et al., 2008). Such
bioplastics should meet the specifications and evaluation criteria of
international standards (e.g., EN 13432, EN 14995, and ASTM D6400)
for biodegradable plastics/products, such as composability.
The environmental benefits from utilization of bioplastics are one of
the driving forces to expand their further use. Ceresana in Constance,
Germany, predicted that the world market for bioplastics in 2021 will
be three times larger than that in 2014, generating a total of USD 5.8
billion in revenue. For a specific case, NatureWorks in Minnetonka, MN,
USA announced that polylactic acid (PLA) was produced at a capacity
of 1.5 × 105 tons in 2009. This capacity is expected to increase to
8.0 × 105 tons in 2020. Note that Ceresana and NatureWorks are
leading international market research and consultancy companies.
Approximately 80% of the polymer market may be replaced by bio-
plastics in Western Europe (Shen et al., 2009). Groot and Borén (2010)
performed an LCA of industrial production of PLA in Thailand, in-
dicating that bioplastics can offset environmental problems compared
626
Y.F. Tsang, et al. Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644

Fig. 1. Science citation index publications on PHA and food waste from web of science.

with using petro-derived polymers (e.g., GHG emissions and climate
change).
2.2. Current status of bioplastic production
PHA is one of the key elements to drive the market for biodegrad-
able polymers. PHA is an important polymer family that has been in
development stage for a while but to finally enter the commercial
market at of which production capacities are estimated to quadruple in
the next five years (Chen et al., 2016; Briassoulis and Giannoulis, 2018).
It has been proven to have the great potential as a substitute for tra-
ditional plastics due to its biodegradability and rubbery-like properties.
The unique properties of PHA are recognized as better oxygen
barrier (than both non-biodegradable polypropylene (PP) and poly-
ethylene terephthalate), better water vapor barrier (than PP), and the
fat/odor barrier. Such superior physico-chemical properties of PHA
(e.g., in reference to PP) have promoted its usage in various fields in-
cluding food packaging (Reddy et al., 2003; Chen, 2009; Ahmed et al.,
2018). The poly‑4‑hydroxybutyrate (P4HB), polyhydroxyvalerate
(PHV), polyhydroxyhexanoate (PHH), polyhydroxyoctanoate (PHO),
and their copolymers (e.g., poly‑3‑hydroxybutyrate (P3HB)) are the
most commonly used bioplastics (Figure 3) (Ren et al., 2011). PHA can
be stored as granules in the cell cytoplasm by microorganisms under
stress conditions caused by the limitation of a nutrient, electron donor,
or acceptor. Fig. 4 presents a scheme for the biosynthesis process of
PHA. The procedure mainly goes through as: substrate preparation,
PHA-accumulating fermentation, and PHA extraction (Serafim et al.,
2008). Their physico-chemical properties are determined by the oper-
ating parameters and the bacterial species chosen for the fermentation
process (Weber et al., 2002).
PHA has been widely used for various purposes, including packa-
ging, medical applications, energy, and fine chemicals (Chen and Wu,
2005; Chen, 2009; Chen and Patel, 2011; Liang and Qi, 2014; Koch and
Mihalyi, 2018). Commercialized PHA production has already been
implemented by many manufacturers such as Metabolix® (Woburn, MA,
USA), Tianjin Green Bioscience Co., Ltd. (Tianjin, China), and Biocycle
PHB Industrial SA (Serrano, SP, Brazil). Global generation of PHA from
commercial manufacturers reached 2.05 million tons in 2017 (Eur-
opean Bioplastics). As summarized in Table 3, most raw materials used
in the PHA industry are food crops, sugarcane, and vegetable oil. The
current industrial expense for PHA production is 5–10 times higher
than that of petroleum-derived polymers. Therefore, the major hurdles
for commercial production of PHA and its practical use are high pro-
duction costs, low-efficiency downstream processing, and high energy
consumption for sterilization of the fermenters (e.g., pure glucose)
(Koller et al., 2017). In particular, the feedstock cost for PHA produc-
tion represents half of the overall production cost (Salgaonkar and
Bragança, 2017). In an effort to seek low-cost feedstocks at large-scale
(relative to traditional raw materials), enormous studies have been
conducted. Among various alternative feedstocks for PHA production,

Table 2
Properties of potential food waste applied in PHA production.
Order Type of food waste Potential materials Characteristics Reference

1 Used cooking oil
2 Animal by-products
3 Organic crop
residues
4 Mixed domestic
waste
Palm oil, rapeseed oil, soybean,
sunflower seed
Blood, fats, residues from
intestines
Straw, stover, peels, fruit pomace
Cheese whey, waste bread, nuts
and nut shell
High content of lipid (fat) can be converted into biodiesel (fatty (Mozejko and Ciesielski, 2013)
acid methyl esters: FAMEs)
High nitrogen content or high levels of BOD and COD (Lin et al., 2013)
These fractions consist of important sources of sugars, lipids, (Bussemaker and Zhang, 2013; Cesário
carbohydrates, and mineral acids et al., 2014b)
Provided water, soluble sugar, and cellulose
Succinic acid production
High content of protein, starch, fat and fatty acids (Pais et al., 2014)

627
Y.F. Tsang, et al. Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644

Fig. 2. Routes for transforming energy from biomass.

strategic means for lowering the overall production cost (Chee et al.,
CH3 O 2010).
In Europe, lactic acid, PLA, PHA, and bioethanol are produced from
----

a surplus whey containing lactose. Considering that the sugar and food
oil industries generate a tremendous amount of lignocellulosic waste
H (e.g., empty fruit bunch (EFB), palm oil mill effluent (POME), and palm
OH
O kernel shell (PKS)), FW containing sufficient amounts of carbon sources
and nutrients can be a great potential for PHA production through
n bacterial fermentation. Thus, various types of FW also offers a strategic
means for diversifying microbial strains in the fermentation process.
Fig. 3. Structure of poly‑3‑hydroxybutyrate (P3HB), the most common type of
Such technical advancements provide an innovative production
PHA.
pathway for bioplastics via mixed cultures or excess activated sludge
from wastewater treatment plants (Lam et al., 2017). Comparing with
agro-industrial waste streams (e.g., glycerol from biodiesel production, pure culture technology, mixed culture cost less on sterilization. In
lignocellulosic waste from the food industry and forestry, and petro- reference to the pure culture technology, the cost for mixed culture in
chemical plastic waste) have gained great attention since FW provides a line with sterilization during the treatment process is lower which is an

Fig. 4. PHA biosynthesis process scheme.

628
Y.F. Tsang, et al.
Table 3
Global PHA producers and their substrates.
Order Company PHA type
1 Metabolix, (USA) P3HB
2 MHG Bio, (USA) Mcl-PHA
3 Biocycles, (Brazil) P3HB
4 Bio-On, (Italy) PHA
5 TianAn Biopolymer, (China) P3HB, P3HBV
6 Tianijin GreenBio (China) Etyl 3-HB
P(3,4HB)
important technical advantage (Nielsen et al., 2017).
2.3. Food waste feedstock collection and sorting technologies
Most parts of FW can be recycled (if separated), and recycling will
help reduce the overall expenditures on waste management. Also, it is
important to improve the recycling rate of food waste, especially for FW
from complex MWF. Collecting and sorting from the source of waste
generation can effectively reduce the cost of the subsequent steps to
offer a strategic means for maximizing yield and profit, to reduce en-
vironmental burden, and to improve the reuse efficiency of material.
Based on generation source, FW can be classified as industrial, agri-
cultural, and household FW. The total amount of FW from industrial
processes and agriculture is large, but the composition of FW is rela-
tively simple. On the contrary, the composition of household FW is very
heterogeneous.
In large-scale food production facilities, such as farms and food
industrial plants, recycle systems are generally reserved for unpacka-
ging and peeling functions. For example, a turbo separator can deal
with 8–10 tons of FW per hour (Scott®, USA). In commercial applica-
tions, one system can serve two functions of collection and classifica-
tion. STREAM® Corporation (Malaysia) effectively collects wet FW from
kitchens and transfers waste in containers or delivers them directly to
FW treatment plants. A specialized organic waste transport system in-
tegrated with a dehydrator, full vacuum, and gravity vacuum can be
applied in kitchens of airport catering centers, restaurants, food courts,
and food processing plants to facilitate more efficient collection and
sorting of FW.
Different colored waste bags are being used for different waste
streams. In Hong Kong, green waste bags are used to separate FW from
municipal solid waste (MSW), while residual MSW can be packed in a
common plastic bag (Lo and Woon, 2016). However, due to the com-
plex composition and relatively high cost of MSW, large-scale proces-
sing for bioplastic production requires further research in many areas.
The results of life cycle assessment (LCA) of two different waste col-
lection systems indicated that automated separation of FW from MSW is
more environmentally friendly than conventional methods, such as
manual collection and truck transportation (Aranda Usón et al., 2013).
In an actual case study, the performance of a pilot-scale FW collection
system in Suzhou, China, was analyzed and evaluated based on local
economic conditions, municipal facility conditions, and operation effi-
ciency (Wen et al., 2015). The results indicated that integrated systems
Table 4
Organic residues and their applications.
Order Organic residues Applications in bioplastic synthesis
1 Fruits and vegetables Antioxidants, flavonoids, phenols, carotenoids, lipids,
phytochemicals, carbon source
2 Animal wastes, meat, and Proteins, enzymes, collagen, gelatin, nitrogen source, trace materials
derivatives
3 Dairy products Carbon and nitrogen sources
4 Waste oil Fatty acid and methyl esters, glycerol, erucic acid
5 Cellulosic biomass Phytosterols, polypropylene, acrylic acid, isobutanol, thioester, esters
6 Lignin PHA, adipic acid
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
Substrates Production capacity (tons per year) Reference
Corn 50,000 www.metabolix.com
Canola oil 20 www.mhgbio.com
Cane sugar 100 www.biocycle.com.b
Beet sugar 10,000 www.bio-on.it
Corn 10,000 www.tianan-enmat.com
Sucrose 10,000 www.tjgreenbio.com
featured strong economics and low environmental impacts, although
the limited daily processing capacity and waste utilization rate were
still problematic.
3. Technologies for converting food waste to fermentable
substrates
Although FW is a good initial feedstock for production of bioplas-
tics, it must be pretreated to improve or modify the physico-chemical
and biological properties. This section discusses the commonly used
pretreatment technologies (i.e., physical, chemical, and biological
processes) and enzymatic hydrolysis and their effects on bioplastic
production yield. Successful conversion processes refer to partial or
total liberation of monomers from the FW (e.g., lignocellulosic com-
ponents) with increasing accessibility of proteins, lipids, and poly-
saccharides (e.g., starch and cellulose) for subsequent enzymatic hy-
drolysis and fermentation (Barisik et al., 2016; Kim, 2018). Moreover,
several methods can be integrated into a single treatment system to
achieve better performance. For example, bioplastic production with
physical/acid treatment (i.e., 60 min heating at 121 °C followed by 2%
sulfuric acid digestion) of industrial FW mixture was able to achieve the
highest 3‑hydroxyvaleric acid (3 HV) mole fraction of 22.9% in ex-
periments (Elbeshbishy et al., 2011; Ahn et al., 2016b). Table 4 sum-
marizes the sub-products generated/separated from FW transition
processes and their applications.
3.1. Mechanical and thermal conversion of food waste to fermentable
organic compounds
Physical pretreatment is conducted by the mechanical and thermal
conversion processes. Ultrasound, microwaves, milling, and heating
methods are also being used for pulverization to increase surface area,
separation rate, biological conversion, or fermentable substrates (in-
cluding glucose, proteins, fats, fatty acids, and starch) (Sasmal et al.,
2012; Bussemaker and Zhang, 2013; Pagliaccia et al., 2016). In la-
boratory-scale PHA production, a study synthesized PHB using Jambul
seeds dried in an oven at 60 °C to reduce the moisture content and then
milled the seeds into fine particles. Lignocellulosic waste can be pre-
treated by a steam-explosion method (i.e., 160 to 260 °C and 0.7 to
4.8 MPa), which is a commonly used process to separate lignin and
hemicellulose from cellulose (Agbor et al., 2011; Pielhop et al., 2016).
Physical pretreatment is usually applied at the beginning to change the
Reference
(Mirabella et al., 2014)
(Jayathilakan et al., 2012; Mirabella et al., 2014; Pleissner
et al., 2016)
(Mirabella et al., 2014)
(Bardhan et al., 2015)
(Bardhan et al., 2015)
(Linger et al., 2014; Vardon et al., 2015)
629
Y.F. Tsang, et al. Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644

particle size or to separate the materials for the processing in the next
steps. Thus, the physical pretreatment would not be applied alone but is

Kourmentza et al. (2018a,

(Saratale and Oh, 2015)
Kourmentza et al. (2018a,

(Vega-Castro et al., 2016)

always combined with other treatment methods.

