Jrawnulr,fSourhAmrimn Eurrh Scirncrs. Vol. Y. Nos l/2. pp. 5Y-68.

IYYh

ergamon Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Lti B Earth Sciences B Resourw lnslituw Primal in Greal Britain.

All rights mc~cd

OXYS-981 I/Y6 sls.trl + O.(Kl
PII: SO895-9811(%)00027-2

The Bolivar mafic-ultramafic complex, SW Colombia: the base of an abducted

oceanic plateau

ALVARO NIVIA

INGEOMlNAS - Regional Pacifico, A.A. 9724, Cali, Colombia

Abstract - The Bolivar mat%-uhramafic complex (Valle Department) is a late Cretaceous banded sequence of dunites, lhenolites.
pyroxenites and gabbtonorites. The gabbronorites. which can be layered or isotropic, are extensively amphibolitized and have
suffered pervasive deformation and local migmatisation, indicating that these reeks wete affected by a HaO-rich metasomatic event
that eventually led to their partial fusion. The complex is cut by pegmatitic dykes. which vary petrographically according to their
level of emplacement. In the lower levels plagioclase-hornblende dykes ate found, wheteas in the upper parts the dykes are rich in
plagioclase, quartz, muscovite, and &cite. ‘Ihe dunites have been altered to serpentinite and fotm the host rock of a stcckwork
deposit of cryptocrystalline magnesite veins. Opal veins deposited a&r the magnesite veins occur in the upper levels of the deposit.
The mechanism producing this type of deposit is commatly believed to involve the alteration of olivine (dunite) by CO,-rich fluids
generated at depth. Interestingly, the world’s more impottant deposits of this type, located in a discontinuous belt through the
Dinaric Alps and Hellenides have geological characteristics very similar to those of the Bolivar deposit. These characteristics are
consistent with these deposits having formed during the process of abduction of anomalous (?plateau) ocean floor. It is proposed
that the metasomatic event, the generation of the pegmatitic dykes, and the fotrnation of the magnesite vents ate all genetically
related to an abduction prccess during which the igneous complex was accteted to the margin of Colombia. During abduction,
geothenns beneath the ovetthrust lithospheric block rose, distilling the Ha0 and boron contained in the terrigenous sediments found
in the upper (undetthrust) part of the block The resulting fluids migrating through the overthrust block led to the formation of the
migmatites, amphibolites and pegmatite dykes. A second generation of CO*-rich fluids, created in a similar fashion ftwn calcarecats
sediments, may have been responsible for the magnesite mineralization. Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd & Earth Sciences
& Resources Institute

Remmen - El complejo m4ficoultramafico de Bolfvar (Departamento de1 Valle) esta fomrado por una secuencia bandeada de1
Cretaceo superior, confomtada par dunitas, lhetzolitas. piroxenitas y gabronotitas. Las gabrcnotitas, que pueden ser bandeadas o
isotr6picas. estan ampliamente anfibolitizadas y presentan defomuG5n penetrativa conspicua y texturas migmatfticas locales
indicativas de un evento de metasomatismo tico en HsO, que condujo a su fusi6n parcial. Bl complejo esta mttuido por diques
pegmatfticos, cuya composici6n varfa dependiendo de su nivel de emplazamiertto. Bn las panes inferiores estos diques e&n
constituidos esencialmente por plagioclasa y homblenda. mientras que en las supetiores consisten cn plagioclasa. cuatzo.
muscovita y sericita. Las dunitas fueton serpentinizadas y actdan coma tcca encajante de un dep6sito en enrejado de venas de
magnesita cripoctistalina. Hacia la parte superior de1 dep6sito ocurten venas de 6palo depositadas con posterioridad a las de
magnesita. Se cme que el mecanfsmo de fomraci6n de estos dep6sitos involucra la alteraci6n de olivino (dtmita) por fluidos rices
en CO, generados en profundidad. Adicionalmente, 10s dep6sitos de este tipo mas importantes de1 mundo, localizados en un
cintur6n discontinue a lo Iargo de 10s Alpes Dinaricos y Helettidos, presentan caracterfsticas geol6gicas muy similarzs a las de1
yacimiento de Bolfvar y que penniten interpretarlos coma fortnados por pr~esos de obducci6n de suelo oceanic0 an6malo. Se
postula que el evento de metasomatismo. la generaci6n de 10s diques pegmatfticos y la formaci6n de1 yacimiento de magnesita
de Bolfvar e&n geneticamente relacionados a un proceso de obducci6n. durante el cual se acrecion6 el Complejo Igneo al
margen Colombiano. Durante la obducci6n el bloque subyacente sufri6 un inctemento de temperatttra que produjo la destilaci6n
de1 Hz0 y bon, contenidos en 10s sedimentos tertfgenos que cubtian su parte superior. La migraci6n de 10s fluidos test&antes a
naves de1 bloque obducido condujo a la formacidn de migmatitas, anfibolitas y diques de pegmatita. Una segunda generaci6n de
fluidos rices en CO,, pmducidos de manera similar por sedimentos calc&os, pudo haber sido rcsponsable de la mineralzaci6n de
la magnesita.

