Transmission Line

Training on Transmission Line Design, Construction,
Operation and Maintenance
| Takalkar Power Engineers

& Consultants Pvt. Ltd. | 424-430, B – Wing, Monalisa Business Center,
Near More Mega Store, Manjalpur,
Vadodara, Gujarat, India 390 011
|
www.tpec.in
info@tpec.in
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Basic Purpose of Transmission Line
1.0 BASIC PURPOSE OF TRANSMISSION LINE IN POWER SYSTEM

1.1 In the beginning years of power system, Direct Current (DC) Generators were developed and they
were supplying lighting power in surrounding areas. The generators were rated in fraction of MW.
The systems were stand alone.
1.2 Since the distributed generation system was found to be economically unviable, centralized power
generating system came into existence. This was then associated with short distance D.C.
transmission network. However, voltage drop was a major issue.
1.3 Alternating current (AC) power system was therefore born. Transformers were designed and put
into service for stepping up and stepping down the voltage.
1.4 The invention of AC power system enabled the power engineers to transmit power over longer
distance without appreciable drop in the voltage.
1.5 The AC power system revolutionized the industrial growth. The voltages of power system started
rising from 110V to 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV, 11 kV, 22 kV, 33kV. The modern leaving needed more power
and therefore the voltage level had to be further raised to 66 kV, 100 kV, 110 kV, 132 kV and 220
kV. In India, the agricultural demand started rising in later 60’s and early 70’s. It therefore became
necessary to elevate the voltage level to 400 kV. Long distance and bulk power transmission
brought in (+ / -) 500 kV HVDC. Interstate/inter region connectivity compelled the power
engineers to option for 765 kV. As of now, 1200 kV lines are also constructed in the country on
trial basis, which is the highest voltage class in the world.
1.6 So it can be said that first the electrical power is generated at low voltage level then it stepped up to
high voltage for efficient transmission of electrical energy. Lastly for distribution of electrical
energy or power to different consumers it is stepped down to desired low voltage level.
1.7 The DC Power Transmission has the following distinct advantages:
a. Only two conductor are required for DC transmission system. It is further possible to use only
one conductor of DC transmission system if earth is utilized as return path of the system.
b. The potential stress on the insulator of DC transmission system is about 70% of same voltage
AC transmission system. Hence less insulation cost is involved in DC transmission system.
c. Inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems can be eliminated in DC
system.
1.8 Even having these advantages in DC system, generally electrical energy is transmitted by three (3)
phase AC transmission system.
1.9 The AC Power Transmission has the following distinct advantages:

a. Power can be stepped up from generating station to any voltage level and can be transmitted
to the long distance load centers.
b. Stepping up the voltage means reduction in current in the same proportion. Thus, the
conductor size, for the same amount of power, reduces. Thus the cost of conductor reduces.
c. The voltage drop reduces and therefore long distance transmission is possible.
d. Due to reduction in current, the I²R (line) losses reduce drastically.
e. Tape changer in the transformer can increase or decrease the voltage depending upon the load
and receiving end voltage level.
f. Inter connection of generating units, state to states power system and region to region power
system is possible. This provides lot of reliability of power supply to the consumers.
g. Consumer can be supplied power at 440 V, 11 kV, 22 kV, 33 kV, 66 kV, 132 kV or 220 kV,
depending upon the application of the consumer for load.
1.10 The AC Transmission has some disadvantages also which are describe below:
a. Transformer and switching equipment for medium, high, extra-high and Ultra-High power
system are required.
Takalkar Power Engineers & Consultants Pvt. Ltd. Page 1

Basic Purpose of Transmission Line
b. In addition to the resistive power loss there is reactive power loss in the conductor which
comprise capacitive reactance and inductive reactance.
c. Under capacitive reactance, there are chances of Ferranti effect. Under this effect the
receiving and voltage may be more than the sending end voltage, when the line is poorly
loaded or not loaded at all.
d. Extra high and ultra-high voltage transmission is hazardous for human life. The fault level go
up and up with the inter connection of the system. The protection system has therefore to be
fool proof.
e. Corona & RIV are the other issues associated with AC transmission.
f. The increase in voltage level, the support structure and Right of Way (ROW) is increasing,
causing embarrassment to the farmers and land owners.
g. The inter connected EHV/UHV system has to be properly coordinated with regards to
protection. Failing this, there are chances of cascade tripping.

Electrical Design of Transmission Line
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The conductor is the most important component of HV & EHV transmission
line. Every transmission line is laid with a purpose of transmitting definite
quantity of power (Generally in Mega Watt.) As a matter of fact, in India, each
voltage class of line (66kV, 110kV, 132 kV, 220 kV, 400kV) is designated to
transmit a pre-determined quantum of power over a pre-determined length.
The quantum of power each voltage class of transmission line can transmit
over different distances in Km. can be worked out based on various sets of
Electrical calculation. Various studies made be CEA and other experts give
brief idea regarding the power transfer capability of various lines.
1.1 Minimum Ground Clearance

The minimum clearance above ground as per sub rule 4 of Rule 77 of I.E. rules 1956 (latest
revision) for AC system and for +- 500kV HVDC systems adopted in India are as under:
Voltage(kV) 66 132 220 400 800 +/- 500

Minimum 5500 6100 7000 8800 12400 12500
Gound
Clearance
(mm)
To the above clearance, an additional clearance of 150mm is added to provide for uneven
ground profile and possible sagging error.
1.2 Minimum Clearance above Rivers/Lakes

In case of accessible frozen rivers/lakes , the minimum clearance above frozen rivers/lakes
should be equal to the minimum ground clearance given in 1.0 above.
The minimum clearance of power conductor over the highest flood level in case of non
navigable rivers shall be as follows
System Voltage (kV) Minimum clearance above highest flood level (mm) *
72 3650
145 4300
245 5100
420 6400
800 9400
+/- 500 6750
*(The maximum height of an object over the highest flood level of non-navigable rivers is
considered as 3000mm)
1.3 Electrical Clearance Power Line Crossing Each other

The minimum electrical clearances between the lowest power conductor of crossing line
over the crossed line as per rule 87 of IE rule 1956 is given as under.
(Minimum clearances in mm between lines when crossing each other)
Sl. Nominal System Voltage 66 kV 132 kV 220 kV 400 kV
No.

1. 66kV 2440 3050 4580 5490

2. 132 KV 3050 3050 4580 5490
3. 220 KV 4580 4580 4580 5490
4. 400 KV 5490 5490 5490 5490
1.4 Power line crossing communication line.

The minimum clearances to be maintained between power lines and communication lines
as per “Code of practice for protection of Telecommunication Line Crossings with overhead
power lines” should be as follows,
Voltage KV Nominal 66 132 220 400 --
Highest 72 145 245 420 800
Minimum clearance between power conductor 2440 2750 3050 4480 7900
crossing telecommunication line (mm)
1.5 Power Line crossing railway tracks

The minimum vertical clearance between the lowest conductor of a power line crossing
the railway track as per “regulations for power line crossing of railway tracks-1987” shall
be as follows.
The minimum vertical clearances above rail track as also the highest working point of the
jib when crane is deployed and the lowest point of any conductor of crossing including
ground wire under condition of maximum sag are given as under.
Voltage (kV) Minimum clearance (mm)
Above rail track Above crane
66 14,100 2,000
132 14,600 2,500
220 15,400 3,500
400 17,900 6,000
800 22,000 9,500
1.6 Overview of Insulation Co-ordination
1.0 DEFINATION OF INSULATION COORDINATION

1.1 Insulation Coordination is DEFINED AS process of determining the appropriate insulation levels of
various components in a power system as well as their arrangements. It is the selection of an
insulation structure that will withstand voltage stresses to which the system, or equipment will be
subjected to, together with the properly designed lightning surge arrester.
1.2 Various parameters of Insulation co-ordination are as follows:

1. Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL)

This is the reference insulation level expressed as an impulse crest (or peak) voltage with a
standard wave not longer than a 1.2 x 50 microsecond wave.
A 1.2 x 50 microsecond wave means that the impulse takes 1.2 microseconds to reach the peak
and then decays to 50% of the peak in 50 microseconds.
2. Withstand Voltage
This is the BIL level that can repeatedly be applied to an equipment without flashover,
disruptive charge or other electrical failure under test conditions.
3. Chopped Wave Insulation Level

This is determined by using impulse waves that are of the same shape as that of the BIL
waveform, with the exception that the wave is chopped after 3 microseconds. Generally, it is
assumed that the Chopped Wave Level is 1.15 times the BIL level for oil filled equipment such
as transformers. However, for dry type equipment, it is assumed that the the Chopped Wave
Level is equal to the BIL level.
4. Critical Flashover Voltage

This is the peak voltage for a 50% probability of flashover or disruptive charge.
5. Impulses Ratio
This is normally used for Flashover or puncture of insulation. It is the ratio of the impulse peak
voltage to the value of the power frequency voltage that causes flashover or puncture. Or, it is
the ratio of breakdown voltage at surge frequency to breakdown voltage at normal system
frequency (50 Hz).
An example of insulation co-ordination is given here under:
Example of Insulation Coordination
Consider a 132kV incoming feeder, which is connected to a 132/66kV transformer at the substation.
The arrester is place between the feeder and the transformer.
It should be noted that the rating of the arrester is 120kV. Since the system is 132kV, and a tolerance of
10% is assumed, then the maximum voltage that the system can experience is
132kV * 1.1 = 145200V.
However, the system is effectively earthed (via the arrester) and for an effectively earthed system, the
maximum arrester voltage is 80% of the system voltage. Thus,
Normal Arrester voltage = 145200 * 0.8 = 120000 = 120kV.
If a lightning strikes on the incoming feeder, three scenarios are possible.
1st Scenario:
Impulse voltage of lightning strike is less than the Discharge Voltage of the Arrester
1. In this case, the lightning strike impulse never exceeds 350kV.
2. The traveling impulse wave passes into the substation.
3. Since the BIL of the transformer is much greater than the peak voltage magnitude of the
lightning impulse, the transformer is not damaged.