(Valentino et al., 2018)

(Sindhu et al., 2013)

(Ahn et al., 2016b)

(Tyagi et al., 2018)
3.2. Chemical conversion of food waste to fermentable sugars

Reference
Acid pretreatment is common for FW, especially for lignocellulosic

Reference

2018b)
materials (Mussoline et al., 2013). Acid treatment increases the acces-

2018b)
sibility of such low-cost and abundant feedstocks to hydrolytic enzymes
while producing small amounts of cell growth inhibitors (Monavari

−1
et al., 2011). Acid-treated lignocellulose to lignocellulose-derived by-

Yield (g bioplastic g
products can inhibit or deactivate enzymes as well as influence the

−1
Yield (g bioplastic g
performance of bacteria used in the fermentation step. The inhibitors
include furan derivatives (e.g., furfural and 5‑hydroxymethylfurfural

substrate)
(HMF)), lignin-derived phenolics (e.g., phenols are inhibitors to cellu-

substrate)

0.77

0.89

0.87
lolytic enzyme), and carboxylic acids (e.g., weak organic acids such as

0.7
acetic, formic, and levulinic acids) (Monavari et al., 2011; Barisik et al.,

0.77

0.08
0.4

0.9

Rice paddy straw

2016; Kim, 2018). The performance of microbial bioplastic synthesis is
contingent on the operating conditions of acid pretreatment (Ahn et al.,

Domestic FW mixture

Spent coffee
Spent coffee grounds

Rice straw

Rice straw
2016a, 2016b). Alkali pretreatment involves the use of alkaline solu-

Example

grounds
tions such as NaOH, Ca(OH)2, and ammonia. Solvation is the first re-

Pineapple peel
action that occurs during alkali pretreatment, leading to solid expan-

Sugarcane
Example
sion (Carlsson et al., 2012). Alkaline pretreatment effectively

2% H2SO4, 60 min autoclaving

hydrolyzes ester bonds between plant polysaccharides and lignin
(Alvira et al., 2010) for lignin solubilization. Elbeshbishy et al. (2011)

2% NaOH, 121 °C, 30 min

2% H2SO4, 121 °C, 15 lb.

studied three combined physical/chemical pretreatments, including

Operating conditions
ultrasonication with heat, ultrasonication with acid (i.e., 1 N HCl,

Mechanoacoustic and nonchemical effects; high recoveries of cellulose and

Improve surface area and better accessibility of the substrate to enzymatic

pH = 3.0, and 24 h at 4 °C), and ultrasonication with base (i.e., 1 N

pressure for 1 h

121 °C, 15 psi

NaOH, pH = 11.0, and 24 h at 4 °C). The results showed that alkaline
ultrasonication can achieve the highest increase rate of 30% of soluble
chemical oxygen demand (COD) and 40% of soluble protein. The cor-

–
responding hydrolysis yield was 0.84 g g−1 at a loading rate of 20

Enhances enzyme hydrolysis for fermentable substrates

FPU g−1 of pretreated paddy straws. Table 5 summarizes the raw ma-
terials from FW through various pretreatment methods. In PHA pro-

Make products more accessible to hydrolytic enzymes (produce

duction, a combination of physical/chemical treatments is useful to
achieve better performance or to enhance the final yield. In general, the
Reductions in particle size to extract sugars
hemicellulose and lignin removal product

combined pretreatment processes aim to increase in accessible surface

Make products more accessible to hydrolytic enzymes

smaller amounts of inhibitors and lower sugar losses)
area while lowering in degree of polymerization of raw materials (e.g.,
Provided characteristics and effects
Raw materials extracted from food waste using physical and chemical conversion methods.

cellulose).

3.3. Biological conversion of food waste to fermentable substrates

Provided characteristics and effects

White rot fungus aids in delignification, which in turn improves

enzymatic saccharification rate and productivity (Kalyani et al., 2013).
Provide higher digestibility
Provide higher digestibility

Several studies have adopted fungi as a FW pretreatment method (Isroi

hydrolysis

et al., 2011; Vasmara et al., 2015). Cianchetta et al. (2014) evaluated

selected white-rot fungi to improve carbohydrate yield from wheat
straw and investigated the effects of five different fungi on enzymatic
Thermal pretreatment

hydrolysis of wheat straw. The results of an optimized fungal strain-

biomass combination showed that Ceriporiopsis subvermispora provided
the highest yield of net carbohydrate and minimized weight and cel-
Technology

Ultrasound

lulose losses (Saha et al., 2016). Thus, appropriate fungal strain selec-
Grinding

Alkali pretreatment
Alkali pretreatment
Milling

Acid pretreatment

Acid pretreatment

tion influences the specific biomass pretreatment. In reference to the

chemical treatment, biological pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass
Technology

offers a way to save energy consumption while reducing intractability

toward cellulolytic enzymes. Despite such benefits, the slow reaction
kinetics and loss of polysaccharides during the biological process have
Mechanical and thermal
(A) Results for physical methods

(B) Results of chemical methods

been pointed out as the main technical demerits (Lemée et al., 2012).
Bule et al. (2016) performed biodegradation of wheat straw using a
white rot fungus that secretes three major classes of ligninolytic en-
conversion

zymes, namely lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, and laccase. It

conversion
Chemical

was suggested that these unique lignin modification patterns are asso-
ciated with the white rot (P. radiate) extracellular proteome which was
expressed during the solid-state fermentation (pretreatment) of wheat
Table 5

Order

Order

straw as an efficient biodegradation method. Biological pretreatments

1

3
4

are promising eco-friendly processes based on addition of specific

2

630
Y.F. Tsang, et al. Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644

enzymes (e.g., peptidase, carbohydrolases, and lipases) from micro-

organisms.

Amount of food waste required for

3.4. Enzymatic hydrolysis of food waste

Hydrolysis is the main mechanism to breakdown polymers into their

corresponding monomers and/or intermediates. Enzymatic hydrolysis

production (tons)
promotes the hydrolytic ability of FW and reduces volatile suspended
solids. Converting polymeric structures into fermentable products (e.g.,

2.7 × 104

3.2 × 105

2.1 × 104

1.5 × 106

1.9 × 106
lignocellulose into carbohydrate and animal fat into fatty acids) is a
critical step in this process. FWs containing lignocellulosic are a com-
plex matrix of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Although cellulose

Waste cooking oil

and hemicellulose yield fermentable sugars via an enzyme hydrolysis

Bakery product

Bakery product

Bakery product

Bakery product
step, lignin is one of the most recalcitrant structures as it consists of

Type of food
phenylpropanoid units (Saritha et al., 2012). Kiran et al. (2015) studied
the effect of pretreatment with commercial enzymes on hydrolytic so-

waste

waste

waste

waste

waste
lubilization of raw FW collected from a cafeteria. The authors found
that protease exhibited the highest reduction rate of volatile suspended
solids among three types of enzymes, namely carbohydrases, proteases,

Amount of glucose required for

and lipases, and the mixed enzyme treatment exhibited better reduction
efficiency than that of single-enzyme treatment. Heng et al. (2017)
optimized a three-step PHA production process of alkaline pretreat-
ment, enzymatic hydrolysis, and biosynthesis conversion from rice

production (tons)
husks with Burkholderia cepacian USM. Thus, multiple-step treatment
methods can increase the biodegradability of most carbon sources, re-

1.3 × 104

1.6 × 105

1.0 × 104

1.5 × 105

9.3 × 105
sulting in enhanced PHA production performance and efficiency.
Certain types of FW do not contain sufficient amounts of nutrients to
maintain biological activity during fermentation, which can be resolved
by utilizing a mixture of different FWs. Mixed enzymes produced
Production (kg kg−1 of

through solid-state fermentation can hydrolyze proteins and sugary

compounds (e.g. polysaccharides) in FW through the different path-
ways (Koller et al., 2005; Kwon et al., 2005; Matsakas et al., 2017;
Paritosh et al., 2017). Hydrolysates and/or protein-rich FW can also
glucose)

substitute for commercial nutrient supplements for bioplastic produc-

1.16

0.95

1.16

0.54

0.43
tion (Franek et al., 2000; Fitzpatrick and O'keeffe, 2001; Vázquez and
Murado, 2008). Platform chemicals for bioplastics, namely succinic
acid, lactic acid, fumaric acid, and PHB, can be obtained from fer-
Worldwide production

mentation of sugars in household FW, such as dried foods and bakery

products (Lin et al., 2013). Table 6 lists a production potential of
platform chemicals for bioplastic production (Thompson and
1.5 × 104

1.5 × 105

1.2 × 104

8.0 × 104

4.0 × 105

Thompson, 2004; FitzPatrick et al., 2010; Leung et al., 2012; Lin et al.,
(tons)

2013; Deng et al., 2016).

4. Bioconversion of fermentable substrates from food waste to

Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT), polyurethane,

bioplastics
Production potential of platform chemicals for bioplastic production.

4.1. Biological synthesis of bioplastics

Food packaging materials, biocomposites

Although 250 types of natural PHA producers have been identified,

only a few bacteria have been adopted for commercial production of
PHA. Such bacteria, including Alcaligenes latus, Bacillus megaterium,
Polybutyrate, polyamides

Cupriavidus necator, and Pseudomonas oleovorans, are found to convert

different kinds of carbon sources into PHA. In particular, C. necator is
copolyester, ethers

one of the most widely utilized microbial strains to produce PHA

Polyester resin
Applications

(Reddy et al., 2003). Marine bacteria manifested a huge potential for

bioplastic production, but their utilization for PHA production has been
poorly reported (Takahashi et al., 2017). The latest research showed
PLA

that the bacterium Halomonas hydrothermalis, H. campaniensis LS21 can

grow in fabricated sea water as well as in FW-like mixed substrates
Platform chemical

1,3‑Propanediol

consisting of cellulose, proteins, fats, fatty acids, and starch. The pro-
Succinic acid

Fumaric acid

cess produced approximately 70% PHB with a pH of 10 at 37 °C (Yue

Lactic acid

et al., 2014). In addition, Pandian et al. (2010) investigated B. mega-

PHB

terium SRKP-3-produced PHB from dairy waste and sea water, demon-
strating a PHB yield of 0.1 g g−1.
Table 6

