NPTEL

Problems
Chapter 1: Introduction & Fundamental Concepts
1. Calculate specific weight, mass density, specific volume and specific gravity of a liquid having a
3
volume of 4m and weighing 29.43 kN. Assume missing data suitably.
W γ =?
γ= ρ =?
V
29.43 × 103 ∀ =?
=
4 S =?
γ = 7357.58 N/m3 V = 4 m3
=W 29.43 kN = 29.43 ×103 N

V 10-3
Specific Volume= = = 1.4 ×10−3 m3 /kg
M 0.7
To find ρ - Method 1:

W = mg Method 2 :
29.43 × 10 =m × 9.81
3
γ =ρ g
m = 3000 kg 7357.5 = ρ 9.81
m 3000
∴ ρ= = = 750 kg/m ρ = 750 kg/m
3 3

v 4

M
V ρ=
i) ∀ = V
M
V
4 ∀=
= M
3000
1 1
=
∀ 1.33 × 10 m /kg
−3 3 ∀= =
ρ 750
−3
=
∀ 1.33 × 10 m /kg
3

γ ρ
S =
γ Standard S =
ρ Standard
7357.5 750
= or S=
9810 1000
S = 0.75 S = 0.75

=
M 6.867 ÷ 9.81
M = 0.7 kg
Page 1 of 59
2. Calculate specific weight, density, specific volume and specific gravity and if one liter of Petrol
weighs 6.867N.
W
γ =
V V = 1Litre
6.867 −3
= V = 10 m
3
−3
10
W = 6.867N
γ = 6867N/m
3

γ
S=
γ Standard ρ=s g
=
6867
6867= ρ × 9.81
9810
S = 0.7 ρ = 700 kg/m3

3. Specific gravity of a liquid is 0.7 Find i) Mass density ii) specific weight. Also find the mass and
weight of 10 Liters of liquid.

γ
S =
γ Standard S=
γ
γ γ Standard S = 0.7
0.7 =
9810 γ V =?
0.7 =
γ = 6867 N/m 3 9810 ρ =?
ρ γ = 6867N/m 3 M =?
S =
ρ Standard ρ W =?
S=
ρ Standard V = 10 litre = 10 × 10 −3 m 3
ρ
0.7 = or
1000 ρ
=0.7 = or ρ 700kg/m
ρ = 700kg/m 1000
M
M ρ= or M = 700 × 10 × 10 −3 = 7kg
ρ = or V
V

M= 700 × 10 × 10 −3 = 7kg

4. Viscosity of water is 0.01 poise. Find its kinematics viscosity if specific gravity is 0.998.
Kinematics viscosity =? µ = 0.01P

S = 0.998 = 0.01x 0.1

ρ NS
S= µ = 0.001
ρs tan drad m2

µ
∴υ =
ρ
ρ 0.001
0.998 = =
1000 998
υ = 1 ×10 m 2 /s
−6

Page 2 of 59
 ρ = 998 kg / m 3

5. A Plate at a distance 0.0254mm from a fixed plate moves at 0.61m/s and requires a force of
2
1.962N/m area of plate. Determine dynamic viscosity of liquid between the plates.
τ = 1.962 N / m 2

µ=?

Assuming linear velocity distribution

U
τ=µ
Y

0.61
1.962 = µ x
0.0254 x 10 −3

NS
µ = 8.17 x 10 −5
m2
2 0
6. A plate having an area of 1m is dragged down an inclined plane at 45 to horizontal with a
velocity of 0.5m/s due to its own weight. Three is a cushion of liquid 1mm thick between the
inclined plane and the plate. If viscosity of oil is 0.1 PaS find the weight of the plate.

2
A =1m

U = 0.5m/s
-3
Y = 1x10 m
2
µ = 0.1NS/m

Page 3 of 59
 W=?
0
F = W x cos 45

= W x 0.707

F = 0.707W

F
τ=
A
0.707 W
τ=
1
τ = 0.707 WN / m 2

Assuming linear velocity distribution,

U
τ = µ.
Y
0.5
= 0.1 ×
0.707W
1 × 10−3
W = 70.72 N

7. A shaft of φ 20mm and mass 15kg slides vertically in a sleeve with a velocity of 5 m/s. The gap
between the shaft and the sleeve is 0.1mm and is filled with oil. Calculate the viscosity of oil if
the length of the shaft is 500mm.

-3
D = 20mm = 20x10 m

M = 15 kg

W = 15x 9.81

W = 147.15N

y = 0.1mm
-3
y = 0.1 x 10 mm

U = 5m/s

F=W

F = 147.15N

µ= ?

A=πDL

Page 4 of 59
 -3 2
A = π x 20 x 10 x 0.5, A = 0.031 m

U
τ = µ.
Y
5
4746.7= µ ×
0.1×10−3
NS
µ = 0.095 2
m

F
τ=
A
147.15
=
0.031
τ = 4746.7N/m 2

2/3
8. If the equation of velocity profile over 2 plate is V= 2y . in which ‘V’ is the velocity in m/s
and ‘y’ is the distance in ‘m’ . Determine shear stress at (i) y = 0 (ii) y = 75mm.
Take µ = 8.35 P.

