Arkansas Tech University

MATH 4033: Elementary Modern Algebra

Dr. Marcel B. Finan

7 Subgroups
In this section we discuss the concept of a subgroup and look at an important
subgroup of Sn , the so-called alternating group.

7.1 Definition and Examples of Subgroups

You may have noticed that we sometimes had groups contained within larger
groups. For example, the group (Z, +) is contained within the group (R, +).
In this situation, we will say that (Z, +) is a subgroup of (R, +).

Definition 7.1
If a subset H of a group G is closed under the binary operation of G and if
H is itself a group with respect to the induced binary operation, then H is a
subgroup of G. We write H < G.

Definition 7.2
A group G is considered to be a subgroup of itself. We say that G is the
improper subgroup of G. All other subgroups are proper subgroups.
The subgroup {e} consisiting of the identity element of G is called the trivial
subgroup of G. All other subgroups are nontrivial.

Example 7.1
1. The set I of even integers is a nontrivial subgroup of Z with respect to
addition. The identity element of (I, +) is 0.
2. {−1, 1} is a nontrivial subgroup of (R − {0}, ·) with identity element 1.

You might have noticed that in the above examples the identity of the sub-
group always appeared to be the identity of the group. The following theorem
shows that this is always the case.

Theorem 7.1
Let (G, ∗) be a group with identity element e and H < G. Then e ∈ H and
e is the identity element of H.

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Proof.
Since H is a group itself then it has an identity element which we denote by
eH . We will show that eH = e. Since eH ∈ G then eH is invertible. That is,
eH ∗ e−1 −1
H = eH ∗ eH = e. Thus,

eH = eH ∗ e (e is the identity element of G)

= eH ∗ (eH ∗ e−1 −1
H ) (since eH ∗ eH = e)
−1
= (eH ∗ eH ) ∗ eH (∗ is associative)
= eH ∗ e−1
H (since eH is the identity of H)
= e (since eH ∗ e−1
H = e)

The following result shows that the inverse of an element in H is the same as
the inverse of that element in G.

Theorem 7.2
Let (G, ∗) be a group with identity element e and H < G. If a ∈ H then
a−1 ∈ G. If c is the inverse of a in H then c = a−1 .

Proof.
Let a ∈ H. Then a ∈ G and so a−1 ∈ G. Let c ∈ H such that c ∗ a = a ∗ c =
eH .(That is, c is the inverse of a in H) We will show that c = a−1 . Indeed,
since c ∗ a = a ∗ c = eH = e then c is an inverse of a in G. By Theorem 3.2,
c = a−1 . This completes the proof of the theorem.

It is convenient to have a routine step-by-step procedure for determining

whether a subset of a group is a subgroup of G. The following theorem gives
such a procedure.

Theorem 7.3
A nonempty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and only if

(i) H is closed under the binary operation of G, i.e., if a, b ∈ H then a∗b ∈ H;

(ii) if a ∈ H then a−1 ∈ H.

Proof.
Suppose that H is a subgroup of G. The property (i) follows directly from
the definition of a subgroup. Condition (ii) is just Theorem 7.2.
Assume now that H is a nonempty subset of G satisfying conditions (i) and
(ii). By (i), ∗ is a binary operation on H. Since ∗ is associative in G then it is