INTRODUCTION
Geological evidence, in conjunction with gravimetric and
seismic studies, suggest that the Colombian Andes can be
described in terms of two different crustal provinces: an eastern
province of continental affinity and a western province of oceanic
affinity that broadly corresponds to the Basic Igneous Complex
as defined by Goosens et al.,
(1977) in Ecuador. he-Cenozoic rocks of the eastern province
consist of igneous and metamorphic Precambrian and Palaeozoic
rocks, intruded by Mesozoic granitoid plutons. In Central
Colombia (Fig. 1) the western province comprises the basic
volcanics and locally associated mafic-ultramafic rocks of the
post-Lower Cretaceous basic igneous complex and also includes
deformed marine sedimentary strata. The Cauca-Almaguer
Fault (former Romeral Fault sensu Case et al., 1971; McCourt,
1984) which marks the boundary between the two provinces
parallels the western flank of the Andean Central Cordillera
and can be traced throughout Colombia and Ecuador (Meissner et al.,
1976; Duque-Caro, 1979; Feininger and Bristow, 1980; McCourt,
1984; Aspden et al., 1992). Gravimetric and seismic profiles
traversing the Andes confirm that to the east of the fault
gmvimetric anomaly values are strongly negative (as low as -220
mgals, Case et al., 1973), whereas to the west, Bouguer anomalies
are positive with values as high as +135 mgals (Case et al., 1971).
The distribution of such values and of those calculated for the
seismic velocities (Meyer er al., 1977; Ckola et al., 1977) suggest
that to the east of the fault there exists sialic crust with the Moho
located at a depth of 40-50 km (Case et al., 1984). To the west, the
Andes are made of high density, high velocity materials, probably
oceanic crust (Case et al., 1971, 1973; Meissner et al., 1976) with
the Moho located at a depth of 25-30 km (Case et al., 1984).
Interpretations of the evolution of the crust in Colombia
(Barrero, 1979; Bourgois et al., 1982; McCourt et al., 1984;

59
60 A. NIVIA

LEGEND
CENOZOIC ROCKS

CRETACEOUS ROCKS
BugaBatholith
(109 Ma RbSr)

BASIC IGNEOUS COMPLE>

Tholeiilic basalis
a fermasalls

Gabbronorites

Layered norles
8 gabbmnorhes

Serpentinites
PWldolH~S

Bluescmts 8
n * eclogites

PALEOZOIC ROCKS

metavolcanic.5

‘CARIBBEAN SEA

.\
ECLIN ------\

BOGOTA
@ COLOMBIA

Fig. 1. Geological sketch map of central South-Western Colombia (simplified from Vergara, 1983; De Armas, 1985; McCourt et al., 1985; Nivia et al.,
1992), showing the location of the main ultramafic complexes: 1 = Bolivar mafic-ultramafic complex; 2 = Venus ultramafic body; 3 = Ginebra ultramafic
mnassif.
considered that the fault represents the location of a paleosubduction
zone, i.e. the continental margin of South America, during the
Aspden and McCourt, 1986) consider that the Basic Igneous Ctetaceous.
Complex was accreted to the continental margin of South America
Associated with the Basic Igneous Complex up to 30
over the period Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary. The presence of a
km from the Cauca-Almaguer Fault, there are several
125 Ma blueschist belt (Orrego
ultramafic massifs (Barrero, 1979; Vergara. 1983; Espinosa, 1980,
er al., 1980b. Feininger 1982), and eclogite lenses associated with
1985). The northernmost one, the Bolivar ultramafic complex,
tectonised ultramafic rocks emplaced some
exhibits zones of amphibolitisation and deformation, is cross-cut by
15-20 km to the east of the Cauca-Almaguer fault (Feininger, 1980;
a series of homblende-pegmatitic dykes and include layers of
McCourt and Feininger, 1984; Orrego er
serpentinite that host
al., 1980a), has played an important role in the interpretation of the
evolution of the Northern Andes. It is
 Evidence for Obduction in the Bolivar Ultramafic Complex, SW Colombia 61

magnesite mineralization of economic importance. The
hypothesis that the genesis of these features is related to the
suture event of the two provinces, during which part of the
western province was abducted on top of the Cretaceous
continental border of South America, is proposed in this
paper.
The field work for this study was completed during
regional rock sampling to assess the geochemistry of the
basalts from the Basic Igneous Complex (Nivia 1987). known
in Colombia as the Diabase Group (Nelson, 1957) or the
Amaime and Volcanic Formations (Aspden et al., 1985;
McCourt et al., 1985); and also during the INGEOMINAS
regional mapping project “Geology of the sheet 242 - Zarzal”
(Nivia et al., 1992). Mineral compositions were determined at
the University of L&ester using a Cambridge Microscan V
electron microprobe (energy dispersive system). Whole rock
analysis for major and trace elements, using a Philips PW 1400
automatic X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF , was also
performed at Leicester.
GEOLOGY AND PETROGRAPHY
The Bolivar ultramafic complex forms the eastern foothills
of the Western Cordillera to the north of the Valle Department
and it extends westwards to the Roldanillo Fault which marks
its contact with the basalts of the Volcanic Formation (Fig. 1).
Barrero (1979) defined this unit as the ‘Bolivar M&c-
Ultramafic Zoned Complex’ and postulated that it diapirically
intrudes the basalts and dolerites of the Volcanic Formation
(sic. Diabase Group)
forming a concentrically zoned body consisting of a core of
dunite sum>unded by successive rims of olivine-
clinopyroxenite, clinopyroxenite and peridotite that permits its
comparison with the Alaskan ultramafic zoned complex
described by Irvine in 1974 (Banero, 1979). This concentric
zoning is, however, not obvious so it is undesirable to include
this genetic connotation in the name of the complex. In
different studies this unit has been called the Bolivar
ultramafic complex (Aspden, 1984; INGEOMINAS-BGS,
1991), the Bolivar ultrabasic and basic massif (Bourgois er al..
1982) or the Bolivar ultrabasic massif (Espinosa, 1987). The
last two papers propose that the general structure of the
Bolivar complex is anticlinal (i.e. not zoned). Nivia et al.
(1992) interpreted the complex as faulted/imbricated blocks
showing different levels of oceanic layer 3 in an ophiolitic
sequence, and described it in terms of the horizons usually
recognized in this layer: ultramafic rocks, cumulus gabbros
and an upper horizon of isotropic gabbros. Here the latter
interpretation is adopted as a criteria for polarity, with the
inference that the ultramafic rocks represent the lower part of
the sequence which grades upwards to more differentiated
rocks.
LJIrroqfic Rocks
The ultramafic rocks consist of an intercalation of very
thick, ca. lOm., layers of serpentinised dunite and interbanded
with units (lo-30 cm thick) of serpentinised lherzolites, olivine
websterites and olivine gabbronorites.
The dunites are usually serpentinised and when they

