Question-1

What is the difference between hardness and harden ability,

malleability and toughness. What is spheroidsing?

Difference between hardness and harden ability

Hardness
The Metals Handbook defines hardness as "Resistance of metal to
plastic deformation, usually by indentation. However, the term may
also refer to stiffness or temper, or to resistance to scratching,
abrasion, or cutting. It is the property of a metal, which gives it the
ability to resist being permanently, deformed (bent, broken, or have
its shape changed), when a load is applied. The greater the
hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it has to deformation.

In mineralogy the property of matter commonly described as the

resistance of a substance to being scratched by another substance.
In metallurgy hardness is defined as the ability of a material to
resist plastic deformation.

The dictionary of Metallurgy defines the indentation hardness as

the resistance of a material to indentation. This is the usual type of
hardness test, in which a pointed or rounded indenter is pressed
into a surface under a substantially static load.

Hardneability

A steel property which describes the depth to which the steel may
be hardened during quenching. It is important to note that
hardenability is a material property, dependent on chemical
composition and grain size, but independent of the quenchant or
quenching system (cooling rate). However, the structures obtained
across a quenched section are a function of both hardenability and
the quenching process (severity of quench).

Difference between malleability and toughness

Malleability
Malleability is one of several general physical properties of metals
and metallic compounds. Chemically, elements can be classified as
metals, metalloids, or non-metals based, in part, upon these
physical properties. Malleability is the ease with which a metal can
be hammered, forged, pressed, or rolled into thin sheets. Different
metals vary in malleability. For example, lead is highly malleable
and can be hammered flat easily. Iron requires considerably more
effort to pound into a sheet and is therefore less malleable. Yet,
both are metals.

In contrast, non- metallic elements, such as carbon or sulfur,

shatter into pieces when hammered. Malleability is a valuable
property because it allows metals to be shaped into useful forms.
Pure gold is the most malleable metal. Silver, aluminum, lead, tin,
and copper are also very malleable. Heating usually increases
malleability. For instance, zinc, at standard temperatures is brittle,
but becomes malleable at temperatures between 248°F (120°C) and
302°F (150°C). Also, impurities can adversely affect the malleability
of metals, making them less pliable.

Toughness

Definition: The ability of a metal to rapidly distribute within itself

both the stress and strain caused by a suddenly applied load, or
more simply expressed, the ability of a material to withstand shock
loading. It is the exact opposite of "brittleness" which carries the
implication of sudden failure. A brittle material has little resistance
to failure once the elastic limit has been reached.

Spheroidising

The process applies more to the hypereutectoid steels (above 0.8

percent; C). The process involves heating the metal to between
600oC and 650oC and holding it at the selected temperature for a
period of time the cementite changes from a lamella formation to a
formation based on an alpha ferrite matrix with particles of
spheroidal cementite (Fe3C) are embedded. This resulting steel has
improved ductility and toughness compared to the original steel
with reduced hardness and strength.
Spheroidised condition at 1,000 x picral etch. Spheroidised condition at 200 x picral etch.

Question-2

Describe Jominy End-Quench test.

Purpose:
This experiment is aimed at understanding the effect of cooling rate
on the hardness of two steels. The experiment also shows why
adding alloying elements other than carbon enables a part to be
heat-treated more uniformly and to a greater depth.
The test sample is a cylinder with a length of 102 mm (4 inches)
and a diameter of 25.4 mm (1 inch).

Jominy test specimen

The steel sample is normalised to eliminate differences in

microstructure due to previous forging, and then austenitised. This
is usually at a temperature of 800 to 900°C. The test sample is
quickly transferred to the test machine, where it is held vertically
and sprayed with a controlled flow of water onto one end of the
sample. This cools the specimen from one end, simulating the effect
of quenching a larger steel component in water. The cooling rate
varies along the length of the sample from very rapid at the
quenched end, to rates equivalent to air cooling at the other end

Figure 4. Schematic of Jominy end-quench test specimen

(a) mounted during quenching and (b) after
 hardness testing.

The round specimen is then ground flat along its length to a depth
of 0.38 mm (15 thousandths of an inch) to remove decarburised
material. The hardness is measured at intervals from the quenched
end. The interval is typically 1.5 mm for alloy steels and 0.75 mm
for carbon steels.

High hardness occurs where high volume fractions of martensite

develop. Lower hardness indicates transformation to bainite or
ferrite/pearlite microstructures.
 Martensite Ferrite/Pearlite

Question-3

Write short note: (a) Martempering and Austempering (b) CCT

diagram.

Definition: A heat treatment involving austenitisation followed by

step quenching, at a rate fast enough to avoid the formation of
ferrite, pearlite or bainite to a temperature slightly above the Ms
point. Soaking must be long enough to avoid the formation of
bainite. The advantage of martempering is the reduction of thermal
stresses compared to normal quenching. This prevents cracking
and minimises distortion.

If a wholly martensitic structure is desired, the casting must be

held in the hot quench bath only long enough to permit it to reach
the temperature of the bath. Thus, the size and shape of the casting
dictate the duration of martempering. Martempering is used to
produce martensite without developing the high stresses that
usually accompany its formation. It is similar to conventional
hardening except that distortion is minimized.

Definition: Quenching from a temperature above the

transformation range to a temperature above the upper limit of
martensite formation, and holding at this temperature until the
austenite is completely transformed to the desired intermediate
structure, for the purpose of conferring certain mechanical
properties. The part is held at this quench temperature for a
recommended time to transform the Austenite into Bainite. The part
is then removed from the salt quench and air cooled to room
temperature.
Advantages of Austempering:

 Less Distortion
 Greater Ductility

 Parts are plater friendly due to the clean surface from the salt
quench

 Uniform and consistent Hardness

 Tougher and More Wear Resistant

 Higher Impact and Fatigue Strengths

 Resistance to Hydrogen Embrittlement

CCT Diagram