2nd Scenario:
Impulse Voltage of lightning strike is less than BIL of arrester, but greater than Discharge Voltage
1. In this case, the lightning strike peak voltage is such that 350kV < Vpeak < 650kV.
2. Assume that the impulse is 600kV.
3. As the magnitude of the traveling impulse rises to 350kV, as it moves to the arrester, discharge
begins to take place.
4. The wave is clipped at 350kV.
5. This clipped wave passes to the substation and since the BIL of the transformer is greater than
350kV, the transformer is not damaged.
6. The balance of energy (600 - 350 = 250kV worth of energy) is discharged to ground.
3rd Scenario:
Impulse Voltage of lightning strike is greater than the BIL of arrester
1. In this case, the lightning strike peak voltage is greater than 650kV.
2. Since the peak voltage is greater than he BIL of the incoming feeder and the arrester, both are
damaged.
3. The arrester experiences flashover or disruptive charge and is destroyed.
4. Since it is destroyed, and open circuit occurs between the incoming feeder and the transformer.
5. None of the lightning impulse therefore reaches the transformer at the substation.
6. The transformer therefore remains undamaged.
2.0 OVER VOLTAGES AND SURGES

2.1 There are three types of overvoltages that may occur on a plant:
1. Internal Over voltages
2. Switching Surges
3. External Over voltages
They are described in brief as follows
1. Internal Over voltages

These may usually be short power frequency overvoltages or weakly damped oscillatory
voltages. The main causes of these overvoltages are:
1. Phase to Earth Faults: Single line to Ground, Double line to Ground, 3 Phase to Ground.
2. Load Rejection.
3. Ferro Resonance.
4. Ferranti Effect.
2. Switching Surges
These surges are of short duration, irregular (or impulse form) and highly damped. The effects
of such overvoltages are of great concern when the transmission voltage is greater than 300kV.
However, below 300kV, some causes of these overvoltages are:
1. Resonance effects when switching transformer feeders, or cables and overhead lines.
2. Ferro resonance encountered on transformer feeder double circuits, when one circuit is
switched out but the other parallel feeder remains energised.
3. Line energisation may cause switching surges especially at the remote end of the line that is
being energised.
3. External Overvoltages

Power systems that operate below 145kV (example the T&TEC system) overvoltages due to
lightning are of greater concern than the previous two types of overvoltages. Lightning
discharges are usually very short, unidirectional and have a shape similar to the BIL waveform.
The point of insulation flashover depends on

(i) Geographical position of the lightning stroke
(ii) Magnitude of the stroke
(iii) Rise time of voltage wave
(iv) System insulation levels
(v) System Electrical characteristics
(vi) Local atmospheric or ambient conditions
3.0 Overvoltage Surge Protection

3.1 There are two methods of overvoltage protection:
1. Rod or Spark Gaps
These devices are easy and cheap to install and are usually installed in parallel with insulators
between the live equipment terminal and earth. Some disadvantages of these devices include:
1. When they operate, they cause a short circuit fault, which may cause protection to operate
and isolate the equipment.
2. The sudden reduction in the voltage during operation causes high stresses on the
Transformer interturn insulation.
3. The breakdown of plant insulation varies with the duration of the overvoltage.
4. At lower voltages, where short distance gaps are used, maloperation may occur due to debris
being deposited on the terminals of the gaps.
2. Surge Arresters
Modern Surge arresters are of the gapless Zinc Oxide type. Previously, Silicon Carbide arresters
were used, but their use has been superceeded by the ZnO arresters, which have a non-linear
resistance characteristic. Thus, it is possible to eliminate the series gaps between the individual
ZnO block making up the arrester.
4.0 Selection Procedure for Surge arresters

4.1 following steps may be followed for selecting surge arresters
1. Determine the continuous arrester voltage. This is usually the system rated voltage.
2. Select a rated voltage for the arrester.
3. Determine the normal lightning discharge current. Below 36kV, 5kA rated arresters are chosen.
Otherwise, a 10kA rated arrester is used.
4. Determine the required long duration discharge capability.
For rated voltage < 36kV, light duty surge arrester may be specified.
For rated voltage between 36kV and 245kV, heavy duty arresters may be specified.
For rated voltage >245kV, long duration discharge capabilities may be specified.
5. Determine the maximum prospective fault current and protection tripping times at the location
of the surge arrester and match with the surge arrester duty.
6. Select the surge arrester having porcelain creepage distance in accordance with the
environmental conditions.
7. Determine the surge arrester protection level and match with standard IEC 99 recommendations.
5.0 Some Common ratings associated with surge arresters

5.1 Following are the most common ratings for surge arreaters
1. Rated Voltage

The power frequency voltage across the arrester must never exceed its rated voltage, otherwise
the arrester may not reseal and may catastrophically fail after absorbing the energy of the surge.
For effectively earthed system:
Maximum phase to earth voltage = 80% maximum line voltage
2. Rated Current
Arresters are tested with 8/20 microsecond discharge current waves of varying magnitudes.
3. Normal Voltage
Nominal continuous voltage that the arrester can with stand before failing or flashover.
4. BIL
Basic Impulse Insulation Level which is the maximum impulse for a 1.2 x 50 microsecond
waveform.
5. Discharge voltage
When the overvoltage impulse reaches this value, the arrester begins to channel energy to earth.
2.0 RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTOR

2.1 Resistance has direct relation with the power loss in the conductor. Low
resistance means low power loss & high resistance invites high power loss.
Again resistance is inversely proportional to cross sectional area of
conductor, and this has direct effect on cost as cross sectional area of
conductor increase. The resistance of the conductor is determined by the
equation R=ρL/A where “R” is the resistance in ohms, “ρ” is the resistivity of
the material in ohm – meter, ‘L’ is the length of conductor in meter, “A” is
cross sectional area of the conductor in mm². Thus the resistance depends
upon the metallurgy of the conductor material and the cross sectional area.
2.2 The DC Resistance of the conductor can be measured in the laboratory using
standard Kelvin’s bridge at the room temperature in centigrade. This is then
converted to 20º C base DC Resistance. The DC resistance at any other given
temperature then can be worked out using equation.
R20 = Rt __1___
1 + α (T- 20)
Where , R20 = resistance corrected at 20 º C
Rt = resistance measured at T º C
α = constant – mass temperature coefficient of resistance, 0.004
and
T = ambient temperature during measurement.
2.3 The DC resistance worked out as above then can be converted to AC

resistance by following method.
(Rt2 / Rt1) = (M + t2) / (M + t1)
Where,
Rt2 = d.c. resistance at any temperature t2ºc

Rt1 = d.c. resistance at any other temperature t1ºc

M = (a constant for any one type of conductor material)
= 234.5 for annealed 100% conductivity copper
= 241.5 for hard drawn 97.3% conductivity copper
= 228.1 for aluminum
The above formula is useful for evaluating changes in d.c. resistance only, and
cannot be used to give a-c resistance variations unless skin effect can be
neglected.
Skin Effect in Straight Round Wires.
The resistance of non-magnetic conductors varies not only with temperature
but also with frequency, due to skin effect. For any given frequency the
following formula should be used.
Rac = KRdc ohms per mile
Where,
Rac = the a-c resistance at the desired frequency
Rdc = d-c resistance at any known temperature
K = Value given in Table below
In Table, K is given as a function of X,
Where,
_________
X = 0.063598 √ (µf / Rdc)
f = frequency in cycles per second

µ = permeability = 1.0 for non magnetic materials
Rdc = d-c resistance in ohms per kM.
TABLE
Skin Effect
X K X K
0.0 1.00000 2.0 1.07816
0.1 1.00000 2.1 1.09375
0.2 1.00001 2.2 1.11126
0.3 1.00004 2.3 1.13069
0.4 1.00013 2.4 1.15207