Table 1. Representative olivine and clinopyroxene compositions, Bolivar ultramafic complex

Olivines Clinopyroxenes
AN50 AN120 AN50 AN125 AN121

SiO, 39.19 39.57 38.64 39.26 51.68 52.16 51.64 52.10 51.96
TiO, 0.14 - 0.26 0.19 0.34 0.21 0.21
42% 0.06 0.14 - 0.29 2.59 1.57 1.81 1.30 1.15
Cr20, - 0.16 - - 0.92 0.13 0.12 0.17 0.02
Fe0 18.76 18.85 20.16 19.81 4.00 12.08 9.20 9.60 9.93
MnO 0.34 0.28 0.20 0.38 0.13 0.21 0.30 0.17 0.37
MgO 41.15 41.27 40.00 40.38 15.67 15.11 14.23 13.33 12.95
23.61 17.34 22.12 23.27 22.72
CaONazG 0.5104
01..0402 0.56 :*!: 0.78 0.14 0.59 0.08 0.60
K,O - - 0.02 0:04 0.13 0.11 0.02 - -
Total 100.56 100.96 99.58 100.48 99.77 99.04 100.37 100.23 99.91

Cation proportions on the basis of 4 oxygens Cation proportions on the basis of 6 oxygens

Si 1.000 1.003 1.000 1.004 1.910 1.%7 1.929 1.953 1.959

Ti 0.003 - - 0.007 0.005 0.010 0.006 0.006
Al 0.002 0.004 - 0.009 0.113 0.070 0.080 0.058 0.05 1
Cr 0.003 0.027 0.004 0.004 0.005 -
Fe2+ 0.400 0.400 i.436 0.424 0.123 0.381 0.287 0.301 0.313
Mn 0.007 0.006 0.004 0.008 0.004 0.007 0.009 0.005 0.012
Mg 1.564 1.559 1.544 1.539 0.863 0.849 0.793 0.745 0.728
Ca 0.001 0.001 0.935 0.701 0.886 0.935 0.918
Na 0.050 0.025 0.028 0.016 0.056 0.010 0.042 0.006 0.044
K 0.001 0.001 0.006 0.005 0.001 - -

Fo 80.5 80.6 78.0 78.4 Ca 48.67 36.20 45.07 47.20 46.86

Mg 44.92 43.96 40.35 37.60 37.16
Fe 6.40 19.73 14.60 15.19 15.97
AN50: olivine websterite; AN120: olivine gabbronorite;
AN125 and AN121: gabbronorite.
62 A. NIVIA

occur intercalated with peridotites and pyroxenites, have a mylonitic Fe +

foliation. Fresh fine grained, dark green to black melanocratic
dunite is locally present. In thin section the
dunites are holocrystalline, equigranular, exhibit mosaic textures, and
are composed of olivine (>90% mode) and opaque chromite. The Cr
content of the dunites varies between 1800 and 7000 ppm.

Serpentinites are light brown in colour, strongly fractured and

relatively soft consisting of ca. 50% by volume altered olivine.
Alteration products exhibit fibrous habits and patches which are
difficult to resolve but suggest the presence of chrysotile and
lizardite. Associated with the latter, fresh opaque minerals (probably
chromite) can also be found.

In the field, the lherzolite, olivine websterite and olivine a a

gabbronorite bands contrast with the serpentinite bands in that they
display a lack of both alteration and magnesite mineralization.
ANg0?,A.““<:..$ \
These rocks are melanocratic and vary in colour from dark grey to
black. The colour index is dependent on the plagioclase content, MCI Vk
50