Order

Natural bioplastic producers are classified according to an accu-

1

mulation mechanism. One group of microorganisms requires limited

2

631
Y.F. Tsang, et al.
nutrients (for instance, nitrogen, phosphorus, and oxygen) but excess
the carbon sources for the biosynthesis process. The other group of
microorganisms accumulates PHA through the exponential growth
phase without the carbon source-starvation conditions (Khanna and
Srivastava, 2005). These PHA-producing microorganisms integrated the
carbon catabolic mechanisms with the PHA anabolic pathways of dif-
ferent kinds of carbon. Researchers found that the culture methodolo-
gies can be segregated into unadulterated cultures and mixed cultures
on the basis of cultivation strategy.
4.1.1. Unadulterated culture
PHA production from unadulterated culture can be segregated into
two key phases (Chen and Patel, 2011). The first is associated with cell
growth due to available nutrients. Moreover, the biosynthesis of PHA is
prevalent in the second phase under starvation conditions for nitrogen
(N) and/or phosphorus (P). Nevertheless, growth-associated PHA-pro-
ducing bacteria, for instance, A. latus and recombinant Escherichia coli,
do not require limited nutrients. Nonetheless, the nutrient-feeding
strategy can be applied for PHA production in a fed-batch mode. In
regard to the fed-batch cultures of growth-associated PHA-producing
bacteria, a nutrient-feeding strategy is essential for high-yield PHA
production. This reflects that both cell growth and PHA synthesis can be
enhanced as they occur simultaneously. Furthermore, the two actions
require balance to avoid low PHA level.
4.1.2. Mixed culture
Mixed microbial cultures are cohorts of different microorganisms
that can grow together on the same culture medium. When the nutrient
growth is limited, three main steps are used to produce PHA from mixed
cultures: anaerobic-aerobic process, aerobic dynamic feeding system
(feast and famine), and fed-batch process (Samorì et al., 2015; Hilliou
et al., 2016a, 2016b). As revealed in key research works, activated
sludge obtained from the wastewater treatment process has been as-
sessed for potential mixture with FW for production of PHA. Different
mixed culture modes have been investigated, including aerobic se-
quencing batch reactor (SBR) fed with brewery wastewater (Ben et al.,
2016), dairy wastewater activated sludge fed with cheese whey (Bosco
and Chiampo, 2010), and activated sludge from a waste stabilization
pond fed with POME (Mohd et al., 2012). Venkateswar Reddy and
Venkata Mohan (2012) carried out research on the consortia attained
by operating an activated sludge system (applied for wastewater
treatment) for PHA production through feeding with fermented FW.
According to 16S rRNA gene analysis, the major groups of bacteria were
γ‑proteobacteria (39%) and uncultured bacteria (16%). In comparison
with unadulterated culture, using activated sludge as a mixed culture
eliminates the need for aseptic conditions, resulting in the lower op-
erating cost.
The ideal industrial production of PHA is highly contingent on the
development of strains that are capable of achieving high final cell
concentrations within 60 h, including 48 h fermentation and 12-h
turnaround processes. In addition, obtaining a higher PHA content from
a direct and economical medium is also a key factor (Khanna and
Srivastava, 2005). Genetic engineering is a critical means of developing
strains that are capable of efficiently producing PHA from affordable
renewable resources. Due to the development of genetically engineered
bacteria, microorganisms like recombinant E. coli produce PHA that
contains 3HB, in addition to 3HHx and 3HO monomers from soybean
oil. Recombinant C. necator was found to contain the Aeromonads caviae
PHA synthase gene, which successfully produced copolymer P(3HB-co-
3HHx) from PKS (Loo et al., 2005; Fonseca and Antonio, 2006). Table 7
presents a comparison of unadulterated and mixed cultures.
4.1.3. Fermentation technology
With the progress in the cultivation techniques applied in large-
scale production of PHA, it is identified that the type of fermentation
used by PHA-producing bacteria plays a pivotal role in the production
632
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
of bioplastic. Batch and fed-batch reactors have been widely adopted in
industrial fermentation processes. Fed-batch technology demonstrates
higher PHA yield than batch cultivation methods. Since the con-
centration of N/P is limited in this process, the cell concentration can be
easily controlled by adjusting the feeding rate of the carbon source.
Therefore, a high initial concentration of carbon sources can be avoided
to provide high osmotic pressure to the PHA producers.
A two-stage cultivation method has most commonly been adopted
for industrial-scale production of copolymer (i.e., P(3HB-co-3HV))
(Hafuka et al., 2011). In the first step, bacterial cells are grown until a
pre-determined cell mass concentration is achieved without being
limited by the nutrient. Subsequently, cells are moved to the second-
stage medium with restricted nutrients and consume only carbon source
for production of PHA. Cells cannot multiply during the nutrient-defi-
cient stage. Nevertheless, cells increase in size and weight due to in-
tracellular accumulation of PHA as a storage product. PHB is produced
by microorganisms like Ralstonia eutrophus and B. megaterium in re-
sponse to conditions of physiological stress; they can be created in ei-
ther pure or mixed cultures (Laycock et al., 2014). Solid-state fermen-
tation is performed in the absence or near-absence of free water
(Pandey, 2003). This process has the characteristics of low energy
consumption, high volumetric productivity, and high titer of value-
added products, low waste generation, and low catabolic repression
(Hölker et al., 2004). As reported, various types of wastes were effi-
ciently applied as substrates for microbial solid-state fermentation
through which various products were economically produced. Easy
pretreatment of solid waste can facilitate microbial colonization; this
process requires grinding and material classification using various
granulometries to obtain proper material homogenization and to ensure
that this parameter has less of an effect on the succeeding steps. Some
typical FW used for fermentation processes, namely sugarcane mo-
lasses, pressed juice, and wheat straw, are summarized in Table 8.
4.2. Physico/chemical modification of bioplastics
The conventional synthesis approach for bioplastics involves com-
plete utilization of biomass or its single component (e.g., fiber, starch,
cellulose, sugar, and lipid) by physical mixing and/or chemical cross-
linking. Recent studies placed great emphasis on the conversion of
biomass through separation of monomers or oligomers to create new
polymers using industrial chemical biotechnology. Polysaccharides,
such as starches, celluloses, and chitin, are sources of hemiacetal or
hemi-ketal linkages (Abdul Khalil et al., 2012). These compounds lead
to short oligosaccharide sequences or polymeric repeating units con-
nected to other bioplastics. Altogether, polysaccharides comprise ap-
proximately 22 to 37% of FW resources (Tommonaro et al., 2016).
Polysaccharides are recognized as unmodified polymers. Hence, for
conversion of polysaccharides into bioplastics, bulk or surface chemical
modification is required on the hydroxyl groups present in their back-
bone structures (Cunha and Gandini, 2010). Such modification ne-
cessitates the formation of derivatives such as chitosan. Surface mod-
ification then allows for compatibility and minimization of
hydrophilicity of natural fibers via covalent bonds between the surface
and matrix of the fibers. Modification of natural polysaccharides is
generally based on decreasing hydrophilicity by reducing surface en-
ergy or by generating an adequate surface morphology (Cunha and
Gandini, 2010; Sanchez-Vazquez et al., 2013). Fig. 5 demonstrates
various bioplastics and their natural resources. However, compared
with the biological synthesis of bioplastics, higher energy input is re-
quired for chemical synthesis, especially purification of polysaccharides
from FW (Tommonaro et al., 2016).
4.2.1. Starch-based bioplastics via physico/chemical modification
Chemical modification of starch is well compiled in the literature.
For example, starch nanocrystals can be prepared from partial acid
hydrolysis on amorphous regions of starch granules (Angellier-Coussy
Y.F. Tsang, et al.
Table 7
Comparison of PHA production using unadulterated and mixed cultures.
Order Biosynthesis process Unadulterated culture
1 Conditions External nutrient limitation and excess carbon
source
2 Substrate requirements Single substrate
3 Growth type Separately
4 Media Synthetic media
5 Fed-batch Sequential batch reactor
6 Advantages Higher volumetric productivity
7 Disadvantages Expensive substrate, expensive equipment for
maintaining aseptic operation
et al., 2009). Global generation of bread waste is as high as 27 mil-
lion kg per year. Given that the main constituent of bread waste is a
starch-based material, bioplastics derived from a succinic acid
monomer are a viable option for producing bioplastics from bread
waste (on the basis of the general alternation yield of 0.55 g suc-
cinic acid g−1 bread). The properties and structure of starch can be
altered through hydrothermal treatment without thermal degradation
of the original morphology (Hoover, 2010). PLA can be produced by
chemical conversion of corn or other carbohydrate sources into dex-
trose. Dextrose is fermented to lactic acid followed by polycondensation
of lactic acid monomers or lactide. The starch can be customized under
starch-filled polymer systems to improve the chemical compatibility
between synthetic and starch polymers (Rahmat et al., 2009). Another
type of starch polymer, known as thermoplastic starch, can be synthe-
sized through the addition of plasticizers (e.g., polyols, glycerol, fruc-
tose, and urea). Both the mechanical and thermal energy transferred to
starch dough during extrusion can help break hydrogen bonds in starch
granule crystallites (Liu et al., 2009). However, the produced thermo-
plastics may lack mechanical strength and show high sensitivity to
moisture. To improve the mechanical strength (or to chemically modify
the surfaces) of these thermoplastics, they can be mixed with suitable
nanofillers or blended with diverse forms of hydrophobic polymers
(e.g., polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polycaprolactone (PCL), polybutylenes
succinate (PBS), PHB, and P(3HB-co-3HV) (Wang et al., 2008; Tang and
Alavi, 2011).
4.2.2. Cellulose-based bioplastics via physico/chemical modification
Chemically modified cellulose is commonly employed. Cellulose
serves as a linear polymer with repeating units of
anhydro‑D‑glucopyranose, the monomer of which contains three hy-
droxyl groups. High-molecular-weight cellulose is highly crystalline.
Conversely, cellulose exhibits poor solubility in aqueous media because
of its strong inter- and intra-molecular hydrogen bonds among and
within the individual chains (Sandhya et al., 2013). FW with high
cellulose content includes peanut husks, citrus peels, straw, and corn.
Many studies have focused on surface chemical modification of cellu-
lose to enhance adhesion among polar OH cellulose fiber groups and
also non-polar polymer backbones through creation of covalent active
sites. Ethers, esters, and acetals are the most commonly used derivatives
for modification of hydroxyl groups in cellulose structures.
Over the past years, various technical advancements in line the
chemical modification of cellulosic bioplastic were achieved. In the
papermaking industry, the following methods are commonly adopted:
cellulose sialylation, esterification of the cellulose nanofibers, and cel-
lulose ester elaboration (Cunha and Gandini, 2010). Pristine cellulose
does not exhibit the physico-chemical properties of thermoplastics.
However, plastic properties can be introduced into cellulose fibers by
mechanical treatments. Furthermore, esterification of the hydroxyl
group with the acid on the cellulose structure determines the properties
of bioplastics (e.g., fluidity, resistance, and durability), which may be
comparable to those of synthetic polymers. Formation of covalent
633
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
Mixed culture Reference
Internal nutrient limitation, anaerobic/aerobic or Albuquerque et al. (2010)
aerobic dynamic feeding
Waste materials Colombo et al. (2016)
Simultaneously Kourmentza et al. (2009)
Complex media Khanna and Srivastava (2005)
Reactor configuration Salehizadeh and Van Loosdrecht
(2004)
Cheap substrate Gurieff and Lant (2007)
Low volumetric productivity Kourmentza et al. (2009)
linkages of hydrophilic functional chains should effectively decrease
both hydration and flow properties (HPS et al., 2016). Conversion of
cellulose into polyols can also be achieved through liquefaction during
manufacture of polyurethane polyesters and foams (Yu et al., 2006;
Wang et al., 2008).
4.2.3. Chitin-based biopolymers via physico/chemical modification
Chitin is another type of biopolymer available in crustaceans and
insect exoskeletons. Chitin is also found in other organisms, such as
mushrooms and yeasts. Approximately 18 Tg of shell waste is produced
annually and is a major source of chitin. Considering the low solubility
of chitin, it cannot be used directly as an initial feedstock for bioplas-
tics. However, chitin can be chemically modified to chitosan by alkaline
N-deacetylation (Kumar, 2000; Rinaudo, 2006). Deacetylation results in
generation of the corresponding primary amino functional group. The
degree of deacetylation can be described as an actual percentage con-
version of acetyl glucosamine to glucosamine. Deacetylation can sig-
nificantly modify various properties (physical, chemical, and biolo-
gical) of chitin (Hirano et al., 1989). Both α-/β-forms of chitin are
insoluble in a majority of solvents, whatever the natural variation in
crystallinity. This insolubility serves as the main obstacle in the utili-
zation of chitin. Chitin can be completely solubilized in acidic condi-
tions when it is converted into its deacetylated product (chitosan)
(Franca et al., 2011). Similarly, the literature provides a score of re-
views on chemical modification of chitin and chitosan including den-
drimer-linked hyperbranched polymers, poly (dimethylsiloxane)s, poly
(2‑hydroxyalkanoate)s, poly(ethylene‑imine)s, block polyethers, poly
(2‑alkyl‑oxazolines), and polyurethanes (Zohuriaan-mehr, 2005).
Phosphorylation, acylation, alkylation, sulfonation, thiolation, and
other chemical modifications of chitin have been explored for various
purposes (Kurita, 2006; Jayakumar et al., 2008). For example, qua-
ternized chitosan derivatives gained importance due to their high an-
timicrobial activity (Liu et al., 2012). Moreover, N‑carboxy‑methylated
chitosan is being used in a variety of biomedical applications including
wound dressings, antifungals, antioxidant agents, anionic poly-
saccharide across the intestinal epithelia, artificial bone and skin,
apoptosis inhibitor, and blood anticoagulants (Chen and Tan, 2006).
Fig. 6 presents a schematic diagram of chitin to chitosan conversion
along with representative images of their natural resources.
Chitosan derivatives are different from pristine chitin. The rigid
crystalline structure of chitosan shows high hydrogen bonding. The free
protonate-able amino groups of the chitosan are soluble in mildly acidic
aqueous solutions. However, they are insoluble in alkaline media and
water (Pillai et al., 2009). Amino and hydroxyl moieties present in
chitosan may be subject to chemical modification, allowing use in
further diversified applications. In contrast, chitin only features two
available hydroxyl groups for modification. Modifications of chitin and
chitosan do not alter their original physicochemical and biochemical
properties (Pillai et al., 2009).
Y.F. Tsang, et al. Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644

4.2.4. Caprolactone-based bioplastics via physico/chemical modification

Kachrimanidou et al. (2016)

The ring-opening polymerization of ε‑caprolactone using stannous

Bengtsson et al. (2010)

octoate as a catalyst is an important method for preparing PCL. Due to

Colombo et al. (2016)

Cesário et al. (2014b)
Cesário et al. (2014a)
Zahari et al. (2012)s
its low glass transition temperature, the polymer chain was reported to

Mohd et al. (2012)

Ben et al. (2016)
exhibit segmental motion which should help transfer ions from one
complex site to another (Ravi et al., 2016). The main procedure is
Reference

chemical treatment of saccharides which requires a two-step conver-

sion: (1) fermentation of saccharides to ethanol (and acetic acid) and
(2) conversion of ethanol to cyclohexanone using chromic acid. Oxi-
dation to cyclohexanone is achieved via a Bayer-Villiger reaction
(Figure 7) of caprolactone. In general, these kinds of products are added
Bioplastic content (%)

with other natural materials to afford quality biodegradable polymers

at low costs. Also, copolymerisation of lactic acid and ε‑caprolactone
has been investigated in an effort to increase degradation rates and to
improve processability (Yu et al., 2014). Ishiaku et al. (2002) fabricated
37.3
30.0
70.0
55.6
78.9

starch-PCL, which was later mixed with material exhibiting desired

39
70
58

mechanical parameters. To this end, they employed sago starch which

was extruded with a Rheomax at 80–95 °C under 350 bars. A desiccator
Pressed juice from oil palm frond

having 95% H2SO4 was later placed with the extrudates for moisture
absorption. PCL pellets (Tm = 60 °C) were placed in an internal mixer at
Rapeseed meal, wheat bran

90 °C, followed by dried sago starch powder for 10 min. Hot starch–PCL
Fermented cheese whey

blends were rolled with a two-roll mill to obtain thin sheets, which were
Palm oil mill effluent
Brewery wastewater
Sugarcane molasses

stored in the desiccator immediately (Ishiaku et al., 2002).

Crude glycerol
Wheat straw

4.3. PHA production using food waste as a substrate

Medium

The feasibility of PHA production using food waste as a substrate

has been intensively evaluated, including information related to max-
imum PHA accumulation capacity, storage yield, and production rate.
Operation mode

Saccharides (e.g., fructose, glucose, maltose, lactose, and xylose arabi-

nose), together with n‑alkanes (e.g., hexane, octane, and dodecane),
Fed batch
Fed batch
Fed batch

Fed batch

n‑alkanoic acids (e.g., acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acids, valeric
acid, lauric acid, and oleic acid), n-alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol,
SBR

SBR
SBR
–

octanol, and glycerol), gases (e.g., methane and carbon dioxide), and
acid (e.g., fatty acid and succinic acid) are considered key carbon
sources for biosynthesis of PHA (Santhanam and Sasidharan, 2010; Poli
1.6 L continuous stirred tank reactor

et al., 2011). Most of the carbon applied in commercial PHA production

is relatively expensive, such as unadulterated carbohydrates (e.g., glu-
cose and sucrose), alkanes, and fatty acids. Unadulterated nutrients
250 mL Erlenmeyer flask
2 L stirred tank reactor

(e.g., amino acids and phosphate) are unaffordable, resulting in im-

Fermentation scale

practicality of the majority of developed biotechnological mechanisms.

600 mL reactor

Cost-effective realization of the biotechnological processes is dependent

1 L bioreactor
100 mL flask

on the existence of affordable nutrients that are put to use as sources of

6 L reactor
1 L reactor

carbon, nitrogen, and/or phosphate for microbes (Liang and Qi, 2014).

4.3.1. Food waste as a carbon source

Fruits and vegetables can be used as the carbon substrates in the
Examples of PHA production from food waste by fermentation.

P(3HB-co-3HV)
P(3HB-co-3HV)

fermentation process to produce PHA. Some fruit products (e.g., citrus

juice) are made through 50% extraction of fresh fruit, with the residues
Bioplastic

subsequently remaining as wastes. These wastes contain high amounts

P(3HB)
P(3HB)
PHA

PHA
PHA
PHA

of sugars but low quantities of proteins. Citrus wastes are used to

produce enzymes (in particular pectinase) of citric acid, succinic acid,
dietary fiber, prebiotic oligosaccharides, and natural antioxidants,
Burkholderia sacchari DSM 17165

which can improve profitability (Matsumoto and Taguchi, 2013;

Cupriavidus necator CCUG 52238

Cupriavidus necator DSM 7237

Mamma and Christakopoulos, 2014). Similarly, direct fermentation of

Activated sludge consortia
Activated sludge consortia
Activated sludge consortia

potato residues, in combination with potato starch, into lactic acid was
carried out in septic systems (Smerilli et al., 2015). Preethi et al. (2012)
Defluviicoccus vanus

Cupriavidus necator

employed hydrolyzed Jambul seeds as a sole carbon source in the

production medium, and PHA accumulation in R. eutropha and SPY-1
reached 41.7 and 42.2%, respectively. Follonier et al. (2014) in-
Unadulterated culture

vestigated nine kinds of pomace fruits, which included apricots, cher-

Strain

ries, and grapes, as key carbon substrates. In addition, recovered po-

Mixed culture

mace of apricots, cherries, and Solaris grapes were found to contain

glucose concentrations of 47, 49, and 106 g L−1, respectively. The
Table 8

Order

eventual biomass concentration was 10.2 g L−1, which included 12.4 wt

1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8

% mcl-PHA, corresponding to volumetric productivity of mcl-PHA of

634
Y.F. Tsang, et al. Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644

Pretreatment of food waste

(physical/chemical/biological)

Caprolactone Cellulose

Chitin Starch

Biosynthesis

PHA

Fig. 5. List of bioplastics and their natural resources.