(i) at y = 0
(ii) at y = 75mm
-3
= 75 x 10 m

τ = 8.35 P

NS
= 8.35 x 0.1
m2

2
V = 2y 3
2   1
dV 2  −1 4 − 3 
= 2 × y3  = y
dy 3 3
NS
= 0.835 2
m

dV 4
at , y = 0, = 3 = ∞
dy 3 0
dV 4
at , y = 75 ×10−3 m, =
dy 3 75 ×10−3
3

dV
= 3.16 / s
dy

Page 5 of 59
 P
Motion

0
45
0 2 mm = 2 x 10-3 m = y
45

W = 150 N

dv
τ = µ.
dy
at=
, y 0,=τ 0.835 × ∞
τ= ∞
75 ×10−3 m,τ =
at , y = 0.835 × 3.16
τ = 2.64 N/m 2
0
9. A circular disc of 0.3m dia and weight 50 N is kept on an inclined surface with a slope of 45 .
The space between the disc and the surface is 2 mm and is filled with oil of dynamic viscosity
1 NS 2 . What force will be required to pull the disk up the inclined plane with a velocity of
m
0.5m/s.

D = 0.3m

π × 0.3m 2 2
A= A = 0.07m
4

W = 50N

NS
µ =1 F= P − 50 cos 45
m2
= ( P − 35,35)
F
y= 2 × 10−3 m
( P − 35.35)
U = 0.5 m/s υ= N/m 2
0.07

U
τ = µ.
Y
 P − 35,35  0.5
  = 1×
 0.07  2 ×10−3
P = 52.85N

10. Dynamic viscosity of oil used for lubrication between a shaft and a sleeve is 6 P. The shaft is of
diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 rpm. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve
length of 0.09 m .Thickness of oil is 1.5 mm.

Page 6 of 59
 µ=6P

NS
= 0.6
m2
N = 190 rpm

Power lost = ?

A=πDL
2
= π x 0.4 x 0.09 A = 0.11m
-3
Y = 1.5x10 m

π DN
U=
60
π × 0.4 × 190
=
60
U = 3.979 m/s

U
τ = µ.
Y
3.979
= 0.6 ×
1.5 × 10−3
=τ 1.592 × 103 N/m 2
F
= 1.59 × 103
A
F = 1.591× 103 × 0.11
F = 175.01 N

T= F × R
= 175.01× 0.2
T = 35 Nm
2π NT
P=
60, 000
P = 0.6964 KW
P = 696.4 W
0
11. What is the pressure inside the droplet of water 0.05mm in diameter at 20 C, if the pressure
0
outside the droplet is 103 kPa Take σ = 0.0736 N/m at 20 C

Page 7 of 59
 4σ
p=
D
pinside = ?
4 × 0.0736
= D 0.05 ×10−3 m
=
0.05 ×10−3
=p 5.888 ×10−3 N/m3 poutside = 103kPa
=p pinside − poutside = 103 ×103 N/m 2
=
pinside (5.888 + 103)103 σ = 0.0736 N/m
=
pinside 108.88 ×103 Pa

12. A liquid bubble 2cm in radius has an internal pressure of 13Pa. Calculate the surface tension of
liquid film.
8σ
p= R = 2cm
D
13 × 4 ×10−2 D = 4cm
σ=
8 = 4 ×10−2 m
σ = 0.065 N/m p = 13Pa (N/m 2 )

0
13. Capillary tube having an inside diameter 5mm is dipped in water at 20 . Determine the heat of
water which will rise in tube. Take σ =0.0736N/m at 20 C.
0

4 σ cos θ
h=
γD
4 × 0.0736 × cos θ θ = 00 (assumed)
=
9810 × 5 × 10−3 γ = 9810 N/m3
h= 6 × 10−3 m
0 0
14. Calculate capillary rise in a glass tube when immersed in Hg at 20 c. Assume σ for Hg at 20 c
0
as 0.51N/m. The diameter of the tube is 5mm. θ = 130 c.
γ
S=
γ S tan dard
4 σ cos θ
h= γ
γD 13.6 =
−3
9810
h=
−1.965 ×10 m
=γ 133.416 × 103 N/m3

-ve sign indicates capillary depression.

15. Determine the minimum size of the glass tubing that can be used to measure water level if
capillary rise is not to exceed 2.5mm. Take σ = 0.0736 N/m.

Page 8 of 59
 4σ cos θ
h=
γ D D=?
4 × 0.0736 × cos 0
D= h 2.5 ×10−3 m
=
9810 × 2.5 × 10−3
σ = 0.0736 N/m
= =
D 0.012 m 12 mm

16. A glass tube 0.25mm in diameter contains Hg column with air above it. If σ = 0.51N/m, what
0 0
will be the capillary depression? Take θ = - 40 or 140 .
4σ cos θ
h=
γD D 0.25 ×10−3 m
=
4 × 0.51× cos140 σ = 0.51N/m
=
133.146 ×10−3 × 0.25 ×10−3 θ = 140
−46.851×10−3 m
h= =γ 133.416 × 103 N/m 2

17. If a tube is made so that one limb is 20mm in φ and the other 2mm in φ and water is poured in
the tube, what is the difference in the level of surface of liquid in the two limbs. σ = 0.073
N/m for water.

2 mm φ

h 20 mm
h1
h2

4σ cos θ
h2= h=
γD
4 × 0.073 × cos 0
=
9810 × (20 ×10−3 )
h= h1 − h2
= 1.488 mm
= 0.01339 = m 13.39 mm
4 × 0.073 × cos 0
h1 =
9810 × (2 ×10−3 )
= 14.88 mm

1
The change in volume of certain mass of liquids is observed to be th of original volume when
500
pressure on it is increased by 5Mpa. Determine the Bulk modulus and compressibility of the liquid.

