Experiment No-1

Objective: - To Study and Observe the different signal wave shapes by CRO.

Apparatus Required:-
1. Function Generator.
2. CRO with connecting probe.
3. BNC cords.

Theory:-
The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument; it is used to obtain
waveforms when the different input signals are given. In the early days, it is called
as an Oscillograph. The oscilloscope observes the changes in the electrical signals
over time, thus the voltage and time describe a shape and it is continuously
graphed beside a scale. By seeing the waveform, we can analyze some properties
like amplitude, frequency, rise time, distortion, time interval and etc. The CRO
stands for a cathode ray oscilloscope. It is typically divided into four sections
which are display, vertical controllers, horizontal controllers, and Triggers. Most of
the oscilloscopes are used the probes and they are used for the input of any
instrument. We can analyze the waveform by plotting amplitude along with the x-
axis and y-axis. The applications of CRO’s mainly involve in the radio, TV
receivers, also in laboratory work involving research and design. In modern
electronics, the CRO plays an important role in the electronic circuits.
Fig-1

Fig-2
 Sine wave Signal

Fig-3

Square Wave Signal

Fig-4
Triangular Waveforms

Fig-5
 Experiment No-2

Objective: - To Study and observe the Time Division Multiplexing.

Apparatus Required:-
1. ST2105 with power supply cord.
2. CRO with connecting probe.
3. Connecting cords.

Theory:-
In PAM, PPM the pulse is present for a short duration and for most of the time
between the two pulses no signal is present. This free space between the pulses can
be occupied by pulses from other channels. This is known as Time Division
Multiplexing. Thus, time division multiplexing makes maximum utilization of the
transmission channel. Each channel to be transmitted is passed through the low
pass filter. The outputs of the low pass filters are connected to the rotating
sampling switch (or) commutated. It takes the sample from each channel per
revolution and rotates at the rate of f s. Thus the sampling frequency becomes fs
the single signal composed due to multiplexing of input channels. These channels
signals are then passed through low pass reconstruction filters. If the highest signal
frequency present in all the channels is fm, then by sampling theorem, the
sampling frequency fs must be such that fs≥2fm. Therefore, the time space
between successive samples from any one input will be Ts=1/fs, and Ts 1/2fm.
Fig-1

Fig-2
 Experiment No-3

Objective: - To Study and Frequency modulation (FM) and trace its waveforms.

Apparatus Required:-
1. FM kit, Signal Generator,
2. CRO with connecting probe.
3. Connecting cords.

Theory:-
In the communication information like audio signal or speech writing signal is to be
transmitted from one point to another. But if it is transmitted directly through the antenna
then transmitting antenna must be ¼ to ½ wavelengths long. To reduce the antenna size,
there low frequency information (audio) signal is mixed with higher frequency. Such
process is called as frequency modulation (FM). This higher frequency is called as carrier
signal. At the receiver side, this signal is converted back to audio frequency called as
demodulation process In these modulating signal em is used to vary the carrier signal
frequency. Let the change in the carrier frequency be k em where k is a constant know as
frequency deviation constant, then the instantaneous carrier frequency is

fi = fc + kem

Where fc is the unmodulated carrier frequency.

Let modulating signal is sine wave given by

em = emmax sinmt

Then instantaneous carrier frequency becomes

fi = fc + kemmax sinmt
The peak frequency deviation of the signal is defined to be

f = kemmax

Therefore

fi = fc + f sinmt.

Fig.1

Fig1.shows the FM waveform if modulating signal increase in positive direction

towards positive peak, then carrier frequency at o/p (FM) increases it become max
at positive peak. If modulating signal decreases from positive peak towards
negative half cycle it decreases the carrier frequency at o/p. when modulating
signal returns to zero, the carrier frequency returns to it’s center frequency. When
modulating signal is at it’s negative peak, the carrier frequency become zero at o/p.
therefore the modulating signal produces a frequency- modulated waveform as
shows in fig 1. The carrier changes equally above and below it’s center frequency.
The amount of frequency change is called as the frequency deviation. The rate of
frequency deviation is determined by the frequency of the modulating signal but
not be the amount of deviation e.g. if carrier changes continuously from 90 MHZ
to 90.2 MHZ then frequency deviation is +0.2 MHZ or 200 kHz. If the 500hz
audio tone is used to modulate the above carrier then it will changes equally above
& below it’s center frequency 500 times per second. As the amplitude of
modulating signal deviation will change for fixed value of modulating frequency
hence the amount of carrier deviation is directly proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating signal.

Fig-2
 Experiment No-4

Objective: - To Perform the function of Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation.

Apparatus Required:-
1. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation trainer kit.
2. CRO with connecting probe.
3. Connecting cords.

