Gross Human Structural Biology

Semester
Vertebral Column and Contents of Vertebral Canal
Miranda M.D.
o The s pinous process, or s pi ne, i s di rected
pos teriorly from the junction of the two laminae.
I. VERTEBRAL COLUMN
II. CONTENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL CANAL o The tra ns verse processes a re directed laterally
from the junction of the laminae and the pedicles.
o Arti cul ar processes are vertically a rranged and
cons ist of two s uperior a nd two i nferior
processes. They a ri se from the juncti on of the
VERTEBRAL COLUMN l a minae a nd the pedi cles, a nd thei r a rticular
• The central bony pillar of the body s urfa ces a re covered with hyaline ca rtilage.
• Supports the skull, pectoral girdle, upper limbs, and thoracic o The two s uperior a rti cular processes of one
ca ge a nd, by way of the pelvic girdle, transmits body weight vertebra l a rch a rticulate wi th the two i nferior
to the l ower limbs a rti cular processes of the a rch a bove, forming
two s ynovial joints.
• Wi thi n its cavity l ie the spinal cord, the roots of the spinal
nerves , and the covering meninges, to which the vertebral
col umn gives great protection. TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRA
• The tra ns verse processes possess a fora men tra nsversarium
COMPOSITION OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN (tra ns verse foramen) for the passage of the vertebral a rtery and
vei ns (note tha t the vertebra l a rtery pa s ses through the
• 33 vertebra e:
o 7 cervi ca l tra ns verse processes C1 to 6 a nd not through C7).
o 12 thora cic • The s pines are s mall a nd bifid.
o 5 l umbar • The body is s mall and broad from side to side.
o 5 s a cral (fused to form the sacrum) • The vertebral foramen is large a nd tri angular.
o 4 coccygea l (the l ower 3 a re commonly fused) • The s uperior articular processes have facets that
• Segmented a nd made up of verte brae, joints, and pads of fa ce pos teriorly a nd s uperiorly; the i nferior
fi brocartilage ca l led i ntervertebral di s cs, i t i s a flexible processes ha ve fa cets tha t fa ce i nferiorly and
s tructure. The intervertebral discs form a bout one quarter a nteriorly.
the l ength of the column.

VERTEBRA

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
• Al though vertebrae s how regi onal di fferences, they all
pos sess a common pattern
• typi ca l vertebra consists of a rounded body a nteriorly and a
vertebra l arch posteriorly.
o Thes e encl ose a s pa ce ca l led the vertebral
fora men, through which run the spinal cord and
i ts coverings
o The vertebral a rch consists of a pair
o of cyl i ndrical pedicles, which form the sides of the Typical vs Atypical Cervical Vertebra
a rch, a nd a pa i r of fl a ttened l a minae, which (Left: Typical cervical; Right: Atlas)
compl ete the a rch posteriorly
o The pedicles a re notched on their s uperior and
i nferior borders, forming the superior and inferior
vertebra l notches.
o On ea ch s ide, the s uperior notch of one vertebra
a nd the i nferior notch of a n a djacent vertebra
together form a n i ntervertebral foramen. These
fora mina, i n a n a rti culated s keleton, s erve to
tra ns mit the s pinal nerves a nd blood vessels. The
a nterior a nd posterior nerve roots of a spinal
nerve uni te wi thin thes e fora mina wi th their
coveri ngs of dura to form the s egmental spinal
nerves .
o The vertebral arch gives rise to seven processes:
one spinous, two transverse, and four articular
(zygapophyses)

Trans | Laceda, Palmes, Ragadi, Vital 1 of 7

 Gross Human Structural Biology
Blood Supply and Nerve Supply of the Anterior Forearm

ATYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRA ATYPICAL THORACIC VERTEBRA