Page 9 of 59
 dp
1 K=
dv = V  dv 
500  v 
dv 1
= = 2.5 ×109 Pa
v 500
K = 2.5GPa
dp= 5 × 106 N/m 2
1 1
Compresibility = = = 4 × 10−10 m 2 /N
K 25 × 108

18. Find the pressure that must be applied to water at atmospheric pressure to reduce its volume
by 1% .Take K=2 GPa.
dp
K=
 dv 
 v
dP
2 × 109 = or dp =20 × 106 N/m 2 =20 MPa
1 
 100 

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

1. A square tank with 2 m sides and 1.5 m high contains water to a depth of 1 m and a liquid of
specific gravity 0.8 on the water to a depth of 0.5 m. Find the magnitude and location of
hydrostatic pressure on one face of tank. 8
20kPa
Solution: A
R=1m
B
The problem can be solved by considering hydrostatic pressure distribution 1.5m
C
diagram for water as shown in Fig.

From hydrostatic law, the pressure intensity p at any depth y is given by

p=Sρgy

where ρ is the mass density and S is the specific gravity of the liquid
F E D
Pressure force P = Area of the Pressure distribution diagram x Length

2m 2.5 m
= (½ p o x y o ) + (p o x y o ) + (½ p w x y w )
G A
Where p o is the pressure intensity at oil water interface and p w is the pressure
intensity at bottom of water due to water only. B θ
1.5m H O
p o = (1000 x 10) ( 0.8 x 0. 5) = 4 kPa C

p w = (1000 x 10) ( 1.0) =10 kPa

P o = (½ x 4 x 0.5)2= 2 kN

Page 10 of 59
P w = (½ x 10 x 1)2 = 10 kN

P ow = (4 x 1)2 = 8 kN

The total pressure force per meter length is given by

P = P o + P w + P ow = 20 kN( → )

Let this total pressure force P act at y from the base. Taking moments of all the forces about the base,
we get

P x y = P o (1.0+y o /3)+P ow (y w /2)+P w (y w /3)

Substituting and solving for y we get

y = 0.483 m from the base

2. A rectangular tank 10 m x 5 m and 3.25 m deep is divided by a partition wall parallel to the
shorter wall of the tank. One of the compartments contains water to a depth of 3.25 m and
the other oil of specific gravity 0.85 to a depth of 2 m. Find the resultant pressure on the
partition.
Solution:
The problem can be solved by considering hydrostatic pressure distribution diagram for both

S = 1.00

Pw So=0.85
yw /3 Po
yo/3

ρ g So yo
ρ g S yw
water and oil as shown in Fig.

From hydrostatic law, the pressure intensity p at any depth y w is given by

p = So ρ g yw where ρ is the mass density of the liquid

Pressure force P = Area of the Pressure distribution diagram x Length = (½ p x y w ) x 5

P w = ½ x (1000 x 10 x 3.25) x 3.25 x 5 = 264.0625 kN ( →) Acting at 3.25/3 m from the base

P o = 0.85 x ½ x (1000 x 10 x 2.0) x 2.0 x 5 = 85 kN ( ←) Acting at 2/3 m from the base.

Net Force P = P w – P o = 264.0625 – 85 = 179.0625 kN ( →)

Page 11 of 59
Location:

Let P act at a distance y from the base. Taking moments of P w , P o and P about the base, we get

P x y = P w x y w /3 – P o x y o /3

179.0625 y = 264.0625 x (3.25/3) – 85 x (2/3) or y = 0.749 m.

3. Determine the total force and location of centre of pressure for a circular plate of 2 m dia immersed
vertically in water with its top edge 1.0 m below the water surface

π × D2 π × 22
A= = = 3.142 m 2
4 4
3 2
Assume ρ = 1000 kg/m and g = 10 m/s

We know that the total pressure force is given by

P = S o ρ gA y = 1000 x 10 x 3.142 x 2 = 62.83 kN

Centre of Pressure

The Centre of pressure is given by

Ig
h= y+
Ay

π R4 π × 14
Ig = = = 0.785 m 4
4 4

0.785
h = 2+ = 2.125 m
3.142 × 2

4. A rectangular plate 2 m x 3 m is immersed in oil of specific gravity 0.85 such that its ends are at
depths 1.5 m and 3 m respectively. Determine the total pressure acting on the plate and locate it.

Solution:

Page 12 of 59
 2
A=2x3=6m

S o = 0.85

Assume C1 G1

3 θ
ρ = 1000 kg/m 1.5 m
2
g = 10 m/s 3m A
A1

y = GG 1 G
C
B
h = CC 1

Sin θ = 1.5 / 3 = 0.5

2m
θ = 30 o

GG 1 = G 1 A 1 + A 1 G = G 1 A 1 + AG Sin θ

GG 1 = 1.5 + (3/2) Sin 30 = 2.25 m

We know that the total pressure force is

given by

P = S o ρ gA y = 0.85 x 1000 x 10 x 6 x 2.25 = 114.75 kN

Centre of Pressure

The Centre of pressure is given by

Ig
h= y+ sin θ
2

Ay

b d 3 2 × 33
Ig = = = 4.5 m 4
12 12

4.5
h = 2.25 + sin 2 30 = 2.33 m
6 × 2.25

5. A Circular plate with a concentric hole is immersed in water in such a way that its greatest and least
depth below water surface are 4 m and 1.5 m respectively. Determine the total pressure on the plate
and locate it if the diameter of the plate and hole are 3 m and 1.5 m respectively.

