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A. SOAP AND DETERGENT

Chapter 5 Definition:

Chemicals for Consumers Soap

A sodium or potassium salt of long-chain fatty acid

General formula of soap:

RCOO-Na+ or RCOO-K+

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Soap preparation process

Detergent • Soap is prepared by hydrolyzing fats or oils under
A sodium or potassium salt of alkyl sulphonic alkaline condition. This reaction is called
acids or alkylbenzene sulphonic acid SAPONIFICATION

• The process involves boiling fats or oils with

concentrated NaOH or concentrated KOH to
produce glycerol and the salts of fatty acids which
are the soap

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PREPARATION A SOAP IN LAB

Oil/Fat

Glycerol Soap

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Describe how soap can be prepared in laboratory

Procedure:
1. Place 10 g of palm oil in a beaker.
2. Slowly and carefully add 15 cm3 of 6 mol dm-3
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.
3. Gently heat the mixture, stirring with glass rod until the oil
layer becomes invisible.
4. Add 20 ml of water and 12 g of sodium chloride into the
mixture and stir.
5. Cool the mixture.
6. Filter the mixture.
7. Rinse the solid soap with distilled water and dry the solid
soap.

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Why is sodium chloride added to the mixture?
Sodium chloride, NaCl is added to:
• Reduces the solubility of soap in water
• To precipitate the soap produced
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Detergent preparation process
• During the preparation of detergent, a long-chain
hydrocarbon obtained from petroleum fraction is
converted into an organic acid through a series of
steps.
• The organic acid is then neutralized with sodium
hydroxide, NaOH solution to produce a detergent.
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Structure of soap What is soap anions?

• Soap consists of sodium/potassium cations and soap

anions
• When a sodium/potassium soap dissolve in water, it
will form soap anions and sodium ion, Na+ or Hydrophobic Hydrophilic
potassium ion, K+ (water-hating) (water-loving)

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Cleaning action of soap & detergent

• When soap/detergent is
added to water, • The hydrophobic
soap/detergent molecule part dissolve in
dissolve in water to form grease
free moving anions and • The hydrophilic part
cations attracted to water
• Soap reduces surface molecule
tension of water

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• Mechanical agitation • The droplet does not

coagulate due to the
during scrubbing
repulsion between
helps the hydrophobic
negative charges
part pull away the
grease from the • The droplets are
surface suspended in water to
form an emulsion
• The grease is broken
up into small droplet • When rinsed, the droplet
will be removed

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Explain why detergent is more effective in hard water
• Hard water contain calcium ion, Ca2+ and magnesium
ion, Mg2+
• Soap anions react with Ca2+ ion and Mg2+ ion to form
scum
• Scum is insoluble in water
• Detergent does not form scum in hard water
• Detergent is more effective than soap in hard water
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5.1 Soap and Detergent
Describe a laboratory experiment to prepare a soap by
using a namely oil and alkali.
State how to verify the product formed is soap.
Terangkan suatu experiment makmal untuk menyediakan
sabun dengan menggunakan minyak dan alkali yang
dinamakan.
Nyatakan bagaimana anda mengesahkan hasil yang
terbentuk itu adalah sabun.
[10 marks]
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Procedure:
1. 10 g of palm oil is placed in a beaker. B. FOOD ADDITIVES
2. 15 cm3 of 6 mol dm-3 concentrated sodium hydroxide
solution is added slowly and carefully into the beaker.
• A natural or synthetic substance which is
3. The mixture is heated and stirred with glass rod.
4. 20 ml of water and 12 g of sodium chloride is added added to food to prevent spoilage or to
into the mixture and stirred. improve its appearance, taste or texture
5. The mixture is cooled.
6. The soap is filtered.
7. The solid soap is rinsed with distilled water and dried.
8. The soap is put into a test tube.
9. The water is added and the test tube is shaken.
10. Foam is form.

