Ma;da Cernie [slmif and Dllfk a KJJf1f!

vicHofevar

5.2 Viewpoints on migration, gen de r relations and family

5.2.1 Introduction

In this chap ter, the relation be tween E uro peans' attitude s cowards changes in
gender roles, rep roductive and partnersh ip beha viour and toward s the importance
of childre n, as well as their attitudes toward s im migrant s, is examin ed with in the
frame work o f the Population Policy Accep tance Study (H ohn, Avramov and
Ko towska, 2007; Avramov and Cliquet, 2007b). These subtle links are usually
overlooked in esta blished demog raphic studies o n th e relationship between birth
rates and immigration. Only recentl y, sch olars have increasingly emp hasise d th at
ideo logies o f reprod uction are clos ely related to the imagina tion o f the national
populatio n whereby no n- members (e.g. immigrants , m inori ties, fo reigners and
asylum -seekers) o f such communities arc also de fined. O ur hypothesis is th at
indiv id uals' atti tude s towa rds fo reigners are in fluenced by their assessment o f
fertility, partner ship, ge nder roles and children.

I ndeed, nati onalist disco urse. wh ich is co nce ptualised as et bno -n atio nalist in
co ntrast 10 citizens hip -related (civic) nationali sm," defin es women as biological
rep roducers o f the national com m unity, and non-members as outsiders (King.
2002; 371). In this line , T eitelbaum and Winter (1998: 3-4) point out that in the
19905, it was p recisely the overlap o f low birth rates and intern ational migra tion,
as well as th eir intersection in domestic and intern atio nal politics, th at provoked
a new set o f concerns in the 'devel oped world'. Mor eover, un favo urable demo -
g raphic trend s were b ecom ing a sub ject o f ho t de bate o n natio nal identity, and in
so m e places the y even led 10 violence against immigrants, between ethnic gro ups
or between politi cal o pponents . The arrival o f immigran ts often triggers "d eeply
ent ren ched fears abo ut th e loss o f natio nal or eth nic ide nti ty and/or co n tro l"
(Teitelb aum ; in: D ouglass er aI, 2005; 8).

5.2.2 Theoretical background

Over th e past de cade, sch olars studying n egative attitudes toward s foreign ers
have incre asingly emph asised that pr ejudices regarding outside gro ups are not a
universal ph enomenon, but rather a social phenomen o n that is ma nifested to a
greater or lesser extent in speci fic his to rical circ um stances (Kinnea r, 1992; Simon
an d Lyn ch, 1999; Burns and Gimpel, 2000; Madd en s, Billiet and Beerten , 2000;

" Scholars n r nationalism anu' eehruciry usually distinguish between twn idealised types o f notion
- d .·k aml ethnic nationality and/or nationalism, civic nationality being founded un a notio n o f
common political responsibiluies and rights. while: eth nic Of national nationality is fou nded on an
assumed eommun ongin, culture. blond and territory.

189
Majda ~mic 1 ~leni c and Duska Kncf. evic Hocevar

Fireside, 2002; Mcl.aren, 2003; O'Connell, 2005). The results of more sophisti-
cated studies in th e past decade indicate that economic forces do no t have simply
a direct, unquestionable and straightforward effect on attitudes towards immi-
grants. A "subtle form of prejudice" (pettigrew and Meertens, 1995) is founded
more on a perceived threat to values and culture than merely on economic fac-
tors (Fetzer, 2000; O 'Conne ll, 2005).
T he review o f literature in the past decade on attitud es towards foreigners
also shows a shift from identifying the nature and causes of negative attitude s
towards for eigners to a mo re detailed analysis of the social representations of
national identities as the major so urce of the formation of the attitudes towards
foreigners (H jerm, 1998; Maddens, Bill iet and Beerten, 2000). The political and
economic changes in European countries after the fall of the Berlin Wall, 11
September 2001, persistent economic difficulties facing the inhabitants of the
Western European countries, and finally, changes owing [Q political and econo-
mic integration in Euro pe, are in the opinion of numerous scholars the main
reasons why extreme nation alist feelings arc on the rise and no t declining in
E urope (Kn udsen, 1997). As Fireside po ints out, countries thro ughout E urope
have issued stricter security measures for asylum-seekers, and even in usually
tolerant countries (such as D enmark) the anti-immigrant parties have doubled
their number of seats in parliament (Fireside, 2002: 477).
It seems that an anachronisti c notio n of the national po pulation not only as a
histo rical and cultural, but rather as a 'natural' phenome non could offer a suf-
ficiently convincing explanation as to why an anti-immigr ant climate is on the
rise today, even though some policy makers and even population experts regard
immigrants as potential saviours of the unfavourable demog raphic trends in
Europe. According to Kr eager (1997: 155), the concept of national population
was coined in Europe in the second half of the eighteenth century, mostly in the
discussions on nationalism as a political philosop hy. T he concept itself referred
to a peo ple with a shared linguistic, cultural and historical experience, material
condi tions such as residence in a common territory, and shared descent. Such
imagi ned entities were seen as natural phenomena - organic ties to their terri-
tory and environment were considered as peoples' natural rights to such places.
Finally, such 'natural who les' were to be 'ho me-produced' (Kreager 1997: 156)
and re-produced. In this line, Kligman (2005: 253) believes that today, it is no t so
much a question of E uropean states being sterile, but of the historical or tradi-
tional understandings of the nation being increasingly at odd s with dem ographic
realities (a relatively high propo rtion of immigrants owing to the demand s of the
labou r market; autho rs' note), which arc transforming the better-known (tradi-
tional) faces of the European nation s.
Nationalisms, like othe r social movements, developed their ideology of repro·
ductio n th rough precisely-defined arguments about the 'right attitudes' regar-
ding birt h, motherhood and gender relations. Through the utop ian narratives,
in which a key role is played by idealised images of reprod uction and continuity,
190
 Viewpo ints on migration, gend er relations and family