that increases from -5% in websterites from the lower sequence to - 90 AN120 ‘O
60% in some layers of cumulitic gabbro. Texturally the rocks are 1 I I
holocrystalline and equigranular, having medium to small crystals
usually arranged to form xenomorphic granular textures. Their Mel% Forsterite
mineralogy consist mainly of ortho- and clino-pyroxenes, variable
Fig. 2. Pyroxene and olivine compositions in the Bolivar
amounts of olivine, and accessory
ultramafic complex rocks. Tie-lines indicate analyses in the same
sample.
plagioclase and opaque phases. Orthopyroxenes exhibit fine cpyx
exsolution lamellae, needles or bubbles. An exsolved opaque phase
associated with the cleavage planes exsolved orthopyroxene, and have compositions close to
is present. Poikilitic orthopyroxene encloses euhedral Wo4@n45FsS (Table 1; Fig. 2). Olivines have compositions
clinopyroxenes and plagioclases; the orthopyroxenes have near Fo,,, (Table 1; Fig. 2) and sometimes have incomplete kelyphitic
compositions close to En,, (Table 2, Fig. 2). pyroxene rims. Plagioclase is present as small interstitial crystals that
Clinopyroxenes are smaller, mostly interstitial, have are close to An,, in composition (Table 3; Fig, 3).

Table 2. Representative orthopyroxene compositions, Bolivar ultramafic complex.

AN50 AN120 AN90 AN125 AN121

SiO, 54.46 54.84 55.48 52.84 52.49 53.09 53.04 52.50 52.25
TiO, 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.12 0.17 0.08 0.25 0.14
A1203 2.34 1.67 1.30 1.25 1.06 1.07 1.03 0.52 0.92
Cr203 0.41 0.31 0.08 0.12 0.02 0.10 0.04 0.08
Fe0 11.95 12.48 12.92 21.09 20.60 21.38 20.75 24.83 25.41
MnO 0.36 0.24 0.34 0.40 0.62 0.47 0.54 0.80 0.83
MgO 29.03 28.73 29.54 23.26 22.73 23.03 23.05 20.05 19.17
CaO 0.57 0.39 0.33 1.11 2.24 0.77 0.87 0.68 0.83
Na20 0.71 0.37 0.44 0.36 0.09 0.34 0.08 0.35 0.41
K,O - - - - 0.06
Total 99.88 99.11 100.54 100.55 100.02 100.23 99.77 99.91 99.90

Cation proportions on the basis of 6 oxygens.

Si 1.939 1.966 1.965 1.952 1.953 1.967 1.969 1.986 1.984

Ti 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.005 0.002 0.007 0.004 -
Al 0.098 0.070 0.054 0.055 0.047 0.047 0.045 0.023 0.041
Cr 0.012 0.009 0.002 0.004 0.001 0.003 0.001 0.002
Fez+ 0.356 0.374 0.383 0.652 0.641 0.662 0.644 0.786 0.807
Mn 0.011 0.007 0.010 0.013 0.019 0.015 0.017 0.026 0.027
Mg 1.541 1.536 1.560 1.281 1.261 1.272 1.276 1.131 1.085
Ca 0.022 0.015 0.012 0.044 0.089 0.03 1 0.035 0.028 0.034
Na 0.049 0.026 0.030 0.026 0.007 0.025 0.006 0.025 0.030
K 0.003

En 79.81 80.41 80.28 66.27 66.30 65.77 66.45 59.00 57.34

AN50 = olivine websterite: AN120 = olivine gabbronorite; AN 90 = norite;

AN125 and AN121 = gabbronorite.
 Evidence for Obduction in the Bolivar Ultramafic Complex, SW Colombia 63

MO196 ANORTHITE two notable features: a conspicuous pervasive deformation,

parallel to subparallel with the banding, and variable alteration
100 90 80 70 60 50
of pyroxenes to amphibole. These rocks, and to some extent
I I I I the ultramafics below, have suffered local minor
) AN1211 remobilization that led to the formation of coarse pegmatitic
L-__l_lIl leucogabbros that display clear intrusive contacts with the
1 AN1251 banded finer grained melagabbros.
L_Ld 1
Petrographically, the rocks of these two horizons are
I I I ! #AN901 holoctystalline, equigranular, medium to coarse grained with
L_J_LdG.. ! I
xenomorphic textures. Crystals are oriented with their long
I AN1201 axis parallel to the compositional banding in the lower part of
L___L& 1
the sequence. Ophitic textures between clinopyroxenes and
1 AN501 plagioclase are common. Olivines are anhedral, of medium
U$%l. 1
grain size, and seldom exhibit kelyphitic rims, being partially
I I I I I 1 altered to serpentine along fractures. Orthopyroxenes are
100 90 80 70 60 50 subhedral to euhedral with stubby prismatic habit;
clinopyroxenes mainly subhedral to anhedral, showing
Fig. 3. Plagioclase compositions in the Bolivar ultramafic complex hypersthenic exsolution lamellae. Both exhibit exsolution of
rocks. Tie-lines in sample AN90 link analyses from the core and rim an opaque phase (“Schiller texture”) that in extreme cases can
of the same crystal. replace up to 50% of the pyroxenes leaving an aggregate of
rounded opaque crystallites. Plagioclases, some with corroded
borders, are clouded and/or schillerised parallel to the
Ban&d and isotropic gabbros cleavage planes. In the cumulitic levels there is clear zonation
of plagioclase crystals (Fig. 3). Sometimes plagioclase
The Bolivar ultramafic complex gabbros have been exhibits undulatory extinction and filling of fractures by very
mapped separately as either banded or isotropic gabbro (Nivia fine grainecl amphiboles. Two opaque exsolved phases have
et al., 1992). The lower banded gabbro horizon is relatively been identified: interstitial ilmenite (53wt% TiO,, 42wt%
homogeneous and consists of interbanded olivine FeO) and magnetite (88wt% FeO, 3wt% TiO&
norites, norites, gabbronorites and occasionally anorthosites; The mineral chemistry of the crystalline phases in the
the upper isotropic gabbro horizon is gabbros follow trends expected of differentiated tholeiitic
composed essentially of gabbronorites. The banded horizon liquids showing increasing FeO/MgO ratio with fractionation.
consist of alternating bands of variable thickness (0.3-lm), but Olivines, restricted to the lower part of the sequence, have
with gradational contacts. Them are also bands showing compositions of Fo,,.s in olivine norites and Fo,,, in olivine
cumulate Fe-Mg minerals at the base and plagioclase near the web&rites (Table 1; Fig. 2).
top, the latter almost pure anorthosite. These rocks have
Table 3. Representative plagioclase compositions, Bolivar ultramafic complex.