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Types of Food Additives Preservatives

 Preservatives • Substances added to food to slow down or
 Antioxidants prevent the growth of microorganisms.
 Flavourings • Examples:
 Stabilizers Salt, vinegar, sugar, sodium benzoate, sodium
 Thickeners nitrate, sulphur dioxide
 Dyes

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Preservative Example How it works

Antioxidants
Salt Salted fish Draws the water out of the cells of
microorganisms and retards the
Sugar Jam growth of microorganisms • Added to food to prevent oxidation that causes
Provides an acidic condition that rancid fats and brown fruits.
Vinegar inhibits the growth of
microorganisms • Examples:
Sodium nitrite or Burger, sausage, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated
sodium nitrate launcheon meat
hydroxytoluene (BHT), ascorbic acid (Vitamin C),
Slow down the growth of
Benzoic acid or
sodium benzoate
Sauce microorganism tocopherol (Vitamin E) and sodium citrate
Sulphur dioxide Fruit juice

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Antioxidant Example Function Flavouring

Butylated hydroxyanisole
(BHA)
Butylated hydroxytoluene
Margarine To retard rancidity in oils • Used to improve the taste of food and restore
(BHT) taste loss because of processing
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Fruit juice
To preserve the colour of fruit
juice
• Examples:
Protects body tissue from Sugar, salt, vinegar, monosodium glutamate
Alpha tocopheral
(Vitamin E)
damage caused by substances (MSG), aspartame and synthetic essences
called free radicals

Cooked cured To stop fats from turning

Sodium citrate
meat rancid

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Stabilizers Thickeners
• Substance which helps to prevent an emulsion • Used to thicken foods
from separating out • Examples:
• Examples: Pectin (jams and jellies)
Lecithin, mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids Acacia gum (chewing gum, jelly and wine)
Gelatine (yogurt)

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Advantages and Disadvantages

Dyes of Using Food Additives
Advantages Disadvantages
• Used to add or restore the colour in food
• Examples: Make food stay fresh Associated with serious
longer, look nicer and taste diseases like cancer and
Tartrazine, anthocyanin, better asthma

Make food last longer Toxic effect

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5.2 Food Additives

Food additives are commonly added in food for certain purposes. (c) Besides flavouring, name two other food additives that are most likely to be
added in the making of jelly.
Bahan tambah makanan biasanya ditambah dalam makanan untuk tujuan tertentu. Selain perisa, namakan dua bahan tambah makanan lain yang besar
kemungkinan ditambah dalam pembuatan jeli.
(a) Give one purpose of using food additives in food. [2 marks]
Berikan satu tujuan penggunaan bahan tambah makanan di dalam makanan.
[1 mark] (d) Why is common salt used to preserve food?
Mengapakah garam biasa digunakan dalam pengawetan makanan?
[2 marks]
(b) The following are some food additives. State the function for each of the food
additives. (e) What is the food additive which is added to meat and sausages?
Berikut adalah beberapa jenis bahan tambah makanan. Nyatakan satu fungsi Apakah bahan tambah makanan yang ditambah dalam daging atau sosej?
[2 marks]
bagi setiap bahan tambah makanan.
(i) Preservatives / Pengawet : (f) Give a side effect of the substance named in (e).
(ii) Antioxidants / Anti-pengoksida : Berikan kesan sampingan bahan yang dinamakan dalam (e).
[2 marks] [1 mark]

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Answer C. MEDICINES
(a) To preserve food so that it can keep longer/ To improve the taste of food so that it tastes
more delicious/ To enhance or improve flavour of food so that it smells good • Used to prevent or cure diseases or relieve
(b)
(i) Prevent or slow down the growth of fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms thus
pain.
preventing decay and prolonging the shelf life
(ii) Prevent food from becoming rancid and brown by slowing down the reaction of the food
• Classified as:
with oxygen in the presence of light.  Traditional medicines
(c) Stabilizer and dye  Modern medicines
(d) It absorbs the water contained in food and dries the food.
This causes microorganisms to die because they cannot live without water.
(e) Sodium nitrite
(f) Results in allergy and cancer

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Traditional Medicine Modern Medicine

• Derived from plants or animals
• These include:
 Aloe vera (lidah buaya)
 Centella asiatica (pegaga)
 Eurycoma longifolia (tongkat ali)
 Orthosiphon aristatus (misai kucing)
 Andrographis paniculata (hempedu bumi)
 Ocimum basilicum (selasih)
• Made by scientists in laboratories and based
on substances found in nature
• Types of modern medicine:
 Analgesics
 Antibiotics
 Psychotherapeutic medicine