Solution:

Page 13 of 59
 C1 G1

θ
1.5 m
Assume
4m A
A1
3 2
ρ = 1000 kg/m and g = 10 m/s
G 3m
π π
A=
4
(D 2
−d2 = ) 4
(3 2
− 1.5 2 ) B
C

1.5m
= 5.3014 m 2

y = GG 1

h = CC 1

Sin θ = 2.5 / 3 = 0.833

GG 1 = G 1 A 1 + A 1 G = G 1 A 1 + AG Sin θ

GG 1 = 1.5 + (3/2) 0.833 = 2.75 m

We know that the total pressure force is given by

P = S o ρ gA y = 1000 x 10 x5.3014 x 2.75 = 144.7885 kN

Centre of Pressure

The Centre of pressure is given by

Ig
h= y+ sin θ
2

Ay

π π
Ig =
4
(R 4
− r4 =) 4
(1.5 4
)
− 0.754 = 3.728 m 4

h = 2.75 +
3.728
(0.833)2 = 2.927 m
5.3014 × 2.75
A circular plate of Radius 0.75 m is immersed in a liquid of relative density of 0.8 with its plane making
o
an angle of 30 with the horizontal. The centre of the plate is at a depth of 1.5 m below the free
surface. Calculate the total force on one side of the plate and location of centre of pressure.
8

Solution:

Assume
3 2
ρ = 1000 kg/m and g = 10 m/s

Page 14 of 59
 C1 G 1
S o = 0.80
30o
π D2 π × 1.52 A
A= = = 1.767 m 2 1.5 m A1
4 4

y = GG 1 G
C 1.5 m
h = CC 1 B

θ = 30 o

GG 1 = 1.5 m

We know that the total pressure force is given by

P = S o ρ gA y = 0.8 x 1000 x 10 x 1.767 x 1.5 = 21.204 kN

Centre of Pressure

The Centre of pressure is given by

Ig
h= y+ 2
sin θ
Ay

π R4 π × 0.754
Ig = = = 0.2485 m 4
4 4

0.2485
h = 1.5 + sin 2 30 =1.523 m
1.767 × 1.5
7. A vertical gate closes a circular tunnel of 5 m diameter running full of water, the pressure at the
bottom of the gate is 0.5 MPa. Determine the hydrostatic force and the position of centre of pressure.

Solution:
3 2
Assume ρ = 1000 kg/m and g = 10 m/s

Pressure intensity at the bottom of the gate is = p = S o ρ gy

Where y is the depth of point from the free surface.

6
0.5 x 10 = 1000 x 10 x y

y = 50 m

Page 15 of 59
 O

50 m

5m G

Hence the free surface of water is at 50 m from the bottom of the gate

π D2 π × 52
A= = = 19.635 m 2
4 4

y = OG= 50 - 2.5 = 47.5 m

We know that the total pressure force is given by

P = S o ρ gA y = 1000 x 10 x 19.635 x 47.5 =9326.625 kN

Centre of Pressure

The Centre of pressure is given by

Ig
h= y+
Ay

π R4 π × 2.54
Ig = = = 30.68 m 4
4 4

30.68
h = 47.5 + = 47.533 m
19.635 × 47.5
i.e. 50.0 – 47.533 = 2.677 m from the bottom of the gate or tunnel.

Jan/Feb 2005

8. Find the horizontal and vertical component of force and its point of application due to water per
meter length of the gate AB having a quadrant shape of radius 2 m shown in Fig. Find also the
resultant force in magnitude and direction.
A O
Solution:
R=2m
Assume

Page 16 of 59
 3 2
ρ = 1000 kg/m and g = 10 m/s

R = 2 m, Width of gate = 1 m

Horizontal force F x

Fx = Force on the projected area of the curved surface on the vertical plane

= Force on BO = P = S o ρ gA y
2
A=2x1=2m

2
y= =1m
2
F x = 1000 x 10 x 2 x 1 = 20 kN

2 4
This will act at a distance h= × 2 = m from the free surface of liquid
3 3
Vertical Force F y

Fy = Weight of water (imaginary) supported by AB

= S o ρ g x Area of AOB x Length of gate

π × 22 Fx
= 1000 x 10 x x 1= 31.416 kN
4 α
Fy F
4× 2
This will act at a distance x = = 0.848 m from OB
3π
Resultant force

F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 20 2 + 31.426 2 = 37.25 kN and its inclination is given by

 Fy  −1  31.426 
α = tan −1   = tan   = 57.527 o
 Fx   20 

9. A cylinder holds water in a channel as shown in Fig. Determine the weight of 1 m length of the
cylinder.

Solution:

Radius of Cylinder = R = 2m

Length of cylinder = 1 m

Page 17 of 59
Weight of Cylinder = W

Horizontal force exerted by water= F x

Radius of
C C E
cylinder=2 m
2γ
D O A Fx D O A
2γ
Fx
W F’x F’x
Water in a
Fy 4γ 4γ
channel B B Fy

Carefully observing the diagram, the horizontal force F x can be found by the area of the hydrostatic
pressure distribution diagrams. It can be seen that liquid is present at both of the cylindrical gate at
the bottom (D and AB) but at only one side at the top (DC). Hence the water pressure at the bottom
gets cancelled (F’ x )and only F x is acting

Fx = Force on vertical area OC = Soρ g A y

2
= 1000 ×10 × ( 2 ×1) × =20 kN (→)
2
The vertical force exerted by water = F y = Weight of water enclosed in BDCEAB

 3π × 2 2 
F y =S o ρ g  + 2 × 2  xL=10x13.425= 134.248 kN (↑)
 4 

For equilibrium of the cylinder the weight of the cylinder must be equal to the force exerted by the
water on the cylinder. Hence, the weight of the cylinder is 134.248 kN per meter length.