they defined precisely who sho uld (and should no t) rep roduce, and how much
(Gal and Kligman, 2000: 2 1). Therefore, as King (2000: 368) co mme nts, the
ethno-natio nalist vision, in co ntrast to civic nationalis m, has negative implicati-
ons for the citizens o f a minority, since they do not correspond to the do minan t
natio nal image. Ethno-na tionalism stre sses the traditional ge nder roles, while
civic nation alism supports the ideals of the En lightenme nt (rationalism and indi-
vidualism). Yet there is no evidence of ge nerally exhaustive and intern ationally-
comparable empirical verifications o f a relationship between nationalism , gen der
and reproductio n although so me case studies con sider such relation ship to exist.
Th e following hypo theses, based o n data from the Population Policy Accep tance
Stud y interna tional research project, represent a modest attempt at a co ntribu-
tio n in this direction.
Hypothesis 1: Attitudes towards fo reigners are linked to attitudes towards the
'traditional' roles of wo men (a woman's domain is work in th e family). T he more
individuals advocate the traditional position of women in the family, the mo re
they express negative attitudes towards immig rant s. The less individuals advocate
the trad itional position o f wom en in the family, the mo re they express positive
attitudes towards immig rants.
H ypot hesis 2: Suppo rting gcnde r equality measures is linked to po sitive attitudes
towards immigrants. The more individuals support gend er equality measures,
the more they cxpress positive attitudes towards immigrants. T he fewer indivi-
du als suppo rt gender equality measures, the more they express negative attitudes
towards immigrants.
H ypothesis 3: Negative assessment of changes in partnership behaviour (growth
in the numbe r o f coh abitatio ns, divorce, single-parent families and single per-
sons) is linked to negative attitudes towards immigrants. The more individuals
negatively assess the changes in partn ership behavio ur, the more they express
negative attitude s towards immigrant s. The less individ uals negatively assess
the changes in partn ership beh aviour, the more they express po sitive attitudes
towards immigrants.
Hypothesis 4: Negative assessment of the changes in rep rod uctive beha viour
(the growing number o f co uples who de cide to rem ain childless, the decline
in the number of births, the increasing number of o nly children) is linked to
negative attitudes towards immigrants. The more individuals negatively assess
the changes in reprod uctive behaviour, the more they express negative attitudes
towards immigrants. T he less individuals negatively assess the change s in repro-
ductive behaviour, the more they express positive attitudes towards immigrants.
Hypothesis 5: Th e current and expected numbe r of respo ndents' children is
negatively linked to their attitudes towards immigrant s. Th e more child ren indio
viduals have (current and expected), the more negative will be their attitude
towards immigrants. The fewer children individuals have (current and expected),
the mo re positive will be their attitude towards immigrants.

191
Majda (ernie lstenic and Du ska KneiC\':c Hoc evar

Hypo thesis 6: The importance o f child ren for parents is linked to negative atti-
tudes towards immigrant s. T he more individuals attribute to parents the im po r-
tance o f children, the more they express nega tive attitudes toward s immigrants.
The less individ uals attrib ute to parents the importance of childre n, me mo re
they exp ress positive atti tudes tow ard s im mig rants.
Hypothesis 7: Atti tudes towards gend er ro les, partnership, reprod uctive beha-
vi o ur and childre n also explain the variatio n in attitudes towards immigrants
whe n other independent variables (gende r, age, ed ucation, type o f place o f resi-
dence, religio n, income and cou n try) are conside red.

5.2.3 Data and methods

We use the following co mposite variables fro m the FE11AGE-l\II G d atabase
(Avramov and Cliquct, 2007a) as d ependent variables in ou r analysis of positive
and negative attitudes towards immig rants:
• Co mposite variable on po sitive attitudes towards immigrants (CO l\f1.157P).
T his variable is the sum of the positive answers to the following ten sta te-
me n ts:

The pre sence o f foreign er s is positive (goo d). it allows cultural exchange.
(M5A);

Forei gn ers are need ed to do the work we no lo nge r want to do. (M5B);

Fo reign ers sho uld have the righ t to vote in local elections after five years
o f resid ence. (M6B);

Integ rated foreign ers sho uld receiv e citizenship as soo n as possible.
(M 6E);

AUillegal mig rants should be given a general am nesty from time to time.
(lI16G);

Our country has a mo ral dury to allow politi cal refugees to settle. (M7A);

Foreign ers sho uld have the righ t to be elected to the government after five
years. (M7q ;

Foreigners sho uld have the right to vote in nation al election s after five
years, (M7D).

Immigratio n needs to increase because the population is shrinking. (M7H);

Immigratio n should no t be rest ricted at all. (l\17K).

192
 Viewpoin ts on migr:ation , gender relation s lind Family

• Th e compos ite variable on negative attitudes towards immigrants (CMM57N)

is composed o f nine statements:

An increase in the num ber of foreigners favours the spread of crime and
terrorism. (?\-lS q ;

For eigners take away jobs. ~ 15 D);

Our country has no room for foreign ers. (11SE);

All illegals sho uld be expelled from our country. ~[6 D);

Large fines should be impose d on companies which emp loy illegals.

(M6F);

Foreigners who have not integr ated after five years should return to their
own country. (1\.f6I);

Asylum-seekers whose request has been turned down should be expelled

from the country immediately. (M7B);

Immigration is unnecessary; people should have more children instead.

(M7I) ;

A count ry shou ld not allow any new foreigners. (1-'17J).

In order to assure comparability betw een the count ries, the standardi sed version
of these composite variables is used, taking into account the number of state-
ment s record ed per country. The reliability of the measurement scale of both
variables is given by Croo bach's alpha = 0.83.
A set of variables pertaining to the current and expected number of childr en and
attitudes towards gende r ro les and the family is considered in order to test our
hypot heses. For this purpose we use another five composite variables from the
FE~lAG E -M I G database:

'Attitudes towards traditional gender roles' (C O~I G l 1) is a compo site

variable, created on the basis of agreement with five statements:

A pre-school child is likely to suffer if the mother works. (G t B);

Family life suffers when the woman has a full-time job. (G t C);

\Vhat most women really wa nt is a hom e and children. (G 1D);

Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay. (G 1E);

Women are less ambitiou s in their jobs than men. (G I H).