0.03 g L−1 h−1. Solaris grapes featured the highest amount of fructose;
on the other hand, apricots had the lowest number of growth inhibitors.
Assessment of both of these pomaces was carried out to determine their
appropriateness for production of medium chain-length (mcl) PHA (i.e.,
6–14 carbon atoms) in bioreactor fermentation with Pseudomonas
resinovorans.
Baei et al. (2010) reported production of poly-3(HB-co-27%-HV)
from whey hydrolysate with the use of the Azohydromonas lata DSM
1123. Furthermore, B. megaterium CCM 2032 accumulated more than
50% of its biomass (w/w) in the supplemented whey media (Obruca

Crab Prawn Fungi Insects

Natural resources

Deacetylation

Fig. 6. Schematic of conversion from chitin to chitosan and their natural resources.

635
Y.F. Tsang, et al.
Fig. 7. Graph of Bayer–Villiger reaction.
et al., 2011). Rhizobium etli and Pseudomonas stutzeri were grown in a
medium containing whey as the source of carbon, and their PHB con-
tents were 25 and 28%, respectively (Baei et al., 2010). B. thuringenesis
IAM12077 was selected for accumulation of PHB from the FW mixture.
The PHB content was 25.28% which was comparable to pure glucose
(37.17%) (Shivakumar, 2012). Cheese whey can be used without any
pretreatment. Obruca et al. (2011) carried out a direct transformation
of the affordable residue of the cheese whey into PHB with the help of
the bacterial strain B. megaterium CCM 2037. Using this mixture, the
PHB content was enhanced by approximately 40% through introduc-
tion of 1% ethanol into the medium during the stationary stage of de-
velopment (biomass of 2.87 g L−1; PHB of 1.48 g L−1). Laboratory-scale
assays and semi-productive fermenters are needed for testing pro-
ductivity when the medium is subjected to elevated cell density culti-
vation. There are diverse carbon sources of bioplastic production such
as waste cooking oil, which contains plant, animal, or synthetic fat from
frying, baking, or other types of cooking. C. necator has been used to
produce the homopolymer PHB from rapeseed oil (Verlinden et al.,
2011). Martino et al. used frying oil as the sole carbon source for PHB
production in a batch cultivation system with C. necator DSM 428. The
yield of PHB reached 0.29 g g−1 with volumetric productivity of
0.14 g L−1 h−1 (Martino et al., 2014).
C. necator was utilized in other experiments as well; its cultivation
was performed with used cooking oil as the only means of carbon for
production of P(3HB). The biomass approached a concentration limit of
11.6 ± 1.7 g L−1, which had a polymer content of 63.0 ± 10.7% (w/
w) and volumetric productivity of 0.15 g L−1 h−1. Moreover, the
636
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
recovered PHB granules manifested a high level of purity above 90%; in
contrast, the yield of product on the substrate was 0.77 ± 0.04 g g−1
(Cruz et al., 2015). Also, palm oil-based waste cooking oil was utilized
to enhance the manufacture of P(3HB) with C. necator H16 strain. It was
generated 80% P(3HB) content (Kamilah et al., 2018). PHA was pro-
duced with the help of C. necator H16 in residual frying oil that had a
0.21 g L−1 h−1 volumetric productivity (Obruca et al., 2013). In fed-
batch mode, wasted oil was used as the substrate of C. necator H16 for
PHA production, wherein the corresponding biomass and PHA pro-
duction were 138 g L−1 and 105 g L−1, respectively. The yield coeffi-
cient and volumetric productivity were 0.83 g PHA g−1 oil and
1.46 g L−1 h−1, respectively (Obruca et al., 2010). PHB produced from
used cooking oil was exploited as a key carbon source with help of B.
thailandensis (Kourmentza et al., 2018a, 2018b).
Butyrate can be a precursor, which has a potential to increase
(R)‑3‑hydroxyhexanoate content in poly(3‑hydroxybutyrate
‑co‑3‑hydroxyhexanoate) (PHBH) production via genetically modified
C. necator H16 strains (Sato et al., 2015). Oleochemical industries
generate large amounts of fatty acids and glycerol as by-products, both
of which can be immediately put to use as feedstock for microbial PHA
production (Fadzil and Tsuge, 2017). In total, 172 million kg of glycerol
are generated annually through biodiesel production across the globe
(Tan et al., 2013). Glycerol is well-known for its significant potential as
a carbon substrate (e.g., relative to other affordable substrates like
whey, sugarcane bagasse, and corn steep liquor). Validation of the
optimization model with glycerol waste was carried out, wherein a
maximum of 1.36 g L−1 of PHA was achieved after 96 h. PHA
Y.F. Tsang, et al.
generation of 1.87 g L−1 was observed in 5 L lab-scale bioreactors with
help of Pannonibacter phragmitetus ERC8 (Ray et al., 2016).
Spent coffee grounds (SCG) are substantial fraction of residues ob-
tained from the coffee sector. Every year, substantial amounts of SCG
are generated across the globe, followed by disposal as a solid residue.
Cruz et al. (2014) cultivated C. necator DSM 428 in a 2 L bioreactor with
extracted SCG oil as an individual source of carbon in a bid to produce
PHA. The culture reached a yield of 0.77 g g−1, 78.4% polymer content,
and productivity of 0.20 g L−1 h−1. Obruca et al. (2014b) examined
several detoxification methods for conversion of hydrolysates of SCG
into PHA by Burkholderia cepacian. Addition of ethanol prior to hy-
drolysis of SCG increased PHA yield by 25%. Extraction of oil from SCG
also yielded high biomass and PHB yields (0.82 g g−1 of oil) compared
with the other waste oils. The results may reflect the positive correla-
tion between coffee oil and PHB yield in the presence of free fatty acids
(Obruca et al., 2014a).
Lignocellulosic substances (e.g., wheat straw and rice straw) are
renewable and are food process waste. They primarily consist of cel-
lulose, in addition to hemicellulose and lignin. Both cellulose and
hemicellulose are good sources of carbon in various biological me-
chanisms subsequent to hydrolysis of monomeric compounds (e.g.,
glucose, xylose, and arabinose) (Kamm and Kamm, 2007; Sandhya
et al., 2013). The performance of lignocellulosic materials varies from
case to case. Hydrolysate of alkali-acid pretreatment paddy straw as a
source of carbon with R. eutropha MTCC 1472 achieved and 37.55%
PHA accumulation at CDW of 19.2 g L−1 (Sandhya et al., 2013); wheat
straw hydrolysates as the primary source of carbon for production of P
(3HB-co-4HB) with Burkholderia saccharin in fed-batch cultures showed
a productivity of 0.7 g L−1 h−1 (Cesário et al., 2014a). Sindhu et al.
(2013) achieved the highest performance values ever reported for Ba-
cillus species, PHB yield of 0.26 g g−1 and 89% polymer content. Also,
pentose-sugar-rich hydrolysates can be produced from acid-pretreated
rice straw as an individual source of carbon throughout production.
Crude sugars were prepared from hydrolyzed corn stover with an on-
site-prepared cellulose cocktail using a co-culture of Trichoderma reesei
and Aspergillus niger. Moreover, PHA represented up yield of
0.243 g g−1 and 72.4% content from corn stover (Sawant et al., 2015).
A comparison between wheat straw and the mix of commercial carbon
sources (C6 as well as C5 sugars) was performed. Bioplastic content
reached 60 and 70%, yield of 0.19 and 0.18 g g−1, and volumetric
productivity of 0.12 and 0.11 g L−1 h−1, respectively (Cesário et al.,
2014b). This previous work provided a description of the fed-batch
cultivations of PHA generation using actual lignocellulosic hydrolysates
and demonstrated that wheat straw is valuable for biopolymer pro-
duction.
Animal products and by-products (e.g., milk, cheese fats, and re-
sidues from intestines) can also be applied as substrates for PHA pro-
duction. The experimental results showed a maximum specific growth
rate of 0.10 g L−1 h−1 in two different fermentation temperature set-
ups (Muhr et al., 2013). The volumetric productivity of bioplastic
reached 0.036 and 0.050 g L−1 h−1, and the PHA contents were 20.1
and 26.6%, respectively. Table 9 presents the yield comparison of
studies wherein FW was used as a carbon source.
4.3.2. Food waste as N and P sources
N, P, and minerals are the essential nutrients for PHA production.
FW, particularly animal waste, meat derivatives, dairy products, and
some vegetables, are capable of providing N and P sources for bioplastic
synthesis (Jayathilakan et al., 2012; Mirabella et al., 2014). Accumu-
lating lipids and unsaturated fatty acids are dependent on the carbon-
to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio and in other cases, carbon-to-phosphorus (C/P)
ratio. Constraints in N favor the collection of lipids and fatty acids in the
oleaginous microbes. However, the adjustment of N content makes it
difficult to use complex organic substrates. Ryu et al. (2013) enriched
the consumed yeast lysate with glycerol to increase C/N ratio from 20
to 35. Smaller amounts of lipid content (by 50 and 61%) were achieved
637
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
at C/N ratios of 65 and 80, respectively.
As revealed in the former studies, the C/N/P ratio that governs the
PHA synthesis is very case sensitive. Wang et al. (2007) reported that
the highest PHA production yield was achieved at the C/N ratio of 100.
Albuquerque et al. (2010) obtained C/N/P ratio data of 100:3:1, and
PHA content reached 74.6%. Ahn et al. (2015) investigated the effects
of C/N ratio in simulated rice straw hydrolysates using glucose and
ammonium chloride on PHA collected by C. necator. Overall, the PHA
collection rate was greater when subjected to more severe N-deficient
conditions (for instance, C/N ratio of 360:1) in comparison with the
weaker N-deficient conditions (for instance, C/N ratio of 3.6:1 or 36:1).
Bioconversion yield relays controlled the conditions of microbial sub-
strates. FW served as a promising source of P. For example, P recycling
efficiency from waste is 51% in France (Senthilkumar et al., 2014).
Thus, options for P recycling and their application in PHA production
require improvement for customization of P use.
5. Case studies of PHA products from food/agriculture waste
The bioplastic production efficiency from food/agricultural waste/
biomass and its economic viability are contingent on several factors
(e.g., type of waste generated in the selected area, processing cost,
availability of the biomass, transport expenses, raw materials expenses,
and other common industrial expenses). Apart from high productivity,
industrial bioplastic production should comply with government stan-
dards for environmental pollution. As the type of waste produced in
each season can vary, the productivity of bioplastics can be affected by
changes in season, which hampers the supply of certain raw materials
in a certain period. In general, only the feasibility of the synthesis cost
has been tested at laboratory scale (Elissen and Kootstra, 2016). How-
ever, for industrial-scale production, one needs to consider or evaluate
techno-economic/profitability, raw material supply, and production
product markets.
Several research groups focused on using the developed methods for
bioplastics through a cost analysis of the methods. However, limited
case studies of biorefineries have been published. Here, considering the
type of raw material and location for installing biorefineries, we re-
viewed some case studies that directly provide information on the
production of biomass-based products, techno-economical possibilities,
and cost analysis.
5.1. Case studies on palm tree biomass-based refineries
The efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally safe production of
bioplastics depends upon several variables. The major factor considered
for initialization of bioplastic production is availability of raw mate-
rials. The location of a biorefinery should allow a good supply of raw
materials from neighboring areas. For instance, Malaysia has millions of
hectares of palm trees. Thus, the availability of raw material in
Malaysia made it a good destination to develop bioplastic industries or
biorefineries (Shuit et al., 2009). In 2006, Malaysia was the largest
exporter and largest producer (produced 15.88 million tons, equivalent
to 43% of total world supply) of palm oil. The milling activity for palm
oil generation and plantations left a huge amount of waste biomass,
such as EFB. It was estimated that 50–70 tons of biomass waste can be
generated from 1 ha of palm oil plantations. Thus, the waste biomass
can be further utilized for generation of biofuels (e.g., bioethanol;
55.73 million tons of palm oil biomass is an oil equivalent of
15.81 million tons).
Moreover, some plants like palm costs can be further reduced by
optimizing the location of the production plant and the type of biomass
feedstock (Shuit et al., 2009). Several initiatives have been im-
plemented in Malaysia including the Small Renewable Energy Power
(SREP) program, Biogen program, EC-ASEAN COGEN program, Chubu
Electric Power, and construction of a bioethanol plant to utilize biomass
in energy production and to find cost-effective renewable energy
 Table 9
Comparison of biosynthesis yield on different types of food waste as carbon sources.
Ord- Subst- Biopl- Micro- Biopl- Maxi- Y Ystorage Ytot Biopl- Biopl- Chara- Cultiv- Scale Refer- Re-
er rate astic bial astic mum ferment- (g bio- (g astic astic cteri- ation ence mar-
Y.F. Tsang, et al.

from strain end test con- ation plasti- bio- con- pro- zation time ks
food (g bio- centra- (g org- c g−1 plastic tent duc- techni- (h)
waste plasti- tion anic a- or- g (%) tivity ques
−1
c kg−1 (g - cid - ganic sub- (g -
VSS) L−1) g−1 acid) strate) L−1 -
sub- h−1)
strate)