10. Fig. shows the cross section of a tank full of water under pressure. The length of the tank is 2 m.
An empty cylinder lies along the length of the tank on one of its corner as shown. Find the resultant
force acting on the curved surface of the cylinder.

Solution:

R=1m

L=2m
3
p = ρ gh = 1000 x 10 x h = 20 x 10

Page 18 of 59
h=2m

For this pressure, the free surface should be 2 m above A

Horizontal component of force F x

Fx = Soρ g A y

A = 1.5 x 2.0 = 3 m
2 R=8m
C D O
o
1.5 30
y = 2+ = 2.75 m
2
B
F x = 1000 x 10 x 3.0 x 2.75 = 82.5 kN (→)

The vertical force exerted by water = F y

Fy = Weight of water enclosed in ABC

= Weight of water enclosed in CODEABC

= Weight of water enclosed in (CODFBC – AEFB)

But Weight of water enclosed in CODFBC

= Weight of water enclosed in (COB+ODFBO)

 πR 2   π × 12 
= ρg + BO × OD  × 2 = 1000 × 10  + 1 × 2.5 × 2 = 65.708 kN
 4   4 

Weight of water in AEFB = S o ρ g[Area of AEFB] x 2.0

= S o ρ g[Area of (AEFG+AGBH-AHB] x 2.0

o
sin θ = AH/AO = 0.5/1.0 = 0.5. ∴ θ = 30
o
BH = BO – HO = 1.0 – AO cos θ = 1.0 – 1 x cos 30 = 0.134

Area ABH = Area ABO – Area AHO

30 AH × HO
= π R2 × −
360 2.0
=
1 0.5 × 0.866
= π × 12 × − = 0.0453
12 2.0

∴Weight of water in AEFB = 1000x10[AExAG+AGxAH–0.0453]x2

= 1000x10[2.0x0.134+0.134x0.5–0.0453]x2 = 5794 N

Page 19 of 59
F y =65708 – 5794 = 59914 N (Ans)

11. Calculate the resultant water pressure on the tainter gate of radius 8 m and width unity as shown
in Fig.

Solution:

Horizontal component of force F x

Fx = Soρ g A y Fx
α
DB = OB sin 30 = 8 x 0.5 = 4.0 m
Fy F
2
A = 4 x 1.0 = 4 m

4
y= = 2m
2

F x = 1000 x 10 x 4.0 x 2.0 = 80.0 kN ( → )

The vertical force exerted by water = F y

Fy = Weight of water enclosed in CDBC

= Weight of water enclosed in(CDOBC–DOB) = S o ρ g

 2 30 BD × DO   1 4.0 × 8.8 cos 30 

πR × 360 − = 1000 × 10 π × 8 × 12 −  = 15.13 kN
2

2.0   2.0 

Resultant force

F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 80 2 + 15.13 2 = 81.418 kN and its inclination is given by

 Fy  −1 15.13 
α = tan −1   = tan   = 10.71
o

 x
F  80 

12. A 3.6 m x 1.5 m wide rectangular gate MN is vertical and is hinged at point 150 mm below the
centre of gravity of the gate. The total depth of water is 6 m. What horizontal force must be applied at
the bottom of the gate to keep the gate closed?

Solution:

Total pressure acting on the gate is F x

Page 20 of 59
Fx = Soρ g A y

= 1000 x 10 x (3.6 x 1.5) x (6-3.6/2)

= 226.8 kN

Ig
Acting at h= y+ y
Ay
h
6m
b d 3 1.5 × 3.63
Ig = = = 5.832 m 4
12 12
3.6m
5.832
h = 4.2 + = 4.457 m
5.4 × 4.2 Fx
0.15m
Let F be the force applied at the bottom of the gate required to
F
retain the gate in equilibrium.

From the conditions of equilibrium, taking moments about the hinge, we get

F (1.8 – 0.15) = F x [4.457-(4.2+0.15)]

F = 14.707 kN (Ans).