• The 1s t, 2nd, a nd 7th cervical vertebrae a re a typical.
• 1st cervical vertebra, or atlas does NOT possess a body or
a s pinous process
• Ha s an anterior and posterior a rch
• Ha s a lateral mass on each side with articular surfaces on its
upper s urface for a rti culation wi th the occi pital condyles
(a tl anto-occipital joints) and articular surfaces on its inferior
s urfa ce for a rticulation with the axis atlantoaxial joints)
• 2nd cervical vertebra, or axis a s a peg-like odontoid process
(dens) that projects from the superior surface of the body
(representing the body of the a tlas tha t has fused with the
body of the a xis)
• 7th cervical vertebra, or vertebra prominens, is so named
beca use it has the longest spinous process, and the process
i s not bifid. The transverse process is large, but the foramen
tra ns versarium is small a nd tra nsmits the vertebral vein or
vei ns.
• T1 – wi th 1 pa ir of CIRCULAR COSTAL FACET and a pair of
s ma ller SEMILUNAR FACET, Long, thick horizontal spine
• T9 – often wi th no i nferior pair of demifacets
• T10-T11 – no i nferior demifacets; not fa cets on the
tra ns verse processes
• T12- s a me a s T11; s ome features of lumbar vertebra
TYPICAL LUMBAR VERTEBRA
• The body is l arge a nd kidney s haped.
• The pedicles are s trong a nd directed backward.
• The l a minae a re s hort i n a verti cal dimension (i mportant
when performing a s pinal tap.)
• The vertebral foramina a re tri angular.
• The tra nsverse processes are l ong a nd slender.
• The s pinous processes are short, flat, and quadrangular
• a nd project posteriorly.
• The a rti cular s urfaces of the s uperior articular processes
• fa ce medially, a nd those of the i nferior a rticular pro-
• ces ses fa ce laterally. (Note that the l umbar vertebrae have
no fa cets for a rticulation with ri bs and no foramina in the
tra ns verse processes.)

2nd Vertebra – Axis (Left) and C7 Vertebra (Right)

TYPICAL THORACIC VERTEBRA

• The body is medium s ize a nd heart s haped.
• The vertebral foramen is s mall a nd ci rcular.
• The s pines are l ong and i nclined downward. Lumbar Vertebra
• Cos tal facets a re present on the sides of the bodies for
• a rti culation with the heads of the ri bs.
• Cos ta l facets are present on the tra nsverse processes
• for a rti culation with the tubercles of the ri bs (T11 a nd
• 12 ha ve no facets on the tra nsverse processes).
• The s uperior a rti cular processes bea r fa cets tha t face
pos teriorly a nd l aterally, whereas the facets on the inferior
a rti cular processes face anteriorly and medially. The inferior
a rti cular processes of the 12th vertebra face laterally, as do
thos e of the l umbar vertebrae.

Typical Thoracic Vertebra

S 2 T 2.1 2 of 7
 Gross Human Structural Biology
Blood Supply and Nerve Supply of the Anterior Forearm

SACRUM JOINTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

• Cons ists of five rudimentary vertebrae fused together to
form a wedge-shaped bone, which is concave a nteriorly.
• The upper border, or base, of the bone articulates with the
5th lumbar vertebra.
• The na rrow inferior border articulates with the coccyx.
• La terally, the sacrum a rticulates with the two i liac bones to
form the s acroiliac joints.
• The a nterior a nd upper margin of the first sacral vertebra
bul ges forward as the posterior margin of the pelvic inlet
a nd i s known a s the sacral promontory. (considerable
obs tetric importance and is used when measuring the size
of the pelvis)
• The vertebra l fora mina are present a nd form the s acral
ca na l.
• The l a minae of the 5th s a cral vertebra, a nd s ome-times
thos e of the 4th a lso, fail to meet i n the midline, forming
the s acral hiatus.
• The s acral canal contains the anterior a nd posterior roots of
the s a cral a nd coccygeal spinal nerves, the filum terminale,
a nd fibrofatty material. It also contains the lower part of the
s ubarachnoid s pace down a s far as the lower border of the
s econd sacral vertebra
• The a nterior and posterior surfaces of the sacrum each have 1. ATLANTO- OCCIPITAL JOINTS
four fora mina on each side for the passage of the anterior - s ynovi al joints that are formed between the occipital
a nd posterior ra mi of the upper four s acral nerves. condyl es, which are found on either side of the
fora men magnum superiorly a nd the fa cets on the
s uperior surfaces of the lateral masses of the a tlas
i nferiorly.
- They a re enclosed by a ca psule.