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still associative when restricted to H. Now, if a ∈ H, then by condition (ii),
a−1 ∈ H so that by (i) a ∗ a−1 = a−1 ∗ a = e ∈ H. Hence, e is the identity
of H. By condition (ii), every element of H has an inverse in H. Thus, H
satisfies the conditions of a group and so is a subgroup of G.
Example 7.2
In M(R) under addition, consider the subset C(R) of all continuous func-
tions. Clearly, C(R) is closed under addition (for the sum of continuous
functions is continuous). For a continuous function f, the function −f (which
plays the role of its inverse) is continuous. Thus, C(R) is a subgroup of M(R)
under addition.
If the set H in Theorem 7.3 is finite then condition (ii) can be omitted
altogether.
Theorem 7.4
A finite subset of a group that is closed under the group operation is a
subgroup of that group.
Proof.
Consider the Cayley table of H. By closure, each element in the table belongs
to H. Each element of H appears exactly once in each row or column of the
table. That is, each row/column is a rearrangement of the elements of H. To
illustarte, suppose that b ∈ H and in the row of b we can find two elements x
and y in H such that b ∗ x = a and b ∗ y = a, where a ∈ H. Then b ∗ x = b ∗ y.
But this implies that x = e ∗ x = (b−1 ∗ b) ∗ x = b−1 ∗ (b ∗ x) = b−1 ∗ (b ∗ y) =
(b−1 ∗b)∗y = e∗y = y. Thus, for a given element, a ∈ H, the row and column
corresponding to a must each contain a. Thus some member of H multiplies
a to give the result a. The only element that could do this is the identity
element e. Thus, e ∈ H. Similarly, if e is in H then it must appear once in
the row and once in the column corresponding to a. Therefore there is some
element of H which multiplies a to give e. That can only be a−1. Thus e must
be in H and for every a ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H. Therefore, H is a subgroup of G.

A variation of Theorem 7.3, where the conditions (i) and (ii) can be com-
bined, is given by the next result.
Theorem 7.5
Let H be a nonempty subset of (G, ∗). Then H is a subgroup of G if and
only if for all a, b ∈ H, we have a ∗ b−1 ∈ H.

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Proof.
Assume first that H is a subgroup of G. Let a, b ∈ H. Then by Theorem 7.3
(ii), b−1 ∈ H. By Theorem 7.3(i), a ∗ b−1 ∈ H.
Conversely, assume that for all a, b ∈ H we have a ∗ b−1 ∈ H. Since H is
nonempty then it contains an element a. But then a ∗ a−1 = e ∈ H. Now, if
a ∈ H then e∗a−1 = a−1 ∈ H. Finally, if a, b ∈ H then a∗b = a∗(b−1 )−1 ∈ H.
Hence, by Theorem 7.3, H is a subgroup of G.

Example 7.3
Let G be a nonempty group and a ∈ G. Define the set

H = {x ∈ G : ax = xa}.

Then H is a subgroup of G. To see this, note first that e ∈ H since ae = ea.

Thus, H is nonempty. Now, let x, y ∈ H. Then
a(xy) = (ax)y
= (xa)y
= x(ay)
= x(ya) = (xy)a
It follows that H is closed under multiplication. Now, if x ∈ H then
ax−1 = e(ax−1 )
= (x−1 x)(ax−1 )
= x−1 [(xa)x−1 ]
= x−1 [(ax)x−1 ]
= x−1 [a(xx−1 )]
= x−1 (ae)
= x−1 a

Thus, x−1 ∈ H. It follows from Theorem 7.5 that H is a subgroup of G.

Next, we discuss two other types of subgroups of permutation groups. Let

S 6= ∅ and G a permutation group on S. Note that G ⊆ Sym(S). Let T be
a subset of S. We define

GT = {α ∈ G : α(t) = t ∀t ∈ T }

and
G(T ) = {α ∈ G : α(T ) = T }.

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Example 7.4
Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4}, G = S4 , and T = {1, 2}. Then

GT = {(1), (34)}

and
G(T ) = {(1), (12), (34), (12)(34)}

Theorem 7.6
Let S, G, GT and G(T ) be defined as above. Then

(a) GT and G(T ) are subgroups of G.

(b) GT is a subgroup of G(T ) .

Proof.
(a)Since ιS (t) = t for all t ∈ T then ιS ∈ GT so that GT is nonempty. Let
α, β ∈ GT . Then for any t ∈ T we have

αβ −1 (t) = α(β −1 (t))

= α(t) (Since β(t) = t implies β −1 (t) = t)
= t (Since α(t) = t)

By Theorem 7.5, GT is a subgroup of G.

The proof that G(T ) is a subgroup of G is similar; simply replace t by T.

(b) We just need to show that GT ⊆ G(T ) . Indeed, if α ∈ GT then α(t) = t

for all t ∈ T. But this implies that α(T ) = T. Hence α ∈ G(T ) .

7.2 The Alternating Group

In this section we consider a class of subgroups known as the alternating
groups. We start with the following definition.