193
Majda t crnic l stcnic and D uska Kncievit Hocevar

The reliability of the measurement scale of the composite variable 'Attitudes

tow ards traditional gender roles ' is given by Cronbach's alpha = 0.53.
• 'Ge nde r equality measures' (C O ~I G 11) is a compo site variable, formed o n
the basis o f agre em ent with the following seven governmenta l measures:

Pro mo ting bett er jo b opportunities fo r women (G l l A);

Promo ting equal pay for equal work for women and men (G 11 B);

Prom oti ng female participation in politics (G 11 C);

Promoting female participatio n in technical occup ation s (G 1ID );

Promoting female participation in top man agement (G l l E);

Encouraging Fathers' participatio n in child care (Gl 1F);

Encouraging an equa l division of ho usehold tasks (G 11H) .

The reliability o f rhe measurement scale of the co mposite variable 'G ender
equality measur es' is given by Cro nbach's alpha = 0.78.
• 'Negative evaluation o f changes in partnership behaviour' (CO MCLl P) is a
variable com posed of the negative opinion s ('bad or very bad ? o n six demo-
gra phic trends :

The increasi ng number of couples who live together unmarried (CL1A);

T he declining num ber of marriages (CLl C):

The incre asing number of children in a one-parent family (Cl. I E):

T he increasing nu mb er of persons who live alone (CLlG);

The increasing num ber of birth s amon g unmarried couples (CLI H);

T he increasing number of divorc es (CLl l).

T he reliability of the measurement scale of rhe composite variable 'Negative eva-

luation of changes in partn ership behaviour' is given by Cranbach's alpha = 0.72.
• ' Negative evaluation of changes in rep rodu ctive behaviour' (COMe LI R) is a
variable com posed of negative opinio ns ('bad o r v·ery bad') o n three demo-
gra phic trends:

The increasing number of co uples who decide to remain childless (CLI B);

The declining number of births (CLl D);

The incre asing num ber of on ly child ren (Cl.l F).

194
 v iewpomcs on migration, gender relations and family

The reliability of the measurement scale of the co mposite variable 'Negative

evaluatio n of changes in rep roductive behaviou r' is given by Cronbach's alpha
= 0.64.
• 'Ch ildren's importance fo r parents' (CO i\IC LS) is a composite variable,
form ed o n the basis of agreement with the following seven statements:

1 o nly feci co mpletely happy at home with my children. (CLSA);

1 always en joy having children near me. (CLSB);

You can be perfectly satisfied with life if you have been a good pa rent .
(CLSe:);

I like having children becau se they really need yo u. (CLSD);

It is your du ty towards soc iety to have children. (eLSE);

You cannot be really happy wi tho ut having children. (CLSF);

The clo sest relatio nship yo u can have with anyone is 'with you r own child.
(CLSG).

T he reliability of the measur ement scale of the composite variable 'Child ren's
importance for parents' is given by Cron bach's alp ha > 0.83.
~e the mes indicated above wer e no t included in th e ques tionnaires in all cou n-
trie s.
T he following socio-demographic and socio -eco no mic characteristics of the
respon dents arc used in the analyses as co ntrol variables:
• Sex: 1 male, 2 female (CQ 2);

• Age: in years (RCCQ IY);

Ed ucatio n: 1 primary o r lower seco ndary ed ucation , 2 higher secon dary edu-
cation, 3 post-secondary ed ucation (RCCQ 21A);

• Type o f place of residence: 1 rural area or small village, 2 sma ll town, 3

medium-sized town. 4 large town (CQ 19);

• Inco me: five inco me classes - 1 = the lowest, 5 ::c:: the highest (RCCQ 13EQ) ;

Religiosity: 1 religio n plays a very importan t role in an individ ual's life, 2 reli-
gion plays an important ro le in an individu al's life, 3 religio n does not play an
import ant role in an individ ual's life and 4 religion doe s no r pia)" an important
role in an individ ual's life at all. CCQ l l).
195
Majda Cernic Jsrenit and Duska Knd evic H~-ac

T he hypo theses are tested by means o f bivariate co rrelation analyses. Because

bo th depend ent variables are not normally distri buted and sym metrical, the no n-
para metric correlatio n analysis is ap plied with Spea rma n ran k correlation coef-
ficients. Relatio nships be tween attitud es towards mig rants and other attitud es are
co nt rolled for the socio -economic characteristics o f respo ndent s using the Test
of Inter-Sub ject Effects, a p rocedure used in the G eneral Linear Mod el (G L~l)
that assesses the relatio nship between d epend ent and independent variables in
hierarchical o rder.

5.2.4 Re sults
Amo ng respo ndents from the cou nt ries include d in the analysis, negative atti tu-
des regarding the p resence of foreigners and immigrants in society clearly p re-
vail over positive assess ments (Figu re 5.2.1.). T he o nly exception is responden ts
from Austria, who show the least frequently negative and the most frequently
positive attitudes re wards imm igrant s. Po lish respond en ts are the close st to the
Austrian respo ndents for the number o f negative attitudes towards immigrants.
Respo nden ts from H ungary express the least support toevards immigrants: They
show the highest number of nega tive statements and at the same time the lowest
average num be r o f positive statemen ts. A special case is Finland, where we find
a similar num be r o f negative statements regarding immigrants as in H ungary,
b ut a similar number of positive statements as in Austria. A similar p ropo rtion
between nega tive and positive sta tements to that in H ungary is indicated in the
respo nses from Es tonia and the Czech Republic.
In view o f the different num ber o f statements within individ ual top ics and the
different nu m ber o f count ries that obtained these assessments, we can only
determine the differences in assessments o f attitud es among countries' respo n-
dents , and not the ranks o f individual attitud es. To illustrate: The topic 'Sup port
for tradi tional gender roles' includes o nly five statement s, while the to pic 'Agre-
eing with the importance tha t child ren have fo r parents' covers seven assertio ns.
At the same time, data for the first-mentio ned topic were collected o nly in fo ur
countri es (Eastern and \\ ·'estern G er many, E sto nia and Hungar y), while data for
the o ther to pic were obtained in all countries, excep t Au stria. For this reaso n. we
can o nly com ment o n the d ifferences o f individ ual co untries regarding a specific
top ic. Pe r example, respo ndents in H ungary and E sto nia express greater suppo rt
for tradi tion al gender roles than respondent s in Eastern G ermany. Fu rtherm ore,
support fo r gender equality measures among respo nde nt s appears at almost the
same level in all three co unt ries that collected d ata (poland, Austria and Es to nia).
Variances am ong respo nden ts by count r y also appear in 'Negative assessmen t
of changes in part nership behaviour', whe re the greatest variance is in Hungary,
which sho ws the highest num ber o f negative assessments.