MOVEMENTS:
➢ Fl exion
➢ Extens ion
➢ La teral fl exion
NOTE: NO ROTATION

Li ga ments:
■ Anterior atlanto-occipital membrane
- Thi s is a continuation of the anterior l ongitudinal
l i gament, which runs as a band down the anterior
s urfa ce of the vertebral column.
- The membrane connects the a nterior a rch of the
Sacrum and Coccyx
a tl as to the a nterior margin of the foramen ma gnum.

COCCYX ■ Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane

• The coccyx cons ists of four vertebrae fus ed together to
form a s i ngle, s mall triangular bone that a rticulates at its
ba s e with the l ower end of the sacrum
• The fi rs t coccygea l vertebra i s us ually not fus ed or is
i ncompletely fused with the s econd vertebra
- Thi s membrane is similar to the l igamentum
fl a vum a nd connects the posterior a rch of the a tlas to
the posterior margin of the foramen magnum.

S 2 T 2.1 3 of 7
 Gross Human Structural Biology
Blood Supply and Nerve Supply of the Anterior Forearm
2. ATLANTO AXIAL JOINTS
- Atl a ntoaxial joints a re three synovial joints:
o between the odontoid process and the
a nterior a rch of the a tlas
o the other two a re between the lateral
ma s ses of the bones.
- The joi nts are enclosed by ca psules.
MOVEMENTS:
There can be extensive rotation of the atlas and thus of the
head on the axis.
Li ga ments
■ Apical ligament
-Thi s median-placed structure connects the apex
of the odontoid process to the a nterior margin of the
fora men magnum.
■ Alar ligaments
-These l ie one on each side of the a pical
l i gament and connect the odontoid process to the medial
s i des of the occipital condyl es.
■Cruci a te ligament
-Thi s l igament consists of a tra nsverse part and a
verti ca l part.
o Tra ns verse part is a ttached on each side to the
i nner a spect of the lateral mass of the atlas and
bi nds the odontoid process to the anterior a rch
of the a tlas.
o The verti cal part runs from the posterior surface
of the body of the axis to the anterior margin of
the fora men magnum.
■ Membra na tectoria
-Thi s is a n upward continuation of the posterior
l ongitudinal ligament. It is a ttached a bove to the
occi pital bone just within the foramen magnum.
- It covers the posterior s urface of the odontoid
process a nd the a pical, a lar, a nd cruciate ligaments.
3. JOINTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN BELOW THE AXIS
- Wi th the exception of the first two cervical vertebrae,
the remainder of the mobile vertebrae articulates
wi th each other by means of cartilaginous joints
between their bodies a nd by s ynovial joints between
thei r a rticular processes.
o Collagen fibers of the disc s trongly unite the
bodi es of the two vertebrae.
o Intervertebral disc a re responsible for one-
fourth of the length of the vertebral column.
S 2 T 2.1
- Joi nts between Two Vertebral Bodies The s uperior
a nd i nferior s urfaces of the bodies of adjacent
vertebra e are covered by thi n plates of hyaline
ca rti lage.
- Sa ndwiched between the plates of hyaline cartilage is
a n i ntervertebral disc of fibrocartilage.
- The col lagen fi bers of the disc strongly unite the
bodi es of the two vertebrae.
- In the l ower cervical region, small synovial joints are
pres ent a t the lateral sides of the intervertebral disc
between the upper and l ower s urfaces of the bodies
of the vertebrae.
INTERVERTEBRAL DISC
- The ma in s tructures that bind together the vertebral
bodi es, a nd they extend from C2 to the sacrum (C1
ha s no vertebral body).
- Res ponsible for one quarter of the length of the
vertebra l column below the l evel of C2 .
- They a re thickest i n the cervical and lumbar regions,
where the movements of the vertebral column are
grea test.
- Semi -elastic discs, which lie between the rigid bodies
of a djacent vertebrae .
- FUNCTION:
o permi t them to s erve a s shock a bsorbers
when the l oad on the vertebral column is
s uddenly i ncreased, as when one is jumping
from a height.
o Thei r elasticity allows the rigid vertebrae to
move one on the other. Unfortunately, their
res ilience i s gradually l ost with a dvancing
a ge. Ea ch disc consists of a peripheral part,
the a nulus fibrosus, and a central part, the
nucl eus pulposus.
- The anulus fibrosus i s composed of fibrocartilage, in
whi ch the collagen fibers are a rranged i n concentric