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Modern Medicine Analgesics

Analgesics Aspirin
• Used to relieve pain without causing • Used worldwide for pain relief
numbness or affecting consciousness • Acidic (acetylsalicylic acid) – best taken after
• Common analgesics: food
 Aspirin • Should never be given to children, can cause
 Paracetamol brain and liver damage
 Codeine

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Analgesics Analgesics
Paracetamol Codeine
• Relieve mild to moderate pain • Stronger analgesic used in headache tablets
• Like headache, muscle and joint pain, and in cough medicines
backache and period pains • Cause drowsiness when it is taken
• Can be given to children – it does not irritate • Abuse of this medicine – lead to addiction,
the stomach or cause it to bleed depression and nausea
• Overdose: Can cause liver damage

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Modern Medicine
Antibiotics
• Used to treat infections caused by bacteria as
they kill or slow down the growth of bacteria
• Obtained from misroorganisms – bacteria and
fungi
• Side effect – slight headache, allergic,
diarrhoea
• Make sure take full course of the antibiotics –
to make sure all the bacteria are killed
Antibiotics
Penicillin
• Extracted from fungus Penicillium notatum
• Used to cure bacterial diseases such as
tuberculosis (TB) and pheumonia
Streptomycin
• Produced by soil bacteria of the genus
Streptomyces
• Used to treat tuberculosis, whooping cough and
some forms of pneumonia

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Modern Medicine Psychotherapeutic medicine

Psychotherapeutic medicine Stimulant
• Used to alter abnormal thinking, feelings or • A medicine which activates the level of activity
behaviours arousal or alertness of the central nervous
system to reduce fatigue and elevate mood in
• Reduce symptoms of mental illness most people
• Classification: • Example: Methyphenidate,
 Stimulant dextroamphetamine and amphetamine
 Antidepressant • High doses: Can lead to anxiety,
 Antipsychotic hallucinations, severe depressions, or physical
& psychological dependence

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Psychotherapeutic medicine Antidepressant

Antidepressant
• A medicine used primarily in the treatment of
depression
• Example: tranquilizers and barbiturates
Tranquilizers
• Used to calm down a person, reduce tension
and anxiety
• Side effect: drowsiness, poor coordination or
light-headedness
• Overdose: respiratory difficulties,
sleeplessness, come and even death

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Antidepressant Psychotherapeutic medicine

Barbiturates Antipsychotic
• Used to calm or relax most individuals at low • A medicine used to treat psychiatric illness
doses such as schizophrenia
• High dose: sleep • Example: chlorpromazine, haloperidol and
• Overdose: sometimes kill themselves clozapine
accidentally • Side effect: drowsiness, rapid heartbeat and
dizziness

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Side Effects of Modern Medicine B. FOOD ADDITIVES

• A natural or synthetic substance which is

added to food to prevent spoilage or to
improve its appearance, taste or texture

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Types of Food Additives Preservatives

 Preservatives • Substances added to food to slow down or
 Antioxidants prevent the growth of microorganisms.
 Flavourings • Examples:
 Stabilizers Salt, vinegar, sugar, sodium benzoate, sodium
 Thickeners nitrate, sulphur dioxide
 Dyes

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Preservative Example How it works

Antioxidants
Salt Salted fish Draws the water out of the cells of
microorganisms and retards the
Sugar Jam growth of microorganisms • Added to food to prevent oxidation that causes
Provides an acidic condition that rancid fats and brown fruits.
Vinegar inhibits the growth of
microorganisms • Examples:
Sodium nitrate or Burger, sausage, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated
sodium nitrate launcheon meat
hydroxytoluene (BHT), ascorbic acid (Vitamin C),
Slow down the growth of
Benzoic acid or
sodium benzoate
Sauce microorganism tocopherol (Vitamin E) and sodium citrate
Sulphur dioxide Fruit juice

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Antioxidant Example Function Flavouring

Butylated hydroxyanisole
(BHA)
Butylated hydroxytoluene
Margarine To retard rancidity in oils • Used to improve the taste of food and restore
(BHT) taste loss because of processing
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Fruit juice
To preserve the colour of fruit
juice
• Examples:
Protects body tissue from Sugar, salt, vinegar, monosodium glutamate
Alpha tocopheral
(Vitamin E)
damage caused by substances (MSG), aspartame and synthetic essences
called free radicals