196
 Viewpoin ts o n m igration, gend er relatio ns and famil)'

Fig. 5.2.1: Mean number of state me nts on positive and negative attitudes
towards m igrants, agreem ent wit h traditional gender roles and
governmental gender equali ty m ea sures, negative evaluation
of changes in partnership and reproductive behaviour and
agr eement with chil dren's imp ortance for parents, by co untr y
Crec h R~pu b ~c 0_ _ ....
;]
......
~~
~-:~.::=,
Enl~m Ge ...... ny

.
Finla nd " ..........._6 _ • "lI ........,. .... 1I_
• ~ . _0-
, \ Oq uallty_. ."... (0 1O
- ____ . -" 1. .... m. n..)

/;
Q._____ A
J. ,.--.~
----- II ~ ovo",..lon o!
:-=:-..";""~ In

\~
\ ~
P ol<In d '
~~l-~~
~!
w!'\
! !! -,
n
r
I
-'" /
Ll
' Eotonio
.f§:l~:O"'
»tdo.-.-·
nd.. di< eoI (0 "' 10
• . -monlOl
- N.got;. . ... itu~..
1O.. 0rd0
0
_
-', _ .1'11,lrnmill'·...
,0<1 lOt •
(Q
..... . Ifi,;o - Hung. , -I

Source: FEM :\G E · ~ UG d au b:l5e

How closely positive and negative assessmen ts regarding the pr esence of immi-
grants in society arc linked to attitudes regarding th e trad itional role of women
can be seen in Table: 5.2.1 and Figure 5.2.2. Agreement with the traditional role
of wom en is not very closely linked to the number o f positive statements regar-
ding immigrants. T he values of the correlation coe fficients are very low, almo st
close to zero. T he only noteworthy coefficients are those that indicate a weak
n cgati\~e link ben;·een ~he positi\·c evaluation of the presence of i~m iwa n ~s and
the artirude that Family life suffers when the wom an has a full-time Job. (r =
-0.08), in the case of \'('estern Ger many, and the po sitive link with the attitude
1\ pre-schoo l child is likely to suffer if the mother works.' (r :::: 0.11) in the case
of Poland. In no co unt ry does any link appear between the composite variable
of agreeing with the traditional role o f wom en and a positive assessment o f
the pr esence of for eigners. A stronger link exists between attitudes regarding
th e traditional role o f women and the negative assessment of immigrants. The
cor relation coefficien ts are almost always statistically significant, and somewhat
higher than in the positive assessment of immigrants. The strongest positive
link between negative assessments of immigrants and agreeing with traditional
views of a woman's role appears in \XTestern Germany in the comp osite variable
(r :::: 0.25), and the variable 'Family life suffers wh en the woman has a full-time
job.' (r :::: 0.24). Relatively important associations also appear in the ma jority o f
countries for the variable 'What most women really want is a home and child-
ren.' (coefficients from 0.12 in E stonia to 0.18 in \'{'estern Germ any) . In Austria,
negative evaluations o f immigrant s are linked mo re than elsewhere to the atti-
tude 'Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as wor king for pay.' (r ::: 0.18).
197
Maida (:crnic lstenic and Duska Kne1:(\-it Hoc<.·vu

Fig. 5.2.2: Mean number of sta teme nts on po sitive and negative
attitudes tow ards immigrants, by traditional attitudes
towards ge nde r roles a nd co untry
:'>lo.n
•
, - -
e -
s ----- -- -
_.
, I- - -
- - - - - - -

- - - . -

.....r.." "'''o..em E"uni> lI u" ry E. " e", We" e,." Ew>ni. flun
Gem,.." Go...n..., G erm. ny ( ;orm.ny "
Co m t>< osite ....... blc <m I""iu'-o .tti"ode. ,O\I-......ls Cornp", i« ",.-i.hle "n nel:. ci"e attitude. " ,,, .. rd,
immij.......,, ·Il.n<brdi>xd immigrants . •"' nd" di>cd

o D<,.,.n~ with .nr . t.,emen1 o

>j,""" Af:r. o, ,,:i ,h ,hIT. ,,,,,,,men..
rnii'dI ... ~f«. ",j, h on fern,,,,, o Awe e' with ("..." " oreme n"
ez:a Awcco with lWO m. n" _ .'\ gr. o, with.ll ii,-o " "'"men"

So urce : FE:\ L\G E-MIG database

The link between negative and positive assessmen ts of the presence of imm i-
gra nts in society and support for governme ntal gender equality measures is also
seen in Table 5.2.1 and Figure 5.2.3. In (his case, the coefficients obtained indi-
cate a positive link with po sitive assessments of the presence of immigrants and
support for greater gender equality. T he positive link is strongest in the com-
posite variable in all three countries. especially in Austria. Individuals in Austria
who suppor t a greater balance in the division o f labour within the hou seho ld (r
= 0.21), the participation of women in politics (r e 0.18) and the involvement
of wom en in technical p rofessions (r = 0.18) are especially favourably dispo sed
towards immigrants. No link appears between negative assessments of the pre -
sence of immigrants and support for the introduction o f measures for more
equal gende r op portunities in society; there is just a very mod est negative link in
the case o f Po land.