AN50 AN120 AN90 AN125 AN121

SiO, 44.66 44.63 44.99 45.82 47.25 45.08 45.23 45.99 46.41
TiO, 0.03 0.15 0.11 -- 32.77 340.0265 0.04 __ 0.03
A12o3 34.48 34.56 34.57 33.63 34.32 33.99 33.44
Cr203 0.04 0.03 0.05 - 0.03 -
Fe0 0.13 0.19 a.10 0.46 0.57 0.67 0.67 0.32 0.32
MnO 0.03 - 0.07 0.01 -
MgO 0.04 - 0.05 0-.13
CaO 18.90 18.82 19.36 18.15 17.03 19.31 18.95 18.34 17.96
Na20 O.% 0.80 0.95 1.34 2.04 0.88 0.84 1.28 1.49
K,O - 0.20 0.02 - 0.04 0.03 0.01 -
Total 99.23 99.39 100.10 99.45 99.76 100.78 100.08 99.97 99.65

Cation proportions on the basis of 32 oxygens

Si 8.322 8.315 8.320 8.512 8.727 8.303 8.372 8.492 8.587

Ti 0.004 0.021 0.015 - 0.002 0.005 0.004
Al 7.575 7.591 7.537 7.361 7.134 7.521 7.487 7.399 7.293
Cr 0.004 0.008 0.005 -
Fe?+ 0.021 :::: 0-.0160.07 1 0.089 0.102 0.104 0.049 0.049
Mn 0.005 - - 0.010 0.020 0.001 -
0.014 -
zg 03.012774 3-.758 3.837 3.612 3.371 3.812 3.758 3.630 3.561
Na 0.345 0.288 0.339 0.482 0.730 0.315 0.302 0.460 0.536
K 0.005 0.005 - 0.009 0.007 0.001 -