1 Brew- PHA Activ- 0.4 0.43 39 GC–M- 1 L Ben Mix-

ery ated S SBR et al. ed
waste- sludge (2016) cul-
water con- ture
sortia
2 Ferm- PHA Activ- 814 0.24 0.70 58 0.45 GC–M- 1L Colo- Mix-
ented ated S SBR mbo ed
cheese sludge et al. cul-
whey con- (2016) ture
sortia
3 Chees- PHA Sporo- 60–70 0.4–0- 0.6–0- 0.24–- 0.45–- GC/ 1L Colo- Un-
e genous .6 .7 0.42 1.17 MS SBR mbo adu-
whey acido- et al. lter-
genic (2016) ated
cul-
ture
4 Chees- PHA Reco- 18.88 0.11 0.04 0.71 38.65 0.33 GC fed- Pais Un-

638
e mbi- batch et al. adu-
whey nant bior- (2014) lter-
E. coli eactor ated
cul-
ture
5 Dairy PHB Bacill- 11.32 FITR 36 3L Pandi- Un-
waste us fer- an adu-
mega- ment- et al. lter-
terium er (2010) ated
SRKP- cul-
3 ture
6 Paddy PHA R. 7.21 37.55 FITR, 72–96 2L Sand- Un-
straw eu- Ther- stirre- hya adu-
tropha mo- d-tank et al. lter-
MTCC gravi- re- (2013) ated
1472 metric actor cul-
ana- ture
lysis,
DSC
7 Pinea- PHA Bacill- 1.86 0.31 53.66 0.08 NMR, 72 5L Suwa- Un-
pple us sp. DSC fer- nnasi- adu-
waste SV13 ment- ng lter-
er et al. ated
(2015) cul-
ture
13
8 Spent P Cupri- 0.75–- 81 C 1L Rao Un-
palm (3HB- avidus 0.80 NMR, Erlen- et al. adu-
oil co- ne- DSC, meyer (2010) lter-
4HB) cator flask ated
(continued on next page)
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
 Table 9 (continued)

Ord- Subst- Biopl- Micro- Biopl- Maxi- Y Ystorage Ytot Biopl- Biopl- Chara- Cultiv- Scale Refer- Re-
er rate astic bial astic mum ferment- (g bio- (g astic astic cteri- ation ence mar-
Y.F. Tsang, et al.

from strain end test con- ation plasti- bio- con- pro- zation time ks
food (g bio- centra- (g org- c g−1 plastic tent duc- techni- (h)
waste plasti- tion anic a- or- g (%) tivity ques
−1
c kg−1 (g - cid - ganic sub- (g -
VSS) L−1) g−1 acid) strate) L−1 -
sub- h−1)
strate)

FTIR, cul-
GC ture
9 Used PHB Cupri- 0.29 37 0.14 Wide- 27 10 L Marti- Un-
cooki- avidus angle batch no adu-
ng oil ne- X-ray bior- et al. lter-
cator dif- eactor (2014) ated
DSM frac- cul-
428 tion ture
mea-
sure-
ments
10 Wheat P Burkh- 105 0.22; 0.60; NMR, fed- Cesári- Un-
straw, (3HB- olderia 1.60 0.19 SEC, batch o et al. adu-
ligno- co- sac- DSC, in 2 L (2014- lter-
cellu- 4HB) chari TGA stirred b) ated
losic DSM tank cul-
17165 re- ture
actor