198
 Viewpoints on migration , gen der relations and family

Tab. 5.2.1: Spearman correla tions between agreement with

traditional gender roles and governmental gender equality
measures, negativ e evaluation of changes in partnership
and reproductive behaviour, agreement with children's
importance for p arents a nd positive and negative attitudes
towards mi grants, by cou nt ry
Cornp<><i'. v",i.bl. "" (I<). ili•••It;tu"'" to"' ord> rnip .. !COMMS71'S)

j
C""""""te v,,"blo ""
,,.di,,.,.,.l llond.. ", I..
(l 'OMG1T1 0,04 -0.07 0.05 " 0 ,0 7
C""'P'h,te •• riabl. on
g... Joor .q""lity me"",",
(CO~1Gll) O. IS· · 0.25"
C(>(Jl""" i<e ",ri. blo on
now" i,·o. voIUII""" of
ch, nlle. ;n P'''"""," P
be ~.v; n u, (COMCl l?) 0 ,03 0 .0 5' -ecs 0.0 1 0 00 O.oJ
C""'poo, il. ,·. ri.bl e ""
no ~ oti,' •• v. lu";",, or
chan go. ;n "'l'!Vdu<;Ii",
0.03 0 . 11" 0.00 0.05 ' 0.11" 0.02 0 .06"
bcluoviour (COMClI R)
Carr...' numbcl of
.(1.01
""
dllldrcn {RCCQ9A) 0 ,03 -0.13" 0.01 0.00 0.0 1 -0.01 -0,01
T",. I nwnba- of childrm
"P'OC'ro(RCCQ?n6) 0.08' ens -0 ,02 0.02 O.OS ' 0.02 -0.02 0,03
Cornpo<i'.,.noble (Ill

d nldrcD '. imp.NIaocc for

j>lIl'mt5 (CO~IClSl O.W oor;' 0.01 0.05 ' 0,09" 0.07
Comp" " o '",Ioblo on ""soti"" . Mude. toward. mil;!!!lt> (CO MMS7:\SI
Comp"sn. ,ariabl. un
tnditi<Jnal JlCIlda roI..
(CO"'IG IT) 0.14" 0.25" 0,17" 0.16 "
Compoa,,,, ,anobl. ""
Jrodcr "'luolily
mea>un:>lCO~lG I I) 0.'" 0 00 0 .08"
Compf<'I,oe v:Iri. bl. OIl
r>oplh'e ..·. luatiOll of
<"""ll"" in partn...hLp
beluo.iour (al MClI P) 0,20" 0.09" O.IS· · 0.10' · 0.13' · 0.14" 0.16" 0.10"
C""'fl<»I '. ,.ri.bl. <>n
""¥."'" ev.l ..ati"" of
....nll'" in .. prod",,';,·.
bch"i",,, (COMCl.1R.) 0.12" -0.04 0.06 ' 0,03 009" O,OS " 0.14 "
COlTent n"mber "r
, hiIJ" n (lK 'CQ9A) 0.07' 0 .09 0 • 0.07 " 0. 16" 0.14 " O,Il " 007" 0.09" 0.10"
Tot. ' n"mb<r of <hilJre<,
. ,pectro !R.CCQ9TH) .(l.O~· .(l,04 .(l.02 004 0 00 0.Q2 ·0.02
C"",pos" • • ..-;.bl.""
, hiIJ"...•• ;'''f''J''Of>I:C for
p"'o," (COMCU ) 0.25" 0.17" O.) S" 0.2) '* Il 2l " 0.1' " O, ls o. 0.22"

~ *p < OJXH · p < O.05

Source: FEl\L\ G E-:\ IIG database

199
Similar results are also found when it comes to attitudes towards changes in
partnership behaviour. Table 5.2.1 and Figure 5.2.4 show that a negative evalua-
tion o f changes in part nership behaviour is loosely linked with negative attitudes
towards the presence of immigrant s in society.This link is most emph atic in the
composite variable of partnership behaviour. It also app ears to be significant in
the negative view of the decline in the num ber of mar riages (coefficients fro m
0.07 in Hu ngary to 0. 19 in the Czech Rep ublic) and the increase in the number
of divorces (coefficients from 0.05 in finland to 0.16 in \Vestern Germany). Th e
negative view o f changes in partnership behaviou r is not significantly linked to
a more positive assessment o f the presence of immigrants in society in most
countries. Onl y Poland is an exception.

Fig. 5.2.3: Mean number of sta te me nt s on p os itive and n egative

a ttitudes towards immigrants, by su p p ort of gender equali ty
measure s a nd country
Mcan
6

--

frt
4 -

3 - --

- - -
2

In
(.
-

E" orua
-

A umia P" land

--

& ,onia
-

il,\ u. ni a
-

P< ~a ...l

Co m pos'f<: variable on p""itive aUilude> toward. Com p",i,e ,·.mble on <legali'·e attitude. toward,
immigran" _ .t:md ardl>~-d immiR""n.s _ sr.>nJ~rdin..l
[=:J 1)" .:<;n'l "J.1"(: ,,·id> any mcuU' e [=:J ;\I:r~..,. "i,h f" ur measures
EZ:2I ' \ ltfce>. ,,;th one mea,ure _ " l:l'I:c, with flve mcasures
~ {\K'"~"''' ,,;,h tu'o mea. uref, KZ:8 A!(fcc$ ""h six n,e~,ure"
1········1 ;'q,,.,-c.,.. ,,·id> Ihree mea.ure, sm "....e"" wi,h all ~ve n mcasure'
Sou rc e: FE MAGE-MIG d ataba se

zoo
 Viewpoints on migration, gender relations anJ family

Fi g. 5.2.4: M ean number of s ta te ments on p o sitive and n egative

attitude s to wards immigrants, b y negative eval uatio n of
c hanges in part ners h ip b ehaviour an d co untry
~I""n
7