l a yers or sheets. The collagen bundles pass obliquely
between a djacent vertebral bodies, a nd their
4 of 7
 Gross Human Structural Biology
Blood Supply and Nerve Supply of the Anterior Forearm
i ncl ination is reversed in a lternate sheets. The more
peri pheral fibers are s trongly a ttached to the anterior
a nd posterior longitudinal
- Li ga ments of the vertebral column. The nucleus
pul posus in children and adolescents is an ovoid mass
of gel atinous material containing a large
Ligaments
Anteri or a nd posterior longitudinal ligaments
-run a s continuous bands down the anterior a nd posterior
s urfa ces of the vertebral column from the skull to the sacrum.
o Anterior ligament
- wi de a nd is strongly a ttached to the front and
s i des of the vertebral bodi es a nd to the
i ntervertebral discs.
o Posterior ligament
- wea k a nd na rrow a nd i s a tta ched to the
pos terior borders of the di scs. These ligaments
hol d the vertebrae fi rmly together bu t a t the
s a me ti me permit a s mall amount of movement
to ta ke place between them.
Joints between Two Vertebral Arches
- The joi nts between two vertebral a rches consist of
s ynovi al joi nts between the s uperior a nd i nferior
a rti cular processes of a djacent vertebrae.
- The a rti cular facets are covered with hyaline cartilage,
a nd the joints a re surrounded by a ca psular ligament.
- Ligaments
o Supraspinous ligament
Thi s runs between the tips of adjacent spines.
■ Interspinous :This connects adjacent s pines.
■ Intertransverse l i gaments: run between
a dja cent tra nsverse processes.
■ Li ga mentum flavum: This connects the laminae
of a djacent vertebrae.
- In the cervi ca l regi on, the s upraspinous and
i nterspinous ligaments a re greatly thickened to form
the s trong ligamentum nuchae. The l a tter extends
from the s pi ne of the 7th cervi ca l vertebra to the
external occi pital protuberance of the s kull, with its
a nterior border being strongly attached to the cervical
s pi nes in between.
NERVE SUPPLY OF VERTEBRAL JOINTS
• The joints between vertebral bodies are innerva ted by the
s ma ll meningeal branches of ea ch s pinal nerve
• The nerve a rises from the spinal nerve as it exits from the
i ntervertebral foramen
• It then re-enters the vertebra l ca na l through the
i ntervertebral fora men a nd s upplies the meninges, the
l i gaments, a nd the intervertebral discs.
• The joi nts between the articular processes a re innervated
by bra nches from the posterior ra mi of the spinal nerves
S 2 T 2.1
CURVES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
• In the fetus, the vertebral column has one continuous
a nterior concavity; a s development proceeds, the
l umbosacral angle appears.
• After bi rth, when the child is a ble to raise his or her head
a nd keep it upright, the cervi cal part of the vertebral
col umn becomes concave posteriorly.
• Nea r the end of the first year, when the child begins to
s ta nd upright, the l umbar part of the vertebral column
becomes concave posteriorly.
• In the a dult i n the standing position, the vertebral column,
exhi bits in the sagittal plane following regional curves:
1. Cervi ca l- posterior concavity
2. Thora cic- [posterior convexity
3. Lumba r- posterior concavity
4. Sa cra l-posterior convexity
MOVEMENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
o The vertebral column is moved by numerous muscles, many
of whi ch a re a tta ched di rectly to the vertebrae, while
others , such as sternocleidomastoid and the abdominal wall
mus cles, a re attached to the skull or the ribs or fasciae.
1. Flexion/Extension
• Fl exion is a forward movement, and extension is
a ba ckward movement
• Both a re extensive i n the cervi cal a nd lumbar
regi ons, but restricted i n the thoracic region
• The a tl a nto-occipital joi nts permi t extensive
fl exion and extension of the head
• In the cervical region, flexion is produced by the
l ongus cervi cis, the s ca lenus a nterior a nd the
s ternocleidomastoid mus cles. Extension is
produced by the postvertebral muscles
• In the l umbar region, flexion is produced by the
rectus a bdominis a nd the ps oas muscles.
Extens ion i s produced by the pos tvertebral
mus cles.
5 of 7
 Gross Human Structural Biology
Blood Supply and Nerve Supply of the Anterior Forearm