Theory:-
Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which the amplitude of the
carrier wave c(t) is varied about a mean value, linearly with the baseband signal.
An AM wave may thus be described, in the most general form, as a function of
time as follows. S(t)=Ac{1+Kam(t)}cos(2πfct) Where Ka- Amplitude sensitivity
of the modulator S(t) –Modulated signal Ac- carrier signal m(t) –modulating signal
The amplitude of Ka m(t) is always less than unity, that is Ka m(t) 1 for any carrier
wave becomes over modulated ,resulting in carrier phase reversal whenever the
factor 1+Kam(t) crosses zero. The modulate wave then exhibits envelope
distortion. The absolute maximum value of Ka m(t) multiplied by 100 is referred to
as the percentage modulation. Vmax-Vmin Or percentage modulation = -------------
- ×100 Vmax +Vmin The carrier frequency fc is much greater than the highest
frequency component ω of the message signal m(t),that is fc >>W Where W is the
message bandwidth. If the condition is not satisfied, and envelope cannot be
visualized satisfactorily. The trainer kit has a carrier generator, which can generate
the carrier wave of 100 KHz when the trainer is switched on. The circuit’s carrier
generator, modulator and demodulator are provided with the built in supplies, no
supply connections are to be given externally
Fig-1
Fig-2

Fig-3
Fig-4
Fig-5

Fig-6
 Experiment No-7

Objective:- To Generate AM-Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) signal.

Apparatus Required:-
1. Oscilloscope.

2. 2mm Patch cords.

3. DSB Trainer kit.

Theory:-
Balanced modulator is used for generating DSB-SC signal. A balanced modulator
consists of two standard amplitude modulators arranged in a balanced
configuration so as to suppress the carrier wave. The two modulators are identical
except the reversal of sign of the modulating signal applied to them. In the process
of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave consists of the carrier wave and
two sidebands. The modulated wave has the information only in the
sidebands. Sideband is nothing but a band of frequencies, containing power, which
are the lower and higher frequencies of the carrier frequency. The transmission of
a signal, which contains a carrier along with two sidebands, can be termed
as Double Sideband Full Carrier system or simply DSBFC. It is plotted as shown
in the following figure.
 Fig-1

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, two-thirds of the power is

being wasted in the carrier, which carries no information. If this carrier is
suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the two sidebands, then such a
process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or
simply DSBSC. It is plotted as shown in the following figure.

Fig-2
Fig-3
Fig-4

Fig-5
 Experiment No-8

Objective:- To Study and Observe the Superhetrodyne Reciver.

Apparatus Required:-
1. Oscilloscope.

2. 2mm Patch cords.

3. Superhetrodyne Trainer kit.

Theory:-
Having looked at the concepts behind the super heterodyne receiver it is helpful to
look at a block diagram of a basic superhet. The super heterodyne block diagram is
relatively straightforward and builds on the basic functional block used to convert
the incoming frequency down to a fixed intermediate frequency stage. While there
may be some simplified versions for a super heterodyne block diagram, each
receiver will be different as a result of the differing requirements for each receiver.
However the basic principles are the same and many super heterodyne block
diagrams are very similar. The basic block diagram of a basic superhet receiver is
shown below. This details the most basic form of the receiver and serves to
illustrate the basic blocks and their function.

Fig-1
RF tuning & amplification:- This RF stage within the overall block diagram
for the receiver provides initial tuning to remove the image signal. It also provides
some amplification. If noise performance for the receiver is important, then this
stage will be designed for optimum noise performance. This RF amplifier circuit
block will also increase the signal level so that the noise introduced by later stages
is at a lower level in comparison to the wanted signal.

Local oscillator:- The local oscillator circuit block can take a variety of forms.
Early receivers used free running local oscillators. Today most receivers use
frequency synthesizers, normally based around phase locked loops. These provide
much greater levels of stability and enable frequencies to be programmed in a
variety of ways.

Mixer: - Both the local oscillator and incoming signal enter this block within the
super heterodyne receiver. The wanted signal is converted to the intermediate
frequency.

IF amplifier & filter: - This super heterodyne receiver block provides the majority
of gain and selectivity. High performance filters like crystal filters may be used,
although LC or ceramic filters may be used within domestic radios.

Demodulator:- The super heterodyne receiver block diagram only shows one
demodulator, but in reality radios may have one or more demodulators dependent
upon the type of signals being receiver.

Audio amplifier: - Once demodulated, the recovered audio is applied to an audio

amplifier block to be amplified to the required level for loudspeakers or
headphones. Alternatively the recovered modulation may be used for other
applications whereupon it is processed in the required way by a specific circuit
block.
Fig-2
Objective:- To Study and Observe the SSB-Modulation .
Apparatus Required:-
1. Oscilloscope.

2. 2mm Patch cords.

3. SSB-SC Modulation kit.

Theory:-
The single sideband AM is a method in which only one side band is transmitted.
Often, the support is also suppressed. Benefits of SSB are half the bandwidth
compared to the normal AM and savings in transmission power. The disadvantage
is the higher technical effort in dealing with SSB signals. After modulation and
before sending one of the sidebands and the carrier must be filtered. These
particularly high selective filters are required. The technically more complex phase
method uses two parallel ring modulators. The carrier and the base band in the
original phase position, the other of the modulator are supplied to a modulator 90 °
out of phase. After the additive superposition of both AM-modulation products is
one of the sidebands counted out. The phase method does not require high slope,
high-order filter. Instead, it requires broadband phase shifter to ensure a 90 ° phase
rotation to the entire information band. The phase method could not prevail so.

Fig-1
Fig-2

Fig-3