, +- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
;+-- - - - - - -
. +-- - - - -
3

o
- :'; e ~ E i5' -c E s- .a
!>!1: -g~ 2
i= "Q. l:l I::C E
'-'c:! ;ilc1J
,-, "
~~
1i
r
s: ~;<; t5
~~
~ ~
J
~
j
'"
Comp",ite v. mb'" on po , inve attituue, toward. ('.ompo,ite variah le 0 0 negative attitudes to ward,
immigram , · ,tanu.rJi7.ed immigrants _Sl:ilndarJj 7.eu
o 1>.:0 chang<: II coo .idered ba d o r vcr; bod o Fo ur change s a ~ con sidered ba d or very hod
EZ3 O n" c hon~ i, co n, idct<:d bod or " cJ}' b>l<l ~ Fj,·c <;han~ are consid ered bad o r \' ''r}. bod
T ","O chan!,,,,, at<: co n,idered bad o r "e O)' had _ AlI.;x changes arc co o' kJered bad or vco)' hw
r·······] Tht<:c change< 1tl: ooo, idcreJ had or very b. d
Source: FEMAGE- i\lIG dat~ba, e

A particularly weak, yet significant, association is apparent between the evaluatio n

o f rep rod uctive behaviour and the assessme nt o f the presence of immig rants.
T here are, however, so me differences be tween countries regarding the direction
of the links. For example, there is a po sitive relationship in (he Czech Republic
and in Slove nia with a negative view of changes in reprod uctive behavio ur and a
negative assessment of immigrants (fable 5.2.1 and Figure 5.2.5). There is also
a po sitive link with the negative view of reproductive behavio ur and a positive
assessment of immig rants in Poland and Eastern G ermany. O ne co uld assume
that inhabitan ts in Poland and E astern Germany arc more stro ngly aware that
immigrants might mitigate the effects of low birth rates than the inhabitants of
(he Czech Republic and Slovenia. T here are virtually no no ticeable links in other
countries with the negative views o f changes in reproductive beh aviour and the
assessme nt of immigrants.

20 1
;\hida ( e rnic !ste nic and D uska Kne"c,·jC H ocevar

Fig. 5.2 .5: M ean number of sta te ments on positive an d n egative

attitudes towards im mig rants, by negative ev aluation of
chang es in reproductive b ehaviour and country
,
Mean

- - -
- -- - -- - - --- - -

1-
2

Co mpo' ite variable on IX" jtive attitud es towards Comp<'' 'itc variable on ~cgati,·o attitudcs toward,
immigrants - , rnndar dizod immigrnnls - standa rdi7.cd
c=J No cha~ge i, considered bad or VetYb,d ~ Two ch' nges arc con, idcfcd b,d o r vcry bad
EZLJ O ne ohange is w m idered bad o r very bad _ All three changes oro co nsidered bad or very bad

Source: F E;\lA.GE·;\HG data base

Quite weak link s are also apparent b etween the responden ts' nu mber o f children
and th e ass essm en t of immigrants (fab le 5.2.1, Figure 5.2.6 and 5.2.7). T here is
only a significant neg ative link in Estonia fo r positive atti t udes toward s migrants.
T here are m ore signific an t, th ough still weak, links with th e nega tive assessments
of imm igrant s, more particularly in E stonia, H ungary and Aus tria. .A part fro m
Es tonia, virt u ally no link s can be discerned with th e assessmen t o f im migran ts
and th e total expected number o f childr en.

202
 Viewpoints on mill: racion. ge nder relauons and family

Fig. 5.2 .6: M ea n number of state men ts on p o sitive and n eg ative

a tt it udes towards immig rants, by current num b e r o f c h ild ren
and coun try

,+ - - - - -
' -t-- - - - - ---:,-- - - Irt1
. -'j-- - - - - _.

, + --111'1.1
2

2 - ,.
Source: FEM;\Gr.... ~ IIG database

203
Maida Cernic Isrcnic and Duska Knezevic Hocevar

F ig. 5.2.7 : Mean numbe r of statemen ts on positive and n egative

attitude s towards im mig rants, by ex pec ted n umber of
c h ildren and co u n try
Mean
7 ~-----------,-------------,

,+-- - - - - - - - - -

.+-- - - - -
3

"
C..ompos ilC van abk 00 f"J, iri,'c . ,u . uJ C$ w "'':lrd. Comp()~;t~ "a riablc "" "~j(ativc attitudes toward.
,mm'lIr:to" - 'tanJanlized immij( '.I1 t'S _ ' tan,h rd izetl
c=J 0 rza I I!El 2 _ 3+

Source: fE\ IAGE· MIG database

Slightly closer links are visible with respo ndents' agreem ent with the impo rtance
that children can have for parents and their view o f the presence of immigr ants
in society (fable 5.2.1 and Figure 5.2.8). T hese links are visible particularly in
the negative assessment of immigrant s in all countries and in all statements.
Statistically significant, yet much weaker, links with the po sitive assessment of
immigrants and agreeing can be observed on ly in a small number of co untries
and on ly fo r certain state me nts. The exception is Finland, which shows a nega-
tive relation be tween the importan ce that children can have fo r parents and a
positive assessment o f immigrants.