639
Bioplastic end test (bioplastic at the end of the test).
Yfementation (conversion yield from soluble COD to organic acids).
Ystorage (conversion yield from organic acids to bioplastic).
Ytot (conversion yield from soluble COD of the initial substrate to bioplastic).
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
Y.F. Tsang, et al.
sources (Ludin et al., 2004; Shuit et al., 2009; Ong et al., 2011).
In 2013, Indonesia produced 30 thousand tons of oil palm EFB,
which consists of around 35 wt% of glucan, 20.3 wt% of xylan, and
3.1 wt% of arabinan (Kresnowati et al., 2015). In light of the avail-
ability of the biomass, Indonesia may also be a good choice for pro-
duction of bioethanol and xylitol. On the basis of total cost for pro-
duction of xylitol, a gross profit of 4.3 USD kg−1 can be realized if
biomass is used as a raw material. Likewise, non-food sugars produced
from oil palm frond (i.e., around 42.8 wt% of glucan, 12.5 wt% of
xylan, and 2.3 wt% of arabinan) can be used for economical production
of P(3HB) (Zahari et al., 2015). It was estimated that the production
cost of P(3HB) can be reduced to 3.44 USD kg−1 by using renewable
sugars generated from a palm frond, which was 41% lower than the cost
of P(3HB) produced from commercial glucose. Apart from P(3HB)
production, EFB was also explored for diverse applications such as
biofuel for combined heat and power plants, ethanol production, me-
thane recovery, composting (Chiew and Shimada, 2013). The use of
EFB can lead to production of ethanol, methane gas, briquette, elec-
tricity, and paper (Sompong et al., 2012; Chiew and Shimada, 2013).
5.2. Case studies on banana biomass-based refineries
In 2012, the rejected and wasted proportions of total banana crops
were 26.46 and 6.67%, respectively (Quinaya and Alzate, 2014). These
rejected agro and food products are equally effective to produce bio-
fuels, sugars, and PHB. It was theoretically demonstrated that the
quantities of glucose, ethanol, and PHB produced per ton of banana
were 316, 238, and 31.5 kg, respectively (Naranjo et al., 2014; Quinaya
and Alzate, 2014). Moreover, banana peels are also important feed-
stocks for production of diverse products. Generally, banana peels
contain 40% starch that can be transformed into sugars after ripening.
One ton of banana peels can be used to generate 57, 2, 25, and 5 kg of
glucose, acetic acid, and methane, respectively (Quinaya and Alzate,
2014). The overall cost and margin analysis were estimated for pro-
duction of PHB, glucose, and ethanol from bananas in three different
scenarios (Naranjo et al., 2014). In the first scenario, PHB was a unique
product, while banana peels were treated as residues scenario. The
hydrolyzed starch prepared from banana pulp was used for PHB pre-
paration. In a second scenario, glucose, ethanol, and PHB were pro-
duced in a biorefinery. In the last scenario, mass and energy integration
of the processes was proposed. The cost estimated for PHB, glucose and
ethanol in Scenarios 1/2/3 were 2.7/2.3/1.6, -/0.9/0.7, and -/1.3/
0.6 USD kg−1, respectively. In the cost analysis, Colombian labor costs
of USD 2.14 h−1 and USD 4.29 h−1 were used, respectively, for op-
erators and supervisors (Posada et al., 2012). In addition, the elec-
tricity, water, and vapor pressure prices used were USD 0.03044/kWh,
USD 1.252/m3, and USD 8.18/ton, respectively. Moreover, corre-
sponding economical margins of 22/43/106%, -/0/22.2%, and -/18.2/
45.5% were demonstrated by comparing the market prices of the stu-
died products. It can be concluded that scenario 3 showed mass and
energy integration in the biorefinery. The production of PHB from re-
sidual banana can reduce the energy requirement by 30.6% and the
water requirement by 35% (Naranjo et al., 2014).
5.3. Case studies on sugarcane biomass-based refineries
Techno-economic and environmental analysis were carried out for
production of ethanol, PHB, and electricity from sugarcane bagasse in
Colombia using Aspen Plus software (Moncada et al., 2013). A simu-
lation for the techno-economical assessment was performed based on
three scenarios according to the Cambodian conditions: (1) energy
cogeneration, (2) arbitrary distribution, and (3) preselected pathways
using optimization subroutines. The price of sugarcane that can be used
for PHA production is 10 times lower than that of pure sugar (i.e., su-
garcane 0.04 USD kg−1 vs. glucose 0.44 USD kg−1) (Suwannasing et al.,
2015). In another case study, the P(3HB) production cost was estimated
640
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
to be USD 3.44 kg−1 P(3HB) which is 41% lower than using commercial
glucose (Zahari et al., 2015). The price fluctuation corresponding to the
used methods can be stabilized by optimizing the methods relative to
yield. In the study, Sugarcane bagasse was 0.0035 USD kg−1, the total
production cost of PHB was 3.32 USD kg−1, and the total cost of re-
finery by-product ethanol was 0.57 USD L−1. According to the market
price, PHB was 3.12 USD kg−1 while fuel ethanol was 1.24 USD L−1. It
was estimated that use of a biorefinery can reduce the selling price of
PHB by 50% (i.e., from 3.12 USD kg−1), making it competitive with
conventional plastic (polypropylene: 1.58 USD kg−1) (Moncada et al.,
2013).
6. Conclusions
Bioplastic is a natural polymeric material that has been developed
extensively over the last two decades due to its good biocompatibility,
biodegradability, and material properties. As such, bioplastic produc-
tion has become one of the most active research areas in recent years.
Bioplastic can be applied in packaging industries, spray materials, ap-
pliance materials, electronic products, agricultural products, automa-
tion products, chemical media, and solvents. In the production of bio-
plastics, the interlinkage of biotechnology processes is a key strategy
aimed at maximizing the use of food waste and increasing the potential
revenue of the entire bioprocessing chain. Given that mass generation
of FW is inevitable, the environmental burdens arising from waste
disposal (e.g., water contamination and GHG emissions) should be
mitigated. Therefore, this review demonstrated the potential of FW as a
raw material for bioplastic production to address important environ-
mental problems. Hence, physical, thermo-chemical, and biological
methodologies required for preparation of bioplastic raw materials
from FW are reported. Moreover, production of PHA based on un-
adulterated/mixed culture and fermentation technologies was empha-
sized. Modifications of different FW compositions (e.g., cellulose,
starch, chitin, and caprolactone) for PHA-derived products were also
considered. Most importantly, governments, regulations, companies,
public opinions, and consumers should work together to mitigate cur-
rent environmental burdens arising from FW disposal.
Parameters
Bioplastic yield (g g−1): the ratio of bioplastic concentration (g L−1)
and the substrate consumed (g L−1) during the cultivation time.
Cell dry weight (CDW) (g L−1).
Final polymer content (%, w/w).
Volumetric productivity (g L−1 h−1): the value obtained by dividing
the final bioplastic concentration over the total cultivation time (Δt, h).
Acknowledgments
KHK acknowledges support made in part by grants from the
National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of
Science, ICT and Future Planning (Grant No: 2016R1E1A1A01940995).
YFT acknowledges support made in part by grants from the Research
Cluster Fund (RG50/2017-2018R) and the Dean's Research Fund (DRF/
SFRS-8 and DSRAF-6 SP1) of The Education University of Hong Kong.
References
Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., Bhat, A.H., Ireana Yusra, A.F., 2012. Green composites from sus-
tainable cellulose nanofibrils: a review. Carbohydr. Polym. 87, 963–979.
Agbor, V.B., Cicek, N., Sparling, R., Berlin, A., Levin, D.B., 2011. Biomass pretreatment:
fundamentals toward application. Biotechnol. Adv. 26, 675–685.
Ahmed, T., Shahid, M., Azeem, F., Rasul, I., Shah, A.A., Noman, M., Hameed, A.,
Manzoor, N., Manzoor, I., Muhammad, S., 2018. Biodegradation of plastics: current
scenario and future prospects for environmental safety. Environ. Sci. Pollut. R. 1–12.
Ahn, J., Jho, E.H., Nam, K., 2015. Effect of C/N ratio on polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
accumulation by Cupriavidus necator and its implication on the use of rice straw
hydrolysates. Environ. Eng. Res. 20, 246–253.
Y.F. Tsang, et al.
Ahn, J., Jho, E.H., Kim, M., Nam, K., 2016a. Increased 3HV concentration in the bacterial
production of 3‑hydroxybutyrate (3HB) and 3‑hydroxyvalerate (3HV) copolymer
with acid-digested rice straw waste. J. Polym. Environ. 24, 98–103.
Ahn, J., Jho, E.H., Nam, K., 2016b. Effect of acid-digested rice straw waste feeding
methods on the 3HV fraction of bacterial poly(3‑hydro-
xybutyrate‑co‑3‑hydroxyvalerate) production. Process Biochem. 51, 2119–2126.
Albuquerque, M.G.E., Torres, C.A.V., Reis, M.A.M., 2010. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)
production by a mixed microbial culture using sugar molasses: effect of the influent
substrate concentration on culture selection. Water Res. 44, 3419–3433.
Alvira, P., Tomás-Pejó, E., Ballesteros, M., Negro, M.J., 2010. Pretreatment technologies
for an efficient bioethanol production process based on enzymatic hydrolysis: a re-
view. Bioresour. Technol. 101, 4851–4861.
Angellier-Coussy, H., Putaux, J.L., Molina-Boisseau, S., Dufresne, A., Bertoft, E., Perez, S.,
2009. The molecular structure of waxy maize starch nanocrystals. Carbohydr. Res.
344, 1558–1566.
Aranda Usón, A., Ferreira, G., Zambrana Vásquez, D., Zabalza Bribián, I., Llera Sastresa,
E., 2013. Environmental-benefit analysis of two urban waste collection systems. Sci.
Total Environ. 463, 72–77.
Baei, M.S., Najafpour, G.D., Lasemi, Z., Tabandeh, F., Younesi, H., Issazadeh, H.,
Khodabandeh, M., 2010. Optimization PHAs production from dairy industry waste-
water (cheese whey) by Azohydromonas lata DSMZ 1123. Iran. J. Energy Environ. 1,
132–136.
Bardhan, S.K., Gupta, S., Gorman, M.E., Haider, M.A., 2015. Biorenewable chemicals:
Feedstocks, technologies and the conflict with food production. Renew. Sust. Energ.
Rev. 51, 506–520.
Barisik, G., Isci, A., Kutlu, N., Bagder Elmaci, S., Akay, B., 2016. Optimization of organic
acid pretreatment of wheat straw. Biotechnol. Prog. 32, 1487–1493.
Ben, M., Kennes, C., Veiga, M.C., 2016. Optimization of polyhydroxyalkanoate storage
using mixed cultures and brewery wastewater. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechol. 91,
2817–2826.
Bengtsson, S., Pisco, A.R., Johansson, P., Lemos, P.C., Reis, M.A.M., 2010. Molecular
weight and thermal properties of polyhydroxyalkanoates produced from fermented
sugar molasses by open mixed cultures. J. Biotechnol. 147, 172–179.
Bong, C.P.C., Ho, W.S., Hashim, H., Lim, J.S., Ho, C.S., Tan, W.S.P., Lee, C.T., 2017.
Review on the renewable energy and solid waste management policies towards
biogas development in Malaysia. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 70, 988–998.
Bosco, F., Chiampo, F., 2010. Production of polyhydroxyalcanoates (PHAs) using milk
whey and dairy wastewater activated sludge: production of bioplastics using dairy
residues. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 109, 418–421.
Briassoulis, D., Giannoulis, A., 2018. Evaluation of the functionality of bio-based food
packaging films. Polym. Test. 69, 39–51.
Bugnicourt, E., Cinelli, P., Lazzeri, A., Alvarez, V., 2014. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA):
review of synthesis, characteristics, processing and potential applications in packa-
ging. Express Polym Lett 8, 791–808.
Bule, M.V., Chaudhary, I., Gao, A.H., Chen, S., 2016. Effects of extracellular proteome on
wheat straw pretreatment during solid-state fermentation of Phlebia radiata ATCC
64658. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 109, 36–44.
Bussemaker, M.J., Zhang, D., 2013. Effect of ultrasound on lignocellulosic biomass as a
pretreatment for biorefinery and biofuel applications. Ind. Eng. Chem. 52,
3563–3580.
Buzby, J.C., Farah-Wells, H., Hyman, J., 2014. The estimated amount, value, and calories
of postharvest food losses at the retail and consumer levels in the United States,
USDA-ERS Economic Information Bulletin 121.
Carlsson, M., Lagerkvist, A., Morgan-Sagastume, F., 2012. The effects of substrate pre-
treatment on anaerobic digestion: a review. Waste Manag. 32, 1634–1650.
Cerda, A., Artola, A., Font, X., Barrena, R., Gea, T., Sánchez, A., 2018. Composting of food
wastes: status and challenges. Bioresour. Technol. 248, 57–67.
Cesário, M.T., Raposo, R.S., de Almeida, M.C.M.D., van Keulen, F., Ferreira, B.S., Telo,
J.P., da Fonseca, M.M.R., 2014a. Production of poly(3‑hydro-
xybutyrate‑co‑4‑hydroxybutyrate) by Burkholderia sacchari using wheat straw hy-
drolysates and gamma-butyrolactone. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 71, 59–67.
Cesário, M.T., Raposo, R.S., de Almeida, M.C.M.D., van Keulen, F., Ferreira, B.S., da
Fonseca, M.M.R., 2014b. Enhanced bioproduction of poly‑3‑hydroxybutyrate from
wheat straw lignocellulosic hydrolysates. New Biotechnol. 31, 104–113.
Chee, J.Y., Yoga, S.S., Lau, N.S., Ling, S.C., Abed, R.M., Sudesh, K., 2010. Bacterially
produced polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA): converting renewable resources into bio-
plastics. Curr. Res. Technol. Educ. Top. Appl. Microbiol. Microb. Biotechnol. 2,
1395–1404.
Chen, G.Q., 2009. A microbial polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) based bio- and materials
industry. Chem. Soc. Rev. 38, 2434–2446.
Chen, G.Q., Patel, M.K., 2011. Plastics derived from biological sources: present and fu-
ture: a technical and environmental review. Chem. Rev. 112, 2082–2099.
Chen, Y., Tan, H.M., 2006. Crosslinked carboxymethylchitosan‑g‑poly(acrylic acid) co-
polymer as a novel superabsorbent polymer. Carbohydr. Res. 341, 887–896.
Chen, G.Q., Wu, Q., 2005. The application of polyhydroxyalkanoates as tissue engineering
materials. Biomaterials 26, 6565–6578.
Chen, G.Q., Jiang, X.R., Guo, Y., 2016. Synthetic biology of microbes synthesizing
polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA). Synth Syst Biotechnol. 1 (4), 236–242.
Chiew, Y.L., Shimada, S., 2013. Current state and environmental impact assessment for
utilizing oil palm empty fruit bunches for fuel, fiber and fertilizer - a case study of
Malaysia. Biomass Bioeng. 51, 109–124.
Cianchetta, S., Di Maggio, B., Burzi, P.L., Galletti, S., 2014. Evaluation of selected white-
rot fungal isolates for improving the sugar yield from wheat straw. Appl. Biochem.
Biotechnol. 173, 609–623.
Colombo, B., Sciarria, T.P., Reis, M., Scaglia, B., Adani, F., 2016. Polyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHAs) production from fermented cheese whey by using a mixed microbial culture.
641
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
Bioresour. Technol. 218, 692–699.
Cruz, M.V., Paiva, A., Lisboa, P., Freitas, F., Alves, V.D., Barreiros, S., Barreiros, S., Reis,
M.A.M., 2014. Production of polyhydroxyalkanoates from spent coffee grounds oil
obtained by supercritical fluid extraction technology. Bioresour. Technol. 157,
360–363.
Cruz, M.V., Sarraguça, M.C., Freitas, F., Lopes, J.A., Reis, M.A.M., 2015. Online mon-
itoring of P(3HB) produced from used cooking oil with near-infrared spectroscopy. J.
Biotechnol. 194, 1–9.
Cunha, A.G., Gandini, A., 2010. Turning polysaccharides into hydrophobic materials: a
critical review. Part 2. Hemicelluloses, chitin/chitosan, starch, pectin and alginates.
Cellulose 17, 875–889.
De Clercq, D., Wen, Z., Gottfried, O., Schmidt, F., Fei, F., 2017. A review of global stra-
tegies promoting the conversion of food waste to bioenergy via anaerobic digestion.
Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 79, 204–221.
Deng, Y., Li, B., Yu, K., Zhang, T., 2016. Biotransformation and adsorption of pharma-