2. Lateral Flexion
• i s the bending of the body to one or the other
s i de II. ROOTS OF SPINAL NERVES
• It i s extensive i n the cervical a nd lumbar regions,
• Atta ched a re 31 pairs of spinal nerves
but res tricted in the thoracic region
• Ea ch pos terior nerve roots pos seses a pos terior root
• La teral fl exion on the neck i s produced by the
ga nglion which gi ves ri se to peripheral a nd central nerve
s ca lenus anterior a nd medius a nd trapezius and fi bers
s ternocleidomastoid muscles. • Spi nal nerve roots pass l a terally from ea ch s pinal cord
• La teral fl exion of the lumbar region i s produced s egment to the l evel of thei r res pective intervertebral
by the pos tvertebral mus cles, the quadratus
foramina where they nite to form spinal nerve
l umborum, a nd the obl ique mus cles of the
a nterolateral abdominal wall. The psoas may also
pl a y a part i n this movement
3. Rotation
• Is a twisting movement of the vertebral column;
l east extensive i n the lumbar region
• The a tl antoaxial joi nts a l low a wi de ra nge of
rota ti on of the atlas and thus of the head on the
a xi s
• Rota tion on the neck i s produced by
s ternocleidomastoid on one side and the splenius
• Beca use of the disapproportionate growth in the length in
on the other side
vertebra column during development, the l ength of the
• In the thoracic region, rotation is produced by the
roots i ncreases progressively from a bove downward
s emispinalis a nd rota tores muscles a ssisted by
o In the upper cervical region, spinal nerve roots are
the obl ique mus cl es of the a nterolateral
s hort a nd run almost horizontally
a bdominal wall.
o In l umbar a nd s acral nerves below the l evel of
• Rota tion i n the lumbar region is produced by the
termi nation of the cord form a vertical leash of
rota tores muscles a nd the oblique muscles of the nerves around fi l um termi nale ca l led Cauda
a nterolateral abdominal wall
Equina
4. Circumduction
• After emergence from i ntervertebral foramina, each spinal
• Is a combination of all these movements
nerve di vide i nto anterior (motor) a nd posterior (sensory)
ramus