An 91.64 92.76 91.77 88.26 82.19 92.16 92.40 88.73 86.91

Ab 8.37 7.11 8.11 11.77 17.80 7.62 7.42 11.24 13.08
or 0.12 0.12 - 0.22 0.17 0.02 -
64 A. NIVIA
Orthopyroxenes, change from En,,, in olivine norites, through En,
in norites and gabbronohtes from the cumulus
horizons to En,, in the more differentiated isotropic gabbronorites
(Table 2, Fig. 2). Clinopyroxenes, salites and
augites range similarly from Ca,,MgMFe,, to
Ca,,Mg,sFe,, (Table 1, Fig. 2). Plagioclase compositional variation
is less well defined, but is mostly near An, (Table 3, Fig. 3).
However, microprobe analysis of the centre and rim of the same
crystal suggest crystallization of
intercumulus fractionated liquids around An-rich primocrysts (Fig.
3).
Amphibolitisation
A conspicuous feature of the gabbro horizons is the
development of amphibolitisation, present as variable
recrystallization of the margins of clinopyroxenes to uralite,
cummingtonite and hornblende. It is possible to observe
two types of recrystallization: clusters of needle-like
cummingtonite and green hornblende crystals growing into all
spaces available (i.e. borders, fractures and cleavage planes) in the
pyroxene and plagioclase crystals: and amphiboles growing in
optical continuity forming a single crystal that occupies all the thin
section, poikilitically
enclosing all the phases not susceptible to
amphibolitisation. The associated plagioclase crystals are An-rich,
and this rules out the possibility that the original textures were
ophitic. Very coarse skeletal crystals of
hornblende, associated with needle-like microlites of plagioclase,
have been described by Baldion er al. (1991)
as a spinifex texture. The recrystallization seems to be accompanied
by the exsolution of a very fine grained opaque phase.
Hornblende-Plagioclase-Quartz Pegmatitic Dykes
The rocks of the Bolivar ultramafic complex are intruded by a
suite of dykes that are on average 50 cm thick and show E-W
preferred orientation. They also occur in other ultramafic bodies in
western Colombia (Tistl er al., 1994). These dykes consist of large
crystals of hornblende and variable amounts of plagioclase and
quartz, and contain serpentinised dunite, peridotite and gabbro
xenoliths. Most dykes have large euhedral to subhedral hornblendes
(up to 50 cm in extreme cases) growing perpendicular to the dyke
margins or to contacts with xenoliths. Late-crystallising
plagioclases show albite and pericline twining and have graphic
intergrowths with quartz. The rocks also contain
very coarse biotite. muscovite and a mineral phase
petrographically identified dumortierite,
(Al,Fe3+),03(Si0J3(B03). The latterlihase is present in
crystals up to 25 cm long and exhibit a chlorite-muscovite reaction
rim. Andalusite and spessartite have also been reported in these
dykes (Ortiz and Gomez, 1971: Baldion er al., 1991).
Observations in the “Sociedad Magnesios Bolivalle
Ltda.” magnesite qua”y, Bolivar. shows that the composition of
these pegmatoids varies according to their
level of emplacement, the dykes being hornblende-
plagioclase-rich and anorthositic below, but are quartz-feldspar-rich
(+biotite, muscovite, chlorite f dumortierite) in the dykes exposed
in the higher levels of the quarry. This feature suggests a relatively
rapid and effective in situ fractionation process during dyke
emplacement.
Magnesite Mineralization
Magnesite mineralization is hosted in the thick
serpentinite bands of the ultramafic lower horizon. The
mineralization consists of magnesite and small number of opal veins
that cut through the serpentinite. The higher concentration of opals
veins in the higher parts of the quarry suggests some type of
emplacement level control. The thickness of the veins varies over
short distances from l-2 mm up to a maximum of 30 cm. The length
of the individual veins is difficult to measure because they are very
irregular and lack preferred orientation, forming a random network.
This suggests filling of fractures in a rock affected by cataclastic
deformation. The contact between the magnesite veins and the host
rock is sharp, and sometimes shows a thin film of chlorite, talc and
tremolite in the walls of the veins. Both veins and dykes were
affected by cataclastic deformation as indicated by the abundance of
microfaults, however the main deformation
of the veins described as “ptygmatic-type” (Nivia et al., 1992)
seems to be due to an increase in volume after the formation as
veins, perhaps during the serpentinization event.
The magnesite is cryptocrystalline, white, earthy. with opaque
lustre; porosity variation is about 10%. The average MgO content is
49 wt%, but with an important component of silica (9.5%) and
small amounts of Ca and Fe. The high
silica may represent disseminated opal within the magnesite itself.
Silica, in the form of opal, forms separate veins: this opal is
cryptocrystalline, white, massive, and has porcellanous lustre and
conchoidal fracture.
DISCUSSION
Genesis of the Bolivar ultramqfii complex
Although Barrero (1979) compared the Bolivar complex with
the zoned ultramafic complexes of Alaska (Irvine, 1974). the
concentric zoning - superficially also a feature of some up-domed
ophiolite complexes such as the classic Troodos Massif, Cyprus
(Hall, 1987) - is not well developed and, in places, the dunites and
gabbros are in contact (Baldion er al.. 1991). Alaskan-type
ultramafics are considered to have formed in erogenic belts from
andesitic or hydrated basaltic magmas (Murray, 1972; Hall, 1987)
and both the Bolivar Ultramafic Complex (Fig. 2), and the Volcanic
Formation basalts - considered as consanguinous (Barrero, 1979,
Nivia, 1987) - are tholeiitic, and probably generated in a tectonic
environment unrelated to erogenic belts (Nivia, 1987).
The characteristics of the complex pennit comparison with layer
3 of ophiolitic sequences. Models proposed to explain these
sequences (Coleman, 1977; Gass et al., 1984) consider that the
ultramafic rocks and banded gabbros are formed by accumulation of
crystals at the base of magma chambers, whereas the isotropic
gabbros are produced by cooling of the magma against the walls of
the chamber. The liquids contained in the chamber erupted forming
an upper layer of pillow lavas, basaltic flows and sheeted dykes (=
layer 2 of ocean crust). The trace element data reported for the
gabbros and amphibolites of the complex exhibit the same general
characteristics as the basalts of the Volcanic Formation, and so can
also be considered in the model as layer 2. Consequently it is
possible to infer consanguinity between the two groups of rocks
(Nivia, 1987), the layered gabbros and ultramafic rocks of the
Bolivar Complex representing the crystal cumulates from magma
chambers where the liquids represent the basalts of the Volcanic
Formation. The conspicuous magmatic banding. the abundance of
cumulus textures, the presence of plagioclase associated with the
rocks of the three levels of the complex
 Evidence for Obduction in the Bolivar Ultramafic Complex, SW Colombia 65

XDUCTION FEATURE!
h-lagnesite 8 opal
veins lz3

Dolerite sills and

 Isotropic &
layered gabbro

Peridotite
w
CONTINENT
Marine shale 8 ..‘.
carbonate seds a
.:.:.:.::.,:
Continental crust $$;,i
•II

Fig. 4. Schematic model for the generation of hornblende pegmatites during abduction of the Bolivar ophiolite: (a) Recently formed
oceanic plateau approaches NW margin of S. America, (b) Imbrication and abduction of “hot” plateau, (c) hydrous fluids and CO2
released where plateau thrust over elastic sediments and limestone then rise up
to generate hornblende-gabbro and magnesite veins respectively (circled region in (b)).