Chapter 3: Kinematics of Fluid

Problems

1. The velocity field in a fluid is given by

( )
Vs = (3 x + 2 y )i + 2 z + 3 x 2 j + (2t − 3 z )k
i. What are the velocity components u, v, and w ?
ii. Determine the speed at the point (1,1,1).
iii. Determine the speed at time t=2 s at point (0,0,2).
Solution: The velocity components at any point (x, y, z) are

( )
u = (3 x + 2 y ), v = 2 z + 3 x 2 , w = (2t − 3 z )k
Substitute x=1, y=1, z=1 in the above expression

u = (3*1+2*1) = 5, v = (2*1+3*1) = 5, w = (2t-3)

2 2 2 2
V =u +v +w

V(1,1,1) = (4t 2
− 12t + 59 )
2 2 2 2
= 5 + 5 + (2t-3) = 4 t – 12 t + 59

Page 21 of 59
Substitute t = 2 s, x=0, y=0, z=2 in the above expression for u, v and w

u = 0, v = (4 + 0) = 4, w = (4 – 6) = -2
2
V (0,0,2,2) = (0 + 15 + 4) = 20

V = 4.472 units

2 3
2. Calculate the velocity component V given u = xy − x 2 y so that the equation of continuity
3
is satisfied

Solution:

The continuity equation for two dimensional incompressible flow is given by

[( ∂ u/ ∂ x)+( ∂ v/ ∂ y)] = 0 …(01)

∂u 2 3
= y − 2 xy
∂x 3

From Eq. 01, we have

∂u ∂ v 2 ∂v
+ = 0 ⇒ y 3 − 2 xy + =0
∂x ∂y 3 ∂x
∂v 2
= 2 xy − y 3
∂y 3

Integrating the above expression with y, we get

1 4
v = xy 2 − y
6

3. The velocity distribution in a three-dimensional flow is given by:

u = - x, v = 2y and w = (3-z). Find the equation of the stream line that passes through point (1,1,1).

dx dy dz dx dy dz
= = or = =
u v w − x 2 y (3 − z )
dx dy
=
− x 2y
Solution: The stream line equation is given by

Integrating we get − log e x = 1 log e y + A,

2

Where A is an integral constant. Substituting x=1 & y=1, A = 0

Page 22 of 59
 −1 1
∴ log e x = log e y 2
or x =
y
1  3− z 
x= = 
y  2 

dx dz
=
− x (3 − z )

Considering the x and z components,

Integrating we get − log e x = − log e (3 − z ) + B,

Where B is an integral constant. Substituting x=1 & z=1, B = log e 2

 3− z 
∴ − log e x = − log e (3 - z ) + log e 2 = − log e  
 2 
 3− z 
or x =  
 2 

From Eqs. 1 and 2, the final equation of the stream line that passes through the point (1,1,1) is

4. A fluid particle moves in the following flow field starting from the points (2,1,0) at t=0.

t2 ty 2 z
u= ,v = ,w =
2x 18 2t
dx t 2
u= = or 2 xdx = t 2 dt
dt 2 x
Determine the location of the fluid particle at t = 3 s

Solution

t3
Integrating we get x 2 = +A
3

Where A is an integral constant. Substituting x=2, t=0, A = 4

Page 23 of 59
 t3
x2 = +4
3
33
x 2 = + 4 or x =13
3

dy ty 2 dy tdt
v= = or 2 =
dt 18 y 18
At t = 3 s,

Integrating we get
1 t2
Where B is an integral − = +B constant.
y 36
Substituting y=1, t=0, B = - 1 t2 1
= 1−
y 36

1 32 3 4
= 1− = or y =
y 36 4 3
At t = 3 s,

dz z 2dz dt
w= = or =
dt 2t z t
2 log e z = log e t + C

Integrating we get

Where C is an integral constant.

2 log e z = log e t or z 2 = t
Substituting z=0, t=0, C = 0

At t = 3 s, z 2 = 3 or z = 3

 4 
 13 , , 3 
From Eqs. 1, 2 and 3, at the end of 3 seconds the particle is at a  3  point

5. The following cases represent the two velocity components, determine the third component of
velocity such that they satisfy the continuity equation:
2 2 2 2 2 2
(i) u = x + y + z ; v = xy - yz + xy; (ii) v = 2y ; w = 2xyz.

Solution:

Page 24 of 59
The continuity equation for incompressible flow is given by

[( ∂ u/ ∂ x)+( ∂ v/ ∂ y) +( ∂ w/ ∂ z)] = 0 …(01)

2 2 2
u = x + y + z ; ( ∂ u/ ∂ x) = 2x
2 2 2
v = xy - yz + xy; ( ∂ v/ ∂ y) = 2xy - z + x

Substituting in Eq. 1, we get

2
2x + 2xy – z + z + ( ∂ w/ ∂ z) = 0

Rearranging and integrating the above expression, we get

3
w = (-3xz – 2xyz + z /3) + f(x,y)

Similarly, solution of the second problem

2
u = -4xy – x y + f(y,z).

6. Find the convective acceleration at the middle of a pipe which converges uniformly from 0.4 m to
0.2 m diameter over a length of 2 m. The rate of flow is 20 lps. If the rate of flow changes uniformly
from 20 lps to 40 lps in 30 seconds, find the total acceleration at the middle of the pipe at 15th
second.