Definition 7.3
Any 2-cycle (ab) in Sn is called a transposition.

That is, a transposition is a permutation (a b) of a set S that interchanges

two elements a and b of S and fixes the remaining elements.

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Theorem 7.7
Every element of Sn , n ≥ 2, can be expressed as a finite composition of
transpositions.

Proof.
Let σ ∈ Sn with σ 6= (1). By Theorem 6.5, σ can be written as a finite product
of disjoint cycles. But any k − cycle can be written as a finite product of
transpositions. That is,

(a1 a2 . . . ak ) = (a1 ak )(a1 ak−1 ) · · · (a1 a2 )

Thus, σ can be written as a finite product of transpositions. If σ = (1) then

since n ≥ 2 then (1) = (ab)(ab) where a, b ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}.

Example 7.5
One can verify easily that

(123) = (13)(12)

and
(123) = (23)(12)(13)(23).

Note that the previous example shows that a permutation can be written in
two different ways as a product of transpositions. However, the number of
transpositions in both forms is even. Indeed, we have

Theorem 7.8
If a permutation is expressed as a product of p transpositions and as a product
of q transpositions then either p and q are both even, or p and q are both
odd.

Proof.
Consider the product

P = P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = Π1≤i<j≤n (xi − xj ).

For any σ ∈ Sn define

σ(P ) = P (σ(x1 ), σ(x2 ), . . . , σ(xn )) = Π1≤i<j≤n (xσ(i) − xσ(j) ).

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Note that if γ = (kl) with k < l (if k > l then use the fact that (lk) = (kl))
then
γ(P ) = −P
To see this, note that the only factors that change sign when swapping xk
and xl are (xk − xl ), (xk − xi ), and (xi − xl ), where k < i < l, and there is
an odd number of them.
Now assume that σ ∈ Sn can be written as a product of an even number
of transpositions σ = γ1 γ2 . . . γ2q and as an odd number of transpositions
σ = δ1 δ2 . . . δ2r+1 . Then

σ(P ) = γ1 (γ2 (. . . (γ2q (P )))) = (−1)2q P = P

and
σ(P ) = δ1 (δ1 (. . . (δ2r+1 (P )))) = (−1)2r+1 P = −P.
Thus, P = −P which is a contradiction.

Definition 7.4
A permutation that can be written as a product of an even number of trans-
positions is called an even permutation, and the one that can be written as
a product of an odd number of transpositions is called an odd permutation.

We close this section we the following result.

Theorem 7.9
For n ≥ 2, the set An of all even permutations in Sn is a subgroup of Sn of
order n!2 .

Proof.
Since (1) = (12)(12) ∈ An then An 6= ∅. Let σ = γ1 γ2 . . . γ2k and τ =
δ1 δ2 . . . δ2l . Then
−1 −1
στ −1 = γ1 γ2 . . . γ2k δ2l δ2l−1 . . . δ1−1 = γ1 γ2 . . . γ2k δ2l δ2l−1 . . . δ1 ∈ An .

Thus, by Theorem 7.5, An is a subgroup of Sn .

To prove that |An | = n!2 we just need to prove that Sn has the same number
of even permutations as odd permutations. Let On be the set of all odd
permutations of Sn . Define the mapping f : An → On by f (σ) = σ(12).

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f is one-to-one
Suppose that f (σ1 ) = f (σ2 ). Then σ1 (12) = σ2 (12). Thus, σ1 (12)(12)−1 =
σ2 (12)(12)−1 . That is, σ1 = σ2 .

f is onto
Let σ ∈ On . Then α = σ(12) ∈ An . Moreover,

f (α) = σ(12)(12) = σ.

By Theorem 7.8, Sn = An ∪ On and An ∩ On = ∅. Thus, |An | = |On | and

|Sn | = |An | + |On | = 2|An |. By Theorem 6.2, |Sn | = n! and hence |An | = n!2 .

Definition 7.5
An is called the alternating group on {1, 2, . . . , n}.

Example 7.6
If S = {1, 2, 3, 4} then

A4 = {(1), (124), (142), (132), (123), (143), (134), (234), (243), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}.