and the lack of rocks that can be compared with the tectonised
harzburgite typical of other ophiolitic complexes, indicate that
the complex was formed in a high level cnrstal magma
chamber immediately above the petrological Moho and so
lacks the associated mantle tectonites. Ophiolitic sequences
have generally been interpreted as fragments of oceanic crust
that have accreted or abducted onto continental margins. The
geochemical characteristics of the basalts of the Volcanic
Formation however are more consistent with an origin as an
oceanic plateau - part of which may now be represented by the
floor of the Caribbean (Millward et al., 1984; Nivia, 1987,
1989). It is possible, given the enhanced thickness and
buoyancy of young oceanic plateaus when compared with
normal oceanic crust, that arrival of such a plateau at an active
margin will jam the subduction zone and cause the
accretion/abduction of the plateau. The lack of tectonised
harzburgite in the Bolivar complex, and in other ophiolitic
massifs located in the same structural position (Espinosa,
1980, 1985; Vergara, 1983; Tistl et al., 1994) suggests that the
decollement of the plateau might have occurred at the level of
the Moho.
Thrusting of hot plateau oceanic crust over continental
crust will raise the geotherm in the underlying crustal
block, increasing its temperature, and resulting in dehydration
of hydrous phases in the underthrust continental
metasediments. The expelled fluids are then available to
permeate the overthrusted block producing recrystallisation
and fusion of some portions of the complex leading to the
coarse migmatitic textures and associated amphibolitisation of
the gabbros. Although the pegmatitic textures had initially
been interpreted as
produced by sedimentary-type processes during accumulation
in a magmatic chamber (Barrero, 1979; Baldion et al., 1991)
the presence of clear intrusive relationships suggest local
fusion resulting from the migration of fluids. The depression
of the solidus of basaltic systems at high pH,O is well known
(Yoder, 1979; Cox et al., 1984).
Genesis of the Pegtnatitic Dykes
An interesting feature relating the ophiolitic massifs of the
Basic Igneous Complex in Colombia is the common presence
of coarse hornblende pegmatite dykes. In the Los Azules
ultramafic massif their presence is conspicuous, Vergara
(1983) reported such dykes associated with the Venus
ophiolitic body and Espinosa (1985) described, in
66 A. NIVIA

--I
-.
/
I , _ ~
/- y
-T hochfilzen 0 000 1 I
r- Ra&zheinp _ _ !?Titanau /
L )_ /y r L
, - K --/ \
\ ,
‘---- - - ” ‘I Gsejgrade
_- - ( Black Sea
OSumadija _ c -.

Sarbinia !

------.-

Sant Antioco &uJ v ‘endow

Mediterranean Sea
TX Sicily
Syracuse
0

Fig. 5. (a) Location of the magnesite deposits associated with

ultramafic rocks in Europe and Asia Minor (close triangles:
modified from Harben and Bates, 1984, Fig. 84); other types
also shown for completeness. (b) These can be correlated with
ophiolite formation during the closure of a Cretaceous ocean
basin located between the African and Euroasian plates
(modified from Michard. 1987, Fig. 7).