0.5 1.00032 2.5 1.17538

0.6 1.00067 2.6 1.20056
0.7 1.00124 2.7 1.22753
0.8 1.00212 2.8 1.25620
0.9 1.00340 2.9 1.28644
1.0 1.00519 3.0 1.31809
1.1 1.00758 3.1 1.35102
1.2 1.01071 3.2 1.38504
1.3 1.01470 3.3 1.41999
1.4 1.01969 3.4 1.45570
1.5 1.02582 3.5 1.49202
1.6 1.03323 3.6 1.52879
1.7 1.04205 3.7 1.56587
1.8 1.05240 3.8 1.60314
1.9 1.06440 3.9 1.64051
It is pertinent to note that the AC resistance of the conductor is frequency

dependent.
2.4 The resistance of the conductor is instrumental in working out the Ampacity
of the transmission line.
3.0 CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY OF BARE OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINE

CONDUCTORS:
3.1 The current carrying capacity (Ampacity) of a bare, overhead transmission
line conductor is the flow of current (amps) which the conductor may allow to
flow in it continuously while maintaining a steady maximum permissible
temperature over its surface. The maximum permissible temperature is the
surface temperature of the conductor which does not permanently and
adversely affect the physical properties of the conductor material.
For arriving at the current carrying capacity of a conductor, it is necessary to
understand the concept that under a state of thermal equilibrium, the total
heat gained by the conductor due to energy loss (PR) within itself and by
solar and sky radiation equals the total heat lost by the conductor by
conduction to the metallic supporting it(clamps, connectors, amour rods,
vibration / spacer dampers, insulators etc.) by convection to the air

surrounding it and by radiation to its surrounding objects (towers, building
etc.).
3.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE STEADY STATE
3.2.1 Conductor Material and its physical properties
Material : Copper, Aluminum, Steel and their Alloys
Construction : Monometal, Composite
Size : Overall diameter
Resistance : DC & AC resistance at supply frequency and
Conductor temperature
Surface condition : Ability to absorb and emit heat.
3.2.2 Geographical
Location : Altitude of line above sea level
Absolute viscosity, density and thermal conductivity of
air.
Position : Altitude of Sun
Azimuth of Sun
Azimuth of line
3.2.3 Meteorological
Wind Speed : Laminar or turbulent flow
Season of Year
Ambient Temperature: Time of day
3.2 The conductor materials, construction and its diameter are known and are
under control of manufacturing. However, other factors are not constant at
any given point of time and can not be assessed accurately. A transmission
line passes through different terrain and atmospheric conditions. Therefore,
the ampacity of the conductor will vary from place to place along the line. The
ampacity will also be governed by the prevailing conditions of weather,
season and time of day. Ampacity is therefore calculated for certain assumed
steady state conditions on an average basis for on assumed maximum
conductor temperature as a guide for safe loading of the conductor.
3.3 Several researchers have formulated theories and formulas, which differ from
each other, though the basic concept is the same. Many of these formulas are
more of academic interest than of practical applications. The effect of Sky
radiation, Altitude, position of Sun, orientation of line etc. affect the Ampacity
only marginally and many utilities neglect them for Ampacity calculations.
One such method is given below for ACSR conductor of composite
construction and AAAC conductor of Monometal construction, both being of
same wire size & same overall diameter.

3.4 Ampacity of the conductor means the capacity of the conductor to transmit
continuously a quantum of current in Amperes. There are two methods of
calculation of Ampecity which are based on different theories and
assumptions. The first method uses MKS, CGS system and the other uses FPS
system. There is difference in the end results in the two cases.
3.5 THE CALCULATIONS WITH MKS SYSTEM
3.5.1 SYMBOLS
I = Current flowing in conductor in amp at 50 cycles per second.

Rac = A.C. Resistance of conductor in ohm per linear meter @ 75ºc.
Rdc = D.C. Resistance of conductor in ohm per linear meter @ 20ºc.
Qc = Convected Heat loss in watt per linear meter of conductor at 40ºC.
D = Diameter of conductor in meter
Qr = Redial Heat loss in watt per linear meter of conductor at 40ºC.
Qs = Heat gain from sun in watt per linear meter of conductor.
α = constant – mass temperature coefficient of resistance, α = 0.004
T = ambient temperature during measurement.
K = Constant, given as a function of X
f = frequency in cycles per second
µ = permeability = 1.0 for non magnetic materials.
3.5.2 FORMULA
Rdc @ T0 = Rdc @ 200 [ 1 + { α ( T – 20 ) }]
Rac = K x Rdc
__________________
X = 0.063598 √ { µf / ( Rdc x 1000 ) }
Qc = 0.47588 + 13.333 ( D x 100 )0.52

Qr = 201.68 x D
Qs = 36 x D
________________
I = √ ( Qc + Qr – Qs ) / Rac
Now Continuous Maximum Current Rating at 75ºc corresponding to ambient

temp. 40ºC Considering emissivity factor 0.52.
CALCULATIONS FOR ACSR MOOSE CONDUCTOR
Rdc @ 200 = 0.05596 x 10-3 ohm /meter.

D = 3.177 x 10-2 meter.
Therefore,
Rdc @ 750 = Rdc @ 200 [1 + {α (T – 20)}]
= 0.055965 x 10-3 [1 + {0.004 (75-20)}]
= 0.06827 x 10-3 ohm /meter.
_______________________
X = 0.063598 √ {µf / (Rdc @ 750 x 1000)}
_____________________________
= 0.063598 √ (1 x 50) / (0.06827 x 10-3 x 1000)
= 1.72
Now, from the table given in section – 2.3
K = 1.04412
Rac @ 750 = K x Rdc @ 750
= 1.04412 x 0.06827 x 10-3
= 0.07128 x 10-3 ohm /meter.
Qc = 0.47588 + 13.333 (D x 100)0.52

= 0.47588 + 13.333 (3.177 x 10-2 x 100)0.52
= 0.47588 + 24.3207
= 24.796 watt / meter
Qr = 201.68 x D
= 201.68 x 3.177 x 10-2
Qs = 36 x D
= 36 x 3.177 x 10-2
________________
I = √ (Qc + Qr – Qs) / Rac
______________________________________
= √ (24.796 + 6.4072 - 1.14372) / (0.07128 x 10-3 )
= 649.39 Amp.
CALCULATIONS FOR ACSR ZEBRA CONDUCTOR
Rdc @ 200 = 0.06915 x 10-3 ohm /meter.

D = 2.862 x 10-2 meter.
Therefore,
Rdc @ 750 = Rdc @ 200 [1 + {α (T – 20)}]

= 0.06915 x 10-3 [1 + {0.004 (75-20)}]

= 0.08436 x 10-3 ohm /meter.
_______________________
X = 0.063598 √ {µf / (Rdc @ 750 x 1000)}
_____________________________
= 0.063598 √ (1 x 50) / (0.08436 x 10-3 x 1000)
= 1.548
K = 1.02937
Rac @ 750 = K x Rdc @ 750
= 1.02937 x 0.08436 x 10-3
= 0.08683 x 10-3 ohm /meter.
Qc = 0.47588 + 13.333 (D x 100)0.52

= 0.47588 + 13.333 (2.862 x 10-2 x 100)0.52
= 0.47588 + 23.0354
= 23.51129 watt / meter
Qr = 201.68 x D
= 201.68 x 2.862 x 10-2
Qs = 36 x D
= 36 x 2.862 x 10-2
________________
I = √ (Qc + Qr – Qs) / Rac
________________________________________
= √ (23.51129 + 5.772 - 1.03032) / (0.08683 x 10-3)
= 570.42 Amp.
Calculation of continuous maximum current rating capacity at 75ºc corresponding

to ambient temp of 40ºc.
3.6 THE CALCULATIONS WITH FPS SYSTEM
3.6.1 SYMBOLS
I = Continuous maximum current rating at 75ºC corresponding to ambient

temp.
Rdc = D.C. resistance of conductor in ohm / foot @ 20ºC.
Rac = A.C. resistance of conductor in ohm / foot @ 75ºC.

Wc = Heat dissipated by convection in watts per sq. inch.

Wr = Heat dissipated by Radiation in watts per sq. inch.
A = Surface area of conductor in sq. inch per one foot length.
P = Pressure in Atmosphere (P = 1.0 Atmosphere)
V = Wind velocity in ft per second, 1ft /sec
Ta = Av of absolute temp. of conductor i.e. 330.5ºk
D = Overall dia of conductor in inches.
ΔT = Temp. Rise i.e. 35ºc
To = Absolute temp. of surrounding i.e. 313ºk.
T = Absolute temp. of conductor 348ºk
E = Relative Emissivity of conductor surface 0.52
α = constant – mass temperature coefficient of resistance, α = 0.004
3.6.2 FORMULA
___ __
Wc = [ { ( 0.0128 x √PV ) / ( Ta 0.123 x √D ) } x Δt
Wr = 36.8 x E x {(T / 1000) 4 - (To / 1000) 4}
A = 3.14 x D x 12
___________________
I = √ {(Wc + Wr) x A} / Rac
CALCULATIONS FOR ACSR MOOSE CONDUCTOR
D = 1.25 inch.
P = 1.0 Atm.
V = 1.0 ft. / Sec.
Ta = 330.50 K
Δt = 350C
T = 3480 K
To = 3100 K
E = 0.52
Rdc @ 200 = 0.05596 x 10-3 ohm /meter.
Therefore,
___ __
Wc = [ { ( 0.0128 x √PV ) / ( Ta 0.123 x √D ) } x Δt
_________ ____
= [{0.0128 x √ (1.0 x 1.0)} / {330.50.123 x √ 1.25)}] x 35
= 0.1963 watts / sq. inch