**DAVE Dors a l Afferent (Sensory) Ventral Efferent (Motor)

I. SPINAL CORD
• Cyl i ndrical gra yish white s tructure, 42-45 cm i n length from
fora men magnum  continuous with medulla oblongata of
bra i n
• Termi nates below
o ADULT l ower border of L1
o CHILD upper border L3
• Cervi ca l enlargement for brachial plexus
• Lumba r enlargements for lumbosacral plexus
• Ta pers of i nto CONUS MEDULLARIS
• Wi th prolongation of pia mater FILUM TERMINALE
• The s pinal cord posseses in the mi dline a nteriorly a deep
l ongitudinal fissure – Anterior median fissure
• And a pos terior s urfa ce a s ha llow furrow – posterior
median sulcus

S 2 T 2.1 6 of 7
 Gross Human Structural Biology
Blood Supply and Nerve Supply of the Anterior Forearm

Pa chymeninx- Dura + Ara chnoid

III. BLOOD SUPPLY OF SPINAL CORD Leptomeninx- Ara chnoid + Pi a
• Spi nal cord receives arterial supply from 3 a rteries
o 2 Posterior Spinal Artery – a ri se direct or indirect
from vertebral a rteries, run down the side of
s pi nal cord close to the attatchment of posterior
s pi nal nerve roots
▪ POSTERIOR 1/3 of the spinal cord
(mostly sensory)
o 1 anterior Spinal Artery – a ri se from vertebral
a rtery a nd unite to form single artery which run
downs with anterior median fissure
▪ ANTERIOR 2/3 of the spinal cord
(mostly motor)

• Anteri or a nd posterios s pinal a rteries a re re inforced by

Radicular Arteries
• The grea t anterior segmental medullary artery of
Adamkiewicz us ually enters left second lumbar ventral root
(ra nging between T10-L4) supplying most of the caudal 1/3
of the cord

• Veins of spinal cord dra i ns  Internal vertebral venous plexus

IV. MENINGES OF SPINAL CORD

V. CEREBRO SPINAL FLUID

A. DURA MATER
• Mos t external membrane and is dense, strong fibrous sheet
• Found in the ventricles of the brain and in the subarachnoid
tha t encloses spinal cord and cauda equina
s pa ce
• Conti nous above thru fora men ma gnum wi th meningeal
• Cl ea r a nd col orl ess fl uid a nd pos sesses, i n s olution,
l a yer of dura covering the brain
i norganic salts similar to those i n the blood plasma
• Inferiorly ends at l ower border of S2
• Conta i ns only a tra ce of protein a nd the glucose content is
• Sepa rated from walls of ca nal by extradural space Epidural
onl y half that of blood
Space whi ch contains loose areolar tissue and the internal
• Approxi mately a t 60-150 mm of wa ter
vertebra l venous plexus
• Ra i sed by s training, coughing, or compressing the internal
• Becomes continuous with connective ti ssue covering each
jugul ar vein
s pi nal nerve (Epineurium) at intervertebral foramina
• CSF i s formed mainly i n the choroid plexuses of the lateral,
• Sepa rated from a rachnoid mater by Subdural Space
thi rd, a nd fourth ventricles
B. ARACHNOID MATER
Flow of CSF:
• Lie between dura ma ter (s eparated by subdural space)
1. Fl uid passes from the lateral ventricles i nto the third
externally a nd pi a ma ter (separated by subarachnoid
ventri cle through the interventricular foramina (of
space) i nternally
Monro)
• Inferiorly ends on Filum terminale a t l evel of l ower border
↓
of S2
2. It then passes i nto the fourth ventricle through the narrow
• Between l evel of conus medullaris and subarachnoid space
cerebral aqueduct
i s the dural sac conta ining nerve roots of ca uda equina
↓
ba thed in CSF
3. From the fourth ventricle, the fluid passes slowly through the
foramen of Magendie and foramen of Luschka a nd enters the
C. PIA MATER
s ubarachnoid space. The CSF would reach the arachnoid
• Vascular membrane tha t cl osely covers the spinal cord
gra nulations where they would be absorbed
• Inferiorly it fuses with Fi l um terminale
• Thi ckened on either side to form Denticulate Ligaments to
be a tta tched to the dura

S 2 T 2.1 7 of 7