origin of the dykes is uncertain, because there are no

the Ginebra Ophiolitic Massif, “plagiogranite” dykes which may well
correspond to those described here. Tistl et al. (1994) noted
hornblende pegmatite dykes in Viravira-Condoto ultramafic
complexes, NW Colombia.
According to Barrero (1979) the pegmatitic dykes that cutting the
present complex were generated as the result of the reaction between
residual liquids and water which penetrated through fractures
produced by its diapiric emplacement. Ortiz and Gomez (1971)
indicated that the
intrusive bodies of granitic composition in the region.
Although they clearly favoured the dykes possibly representing a
late-crystallizing phases of granite intrusion, the lack of sulphate
mineral phases into the paragenesis of the dykes, often associated
with the late stages of crystallization of granite magmas, is
noteworthy.
According to the proposed model, water is added to the base of
the abducted crust by dehydration of the underlying
block. Moreover, if the abduction is produced over sediments laid
on top of the latter, connate waters can also be distilled and injected
upwards through fractures. Observations in Bay of Islands and
Semail ophiolites
suggest that the crystallization and emplacement of
ophiolites are reiatively contemporaneous and in consequence they
are abducted as complete slices of hot, immature lithosphere, in
close vicinity to their places of generation (Spray, 1984; Case and
Dewey, 1984; Michard, 1987). The input of water to the base of the
ophiolite and the additional heat produced by friction during
thrusting might facilitate its partial fusion by the increase of
temperature and lowering the solidus, or by its reaction with residual
fluids. The liquids produce are injected
upwards crystallizing and fractionating in the fractures present in the
abducted block, so giving rise to the dykes. The reported occurrence
of dumortierite into the mineral
 Evidence for Obduction in the Bolivar Ultramafic Complex, SW Colombia
assemblage of tbe dykes favours the model of distillation by
abduction. According to the ideal formula of the mineral,
boron represents 2.8% of its weight. A consequence of this is
that high concentrations of boron are needed in the melt or
fluid for dumortierite crystallization. However, boron is
extremely dispersed in nature having on the average
concentrations of 3.3 ppm in the Barth crust and 4.6 on the sea
water (Harben and Bates, 1984). Its concentration varies from
3 ppm in ultramafic rocks through 5 ppm in mafic rocks, 10
ppm in granites, 20 ppm in limestones, 35 ppm in sandstones
to 100 ppm in marine shales (Rose et al., 1979). It can be
therefore be postulated that the boron contained in the
dumortierite was distilled from marine shales and
concentrated in a fluid pneumatolitic phase during the process
of abduction.
Genesis of the Magnesite Deposit
The origin of cryptocrystalline magnesite vein deposits
associated with ultramafic rocks has been ascribed to (1) in situ
me&somatic replacement of serpentine, and (2) filling of
fractures by mineralizing solutions. Textural and mass balance
considerations relating the experimental interaction between
forsterite-H@-CO2 f NaCl have been used to demonstrated the
non-viability of the first process (Dabitzias, 1980). The second
hypothesis considered two alternatives: deposition in open
fractures by the action of either meteoric or hypogenic CO,-
rich waters. Both mechanism have been considered in the
generation of the Bolivar magnesite deposit; Cuevas (1968)
proposed a supergene origin for the deposit, whereas Ortiz and
Gomez (1971) proposed that the magnesite veins had been
formed by ascending hydrothermal hypogenic waters.
The hypogenic origin of the magnesite is accepted today as
the most feasible (Harben and Bates, 1984), and its formation
mechanism seem to involve CO#ch waters, produced by steam
distillation at depth. This produces alteration of the
magnesium-rich serpentinite to magnesium carbonate in a
process that can be progressive via talc-magnesite and quark-
magnesite (Harben and Bates, 1984). The appropriate
mechanism for the distillation at depth of water contained in
hydrated minerals and marine shales and muds, has been
indicated in the abduction model proposed. If associated with
the latter sediments, there are also calcareous rocks from
which to distil the CO, needed to explain satisfactorily the
genesis of the Bolivar magnesite deposit, according to the
hypogenic theory.
The genesis of the more important magnesite deposits
associated with ultramafic rocks of the world has also been
explained using a model of ophiolite emplacement. These
deposits are located in a belt that extends through the Dinaric
Alps (Fallick et al., 1991), Greece (Dabitzias, 1980) and
Turkey and to the east through Pakistan (see Harben and Bates,
1984). The main producing sites from ultramafic rocks include
Bosnia, Zlativor, Kapaonik, and Kosova (Fig. Sa). The main
deposits are located in Greece particularly in the Chalkidiki
Peninsula and in the Eubea and Lesbos Islands in the Aegean
Sea (Ha&en and Bates, 1984). Magnesite is absent from other
ophiolites in the region, and this led to the suggestion
(Dabitzias, 1980) that there should be a relationship between
magnesite veining and the mechanism of ophiolite
emplacement. In order to explain the Chalkidiki Peninsula
(Vavdos) magnesite deposit, Dabitzias (1980) proposed that
the ultramafic rocks came from the destruction of a small
oceanic basin that was abducted over the pre-Albian basement
during the Late Cretaceous (Fig. 5b). Dabitzias indicated that
during the abduction process water and CO,, derived from the
67
sediments that underlay and enveloped the abducted ophiolite
were expelled and migrated through it when the ophiolite
reached a semi-brittle state. He also indicated that the fluids
derived from these sediments, and the sediments themselves,
acted as lubricant in the shear zones so reducing the frictional
resistance of the ophiolite to movement. Dabitzias (1982)
reacted for&rite with H@+CO&NaCI solutions at
temperatures up to 300°C, pressures up to 1 kb and with
different CO, concentrations, and concluded that with
increasing CO, in the solutions and with decreasing
temperature the Mg content of the solution increases while
that of silica decreases drastically: this might explain the
absence of silica from the magnesite veins.
Potentially, any ages obtained from pegmatitic dykes or
magnesite veins could, on the basis of the above model, help
constrain the date of the abduction event itself. K/Ar dating of
homblendes from the pegmatitic dykes by Brook (1984) gave
ages of 70 f14, 78 f14 and 102 f18 Ma, and by Barrero (1979)
gave 106 *18 Ma. Future studies hopefully could narrow this
range.
CONCLUSIONS
The layered gabbroic and ultramafic rocks of the Bolivar
Complex probably formed through crystallization in a high
level magma chamber in an oceanic plateau (now the
Caribbean-Colombian Plateau) near the Galapagos hotspot,
where the tholeiites of the Volcanic Formation in western
Colombia represent the associated extrusives, During the
attempted subduction of this plateau beneath the South
American continent the leading edge of the plateau was
overthrust onto the continental margin. During this process,
the water trapped in the terrigenous and calcareous rocks and
sediments that lay on top of the continental platform was
expelled along with boron, and later, CO*. The introduction
of water into the hot base of the abducted segment of plateau
crust, together with the frictional heat produced during
thrusting of the mass, contributed to the partial fusion of the
deeper sections of the plateau, the hydrous melts later
crystallising in low-strain zones as hornblende pegmatoid
dykes. The action of CO,-rich hydrothermal waters on
serpentinites previously formed by the alteration of the basal
dunites of the ophiolite, increased the magnesium content of
the solutions that then precipitated magnesite close to the
surface as pressure changed from lithospheric toward
hydrospheric and wherever void were created as a result of
tectonic uplift or hydrofracture. The depth of precipitation of
the magnesite veins, inferred from the cataclastic fracturing
during vein deposition, suggest a range in the initial states of
the brittle deformation. The mechanical behaviour of the
rocks was clearly an important factor, necessary to account
for difference between the highly magnesite-mineralized
dunites and the barren pyroxenites.
Acknowledgments: I would like to thank Prof. J. Tarney for
assistance in producing this manuscript, to he, Dr. Andrew
Kerr, Dr. Spyros Dabitzias and MS Marion Weber for helpful
improvements to the manuscript, and to Drs. John Aspden and
Bill McCourt for constructive reviews. This paper is published
with permission of the General Director, Ingeominas.
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