Wr = 36.8 x E x {(T / 1000) 4 - (To / 1000) 4}

= 36.8 x 0.52 x {(348 / 1000) 4 – (310 / 1000) 4}
Rdc @ 750 = Rdc @ 200 [1 + {α (T – 20)}]

= 0.055965 x 10-3 [1 + {0.004 (75-20)}]
= 0.06827 x 10-3 ohm /meter.
_______________________
X = 0.063598 √ {µf / (Rdc @ 750 x 1000)}
_____________________________
= 0.063598 √ (1 x 50) / (0.06827 x 10-3 x 1000)
= 1.72
K = 1.04412
Rac @ 750 = K x Rdc @ 750
= 1.04412 x 0.06827 x 10-3
= 0.07128 x 10-3 ohm /meter.
= 2.17 x 10-5 ohm / ft.
A = 3.14 x D x 12
= 3.14 x 1.25 x 12
= 47.1 sq. inch
_____________________
I = √ {(Wc + Wr) x A} / Rac
____________________________________
= √ {(0.1963 + 0.09698) x 47.1} / 2.17 x 10-5
= 797.85 Amp.
CALCULATIONS FOR ACSR ZEBRA CONDUCTOR
D = 1.12677 inch.
P = 1.0 Atm.
V = 1.0 ft. / Sec.
Ta = 330.50 K
Δt = 350C
T = 3480 K
To = 3100 K
E = 0.52
Rdc @ 200 = 0.05596 x 10-3 ohm /meter.
Therefore,
___ __

Wc = [ { ( 0.0128 x √PV ) / ( Ta0.123 x √D ) } x Δt

_________ ________
= [{0.0128 x √ (1.0 x 1.0)} / {330.50.123 x √ 1.12677)}] x 35
Wr = 36.8 x E x {(T / 1000) 4 - (To / 1000) 4}

= 36.8 x 0.52 x {(348 / 1000) 4 – (310 / 1000) 4}
Rdc @ 750 = Rdc @ 200 [1 + {α (T – 20)}]

= 0.06915 x 10-3 [1 + {0.004 (75-20)}]
= 0.08436 x 10-3 ohm /meter.
_______________________
X = 0.063598 √ {µf / (Rdc @ 750 x 1000)}
_____________________________
= 0.063598 √ (1 x 50) / (0.08436 x 10-3 x 1000)
= 1.548
K = 1.02937
Rac @ 750 = K x Rdc @ 750
= 1.02937 x 0.08436 x 10-3
= 0.08683 x 10-3 ohm / meter.
= 2.647 x 10-5 ohm / ft.
A = 3.14 x D x 12
= 3.14 x 1.12677 x 12
= 42.456 sq. inch
_____________________
I = √ {( Wc + Wr ) x A } / Rac
_______________________________________
= √ {(0.2067 + 0.09325) x 42.456} / 2.647 x 10-5
= 693.61 Amp.
4.0 INDUCTANCE OF THE CONDUCTOR
4.1 Inductance of the overhead bare conductor is an impediment to the passage
of current which is dependent on the frequency. The inductance of the
conductor results in to inductive reactance which is given by 2πfL.
Where,
f = Frequency in Hertz
L = Inductance in Henry.
The inductance can be categorized as self inductance and mutual inductance.
The self inductance is an impediment to the current flowing in the conductor
itself. To be precise this is an inductance generated by the magnetic field

which is produced in the conductor material due to the alternating nature of
current. The mutual inductance is the inductance between two or more
conductors separated by a specific distance. To be precise this is an
inductance which is developed in one conductor due to the passage of current
in another conductor. Thus, in case of multiple conductors (Three phase
single circuit or double circuit). The mutual capacitance is between all the
conductors of one circuit as well as circuit to circuit.
Various empirical equations are developed to define and work out the
inductance which are described in short as follows
Voltage induced in a circuit is given by
e = (dΨ/ dt) x V …. (4.1)
Where Ψ represents the flux linkages of the circuit in Weber-turns (Wb-T).

This can be written in the form
e = (dΨ/ di ) x (di/ dt ) x V
= L (di/ dt ) x V .... (4.2)
Where,
L = (dΨ/ di) is defined as the inductance of the circuit in henrys, which in
general may be function of I (current). In a magnetic circuit, i.e. a circuit
with constant permeability, flux linkages varies linearly with current
such that the inductance is constant given by
L = (Ψ / I) H
Or
Ψ = Li Wb –T …. (4.3)
If the current is alternating, the above equation can be written as
λ = LI …. (4.4)
Where,
λ and I are the rms values of flux linkages and current respectively. These are
of course in phase.
Replacing (d / dt) in Eq. (4.1) by jω, we get the steady state AC voltage drop
Due to alternating flux linkages as
V = jωLI = jω λ …. (4.5)
On similar lines, the mutual inductance between two circuits is defined as the
flux linkages of one circuit due to current in another, i.e.,

M12 = ( λ12 / I2 ) H …. (4.6)
The voltage drop in circuit 1 due to current in circuit 2 is

V1 = jwM12 I2 = jwλ12 V …. (4.7)
The concept of mutual inductance is required while considering the coupling
between parallel lines and the influence of power lines on telephone lines.
4.2 INDUCTANCE OF BUNDLED CONDUCTOR LINES:
The geometric mean radius of bundled conductors can be found in the same manner
as that for stranded conductors.
3 4 d 3
d d d d
1 d 2 1 d 2 1 d 2
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.3 Bundled Conductors
For a two-conductor (duplex) arrangement (fig.1.3 a)

_______ _______
Dbs = 4√ (Ds. d) ² = √ (Ds. d)
For a three conductors (triplex) arrangement (fig.1.3 b)
_________ ________
Dbs = 9√ (Ds. d. d) 3 = 3√ (Ds. d ²)
For a four conductors (quadruplex) arrangement (fig.1.3 c)
_________________ ________
D s = √ (Ds. d. d √ 2 x d) = 1.09 x 4√ (Ds x d3)
b 16 4

From the above equations Dbs denotes the geometric mean radius of bundled
conductor, Ds denotes geometric mean radius of each sub conductor of bundle and
d denotes the spacing between the sub-conductors of a bundle.
The geometric mean distance (GMD) of a bundled conductor line can be found by
taking the root of the product of distances from each conductor of a bundle to every
other conductor of the other bundles. However, it is sufficiently accurate to take the
distance from centre of 1 bundle to the centre of the other bundles as the distances
D12, D23 and D31.
The use pf bundled conductor increases the geometric mean radius. In the formula
for calculating inductance, the geometric mean radius is a factor in the
denominator. Therefore, the inductance of a bundled conductor line is less than the
inductance of the line with one conductor per phase.
Example:
A bundled conductor line has 4 conductors per bundle. The four sub-conductors are
placed at the corners of square of side 25 cm. The radius of each sub-conductor is
1.573 cm. Find the geometric mean radius of this configuration.
Solution
For each sub-conductor Ds = r’ =0.7788 x 1.573 = 1.225 cm

Using Equation for quadruplex arrangement
________________________
Dbs = 16√ {(1.225 x 25 x 25 x25 x √2)4} = 12.826
Example:
A 400 kV 3-phase bundled conductor line with two sub-conductors per phase has a
horizontal configuration as shown in Fig. 2.9. The radius of each sub-conductor is
1.6 cm.(a) Find the inductance per phase per km of the line.(b) Compute the
inductance of the line with only one conductor per phase having the same cross-
sectional area of the conductor of each phase.
Solution
45 45 45
cm cm cm
------- 12 m ----------------- 12m --------
(Fig 1.3a. Three Phase Line with Bundled Conductor)

(a) r’ = 0.7788 x 1.6 = 1.246 cm

_______ _________
GMR = √r’.d. r’.d. = √ 1.246 x 45 = 7.49 cm
4
_______________
Dab = Dbc = 4√12(12+45)x12 - .45) = 11.996 m
__________________
Dca = √ 24 x (24 + 24(24 - .45) = 23.998
4
______________________
Deq = √ 11.996 x 11.996 x 23.998 = 15.115 m
3
(Taking centre to centre distances between the bundles as D ab, Dbc, Dca &
Deq = 3√ 12 x 12 x 24 = 15.119 m which is almost the same as the accurate value of
Deq)
L = 0.4605 log (Deq /GMR) = 0.4605 LOG (15.115X00/7.49)=1.06

Mh/KM
__
(b) Conductor radius for the same cross-sectional area = √ 2 x 1.6 = 2.2624 cm
r’ = 0.7788 x 2.2624 = 1.762 cm
Deq = 15.119 m
L = 0.4605 log (15.119 x 100/1.762) = 1.351 mH/km
It is seen that the inductance of the bundled conductor line is less than that of the
line with one conductor per phase. The lower inductance leads to a greater
transmission capacity of the bundled conductor line.
4.3 INDUCTANCE OF THE DOUBLE CIRCUIT 3-PHASE LINE