Cooked cured To stop fats from turning

Sodium citrate
meat rancid

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Stabilizers Thickeners
• Substance which helps to prevent an emulsion • Used to thicken foods
from separating out • Examples:
• Examples: Pectin (jams and jellies)
Lecithin, mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids Acacia gum (chewing gum, jelly and wine)
Gelatine (yogurt)

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Advantages and Disadvantages

Dyes of Using Food Additives
Advantages Disadvantages
• Used to add or restore the colour in food
• Examples: Make food stay fresh Associated with serious
longer, look nicer and taste diseases like cancer and
Tartrazine, anthocyanin, better asthma

Make food last longer Toxic effect

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C. MEDICINES Traditional Medicine

• Derived from plants or animals
• Used to prevent or cure diseases or relieve
• These include:
pain.
 Aloe vera (lidah buaya)
• Classified as:
 Centella asiatica (pegaga)
 Traditional medicines  Eurycoma longifolia (tongkat ali)
 Modern medicines  Orthosiphon aristatus (misai kucing)
 Andrographis paniculata (hempedu bumi)
 Ocimum basilicum (selasih)

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Modern Medicine
Modern Medicine Analgesics
• Made by scientists in laboratories and based • Used to relieve pain without causing
on substances found in nature numbness or affecting consciousness
• Types of modern medicine: • Common analgesics:
 Analgesics  Aspirin
 Antibiotics  Paracetamol
 Psychotherapeutic medicine  Codeine

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Analgesics Analgesics
Aspirin Paracetamol
• Used worldwide for pain relief • Relieve mild to moderate pain
• Acidic (acetylsalicylic acid) – best taken after • Like headache, muscle and joint pain,
food backache and period pains
• Should never be given to children, can cause • Can be given to children – it does not irritate
brain and liver damage the stomach or cause it to bleed
• Overdose: Can cause liver damage

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Analgesics Modern Medicine

Codeine
• Stronger analgesic used in headache tablets
and in cough medicines
• Cause drowsiness when it is taken
• Abuse of this medicine – lead to addiction,
depression and nausea
Antibiotics
• Used to treat infections caused by bacteria as
they kill or slow down the growth of bacteria
• Obtained from misroorganisms – bacteria and
fungi
• Side effect – slight headache, allergic,
diarrhoea
• Make sure take full course of the antibiotics –
to make sure all the bacteria are killed

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Modern Medicine
Antibiotics
Psychotherapeutic medicine
Penicillin • Used to alter abnormal thinking, feelings or
• Extracted from fungus Penicillium notatum behaviours
• Used to cure bacterial diseases such as
tuberculosis (TB) and pheumonia • Reduce symptoms of mental illness
• Classification:
Streptomycin  Stimulant
• Produced by soil bacteria of the genus
Streptomyces  Antidepressant
• Used to treat tuberculosis, whooping cough and  Antipsychotic
some forms of pneumonia

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Psychotherapeutic medicine Psychotherapeutic medicine

Stimulant Antidepressant
• A medicine which activates the level of activity • A medicine used primarily in the treatment of
arousal or alertness of the central nervous depression
system to reduce fatigue and elevate mood in
most people • Example: tranquilizers and barbiturates
• Example: Methyphenidate,
dextroamphetamine and amphetamine
• High doses: Can lead to anxiety,
hallucinations, severe depressions, or physical
& psychological dependence

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Antidepressant Antidepressant
Tranquilizers Barbiturates
• Used to calm down a person, reduce tension • Used to calm or relax most individuals at low
and anxiety doses
• Side effect: drowsiness, poor coordination or • High dose: sleep
light-headedness • Overdose: sometimes kill themselves
• Overdose: respiratory difficulties, accidentally
sleeplessness, come and even death

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Psychotherapeutic medicine
Antipsychotic Side Effects of Modern Medicine
• A medicine used to treat psychiatric illness
such as schizophrenia
• Example: chlorpromazine, haloperidol and
clozapine
• Side effect: drowsiness, rapid heartbeat and
dizziness

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