204
 Viewpoinrs nn migration, ~(ndn relations and family

Fig. 5.2.8: Mean num ber of sta te ments on positive and negative
at titud e s towards im mig ran ts, by child ren's importance for
p ar ents and co u n try
Mem
a

;+-- -- -- - - - - --
.+-- - - - - - - - - -
3

o
..~ E
u i:
.. """<:
~ ,0 5 ~
o :::: o
Compo. in: ,,,,,,,,ble on f'O'iti c~ .nilUdcstt"" ", d. C" mp"Mre ,-.,.iable on nqr.otin atlitode< towar d.
;mmi;''''''-fIt• • 5l:l.ndardirc d im rnigranlS _ . tand ard ized

c:::::::J ~o meaning ;1 "!l. ud upo n c:::::::J Fou r mu ning> arc "....eed upon
f'ZJ One meanin g is "w c<d ul'''n _ Fi" e m=ning' arc agreed up""
T,,'o me. ninR" arc I~ upon g:z;g SIX meaning' are Igr«d ul'",n
c::J Thre e meani" l:' "'c Ij.,,«ed upon mm AIl •• cen meanin gs arc ~ upo n

Source: FEMAGE-r-JIG d atabas e

Finally, we analyse the impact of variables that indicated the highest correlati-
ons with attitudes towards immigrants (attitudes towards traditional gender roles,
agreement \...-ith gender equality measures, negative evaluation of changes in part-
nership behaviour and children's impo rtance to parents) by including respondent s'
socio-economic characteristics in the univariate GL.l\ I s. E ach selected attitude and
co untry rep resents the individual mod el. T he results of all models, presented in
Table 5.2.2, show that all indepe ndent variables included arc in a relatively modest
relationship with attitudes towa rds immigrants. As R Squared in all models shows
the amount of va riance explained by all independent variables together ranges
only from 4 to 15 percent? Furthermore, Levene statistics show that in some
cases (indicated by a significant test) the results are not very reliable due to the
non-homog eneity obse rved across groups. Nevert heless, the results suggest that
selected attitudinal variables have a statistical ly-significan t relationship with atti-
tudes towards immigrants. Having said that, the relationship of attitude s towards
immigrants with selected attitudes is much weaker in a majority of cases than the
relationshi p with some other socio-economic variables, particularly education and
age. T he exception is the relationship withrositive attitudes toward s immigrants
and gender equality measu res in the case 0 Poland.
20S
Majclal; crnic Istenic and D uska Kncievic Hoceva r

T ab . 5.2.2: Tests of Inter- Subject Effects with GLM on attitudes towa rds
immigrants (F statistics)

,.
-~-
C~ .. _lo""
I R<
C_b
h.
.-
"00. Iw
c..""",
«t.m, I E.-. -~
(k,,,,,,,
"..... " l. · .. ...,...tJ···
it< , .nobl,"" "" " " ""toJ« ", ..

m .n · " m ~ l" ·

, .. " ., ... ' .'l" · ,.:,.. ..

,... ""3'···
~;
, )1) ' "
- --
Is",,',"",
CO ~NSThS
h ,'-l

......,....... r-k, .... . ) ",

' COMG ln
•• :'..,... u'

'.
~
J4'"
fd ",. " .,.
r, m I. ", Qt "",Jo"<, ...
1' .....••
~. "
.,•• •
0.' '''...-
')"'
.OO
U,
lO.n···
~ .h

•
·
•I""' m<
,,,,,,

lev . .. St>I"..,
IU
.00
".
,,, I.,, "
.
,.'··· ,' -00<' " ".~l,."· ·· tl"OJ.2. · · ·
0."
""'
" .., ...
••
, l.OI
.

,,,.-1< , , ....;,..... " lUM",,1P'i1

t """" lod_
,"- . ....-""
~
c "'rtud<>,."'....
, ; ,~

.....wo··
a",,' " ....,...
.. " ...
, ,.... m"....... .,. ~

,....x.
oqo.ol.1y.......- 11,11' "
( OM(, II
~
'" .,... n ,"
,.,1.","'
, I""• • r.. ,kl,,« .oo .

...
E ~ ,","lo'o 0,"

"' ... 0

,.."'...
• .00'"

.....
. oo

-
R. l i I.I l 0»
•I,,,,m, I ...• , ~

, O.O~
' .l'
. oo
u ·" ", ....;..., ,.or '"
". ,"
<:~\.lookoI ,.....
c
.......
,1< ,''''Olble""", .. I"
,"!..,... "'.'1 '" 10." '"
....,ud<. "'..""" ;
,u,.··
;C()lol\ 'u'''S
" W·· n " , •• 1>. ., ' " " .>L '"
.......... ' ''. Jl· ''

. ..
""" W · · 110.-' " » S,SO' " ' 011 " " " lOX' "

--
~"'

..........
. - ;" " ...,.... of n.·.. .."... • ».••
..,
a.l' · · · 4."' " ". ).J' " 11 90'"
~

.. ,,.......
.
CO'olCLl t
••
fol",",,,,,,
Olt
"" ... ,..' ......
m
...,....,_...
1."
" .<:1' " ..."... ........
,.,.,.'J" 1." " '.12"
,,~ ,

r
.......
,.la 0:"

...
00 .ce of """"",, .' :' " ).11' ,~
' M"
~. I ;
"'~, 10."'" '.0;- po' .~o. ' " "".<U' ......"'~.'
·=,
•I", ,,,,,,, 101IS' "

'"
."
,"
,. en
••
13." '"
I• ." '" ...w·· '0." ' "
'.00"
••
, "••,,'"
" ,."
. oo
.. ... ,...
0." 0. 1.
,. ..- ••
G."
",. ."
L...·.... " ..,."

,_.
(""" IroI _ 1 .......c
''11.'"''
~

'-". '," '"

'L ~......,. · ·
}SU . · ..
"';vc , ,,ituJ,,,

lt u . · ..
u,···
"'.n-
.,~,"""
11' - '
;"..

,.. .....
'OJ~\CI""S
II ...• • " .......
'l '"
",."...
3M .,..••
" 1" ' "
$..... . I' 4l ' "

, - ,.._10""
cIo,"""',_1ut ~" ... U l'" 1.1" " ..•,.. Uj' "
!l.•" " •."... "sa' "
••
=m
0.0 ' o. '0 "".6'- ". ..... ,..,... 1jJl."t' -'
0 ."'"