A double circuit three phase line has two parallel conductors for each phase. The
use of two three phase circuits on the same towers leads to a greater reliability and
a higher transmission capacity. If the two circuits are very widely separated, the
mutual inductance between the circuits can be neglected and the net inductance is
half of the inductance of individual circuits. In actual practice the separation is not
very wide and the mutual inductance is not negligible. The method of GMD can be
used to find the inductance per phase by taking the conductors of one phase to be
the strands of one composite conductor. It is desirable to have a configuration
which results in minimum inductance (enhance maximum transmission capability).
This is possible if GMD is low and GMR is high. Therefore, the individual conductors
of a phase should be widely separately (to give high GMR) and the distance between
phases should be kept low (to give low GMD).
Figure shows the three sections of a double circuit three-phase line, with vertical
spacing over a transposition cycle. The conductors a and a’ belong to one phase, b
and b’ to the second phase and c and c’ to the third phase. In each case the
conductors of two phases are placed diametrically opposite to each other and those
of the third phase are placed horizontally opposite to each other. This configuration
gives high value of GMR. To calculate inductance it is necessary to determine D eq or
GMD and Ds or GMR.
GMR of conductors of phase a in section 1 is.
__________ _____
Dsa = 4√ r’ . n . r’ . n = √ r’ . n
a c' c b' b a'

m m m
b b' a a' c c'
n
n
c a' b c' a b'
h h h
Section-1 Section-2 Section-3
Arrangement of conductors in a D/C 3-phase line

GMR of conductors of phase b and c in section 1 are
___________ _____
Dsb = √ r’ x h x r’ x h = √ r’ x h
4
___________ _____
Dsc = 4√ r’ x n x r’ x n = √ r’ x n
Equivalent GMR is
____________
Ds = √ Dsa x Dsb x Dsc = [(r’)1/2 (n)1/3 (h)1/6 ]
3
It can be be verified that the value of Ds is the same in all the three sections GMD is
given by.
_____________
Deq = √ Dab x Dbc x Dca
3

Where
Dab = Geometric mean distance between phases a and b in section 1.
________ ____
= √ D.m.D.m = √ D.m
4
Dbc = Geometric mean distance between phases b and c in section 1.
________ ____
= 4√ D.m.D.m = √ D.m
Dca = Geometric mean distance between phases c and a in section 1.
_____________ ____
= 4√ (2D)(h)(2D)(h) = √2 Dh
______________
Deq = √ (Dm ) (Dm )(2Dh) = 21/6 D1/2 m1/3 h1/6
6
The inductance per phase per m is

L = 2 X 10-7 ln (Deq/Ds)
= 2 X 10-7 ln [21/6 D1/2 m1/3 h1/6 / (r’)1/2 (n)1/3 (h)1/6]
= 2 X 10-7 ln [21/6 (D/r’)1/2 (m/n)1/3 ] H/phase/m
Let us see one Example
A 3–phase double circuit line has vertical configuration shown in above fig. Radius
of each conductor is 1.1cm. The horizontal distance h is 5M and vertical distance
per phase per kM of the line.
Sol
_______
m = √ 52 X 32 = 5.83m.
_______
n = √ 52 X 62 = 7.81m
r’ = (0.7788 x 1.1/100) = 0.857 x 10 -2 m
L = 2 X 10-7 ln [21/6 (3/8.57 x 10-2)1/2 (5.83/7.81)1/3 ] H/phase/m
= 5.89 x 10-7 H/phase/m
= 5.89 x 10-4 H/phase/km
5.0 CAPACITIVE REACTANCE

5.1 CAPCITANCE OF A TWO -WIRE LINE
Let us consider a two wire line shown in fig. below which is excited from a 1-phase
source. The line develops equal and opposite sinusoidal charges on the two

conductors which can be represented as phasors q a and qb in such a way that that qa
= - q b.
Where qa and qb is charge in coulomb/M respectively in conductor a & b.
a b
ra rb
fig 1 Cross-sectional view of a two-wire line
The potential difference Vab can be written in terms of the contributions made by qa
and qb by use of equation ( 1) given below.
Vab = (1/ 2πk) {(qa ln [D/ra] + qb ln [rb/D])} …… (1)
Where k is the permittivity* of the medium.
(* In SI units the permittivity of free space is k0 = 8.85 x 10-12 F/M. Relative

permittivity for air is kr = k/k0 = 1)
Since, we have
qa = - qb.
Vab = (1/ 2πk) In (D2/rarb)
The line capacitance Cab is then expressed by

Cab = (qa/Vab) = {πk / In (D/rarb) 1/2} F/m length of line …….(2.a)
Or
Cab = {0.0121 /[ log (D/rarb)1/2] } µF/km ……..(2.b)
If ra = rb = r
Cab = {0.0121 /[ log (D/r)] } µF/km ……..(2.c)
The associated line charging current is
Ic = jωCab Vab A/km ………(3)
Where, ω = Angular Frequency.
The two wires of line can carry phase currents or one can carry phase current and
other will carry neutral current. The capacitive reactance will be different for both
the cases as indicated below.

Cab
a b
(a) Line-to-line capacitance
n
a b
Can Cbn
(b) Line-to-neutral capacitance
Fig 2.
As shown in figs 2 (a) and (b) the line-to-line capacitance can be equivalently
considered as two equal capacitances in series. The voltage across the lines divides
equally between the capacitances such that the neutral point n is at the ground
potential. The capacitance of each line to neutral is then given by.
Cn = Can = Cbn = 2Cab = {0.0242 / log (D/r)} µF/km ………… (4)
The assumptions inherent in the above derivation are: L

(i) The charge on the surface of each conductor is assumed to be uniformly
distributed, but this is strictly not correct.
If non uniformity of chare distribution is taken into account, then
Cn = {0.0242 / log {(D/2r) + [(D2/4r2)-1]}} µF/km ……….. (5)
If D/2r >> 1, the above expression reduces to that of Eq. (5) and the error caused
by the assumption of uniform charge distribution is negligible.
(ii) The cross-section of both the conductors is assumed to be circular, while in
actual practice stranded conductors are used. The use of the radius of the
circumscribing circle for a stranded conductor caused insignificant error.
As shown in fig below the six conductors of a double circuit three-phase line
having an overall radius of 0.865 x 10-2 m are arranged to form two circuits, one
on each side of tower/pole .

b c c C' b' c'
c a b b' a' c'
a b a a' c' b'
Fig -3 Cross section of a double circuit three phase line
Let us work out the capacitive reactance.

Assume that the charge per conductor on each phase is equal in all the three sections of the
transposition cycle. For section I of the transposition cycle,
Vab (I) = (1/2πk) {qa [ln (i/r) + ln (g/f)] + qb [ln (r/i) + ln (d/g)] + qc [ln (i/j) + ln (g/h)]} ….. (a)
For section II of the transposition cycle
Vab (II) = (1/2πk) {qa [ln (i/r) + ln (g/d)] + qb [ln (r/i) + ln (f/g)] + qc [ln (j/i) + ln (h/g)]} ….. (b)
For section III of the transposition cycle
Vab (III) = (1/2πk) {qa [ln (j/r) + ln (h/f)] + qb [ln (r/j) + ln (f/h)] + qc [ln (i/j) + ln (g/g)]} … (c)
Average value of Vab over the transposition cycle is given by
Vab (avg) = (1/6πk) {qa [ln (ig ig jh/rf rd rf)] + qb [ln (rd rf rf /ig ig jh)]
Vab(avg) = (1/2πk) (qa - qb)[ ln (i2 g2 jh/ r3 f2 d)1/3] ……(d)
Similarly
Vac (avg) = (1/2πk) (qa – qc) [ln (i2 g2 jh/ r3 f2 d) 1/3] ……(e)
Now
Vab + Vac = 3Van = (1/2πk) (2qa – qb - qc) [ln (i2 g2 jh/ r3 f2 d) 1/3] ……...(f)
3Van = (3qa/2πk) [ln (i2 g2 jh/ r3 f2 d) 1/3]
Capacitance to neutral per conductor = {2πk / [ln (i2 g2 jh/ r3 f2 d) 1/3]} …….. (g)

Total capacitance to neutral for two conductors in parallel
Cn = {4πk / [ln (i2 g2 jh/ r3 f2 d)1/3] } F/M ……..(h)
Now h = 6M; d = 8M; j = 8m; Referring to fig 3 we can write.
i = [(j/2)2 + (d - h/ 2)2]1/2 = √17
f = (j2 + h2)1/2 = 10M
g = (72 + 42)1/2 = √65 M
Conductor radius overall = 0.856 x 10-2 M
Substituting the values for various distances, we have
Cn = {(4π x 1 x 8.85 x 10-2 x 106 x 1000) / ln [(17 x 65 x 8 x 6/ 100 x 8) x (100/0.865)3] 1/3} µF/kM
= 0.0181 µF/kM
ωCn = 314 x 0.0181 x 10-6
= 5.68 x 10-6 mho / kM
Charging current / phase = (110 x 1000/ √3) x 5.68 x 10-6
= 0.361 A/kM
Therefore
Charging current / conductor = (0.361/2)
= 0.1805 A/kM
6.0 THE PHENOMENON OF CORONA & CORONA LOSSES

Every conductor which allows A.C. power flow develops magnetic field. The
overhead transmission line conductor can be compared to a solid cylindrical
catenary.
6.1 FACTORS AND CONDITION AFFECTING CORONA LOSS

Corona loss depends on a number of factors such as system frequency, system
voltage, connectivity of air, density of air, presence of rain, dust, radius of
conductor, surface of conductor, and heating of conductor by load current.
The effect of these factors is as under:
6.1.1 Effect of Frequency: The corona loss is directly proportional to system
frequency.