ceutical and personal care products by activated sludge after correcting matrix ef-
fects. Sci. Total Environ. 544, 980–986.
Desroches, M., Escouvois, M., Auvergne, R., Caillol, S., Boutevin, B., 2012. From vege-
table oils to polyurethanes: synthetic routes to polyols and main industrial products.
Polym. Rev. 52, 38–79.
Dietrich, K., Dumont, M.J., Del Rio, L.F., Orsat, V., 2017. Producing PHAs in the bioec-
onomy — towards a sustainable bioplastic. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 9, 58–70.
Elbeshbishy, E., Hafez, H., Dhar, B., Nakhla, G., 2011. Single and combined effect of
various pretreatment methods for biohydrogen production from food waste. Int. J.
Hydrogen Energy 36, 11379–11387.
Elissen, H.J.H., Kootstra, A.M.J., 2016. Production of Short-Chain Volatile Fatty Acids
and Lactic Acid during Small-Scale Ensiling of Meadow Grass. PPO/Acrres,
Wageningen UR.
Fadzil, F.I.B.M., Tsuge, T., 2017. Bioproduction of polyhydroxyalkanoate from plant oils.
In: Microbial Applications, 2. Springer, Cham, pp. 231–260.
Fitzpatrick, J., O'keeffe, U., 2001. Influence of whey protein hydrolysate addition to whey
permeate batch fermentations for producing lactic acid. Process Biochem. 37,
183–186.
FitzPatrick, M., Champagne, P., Cunningham, M.F., Whitney, R.A., 2010. A biorefinery
processing perspective: treatment of lignocellulosic materials for the production of
value-added products. Bioresour. Technol. 101, 8915–8922.
Follonier, S., Goyder, M.S., Silvestri, A.C., Crelier, S., Kalman, F., Riesen, R., Zinn, M.,
2014. Fruit pomace and waste frying oil as sustainable resources for the bioproduc-
tion of medium-chain-length polyhydroxyalkanoates. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 71,
42–52.
Fonseca, G.G., Antonio, R.V., 2006. Polyhydroxyalkanoates production by recombinant
Escherichia coli harboring the structural genes of the polyhydroxyalkanoate synthases
of Ralstonia eutropha and Pseudomonas aeruginosa using low cost substrate. J. Appl.
Sci. 6, 1745–1750.
Franca, E.F., Freitas, L.C.G., Lins, R.D., 2011. Chitosan molecular structure as a function
of N‑acetylation. Biopolymers 95, 448–460.
Franek, F., Hohenwarter, O., Katinger, H., 2000. Plant protein hydrolysates: preparation
of defined peptide fractions promoting growth and production in animal cells cul-
tures. Biotechnol. Prog. 16, 688–692.
Gironi, F., Piemonte, V., 2011. Bioplastics and petroleum-based plastics: strengths and
weaknesses. Energy Sources, Part A 33, 1949–1959.
González-Torre, P.L., Coque, J., 2016. From food waste to donations: the case of mar-
ketplaces in northern Spain. Sustain. 8, 575.
Gore-Langton, L., 2017. France's Food Waste Ban: One Year on [WWW Document]. Food
Navig. URL https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2017/03/24/France-s-food-
waste-ban-One-year-on?utm_source=copyright&utm_medium=OnSite&utm_
campaign=copyright). (accessed 3.24.17).
Groot, W.J., Borén, T., 2010. Life cycle assessment of the manufacture of lactide and PLA
biopolymers from sugarcane in Thailand. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 970–984.
Gunders, D., Bloom, J., 2012. Wasted: How America Is Losing up to 40 Percent of its Food
from Farm to Fork to Landfill. Natural Resources Defense Council, New York. http://
www.indianasna.org/content/indianasna/documents/NRDC_Wasted_Food_Report.
pdf.
Gurieff, N., Lant, P., 2007. Comparative life cycle assessment and financial analysis of
mixed culture polyhydroxyalkanoate production. Bioresour. Technol. 98, 3393–3403.
Hafuka, A., Sakaida, K., Satoh, H., Takahashi, M., Watanabe, Y., Okabe, S., 2011. Effect of
feeding regimens on polyhydroxybutyrate production from food wastes by
Cupriavidus necator. Bioresour. Technol. 102, 3551–3553.
Harding, K.G., Dennis, J.S., von Blottnitz, H., Harrison, S.T.L., 2007. Environmental
analysis of plastic production processes: comparing petroleum-based polypropylene
and polyethylene with biologically-based poly-β-hydroxybutyric acid using life cycle
analysis. J. Biotechnol. 130, 57–66.
Heng, K.S., Hatti-Kaul, R., Adam, F., Fukui, T., Sudesh, K., 2017. Conversion of rice husks
to polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) via a three-step process: optimized alkaline pre-
treatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, and biosynthesis by Burkholderia cepacia USM (JCM
15050). J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 92, 100–108.
Hilliou, L., Machado, D., Oliveira, C.S.S., Gouveia, A.R., Reis, M.A.M., Campanari, S.,
Villano, M., Majone, M., 2016a. Impact of fermentation residues on the thermal,
structural, and rheological properties of polyhydroxy(butyrate‑co‑valerate) produced
from cheese whey and olive oil mill wastewater. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 133 (2), 42818.
Hilliou, L., Teixeira, P.F., Machado, D., Covas, J.A., Oliveira, C.S.S., Duque, A.F., Reis,
M.A.M., 2016b. Effects of fermentation residues on the melt processability and
thermomechanical degradation of PHBV produced from cheese whey using mixed
microbial cultures. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 128, 269–277.
Hirano, S., Tsuchida, H., Nagao, N., 1989. N‑acetylation in chitosan and the rate of its
enzymic hydrolysis. Biomaterials 10, 574–576.
Y.F. Tsang, et al.
Hölker, U., Höfer, M., Lenz, J., 2004. Biotechnological advantages of laboratory-scale
solid-state fermentation with fungi. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 64, 175–186.
Hoover, R., 2010. The impact of heat-moisture treatment on molecular structures and
properties of starches isolated from different botanical sources. Crit. Rev. Food Sci.
Nutr. 50, 835–847.
HPS, A.K., Syakir, M.I., Dungani, R., Saurabh, C.K., Rafatullah, M., Haafiz, M., M.K., AS,
A., Nurul Fazita, M.R., Abdullah, C.K., Davoudpour, Y., 2016. A review on chitosan-
cellulose blends and nanocellulose reinforced chitosan biocomposites: properties and
their applications. Carbohydr. Polym. 150, 216–226.
Ishiaku, U.S., Pang, K.W., Lee, W.S., Ishak, Z.M., 2002. Mechanical properties and en-
zymic degradation of thermoplastic and granular sago starch filled poly(ε‑capro-
lactone). Eur. Polym. J. 38, 393–401.
Isroi, I., Millati, R., Niklasson, C., Cayanto, C., Taherzadeh, M.J., Lundquist, K., 2011.
Biological pretreatment of lignocelluloses with white-rot fungi and its applications:
review. Bioresour. 6, 5224–5259.
Jayakumar, R., Selvamurugan, N., Nair, S.V., Tokura, S., Tamura, H., 2008. Preparative
methods of phosphorylated chitin and chitosan - an overview. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.
43, 221–225.
Jayathilakan, K., Sultana, K., Radhakrishna, K., Bawa, A.S., 2012. Utilization of by-
products and waste materials from meat, poultry and fish processing industries: a
review. J. Food Sci. Technol. 49, 278–293.
Kachrimanidou, V., Kopsahelis, N., Vlysidis, A., Papanikolaou, S., Kookos, I.K., Monje
Martínez, B., Escrig Rondán, M.C., Koutinas, A.A., 2016. Downstream separation of
poly(hydroxyalkanoates) using crude enzyme consortia produced via solid state
fermentation integrated in a biorefinery concept. Food Bioprod. Process. 100,
323–334.
Kalyani, D., Lee, K.M., Kim, T.S., Li, J., Dhiman, S.S., Kang, Y.C., Lee, J.K., 2013.
Microbial consortia for saccharification of woody biomass and ethanol fermentation.
Fuel 107, 815–822.
Kamilah, H., Al-Gheethi, A., Yang, T.A., Sudesh, K., 2018. The use of palm oil-based waste
cooking oil to enhance the production of polyhydroxybutyrate [P(3HB)] by
Cupriavidus necator H16 strain. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 43, 3453–3463.
Kamm, B., Kamm, M., 2007. Biorefineries - multi product processes. In: Adv. Biochem.
Eng. Biotechnol. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 175–204.
Khanna, S., Srivastava, A.K., 2005. Recent advances in microbial polyhydroxyalkanoatos.
Process Biochem. 40, 607–619.
Kim, D., 2018. Physico-chemical conversion of lignocellulose: inhibitor effects and de-
toxification strategies: a mini review. Molecules 23, 309.
Kiran, E.U., Trzcinski, A.P., Ng, W.J., Liu, Y., 2014. Bioconversion of food waste to en-
ergy: a review. Fuel 134, 389–399.
Kiran, et al., 2015. Enhancing the hydrolysis and methane production potential of mixed
food waste by an effective enzymatic pretreatment. Bioresour. Technol. 183, 47–52.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.02.033.
Koch, D., Mihalyi, B., 2018. Assessing the change in environmental impact categories
when replacing conventional plastic with bioplastic in chosen application fields.
Chem. Eng. Trans. 70, 853–858.
Koller, M., Bona, R., Braunegg, G., Hermann, C., Horvat, P., Kroutil, M., Martinz, J., Neto,
J., Pereira, L., Varila, P., 2005. Production of PHAs from agricultural waste and
surplus materials. Biomacromolecules 6, 561–565.
Koller, M., Maršálek, L., de Sousa Dias, M.M., Braunegg, G., 2017. Producing microbial
polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) biopolyesters in a sustainable manner. New Biotechnol.
37, 24–38.
Kourmentza, C., Ntaikou, I., Kornaros, M., Lyberatos, G., 2009. Production of PHAs from
mixed and pure cultures of Pseudomonas sp. using short-chain fatty acids as carbon
source under nitrogen limitation. Desalination 248, 723–732.
Kourmentza, C., Costa, J., Azevedo, Z., Servin, C., Grandfils, C., De Freitas, V., Reis,
M.A.M., 2018a. Burkholderia thailandensis as a microbial cell factory for the bio-
conversion of used cooking oil to polyhydroxyalkanoates and rhamnolipids.
Bioresour. Technol. 247, 829–837.
Kourmentza, C., Economou, C.N., Tsafrakidou, P., Kornaros, M., 2018b. Spent coffee
grounds make much more than waste: exploring recent advances and future ex-
ploitation strategies for the valorization of an emerging food waste stream. J. Clean.
Prod. 172, 980–992.
Koutinas, A.A., Vlysidis, A., Pleissner, D., Kopsahelis, N., Lopez Garcia, I., Kookos, I.K.,
Papanikolaou, S., Kwan, T.H., Lin, C.S.K., 2014. Valorization of industrial waste and
by-product streams via fermentation for the production of chemicals and biopoly-
mers. Chem. Soc. Rev. 43 (8), 2587–2627.
Kresnowati, M., Mardawati, E., Setiadi, T., 2015. Production of xylitol from oil palm
empty fruits bunch: a case study on biorefinery concept. Mod. Appl. Sci. 9 (7),
206–213.
Kumar, M.N.R., 2000. A review of chitin and chitosan applications. React. Funct. Polym.
46, 1–27.
Kurita, K., 2006. Chitin and chitosan: functional biopolymers from marine crustaceans.
Mar. Biotechnol. 8 (3), 203–226.
Kwon, M.S., Dojima, T., Park, E.Y., 2005. Use of plant-derived protein hydrolysates for
enhancing growth of Bombyx mori (silkworm) insect cells in suspension culture.
Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 42, 1–7.
Lam, W., Wang, Y., Chan, P.L., Chan, S.W., Tsang, Y.F., Chua, H., Yu, P.H.F., 2017.
Production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) using sludge from different wastewater
treatment processes and the potential for medical and pharmaceutical applications.
Environ. Technol. 38, 1779–1791.
Laycock, B., Halley, P., Pratt, S., Werker, A., Lant, P., 2014. The chemomechanical
properties of microbial polyhydroxyalkanoates. Prog. Polym. Sci. 38, 536–583.
Lemée, L., Kpogbemabou, D., Pinard, L., Beauchet, R., Laduranty, J., 2012. Biological
pretreatment for production of lignocellulosic biofuel. Bioresour. Technol. 117,
234–241.
642
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
Leung, C.C.J., Cheung, A.S.Y., Zhang, A.Y.Z., Lam, K.F., Lin, C.S.K., 2012. Utilisation of
waste bread for fermentative succinic acid production. Biochem. Eng. J. 65, 10–15.
Liang, Q., Qi, Q., 2014. From a co-production design to an integrated single-cell bior-
efinery. Biotechnol. Adv. 32, 1328–1335.
Lin, C.S.K., Pfaltzgraff, L.A., Herrero-Davila, L., Mubofu, E.B., Abderrahim, S., Clark, J.H.,
Koutinas, A.A., Kopsahelis, N., Stamatelatou, K., Dickson, F., Thankappan, S.,
Mohamed, Z., Brocklesby, R., Luque, R., 2013. Food waste as a valuable resource for
the production of chemicals, materials and fuels. Current situation and global per-
spective. Energy Environ. Sci. 6, 426–464.
Linger, J.G., Vardon, D.R., Guarnieri, M.T., Karp, E.M., Hunsinger, G.B., Franden, M.A.,
Johnson, C.W., Chupka, G., Strathmann, T.J., Pienkos, P.T., Beckham, G.T., 2014.
Lignin valorization through integrated biological funneling and chemical catalysis.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 111, 12013–12018.
Liu, H., Xie, F., Yu, L., Chen, L., Li, L., 2009. Thermal processing of starch-based polymers.
Prog. Polym. Sci. 34, 1348–1368.
Liu, M., Zhang, Y., Wu, C., Xiong, S., Zhou, C., 2012. Chitosan/halloysite nanotubes
bionanocomposites: structure, mechanical properties and biocompatibility. Int J
Biological Macromol. 51, 566–575.
Lo, I.M., Woon, K.S., 2016. Food waste collection and recycling for value-added products:
potential applications and challenges in Hong Kong. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 23,
7081–7091.
Loo, C.Y., Lee, W.H., Tsuge, T., Doi, Y., Sudesh, K., 2005. Biosynthesis and character-
ization of poly(3‑hydroxybutyrate‑co‑3‑hydroxyhexanoate) from palm oil products in
a Wautersia eutropha mutant. Biotechnol. Lett. 27, 1405–1410.
Ludin, N.A., Bakri, M.A., Hashim, M., Sawilla, B., Menon, N.R., Mokhtar, H., 2004. Palm
oil biomass for electricity generation in Malaysia. Pusat Tenaga Malaysia, Malaysia
Palm Oil Board, SIRIM Berhad. See also: http://www.biogen.org.my/bris/BioGen/
Tech/(d) Documents/technology (d), 7.
Mamma, D., Christakopoulos, P., 2014. Biotransformation of citrus by-products into value
added products. Waste and Biomass Valori. 5, 529–549.
Martino, L., Cruz, M.V., Scoma, A., Freitas, F., Bertin, L., Scandola, M., Reis, M.A.M.,
2014. Recovery of amorphous polyhydroxybutyrate granules from Cupriavidus ne-
cator cells grown on used cooking oil. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 71, 117–123.
Matsakas, L., Gao, Q., Jansson, S., Rova, U., Christakopoulos, P., 2017. Green conversion
of municipal solid wastes into fuels and chemicals. Electron. J. Biotechnol. 26, 69–83.
Matsumoto, K., Taguchi, S., 2013. Enzyme and metabolic engineering for the production
of novel biopolymers: crossover of biological and chemical processes. Curr. Opin.
Biotechnol. 24, 1054–1060.
Mirabella, N., Castellani, V., Sala, S., 2014. Current options for the valorization of food
manufacturing waste a review. J. Clean. Prod. 65, 28–41.
Mohd, M.F., Mohanadoss, P., Ujang, Z., van Loosdrecht, M., Yunus, S.M., Chelliapan, S.,
Zambare, V., Olsson, G., 2012. Development of bio-PORec® system for poly-
hydroxyalkanoates (PHA) production and its storage in mixed cultu res of palm oil
mill effluent (POME). Bioresour. Technol. 124, 208–216.
Monavari, S., Galbe, M., Zacchi, G., 2011. The influence of ferrous sulfate utilization on
the sugar yields from dilute-acid pretreatment of softwood for bioethanol production.
Bioresour. Technol. 102, 1103–1108.
Moncada, J., Matallana, L.G., Cardona, C.A., 2013. Selection of process pathways for
biorefinery design using optimization tools: a Colombian case for conversion of su-
garcane bagasse to ethanol, poly‑3‑hydroxybutyrate (PHB), and energy. Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res. 52, 4132–4145.
Mozejko, J., Ciesielski, S., 2013. Saponified waste palm oil as an attractive renewable
resource for mcl-polyhydroxyalkanoate synthesis. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 116, 485–492.
Muhr, A., Rechberger, E.M., Salerno, A., Reiterer, A., Schiller, M., Kwiecień, M., Adamus,
G., Kowalczuk, M., Strohmeier, K., Schober, S., Mittelbach, M., Koller, M., 2013.
Biodegradable latexes from animal-derived waste: biosynthesis and characterization
of mcl-PHA accumulated by Ps. citronellolis. React. Funct. Polym. 73, 1391–1398.
Mussoline, W., Esposito, G., Giordano, A., Lens, P., 2013. The anaerobic digestion of rice
straw: a review. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43, 895–915.
Naranjo, J.M., Cardona, C.A., Higuita, J.C., 2014. Use of residual banana for poly-
hydroxybutyrate (PHB) production: case of study in an integrated biorefinery. Waste