.,.... •... ,....

hSue .._

.
• <)I' " Z•.W · · S,"" " .~ ).1 00" " ) I ,?a ' " - ·
• ,-, , ,r " .,'
..,.
La> Ul 02' "
,• " of r<o,.k"" c
.,......
'. at
'"
0.'" .n···
, ,.,."...
l'N" 1,)4'
Il. ~ l ,Ot
""".."
e s ,- ,
,~

Lm '' '' S,,";,,;,,

•.w··
."
."
u J
••
••
• .Il

'"
0.1:
'.l'···
o.
'"
..9,!'
.....
'.'0
'"
1 0"

••
,"
....., ".
. oo
10 ,.,.• •
n.,.....

" II "

1'"'1,..:00: ..... p < 0.001; .~ P < 0,010; .. P < 0,050

Source: FEMAG E-MIG da tab ase

5.2.5 Conclusion s
Th e mo st obvious result o f the analysis is th at negative atti tudes toward s the pre-
sence o f immig rants clearly o utweigh positive assessmen ts; the only excep tion is
Austria, where the opposite is true. Since we have no t yet included all available
data in the an alysis at this stage of the stud y, we cannot o ffer a satisfactory expla-

206
 Vkw points on migration. gcnd<: r relations and famil }'

nation of this res ult. We can merely speculate that the probable explanatio n is
lin ked to the findin gs of those researcher s who have evaluated nega tive attitu-
d es toward s immigrants, in that they po int to the growing natio nalist feelings in
Europe since th e fall of the Berlin \'('all (K nud sen, 1997), o r else they point to
the link ben.....een negative atti tudes towards fo reigners and the crisis of national
iden tity (Fireside, 2002: 474). However, it wo uld be wor th examining the case o f
Au stria in (he co ntext o f certain suppositions in the mo dern theory o f contact,
particularly o f Allport (1954) and o thers, who state that contact with potentially
unwelcome gro ups (mino rities, im migra nts, etc.) can have a positive e ffect in
cer tain circu mstan ces, a negative o ne in others, and can also have no effect at all
(Mc Laren, 2003: 911).
The results also show that the majority o f the initial hypo thes es are co nfirmed.
T he hypo thesis that the mo re individ uals ad voc ate the traditional positio n o f
wo men in the family, the more they exp ress negative attitudes to.....rards immi-
grants.., and vice versa, is p roved in all co un tries included. Mo reover, this rela-
tio n is corroborated by another finding: The mo re individ uals support gende r
equality measures, the mo re they exp ress positive attitudes towards immigran ts.
Likewise, the more important responde nts consider children to be for paren ts,
the more they exp ress negative atti tudes towards im mig rants. T hese confirmed
relations are also in accord wi th the suppo sition that d eba tes o n id eologies o f
nation al reproduction are clo sely related to the views on gender relations; it is
precisely an cthno -nationali st vi sion that stresses the rradi uo nal gende r roles.
Ad ditio nally,co nservative views and the negative attitudes to wards fo reigners are
echoe d in a negative assessme nt o f changes in partnership be haviour. The more
co ncerned respondents are abou t changes in partnerships, the mo re the y express
negative attitudes towards im migrants. This relation is found in all co un tries in
[he same direction while the link with the assessment of changes in reprod uctive
behavio ur and negative attitudes towards immigrants shows different directions
in the countries invo lved. In the Czech Republic and Slovenia, for instance. there
is a positive relationship with th e nega tive view o f cha nges in reproductive beh a-
viour and a negative assessment o f im migrant s, while in Poland and Eastern
G ermany, there is a positive link with the negati ve view o f reprod uctive beha-
viour and a positive assess ment o f immigrants. One co uld assume that the inha-
bitants of Po land and Ea stern G ermany are more aware that immigrants might
mitigat e the effects of low bi rth rates than the inhabitants of [he Czech Republic
and Slovenia. T here are virtually no no ticeable links in other countries (H ungary,
Austria, Finland and \\"estern G ermany) with the negative views o f changes in
reprod uctive behaviou r and the assessment o f immig rants . T his finding is sup-
ported by another result pert aining to the current and expected n umber o f child-
ren. Th e link with the assessm ent of immi grant s, and particularly [he number of
children expected, was among the weakest in all co unt ries. Such a result supports
those scholars who po int ou t the parado x o f the negative p ub lic respon se to
immigrants in Eu rope when immig ratio n appears to be on e o f the mo re feasible

207
M aida Cerm': lstcnic and Duska Kmkvic H oceva r

scenarios for resolving the social conse<.Juences of low birth rates and an aging
population (Fireside, 20( 2).
As the results show, the relation bcrween attitudes towards imm igrants and other
attitudes is multifaceted when responde nts' socio-eco nomic characteristics are
cons idered. T he relations with attitudes towards imm igrants and attitudinal
v-ariablcs are primarily the result of variations in educ ation and age. Therefore,
the last hypothesis can only be confirmed in part.
For the weak but statistically significant relation s wi th attitudes towards immi-
grants and attitudinal variables, we may interpre t ou r observations as trends only.
T his wea kness can be explained by the difficulty of measuring attitudes which,
as has been determined by numerous observers, are a hypo thetical construct
dependent both on the selection of appro priate indicators, and on the evaluative
nature of the indicators selected (Ajzcn, 1988: 4). Fur ther study should include
a selection o f indicators that would not relate solely to the evaluation of indivi-
dual assertions, \....h:ich are usuallv of a merelv declarative nature, but 'wo uld also
explain the everyday treatment 'of issues related to immigrants. However, the
similar: direction docs confi rm the consi stency o f the results, albeit there is a
weak link between attitudes towards immigrants and the topical areas in all selec-
ted countries. Therefore, the initial supposition that attitudes towards foreigner s
are determined in part by the individ ual's evaluation o f attitudes towards gender
and partner roles and the roles of parents and children is confirmed.
Finally, the results and findings obtained confirm the need for more systematic
research into the link between representa tions of the ideologies of nationality
thro ugh the discourse of national reprod uction, mo therhood, forms of family
and related to pics, and altitudes towards immigrants as (non) members of the
community thus conceived.

208
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