6.1.1 Effect of System Voltage:

The potential difference between the conductors governs the electric field in
the space around the conductors. Greater the potential difference, greater is
the electric field and greater is the corona loss. The voltage at which the
corona occurs is known as Critical Disruptive Voltage. In the region near the
disruptive critical voltage, the rate of increase of corona loss with increases in
system voltage is small.
6.1.2 Effect of Conductivity of Air:
The conductivity of Air depends on the number of ions per unit volume of air
and the size and charge per ion. Both these factors vary with altitude and
atmospheric conditions. At sea level the number of ions per CC of air about
650 (positive) and 550 (negative). At 2000M above MSL (mean sea level) this
number is about 1050 (positive) and 2000 (negative). Thunder storms
increase the ion content and make the atmosphere more conducting. Higher
conductivity leads to grater corona loss.
6.1.3 Effect of Destiny of Air:
Corona loss increases with decrease in density of air. The corona loss of a line
passing through a hilly area is higher than that of a similar line in plains due
to the decreased value of Air density at high altitudes.
6.1.4 Effect of rain and dust:
Rain and dust increase the corona loss since rain drops and dust particles
setting on the conductor surface establish protruding points which become
the regions of local corona discharges. The effect is more pronounced if the
conductor diameter is large because on small conductors the radius of a rain
drop may not be very much smaller than the radius of the conductor itself.
6.1.5 Effect of conductor Radius:
A higher conductor radius means lesser surface filed intensity and hence,
reduced corona loss. An ACSR conductor, for the same current capacity has a
larger radius than copper conductor. Therefore, ACSR conductor lines have
lower corona loss than copper conductor lines. In bundled conductor lines the
effective radius is high and therefore these lines depict lower corona loss than
the lines with one conductor per phase.
6.1.6 Effect of conductor surface:
The Potential gradient at the surface of standard conductor is greater than
that for the equivalent solid conductor. As a result of this the break down
voltage is low and corona loss is high for stranded conductors. Any roughness
on the conductor surface causes a field distortion and gives rise to local
regions of high potential gradient and higher corona loss as compared to

smooth surface. Stranding and roughness of surface are taken into account by
the use of surface factor m0. When a new line is put into operation, a gradual
reduction in corona, due to weathering effect, takes place for the first six
months or so. The ionization of air produces ozone. The oxidation of
conductor due to ozone is more pronounced at roughness protruding from
conductor surface. Consequently, the surface irregularities get blunted and
corona loss gets reduced. This reduction in corona loss takes place during the
first six months or so. After this time the loss remains almost constant.
6.2 CRITICAL DISRUPTIVE VOLTAGE:
It is defined as the minimum phase neutral voltage at which corona occurs.
Consider two conductors of radius r cm & spaced d cm apart. If V is the phase-
neutral potential then potential gradient at the conductor surface is given by
g = V / ( r loge d/r) volts / cm
Where, g = potential gradient at the conductor surface
V= phase-neutral potential
r = radius of conductor
d= spacing between conductor
In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be equal to the breakdown
strength of air. The breakdown strength of air at 76cm pressure and
temperature of 25º C is 30 kV / cm (max) or 21.2 kV/cm (rms) and is denoted
by g0. If Vc is the phase-neutral potential required under these conditions,
then,
g0 = Vc / ( r loge d/r) volts / cm
Where, g0 = breakdown strength of air at 76cm of mercury & 25º C.
Therefore, Critical Disruptive Voltage Vc = g 0 r loge d/r
Thus the breakdown strength of air at a barometric pressure of b cm of
mercury and temperature of tº C becomes δ x g0,
Where, δ = 3.92b / (273 + t) = air density factor
Under standard conditions, the value of δ = 1.
Therefore, Critical Disruptive Voltage Vc = g0 δ r loge d/r
Correction must be made for the surface condition of the conductor. This is
accounted for by multiplying the above equation by M 0
Critical Disruptive Voltage Vc = M0 g0 δ r loge d/r
Where M0= 1 for polished conductor
= 0.98 to 0.92 for dirty conductors
= 0.87 to 0.8 for stranded conductors
6.3 VISUAL CRITICAL VOLTAGE:

It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona glow appears all

along the conductors and is visible by an added eye.
It has been seen that in case of parallel conductors, the corona glow does not
begin at the disruptive voltage Vc but at a higher voltage Vv, called Visual
Critical Voltage. The phase-neutral effective value of visual critical voltage is
given by the following formula:
Vv = Mv g0 δ r [ 1 + (0.3/√(δr))] loge (d/r) kV/phase
Where, Mv is another irregularity factor having a value of 1.0 for polished
conductors and 0.72 to 0.82 for rough conductors.
6.4 CORONA LOSS CALCULATIONS:-
Formation of corona is always accompanied by energy loss which is dissipated
in the form of light, heat, sound and chemical action. When disruptive voltage
is exceeded, the power loss due to corona is given by:
P = 242.2 x [(f + 25)/ δ] x √(r/d) x (V-Vc) 2 x 10-5 kW / kM / phase
Where,
f = supply frequency in Hz
V= phase-neutral voltage (rms)
Vc =disruptive voltage (rms) per phase
6.5 RADIO INTERFERENCE DUE TO CORONA
The radio interference due to corona refers to the adverse effect produced by
corona on wireless signals. It has been found that the current pulses
generated by corona discharges, as they propagate along the conductor, cause
interference with the wireless signals. Amplitude modulated broadcasting,
power line carrier, aviation, marine, ship to shore SOS calls and other similar
services are affected due to this interference. The interfering field, at any
point, is dominated by the aggregation of the effect of all corona discharges
spread over many kilometers of line on both sides of the point and not by the
direct effect of local discharges at that point. The increase in radio
interference field is gradual up to a voltage slightly below the minimum
voltage at which measurable corona loss occurs. Above this voltage the
increase in radio interference is very rapid. The rate of increase in radio
interference is affected by conductors. Above a certain voltage the magnitude
of radio interference field tends to level off. However, for practical
conductors the leveling off value is too high to be acceptable and the lines
have to be designed to operate below the voltage at which radio interference
starts rapidly during fair weather.
A transmission line with clean conductors, with good hard ware and having
the fair weather gradient less than corona inspection gradient, should not
present radio interference problems during fair weather. However,
experience has shown that line conductors are always not clean and radio
interference may occur. It is known that mechanical defects like scratches

rise from dents and other surface discontinuities exist. The weather
processes attack this project service and corona activity hastens the attack.
After these initial conditions the conductor surface intercepts or attracts a
varying amount of airborne material. Some material adheres to the conductor
surface and forms a transient source of radio interference generation. Later
on, the remains of airborne particles cease as corona sources and the remains
become a layer of semi-carbon ferrous material producing a darkish quote on
the conductor surface. This layer can be beneficial since it may cover some of
the initial mechanical imperfections. Thus, during the life of a line a gradual
surface stabilization occurs with respect to corona surfaces but the degree of
the surface stabilization is different for different lines.
In determining the RI (Radio Interference) performance of a propose line the
magnitude of RI factors for the entire frequency range of communication
sources has to be evaluated. An evaluation of these factors in terms of their
effect on the various communication services must take in to account many
factors like available signal intensities along the line, satisfactory signal to
noise ratios, effect of weather on RI factors and the importance of the
communication services, etc.
The radio interference field generated from a transmission line varies mostly
as the inverse of the audio frequency. Thus, services in the higher frequency
band (television, frequency modulated broadcasting, radar, microwave relay,
etc.) are less likely to be affected. The directional antenna which is generally
used at these frequencies increase the signal to radio. The degree of
acceptable radio noise is not an entirely technical decision and depends on
factors like density of population, radio listening habits of people, powers of
radio transmitters, other noise levels presents in the area, and effective
coverage, etc. The radio interference due to corona assumes importance for
line above 200kV. For EHV lines the line design is affected to a large extent by
this phenomenon.
6.6 CORONA IN BUNDLED CONDUCTOR LINES
The maximum surface electric field is less for bundled conductor lines than for
single conductor lines. It is, therefore, possible, by replacing a single
conductor by two or more conductors with the same total cross-section to
obtain an increase in corona starting voltage. This leads to reduction in
corona loss and radio interference. Alternatively a higher working voltage
can be used.
6.7 COMPARISION OF MAXIMUM SURFACE ELECTRIC FIELD FOR BUNDLED
CONDUCTOR AND SINGLE CONDUCTOR LINES
6.7.1 Bundled Conductor Line:

As shown in figure a single circuit line with two sub conductors per phase. The
radius of each sub conductor is r. The spacing between the sub conductors of
a phase is d and the spacing between adjacent phases is ‘D’. A simplified
analysis is possible by assuming that the sub conductors of one phase have
the same total charge on them at any instant and that these charges are
distributed uniformly over the surface.
3 a 4 P 1 b 2 c
radius r
Fig: 1
Maximum stress will occur on the surface of a conductor on the line joining
the conductor centers at the instant when the voltage on that phase is a
maximum with respect to the neutral. The expressions for maximum surface
field at points 1,2,3 and 4 can be written from the principals of electrostatics
and it will be found that E4 > E1 (=E2) > E3.
Where E1 = Surface potential at point 1

E2 = Surface potential at point 2
ε0= Permittivity of free space
When the potential of the sub-conductor of phase a has its maximum value Van
(with respect to neutral), the potential difference between phases a and b is
0.866 times its maximum value. i.e. vab = 0.866 Vab. If the sub-conductor of
phase a has a charge q at this instant, then the charge on each sub-conductor
of phase b and c is -q/2. The electric intensity at the surface of sub-conductor
4, at this instant can be written as:

q 1 1 1 1 1 1 Eqn 1
E4 =
2 0 r + r+d + 2(D-d-r) + 2(D-r) + 2(2D-d-r) + 2(2D-r)
The electric field intensity Ex at point p situated at a distance x from centre of

sub-conductor 4 is:
q 1 1 1 1 1 1
Ex =
2 0 x + x+d + 2(D-d-x)+ 2(D-x) + 2(2D-d-x)+ 2(2D-x) Eqn 2
At this instant the potential difference between phase a and b is;

D-d-r
^ ab =
vab = 0.866 V Ex dx Eqn 3
r
Substituting the expression for Ex from Eqn 2 into Eqn 3 and integrating we have:
0.866
âb = q
V 3 ln (D-d-r) + 3 ln (D-r) - ln (D+r) - ln (D+d+r) Eqn 4
4 0 r d+r 2D-d-r 2D-r
Substituting the value of q from Eqn Eqn 4 into Eqn 1
3
âb
V
E4 = X
3 ln (D-d-r) + 3 ln (D-r) - ln (D+r) - ln (D+d+r)
r d+r 2D-d-r 2D-r
1 1 1 1 1 1 Eqn 5
r + r+d + 2(D-d-r) + 2(D-r) + 2(2D-d-r) + 2(2D-r)
6.7.2 Single conductor line:

Figure shows a 3-phase line with one conductor per phase. If the total cross-
sectional area per phase for this line is to be the same as for the bundled
conductor line of Fig. 1, then the radius of each conductor of this line must be
√2 r.
a 5 P b r a d iu s 2 r

Fig: 2
The maximum electric intensity at point 5 occurs at the instant when the
potential of phase a (with respect to neutral) its maximum value Van. At this
instant vab = 0.866 Vab. If the charge on conductor a is q1, the charge on
conductor b and c is –q1/2. The maximum electric intensity at point 5 is:
q
E5 = 1 1 + 1
+
1 Eqn 6
2 0 2 r 2(D- 2 r) 2(2D- 2 r)
The electric intensity at point p situated at a distance x from
centre of conductor a is:
q1 1 1 1
Ex =
2 0 x + 2(D-x) + 2(2D-x) Eqn 7
At this instant the potential difference between phase a and b is;

D- 2r
vab = 0.866
^ ab =
V Ex dx Eqn 8
2r
Substituting the expression for Ex from Eqn 7 into Eqn 8 and integrating we have:
0.866
âb = q1
V 3 ln D- 2 r + ln 2D- 2 r Eqn 9
4 0 2r D+ 2 r
Substituting1 the value of q from Eqn Eqn 9 into Eqn 6
3
âb
V 1 1 1
E5 = X + +
2 r 2(D- 2 r) 2(2D- 2 r) Eqn 10
3 ln D- 2 r + ln 2D- 2 r
2r D+ 2 r
By using eqn. 5 and eqn. 10 the maximum electric intensities for a 3-phase
bundled conductor line (with two sub-conductors per phase) and 3-phase line
with one conductor per phase can be compared. Fig 3 shows this comparison for
D/r=700 which is a typical value of D/r for EHV lines. As seen from fig. 3, there is
a range of value of d/r for which intensity in bundled conductor line is less than
that for a line with one conductor per phase.

0.075
Max. intensity in units

Single cond./phase
0.050
of radius 2 r
Two cond./phase
of Vab / r
of radius r
0.025
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
d/r
Variation of max. electric intensity with

the ratio d/r for a line with D/r = 700
Fig. 3
Example 1.
A 3–phase line has conductors 2 cm in diameter spaced equilaterally 1 m
apart. If the dielectric strength of air is 30 kV (max) per cm, find the
disruptive critical voltage for the line. Take air density factor δ = 0.952 and
irregularity factor mo= 0.9.
Solution.
Conductor radius, r = 2/2 = 1 cm
Conductor spacing, d = 1m = 100 cm
Dielectric strength of air, go = 30 kV/cm (max.) = 21.2 kV (r.m.s. value)
Disruptive critical voltage, Vc = mo go δ r loge (d/r) kV*/ phase (r.m.s. value)
= 0.9 x 21.2 x 0.952 x 1 x loge 100/1 = 83.64 kV/phase
Therefore
Line voltage (r.m.s.) = √3 x 83.64 = 144.8 kV
Example 2.
A 3–phase, 220kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 1.5 cm radius conductor
spaced 2 meters apart in equilateral triangular formation. If the temperature
is 40˚C and atmospheric pressure is 76 cm, calculate the corona loss per km of
the line. Take mo =0.85.
Solution.
P = 242.2 (f + 25) √r/d (V- Vc) 2 x 10-5
δ
Now, δ = 3.92 b = 3.92 x 76 = 0.952
273+ t 273 + 40
Assuming go = 21.2 kV/cm (r.m.s.)

Therefore
Critical disruptive voltage per phase
Vc = mo go δ r loge d/r kV
= 0.85 x 21.2 x 0.952 x 1.5 x loge 200/1.5 = 125.9 kV
Supply voltage per phase, V = 220/ √3 =127 kV

Substituting the above values, we have,
P =( 242.2/ 0.952)x (50 + 25) x (√(1.5)/200) x (127 – 125.9)2 x 10-5
kW/phase/kM
= (242.2/0.952) x 75 x 0.0866 x 1.21 x 10-5 kW/kM/phase
= 0.01999 kW/kM/phase
Total corona loss per kM for 3-phases
= 3 x 0.01999 kW = 0.05998 kW
7.0 SURGE IMPEDANCE LOADING (NATURAL LOAD)

We have discussed the concept of surge impedance loading in chapter 3.
The characteristic impedance of a line, denoted by Zc is given by
Zс = √ z/ y
Where Zc = characteristic impedance, Ω
Z = r + j ω L = line series impedance per phase per unit length
Y = j ω C = line shunt admittance per unit length per phase to neutral.
If the line resistance is neglected,
_______
Zс = √ L/ C
When the line resistance is neglected, the characteristic impedance is known as
surge- impedance. A line is said to be operating at natural load (or surge impedance
load) when it is terminated by a resistance equal to characteristic impedance. If the
line to line voltage at receiving end is Vr, under the condition of sure impedance
loading is
I r = Vr / √ 3 Zс
Surge impedance loading is also the ideal loading. The voltage and current are equal
at all points along the line (i.e. line voltage and current profiles are flat). The voltage
and current are in phase at all points along the line. Moreover no reactive power is
generated or absorbed at the line ends. The total reactive power absorbed by line
inductance is equal to total reactive power generated by line capacitance. i.e.
[

I²ωL = V² / ω C
V/I = √ (L/C) = Zc
Or
A relation between actual power received and surge impedance loading can be
derived as under. If all quantities are expressed in pu.
Receiving end power Sr = Vr I *r
Using Equivalent π circuit (Fig. 3.14)
Ir = (Vs – Vr / Z’) – (Vr Y’/ 2) = (2Vs – 2Vr – Z’ Y’ Vr / 2Z’)
I*r = [ 2Vs - 2Vr - Z’ Y’ Vr / 2 Z’ ]
Sr = Vr I*r = (Vr )² [ (2 Vs / Vr – 2 - Z’ Y’) / 2Z’]
S I L = 1/Zc
Sr / S I L = (Vr ) ² / 1 / Zc [ (2Vs / Vr – 2 – Zc sonh (y l) 2/ Zc tanh ( yl/s) ]*/2/Zc sinh
(y l)
= Zc / Zc (Vr )² [Vs / Vr – 1 – sinh ( y l) (cosh y l – 1) / sinh (y l) ]*
Power system Analysis and Design
Sr / SIL = Zc / Zc [Vr]2 [ (Vs / Vr ) – cosh ýl / sinh ýl ]
If line resistance is neglected, the real part of ý, i.e., attenuation constant ά becomes
zero and
ý = j β.
Then Zc = Zc* and
Sr/ SIL = [Vr]2 [ (Vs / Vr ) * – cos βl / sin βl ]
The ratio Sr/SIL is a function of line length, receiving and ratio V s/Vr.Fig.19.1 shows
this Ratio as a function of line length for lines without any var compensation. This
ratio depends on the short circuit capacity of the system. A system with high short
circuit capacity has a higher Sr/SIL ratio as compared to one with low short circuit
capacity.
8.0 VOLTAGE REGULATION
Voltage Regulation of a transmission line is defined as the rise in the receiving end
voltage when full load at a specified power factor is removed while the sending end
voltage is kept constant. It is expressed as percentage (or per unit) of full load rated
receiving end voltage. For the short line, the no load receiving end voltage equals V s.
Therefore, regulation is
{│Vs│- │Vr│} / │Vr│= {(Ir RCosΦr + Ir X SinΦr) / Vr} p.u. ……… (1)
Where,

Vs = Sending end voltage.