Solution:

D 1 = 0.4 m, D 2 = 0.2 m, L = 2 m,
3
Q = 20 lps = 0.02 m /s.
3 3
Q 1 = 0.02 m /s and Q 2 = 0.04 m /s

Case (i)

Flow is one dimensional and hence the velocity components

v=w=0

∴Convective acceleration = u( ∂ u / ∂ x)
2 2
A1 = ( π /4)(D 1 ) = 0.1257 m
2 2
A2 = ( π /4)(D 2 ) = 0.0314 m

u 1 = Q/A 1 = 0.02/0.1257 = 0.159 m/s

and u 2 = Q/A 2 = 0.04/0.0314 = 0.637 m/s

As the diameter changes uniformly, the velocity will also

change uniformly. The velocity u at any distance x from

Page 25 of 59
inlet is given by

u = u 1 + (u 2 – u 1 )/(x/L) = 0.159 + 0.2388 x

( ∂ u / ∂ x) = 0.2388

∴Convective acceleration = u( ∂ u / ∂ x) = (0.159 + 0.2388 x) 0.2388

At A, x = 1 m and hence
2
(Convective accln) x=1 = 94.99 mm/s

Case (ii)

Total acceleration = (convective + local ) acceleration at t =15 seconds

Rate of flow Q t = 15 = Q 1 + (Q 2 – Q 1 )(15/30) = 0.03 m3/s.

u 1 = Q/A 1 = 0.03/0.1257 = 0.2386 m/s

and u 2 = Q/A 2 = 0.03/0.0314 = 0.9554 m/s

The velocity u at any distance x from inlet is given by

u = u 1 + (u 2 – u 1 )/(x/L) = 0.2386 + 0.3584 x

( ∂ u / ∂ x) = 0.3584

∴Convective acceleration = u( ∂ u / ∂ x) = (0.2386 + 0.3584 x) 0.3584

At A, x = 1 m and hence

(Convective accln) x=1 = 0.2139 m/s 2

Local acceleration

Diameter at A is given by D = D 1 + (D 1 – D 2 )/(x/L) = 0.3 m

2 2
and A = ( π /4)(D ) = 0.0707 m
3
When Q 1 = 0.02 m /s, u 1 = 0.02/0.0707 = 0.2829 m/s
3
When Q 2 = 0.04 m /s, u 2 = 0.02/0.0707 = 0.5659 m/s

Rate of change of velocity = Change in velocity/time

= (0.5629-0.2829)/30 = 9.43 x 10 -3m/s 2

-3 2
∴Total acceleration = 0.2139 + 9.43 x 10 = 0.2233 m/s

7. The components of velocity for a two dimensional flow are given by

u = x y; v = x2 – y2/2

Page 26 of 59
Check whether (i) they represent the possible case of flow and

(ii) the flow is irrotational. (6)

Solution:

u = x y; and v = x2 – y2/2

( ∂ u / ∂ x) = y ( ∂ v / ∂ y) = -y

( ∂ u / ∂ y) = x ( ∂ v / ∂ x) = 2x

For a possible case of flow the velocity components

should satisfy the equation of continuity.

i.e. [( ∂ u/ ∂ x)+( ∂ v/ ∂ y)] = 0

Substituting, we get y – y = 0.

Hence it is a possible case of a fluid flow.

For flow to be irrotational in a two dimensional fluid flow, the rotational component in z direction
( ωz) must be zero, where

ω z = ½ [( ∂ v/ ∂ x) - ( ∂ u/ ∂ y)]=½ (2x - x) ≠ 0

Hence, the flow is not irrotational.

8. Find the components of velocity along x and y for the velocity potential φ = a Cos xy.

Also calculate the corresponding stream function. (8)

Solution:

φ = a Cos xy.

( ∂ φ / ∂ x) = -u = - ay Sin xy (1)

and ( ∂ φ / ∂ y) = -v = - ax Sin xy (2)

Hence u = ay Sin xy and v = ax Sin xy.

Jan/Feb 2004

9. The stream function and velocity potential for a flow are given by

Page 27 of 59
 ψ = 2xy and φ = x2 – y2

Show that the conditions for continuity and irrotational flow are satisfied

Solution:

From the properties of Stream function, the existence of stream function shows the possible case of
flow and if it satisfies Laplace equation, then the flow is irrotational.

(i) ψ = 2xy

( ∂ ψ / ∂ x) = 2 y and ( ∂ ψ / ∂ y) = 2 x
2 2 2 2
( ∂ ψ / ∂ x ) = 0 and (∂ ψ /∂ y ) = 0
2 2
( ∂ ψ / ∂ x ∂ y) = 2 and ( ∂ ψ / ∂ y ∂ x) = 2
2 2
( ∂ ψ / ∂ x ∂ y) = ( ∂ ψ / ∂ y ∂ x)

Hence the flow is Continuous.

2 2 2 2
(∂ ψ /∂ x ) + (∂ ψ /∂ y ) = 0

As it satisfies the Laplace equation, the flow is irrotational.

From the properties of Velocity potential,

the existence of Velocity potential shows the flow is irrotational and if it satisfies Laplace equation,
then it is a possible case of flow

(ii) φ = x2 – y2

( ∂ φ / ∂ x) = 2 x and ( ∂ φ / ∂ y) = -2 y
2 2 2 2
( ∂ φ / ∂ x ) = 2 and ( ∂ φ / ∂ y ) = -2
2 2
( ∂ φ / ∂ x ∂ y) = 0 and ( ∂ φ / ∂ y ∂ x) = 0
2 2
( ∂ φ / ∂ x ∂ y) = ( ∂ φ / ∂ y ∂ x)

Hence the flow is irrotational

2 2 2 2
(∂ φ /∂ x ) + (∂ φ /∂ y ) = 0

As it satisfies the Laplace equation, the flow is Continuous.

10. In a 2-D flow, the velocity components are u = 4y and v = -4x

i. is the flow possible ?

ii. if so, determine the stream function

Page 28 of 59
 iii. What is the pattern of stream lines ?
Solution:

For a possible case of fluid flow, it has to satisfy continuity equation.

i.e. [( ∂ u/ ∂ x)+( ∂ v/ ∂ y)] = 0 (1)

u = 4y and v = -4x

( ∂ u / ∂ x) = 0 ( ∂ v / ∂ y) = 0

Substituting in Eq. 1, we get 0.