Manag. 34, 2634–2640.
Nielsen, C., Rahman, A., Rehman, A.U., Walsh, M.K., Miller, C.D., 2017. Food waste
conversion to microbial polyhydroxyalkanoates. Microb. Biotechnol. 10, 1338–1352.
Obruca, S., Marova, I., Snajdar, O., Mravcova, L., Svoboda, Z., 2010. Production of poly
(3‑hydroxybutyrate‑co‑3‑hydroxyvalerate) by Cupriavidus necator from waste rape-
seed oil using propanol as a precursor of 3‑hydroxyvalerate. Biotechnol. Lett. 32,
1925–1932.
Obruca, S., Marova, I., Melusova, S., Mravcova, L., 2011. Production of poly-
hydroxyalkanoates from cheese whey employing Bacillus megaterium CCM 2037. Ann.
Microbiol. 61, 947–953.
Obruca, S., Snajdar, O., Svoboda, Z., Marova, I., 2013. Application of random mutagen-
esis to enhance the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates by Cupriavidus necator H16
on waste frying oil. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 29, 2417–2428.
Obruca, S., Benesova, P., Petrik, S., Oborna, J., Prikryl, R., Marova, I., 2014a. Production
of polyhydroxyalkanoates using hydrolysate of spent coffee grounds. Process
Biochem. 49, 1409–1414.
Obruca, S., Petrik, S., Benesova, P., Svoboda, Z., Eremka, L., Marova, I., 2014b. Utilization
of oil extracted from spent coffee grounds for sustainable production of poly-
hydroxyalkanoates. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 98, 5883–5890.
Ong, H.C., Mahlia, T.M.I., Masjuki, H.H., 2011. A review on energy scenario and sus-
tainable energy in Malaysia. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 15 (1), 639–647.
Pagliaccia, P., Gallipoli, A., Gianico, A., Montecchio, D., Braguglia, C.M., 2016. Single
stage anaerobic bioconversion of food waste in mono and co-digestion with olive
husks: impact of thermal pretreatment on hydrogen and methane production. Int. J.
Hydrogen Energy 41, 905–915.
Y.F. Tsang, et al.
Pais, J., Farinha, I., Freitas, F., Serafim, L.S., Martínez, V., Martínez, J.C., Arévalo-
Rodríguez, M., Auxiliadora Prieto, M., Reis, M.A.M., 2014. Improvement on the yield
of polyhydroxyalkanotes production from cheese whey by a recombinant Escherichia
coli strain using the proton suicide methodology. Enzym. Microb. Technol. 55,
151–158.
Pandey, A., 2003. Solid-state fermentation. Biochem. Eng. J. 13, 81–84.
Pandian, S.R., Deepak, V., Kalishwaralal, K., Rameshkumar, N., Jeyaraj, M., Gurunathan,
S., 2010. Optimization and fed-batch production of PHB utilizing dairy waste and sea
water as nutrient sources by Bacillus megaterium SRKP-3. Bioresour. Technol. 101,
705–711.
Paritosh, K., Kushwaha, S.K., Yadav, M., Pareek, N., Chawade, A., Vivekanand, V., 2017.
Food waste to energy: an overview of sustainable approaches for food waste man-
agement and nutrient recycling. Biomed. Res. Int. 2017, 2370927.
Pfaltzgraff, L.A., Cooper, E.C., Budarin, V., Clark, J.H., 2013. Food waste biomass: a re-
source for high-value chemicals. Green Chem. 15, 307–314.
Pielhop, T., Amgarten, J., von Rohr, P.R., Studer, M.H., 2016. Steam explosion pre-
treatment of softwood: The effect of the explosive decompression on enzymatic di-
gestibility. Biotechnol. Biofuels 9(1), 152.
Pillai, C.K.S., Paul, W., Sharma, C.P., 2009. Chitin and chitosan polymers: chemistry,
solubility and fiber formation. Prog. Polym. Sci. 34, 641–678.
Pleissner, D., Qi, Q., Gao, C., Rivero, C.P., Webb, C., Lin, C.S.K., Venus, J., 2016.
Valorization of organic residues for the production of added value chemicals: a
contribution to the bio-based economy. Biochem. Eng. J. 116, 3–16.
Poli, A., Di Donato, P., Abbamondi, G.R., Nicolaus, B., 2011. Synthesis, production, and
biotechnological applications of exopolysaccharides and polyhydroxyalkanoates by
Archaea. Archaea. 2011, 693253.
Posada, J.A., Rincón, L.E., Cardona, C.A., 2012. Design and analysis of biorefineries based
on raw glycerol: addressing the glycerol problem. Bioresour. Technol. 111, 282–293.
Preethi, R., Sasikala, P., Aravind, J., 2012. Microbial production of polyhydroxyalkanoate
(PHA) utilizing fruit waste as a substrate. Res. Biotechnol. 3, 61–69.
Quinaya, S.H.D., Alzate, C.A.C., 2014. Plantain and banana fruit as raw material for
glucose production. J. Biotechnol. 185, S34.
Rahmat, A.R., Rahman, W.A.W.A., Sin, L.T., Yussuf, A.A., 2009. Approaches to improve
compatibility of starch filled polymer system: a review. Mater. Sci. Eng. C. 29,
2370–2377.
Rao, U., Sridhar, R., Sehgal, P.K., 2010. Biosynthesis and biocompatibility of poly(3‑hy-
droxybutyrate‑co‑4‑hydroxybutyrate) produced by Cupriavidus necator from spent
palm oil. Biochem. Eng. J. 49, 13–20.
Ravi, M., Song, S., Wang, J., Nadimicherla, R., Zhang, Z., 2016. Preparation and char-
acterization of biodegradable poly (ε‑caprolactone)‑based gel polymer electrolyte
films. Ionics 22 (5), 661–670.
Ravindran, R., Jaiswal, A., 2016. Exploitation of food industry waste for high-value
products. Trends Biotechnol. 34, 58–69.
Ray, S., Prajapati, V., Patel, K., Trivedi, U., 2016. Optimization and characterization of
PHA from isolate Pannonibacter phragmitetus ERC8 using glycerol waste. Int. J. Biol.
Macromol. 86, 741–749.
Reddy, C.S.K., Ghai, R., Kalia, V.C.C., 2003. Polyhydroxyalkanoates: an overview.
Bioresour. Technol. 87, 137–146.
Ren, X., Chen, C., Nagatsu, M., Wang, X., 2011. Carbon nanotubes as adsorbents in en-
vironmental pollution management: a review. Chem. Eng. J. 170, 395–410.
Rhu, D.H., Lee, W.H., Kim, J.Y., Choi, E., 2003. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) production
from waste. Water Sci. Technol. 48, 221–228.
Rinaudo, M., 2006. Chitin and chitosan: properties and applications. Prog. Polym. Sci. 31,
603–632.
Ryu, B.G., Kim, J., Kim, K., Choi, Y.E., Han, J.I., Yang, J.W., Yang, J.W., 2013. High-cell-
density cultivation of oleaginous yeast Cryptococcus curvatus for biodiesel production
using organic waste from the brewery industry. Bioresour. Technol. 135, 357–364.
Saha, B.C., Qureshi, N., Kennedy, G.J., Cotta, M.A., 2016. Biological pretreatment of corn
stover with white-rot fungus for improved enzymatic hydrolysis. Int. Biodeterior.
Biodegrad. 109, 29–35.
Salehizadeh, H., Van Loosdrecht, M.C.M., 2004. Production of polyhydroxyalkanoates by
mixed culture: recent trends and biotechnological importance. Biotechnol. Adv. 22,
261–279.
Salemdeeb, R., ZU Ermgassen, E.K.H.J., Kim, M.H., Balmford, A., Al-Tabbaa, A., 2017.
Environmental and health impacts of using food waste as animal feed: a comparative
analysis of food waste management options. J. Clean. Prod. 140, 871–880.
Salgaonkar, B., Bragança, J., 2017. Utilization of sugarcane bagasse by Halogeometricum
borinquense strain E3 for biosynthesis of poly(3‑hydro-
xybutyrate‑co‑3‑hydroxyvalerate). Bioeng. 4 (2), 50.
Samorì, C., Abbondanzi, F., Galletti, P., Giorgini, L., Mazzocchetti, L., Torri, C., Tagliavini,
E., 2015. Extraction of polyhydroxyalkanoates from mixed microbial cultures: impact
on polymer quality and recovery. Bioresour. Technol. 189, 195–202.
Sanchez-Vazquez, S.A., Hailes, H.C., Evans, R.G., 2013. Hydrophobic polymers from food
waste: resources and synthesis. Polym. Rev. 53, 627–694.
Sandhya, M., Aravind, J., Kanmani, P., 2013. Production of polyhydroxyalkanoates from
Ralstonia eutropha using paddy straw as cheap substrate. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.
10, 47–54.
Santhanam, A., Sasidharan, S., 2010. Microbial production of polyhydroxy alkanotes
(PHA) from Alcaligens spp. and Pseudomonas oleovorans using different carbon
sources. African J. Biotechnol. 9, 3144–3150.
Saratale, G.D., Oh, M.K., 2015. Characterization of poly‑3‑hydroxybutyrate (PHB) pro-
duced from Ralstonia eutropha using an alkali-pretreated biomass feedstock. Int. J.
Biol. Macromol. 80, 627–635.
Saritha, M., Arora, A., Lata, 2012. Biological pretreatment of lignocellulosic substrates for
enhanced delignification and enzymatic digestibility. Indian J. Microbiol. 52,
122–130.
643
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
Sasmal, S., Goud, V.V., Mohanty, K., 2012. Ultrasound assisted lime pretreatment of
lignocellulosic biomass toward bioethanol production. Energy and Fuels 26,
3777–3784.
Sato, S., Maruyama, H., Fujiki, T., Matsumoto, K., 2015. Regulation of 3‑hydro-
xyhexanoate composition in PHBH synthesized by recombinant Cupriavidus necator
H16 from plant oil by using butyrate as a co-substrate. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 120,
246–251.
Sawant, S.S., Salunke, B.K., Kim, B.S., 2015. Degradation of corn stover by fungal cel-
lulase cocktail for production of polyhydroxyalkanoates by moderate halophile
Paracoccus sp. LL1. Bioresour. Technol. 194, 247–255.
Senthilkumar, K., Mollier, A., Delmas, M., Pellerin, S., Nesme, T., 2014. Phosphorus re-
covery and recycling from waste: an appraisal based on a French case study. Resour.
Conserv. Recycl. 87, 97–108.
Serafim, L.S., Lemos, P.C., Albuquerque, M.G., Reis, M.A., 2008. Strategies for PHA
production by mixed cultures and renewable waste materials. Appl. Microbiol.
Biotechnol. 81 (4), 615–628.
Shen, L., Haufe, J., Patel, M.K., 2009. Product overview and market projection of merging
bio-based plastics PRO-BIP 2009. Report for European polysaccharide network of
excellence (EPNOE) and European bioplastics, 243.
Shivakumar, S., 2012. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) production using agro-industrial re-
sidue as substrate by Bacillus thuringiensis IAM 12077. Int. J. Chem Tech. Res. 4,
1158–1162.
Shuit, S.H., Tan, K.T., Lee, K.T., Kamaruddin, A.H., 2009. Oil palm biomass as a sus-
tainable energy source: a Malaysian case study. Energy 34, 1225–1235.
Sindhu, R., Silviya, N., Binod, P., Pandey, A., 2013. Pentose-rich hydrolysate from acid
pretreated rice straw as a carbon source for the production of poly‑3‑hydrox-
ybutyrate. Biochem. Eng. J. 78, 67–72.
Siracusa, V., Rocculi, P., Romani, S., Rosa, M.D., 2008. R18 biodegradable polymers for
food packaging: a biodegradable polymers for food packaging: a review. Trends Food
Sci. Tech. 19, 634–643.
Smerilli, M., Neureiter, M., Wurz, S., Haas, C., Frühauf, S., Fuchs, W., 2015. Direct fer-
mentation of potato starch and potato residues to lactic acid by Geobacillus stear-
othermophilus under non-sterile conditions. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 90,
648–657.
Sompong, O.-T., Boe, K., Angelidaki, I., 2012. Thermophilic anaerobic co-digestion of oil
palm empty fruit bunches with palm oil mill effluent for efficient biogas production.
Appl. Energy 93, 648–654.
Suwannasing, W., Imai, T., Kaewkannetra, P., 2015. Cost-effective defined medium for
the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates using agricultural raw materials. Bioresour.
Technol. 194, 67–74.
Takahashi, R., Castilho, N., Silva, M., Miotto, M., Lima, A., 2017. Prospecting for marine
bacteria for polyhydroxyalkanoate production on low-cost substrates. Bioeng. 4, 60.
Tan, H.W., Aziz, A.A., Aroua, M.K., 2013. Glycerol production and its applications as a
raw material: a review. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 27, 118–127.
Tang, X., Alavi, S., 2011. Recent advances in starch, PVOH based polymer blends, na-
nocomposites and tehir biodegradability. Carbohydr. Polym. 85, 7–16.
Thompson, S.A., Thompson, G.G., 2004. Adequacy of rehabilitation monitoring practices
in the Western Australian mining industry. Ecol. Manag. Restor. 5, 30–33.
Tommonaro, G., Pejin, B., Iodice, C., Tafuto, A., De Rosa, S., 2016. Further in vitro bio-
logical activity evaluation of amino-, thio- and ester-derivatives of avarol. J. Enzyme
Inhib. Med. Chem. 30, 333–335.
Tyagi, P., Saxena, N.K., Sharma, A., 2018. Production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
from a non-lignocellulosic component of sugarcane bagasse: fueling a biobased
economy. Biofuels Bioprod. Biorefin. 12, 536–541.
Valentino, F., Riccardi, C., Campanari, S., Pomata, D., Majone, M., 2015. Fate of
β‑hexachlorocyclohexane in the mixed microbial cultures (MMCs) three-stage poly-
hydroxyalkanoates (PHA) production process from cheese whey. Bioresour. Technol.
192, 304–311.
Valentino, F., Gottardo, M., Micolucci, F., Pavan, P., Bolzonella, D., Rossetti, S., Majone,
M., 2018. Organic fraction of municipal solid waste recovery by conversion into
added-value polyhydroxyalkanoates and biogas. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6,
16375–16385.
Vardon, D.R., Franden, M.A., Johnson, C.W., Karp, E.M., Guarnieri, M.T., Linger, J.G.,
Salm, M.J., Strathmann, T.J., Beckham, G.T., 2015. Adipic acid production from
lignin. Energy Environ. Sci. 8, 617–628.
Vasmara, C., Cianchetta, S., Marchetti, R., Galletti, S., 2015. Biogas production from
wheat straw pre-treated with ligninolytic fungi and co-digestion with pig slurry.
Environ. Eng. Manag. J. 14, 1751–1760.
Vázquez, J.A., Murado, M.A., 2008. Enzymatic hydrolysates from food wastewater as a
source of peptones for lactic acid bacteria productions. Enzym. Microb. Technol. 43,
66–72.
Vega-Castro, O., Contreras-Calderon, J., León, E., Segura, A., Arias, M., Pérez, L., Sobral,
P.J., 2016. Characterization of a polyhydroxyalkanoate obtained from pineapple peel
waste using Ralsthonia eutropha. J. Biotechnol. 231, 232–238.
Venkateswar Reddy, M., Venkata Mohan, S., 2012. Influence of aerobic and anoxic mi-
croenvironments on polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) production from food waste and
acidogenic effluents using aerobic consortia. Bioresour. Technol. 103, 313–321.
Verlinden, R.A., Hill, D.J., Kenward, M.A., Williams, C.D., Piotrowska-Seget, Z., Radecka,
I.K., 2011. Production of polyhydroxyalkanoates from waste frying oil by Cupriavidus
necator. AMB Express 1, 1–8.
Wang, Y.J., Hua, F.L., Tsang, Y.F., Chan, S.Y., Sin, S.N., Chua, H., Yu, P.H.F., Ren, N.Q.,
2007. Synthesis of PHAs from waste under various C:N ratios. Bioresour. Technol. 98,
1690–1693.
Wang, T., Zhang, L., Li, D., Yin, J., Wu, S., Mao, Z., 2008. Mechanical properties of
polyurethane foams prepared from liquefied corn stover with PAPI. Bioresour.
Technol. 99, 2265–2268.
Y.F. Tsang, et al.
Weber, C.J., Haugaard, V., Festersen, R., Bertelsen, G., 2002. Production and applications
of biobased packaging materials for the food industry. Food Addit. Contam. 19,
172–177.
Wen, Z., Wang, Y., De Clercq, D., 2015. Performance evaluation model of a pilot food
waste collection system in Suzhou City. China. J. Environ. Manage. 154, 201–207.
Xue, L., Liu, G., Parfitt, J., Liu, X., Van Herpen, E., Stenmarck, Å., O'Connor, C., Östergren,
K., Cheng, S., 2017. Missing food, missing data? A critical review of global food losses
and food waste data. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51, 6618–6633.
Yu, F., Liu, Y., Pan, X., Lin, X., Liu, C., Chen, P., Ruan, R., 2006. Liquefaction of corn
stover and preparation of polyester from the liquefied polyol. Appl. Biochem.
Biotechnol. 129–132, 574–585.
Yu, J., Lin, F., Lin, P., Gao, Y., Becker, M.L., 2013. Phenylalanine-based poly (ester urea):
synthesis, characterization, and in vitro degradation. Macromolecules 47 (1),
121–129.
644
Environment International 127 (2019) 625–644
Yue, H., Ling, C., Yang, T., Chen, X., Chen, Y., Deng, H., Wu, Q., Chen, J., Chen, G.Q.,
2014. A seawater-based open and continuous process for polyhydroxyalkanoates
production by recombinant Halomonas campaniensis LS21 grown in mixed substrates.
Biotechnol. Biofuels 7, 108.
Zahari, M.A.K.M., Zakaria, M.R., Ariffin, H., Mokhtar, M.N., Salihon, J., Shirai, Y.,
Hassan, M.A., 2012. Renewable sugars from oil palm frond juice as an alternative
novel fermentation feedstock for value-added products. Bioresour. Technol. 110,
566–571.
Zahari, M.A.K.M., Ariffin, H., Mokhtar, M.N., Salihon, J., Shirai, Y., Hassan, M.A., 2015.
Case study for a palm biomass biorefinery utilizing renewable non-food sugars from
oil palm frond for the production of poly(3‑hydroxybutyrate) bioplastic. J. Clean.
Prod. 87, 284–290.
Zohuriaan-mehr, M.J., 2005. Advances in chitin and chitosan modification through graft
copolymerization: a comprehensive review. Polym. J. 14, 235–265.