Vr = Receiving end voltage.
The above equation (1) is for lagging power factor, the phasor diagram is shown
below.
For leading power factor, regulation is given by.

Regulation = {(Ir RCosΦr - Ir XSinΦr ) / Vr } p.u. ……… (2)
The above equations (1) & (2) shows that power factor has a great influence on the
voltage regulation. For lagging power factor the regulation is positive (i.e. V r is less
than Vs). For leading power factors regulation may even be negative. Regulation is
zero when p.f. is leading and
Ir RCosΦr = Ir XSinΦr or tanΦr = (R / X)
A certain amount of power is dissipated as I2 R loss in the line conductors. The ratio
of power at the receiving end to the power at the sending end is known as efficiency
of line.
Let us study one example.
Given data
1) Three phase overhead line length = 15kM
2) Power Delivered = 5MW
3) Voltage level = 11kV
4) Power factor = 0.8 lagging
5) Line loss = 12% of power delivered.
6) Line inductance = 1.1mH/kM/phase
a) Let us calculate Sending end voltage and regulation
Vr = 11000/ √3
= 6351 V

Line current = {(3 x 106)/ (√3 x 11000 x 0.8)}

= 328A = Ir
Total line loss in conductors = (12/100) x 5 x 10 6 = 60 x 104 W
3Ir2 R = 60 x 104
Or
R = (60 x 104) / ( 3 x 328 x 328) = 1.86 ohm.
X = 2л x 50 x 1.1 x 10-3 x 15 = 5.184 ohm
Vs ≈ Vr + Ir RCosΦr + Ir X SinΦr
= 7859.27 V
Therefore
Sending end voltage = {(√3 x 7859.27)/(1000)}
= 13.61kV
Regulation = {(7859.27 – 6351) / (6351)}
= 0.2375 or 23.75%
b) Let us calculate the power factor of the load to make regulation zero.
For 0 regulation,
tanΦr = (R / X)
= (1.86/5.184)
= 0.359
Therefore CosΦr = 0.941
And Φr = 19.75°
c) If capacitor has been added across each pahse at the receiving end, the phasor
diagram will be as shown below.

The current drawn by the capacitor is Ic. The phasor sum of Ir and Ic equals I, the
new line current.
From the phasor diagram it is seen that.
IrCos 36.87° = I Cos 19.75°
Or
I = (328cos 36.87° / Cos 19.75° )
= 278.85 A
Ic = Ir sin 36.87° + I sin 19.75°
= 328 x 0.6 + 278.85 x 0.338
= 291.05 A
Xc = (Vr / Ic)
= (6351/291.05)
= 21.82 ohm
(1/ 2л x 50 x C) = 21.82
Or
C = 145.88 x 10-6F
Three capacitor each of 145.88µF, connected in star at the receiving end will
improve the receiving end power factor to 0.941 leading so as to result in zero
regulation.
9.0 POWER TRANSFER CAPABILITY OF THE LINE
9.1 The capability to transfer the power of EHV Transmission line varies with
various parameters and considerations. They are described in short as
follows:
9.2 Voltage regulations.
Voltage regulation is the %age difference between Sending end and Receiving
End voltages. For a given length of line the impedance Z is fixed. Thus, the
voltage drop depends upon the amount of current flowing through the
conductor. If the %age regulation is reduced without capacitive compensation
at Receiving end, the power transfer capability will reduce. Contrary to this, if
higher %age regulation is allowed, the power transfer capability will increase.
Therefore, in case of long lines, it is better to provide series capacitive
compensation for better power transfer capability.
9.3 Thermal Rating:
If the thermal rating is increased, we can transfer more power on the same
conductor. Higher temperature means, you allow more amount of current.
Thus, the power P = √3 x V x I x Cos Ф will increase. Taking conductor to
higher temperature means increase in Sag and increase in height/weight of

tower and extra cost of foundation. If, the line is passing through a region
experiencing sub-zero temperatures, the load ability of the line will increase.
However, care is required in designing the tower for sub-zero temperature.
9.4 Power Factor :
If the power factor is low the power capability will reduce and vice-a-versa..
However, when more power is transferred, the current is also more and
voltage is low. Therefore, the power factor is bound to be low. Adequate
series compensation can increase the load ability.
9.5 Surge Impedance Loading.:
Under the unloaded condition if the line is charged, the flow of current will be
proportional to the no load impedance of the line. The capability will
therefore depend upon the surge impedance.
9.6 High Conductivity Material:
If the conductivity of the material of conductor is increased, the resistance
will come down and therefore the load ability will increase. This also means
that the surface temperature of the conductor can be increased.
10.0 Conclusion.:
10.1 The electrical design of bare conductor for overhead EHV Transmission Line
is governed by various factors such as the conductor material, the reactance,
the corona, surge impedance, voltage regulation, etc.
10.2 The power transfer capacity of the line depends much on the electrical
properties of the conductor. The transfer capability also depends upon the
transmission line parameters.
10.3 For better efficiency of the transmission line, it is necessary to evaluate all the
electrical parameters in depth.

Takalkar Power Engineers
& Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
424-430, B – Wing, Monalisa Business Center,
Near More Mega Store, Manjalpur,
Vadodara, 390 011 | www.tpec.in
Content By | SM Takalkar | Managing Director | marketing@tpec.in
Prepared By | KN Velani | Design Engineer | keval.velani@tpec.in

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Training on Transmission Line Design, Construction,

Operation and Maintenance

| Takalkar Power Engineers

1.0 BASIC PURPOSE OF TRANSMISSION LINE IN POWER SYSTEM

1.9 The AC Power Transmission has the following distinct advantages:

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1.1 Minimum Ground Clearance

Voltage(kV) 66 132 220 400 800 +/- 500

1.2 Minimum Clearance above Rivers/Lakes

1.3 Electrical Clearance Power Line Crossing Each other

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1. 66kV 2440 3050 4580 5490

1.4 Power line crossing communication line.

1.5 Power Line crossing railway tracks

1.6 Overview of Insulation Co-ordination

1.0 DEFINATION OF INSULATION COORDINATION

1.2 Various parameters of Insulation co-ordination are as follows:

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3. Chopped Wave Insulation Level

4. Critical Flashover Voltage

An example of insulation co-ordination is given here under:

Example of Insulation Coordination

If a lightning strikes on the incoming feeder, three scenarios are possible.

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2.0 OVER VOLTAGES AND SURGES

1. Internal Over voltages

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The point of insulation flashover depends on

3.0 Overvoltage Surge Protection

4.0 Selection Procedure for Surge arresters

5.0 Some Common ratings associated with surge arresters

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2.0 RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTOR

2.3 The DC resistance worked out as above then can be converted to AC

(Rt2 / Rt1) = (M + t2) / (M + t1)

Rt2 = d.c. resistance at any temperature t2ºc

Rt1 = d.c. resistance at any other temperature t1ºc

f = frequency in cycles per second

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0.5 1.00032 2.5 1.17538

It is pertinent to note that the AC resistance of the conductor is frequency

3.0 CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY OF BARE OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINE

vibration / spacer dampers, insulators etc.) by convection to the air

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I = Current flowing in conductor in amp at 50 cycles per second.

Rdc @ T0 = Rdc @ 200 [ 1 + { α ( T – 20 ) }]

Qc = 0.47588 + 13.333 ( D x 100 )0.52

Now Continuous Maximum Current Rating at 75ºc corresponding to ambient

CALCULATIONS FOR ACSR MOOSE CONDUCTOR

Rdc @ 200 = 0.05596 x 10-3 ohm /meter.

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D = 3.177 x 10-2 meter.

Qc = 0.47588 + 13.333 (D x 100)0.52

CALCULATIONS FOR ACSR ZEBRA CONDUCTOR

Rdc @ 200 = 0.06915 x 10-3 ohm /meter.

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= 0.06915 x 10-3 [1 + {0.004 (75-20)}]

Qc = 0.47588 + 13.333 (D x 100)0.52

Calculation of continuous maximum current rating capacity at 75ºc corresponding

3.6 THE CALCULATIONS WITH FPS SYSTEM

I = Continuous maximum current rating at 75ºC corresponding to ambient

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