Hence the flow is possible.

Stream function

We know that ( ∂ ψ / ∂ x) = v = - 4x (2)

and ( ∂ ψ / ∂ y) = - u = - 4y (3)

ψ = - 2x 2 + C(y) (4)

Where C is an integral constant and a function of y.

Differentiating Eq. 4, w.r.t. y, we get

( ∂ ψ / ∂ y) = 0 + ∂ C(y) / ∂ y = - u = - 4y

Integrating the above expression w.r.t. y we get

2
C(y) = -2y .

Substituting the above value in Eq. 4, we get the general expression as

ψ = - 2x 2 – 2y 2 = - 2 (x 2 + y 2 )

The above equation is an expression of concentric circles and hence the stream function is concentric
circles.

10. A 250 mm diameter pipe carries oil of specific gravity 0.9 at a velocity of 3 m/s. At another section
the diameter is 200 mm. Find the velocity at this section and the mass rate of flow of oil. (Jan/Feb
2005)

Solution:
3
D 1 = 0.25 m; D 2 = 0.2 m; S o = 0.9; V 1 = 3 m/s; ρ = 1000 kg/m ; V2 = ?; Mass rate of flow = ?

From discharge continuity equation for steady incompressible flow, we have

Q = A1V1 = A2V2 (01)

Page 29 of 59
 2 2 2
A 1 = ( π /4)D 1 = ( π /4)0.25 = 0.0499 m
2 2 2
A 2 = ( π /4)D 2 = ( π /4)0.20 = 0.0314 m

Substituting in Eq. 1, we get

3
Q = 0.0499 x 3 = 0.1473 m /s
3
Mass rate of flow = ρ Q = 0.1479 x 1000 = 147.9 kg/m (Ans)
2 2
V 2 = (A 1 / A 2 ) x V 1 = (D 1 / D 2 ) x V 1 = (0.25/0.2) x 3 = 4.6875 m/s (Ans)

11. A stream function in a two dimensional flow is ψ = 2 x y. Show that the flow is irrotational and
determine the corresponding velocity potential.

Solution:

Given ψ = 2 x y.

u = - ( ∂ φ / ∂ x) = -( ∂ ψ / ∂ y) = - 2 x (01)

v = - ( ∂ φ / ∂ y) = ( ∂ ψ / ∂ x) = 2 y (02)

Integrating Eq. 1, w.r.t. x, we get

φ = 2 x 2 /2 + C = x 2 + C(y) (03)

Where C(y) is an integral constant independent of x

Differentiating Eq. 3 w.r.t. y, we get

( ∂ φ / ∂ y) = 0 + ( ∂ C(y) / ∂ y) = - 2 y

Integrating the above expression w.r.t. y, we get

2
C(y) = -y

Substituting for C(y) in Eq. 3, we get the general expression for φ as

φ = x2 + C = x2 - y2 (Ans)

2 2
12. The velocity potential for a flow is given by the function φ = x - y . Verify that the flow is
incompressible and determine the stream function. (Aug 05) (10)

Solution:

Page 30 of 59
From the properties of velocity potential, we have that if φ satisfies Laplace equation, then the flow is
steady incompressible continuous fluid flow.

Given φ = x2 - y2

( ∂ φ / ∂ x) = 2 x ( ∂ φ / ∂ y) = -2 y
2 2 2 2
(∂ φ /∂ x ) = 2 ( ∂ φ / ∂ y) = -2
2 2 2 2
From Laplace Equation, we have ( ∂ φ / ∂ x ) + ( ∂ φ / ∂ y) = 2 – 2 = 0.

Finding out the stream function for the above velocity potential is reverse procedure of Prob. 12 and
the answer is ψ = 2 x y.

13. Find the corresponding stream function of a flow with velocity potential defined as φ = x(2y-1)
Solution:

Given φ = x(2y-1)

Let ψ be the corresponding stream function

From the relationship between velocity potential and stream function we have

∂ φ ∂ψ ∂φ ∂ψ
= ; =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

Hence

∂ψ ∂ φ
= = 2 y − 1and (01)
∂y ∂x

∂ψ ∂φ
=− = −2 x (02)
∂x ∂y

Integrating Eq. 01 with respect to y, we get

∫ dψ = ∫ (2 y − 1) dy or (03)
ψ = y 2 − y + C ( x)

Where C(x) is an integral constant and may be a function of x

Differentiating the above expression with x, we get

∂ψ ∂ C ( x)
=
∂x ∂x

Page 31 of 59
 ∂ψ ∂ C ( x)
But from Eq. 02, we have = −2 x =
∂x ∂y

Integrating the above equation with respect to x, we get

2
C(x) = -x .

Substituting in Eq. 03, we get the general expression for the stream function as

ψ = y2 − y − x2

2 2
14. For the velocity components in a fluid flow given by u=2xy and v=x -y , show that the flow is
possible. Obtain the relevant stream function. (July 2006) (10)

Solution:

For the flow to be possible, it should satisfy the continuity equation given by

∂u ∂ v
+ =0 (01)
∂x ∂y

∂u
= 2y
∂x

∂v
= −2 y
∂y

Substituting in Eq. 01, we get 2y – 2y = 0

Hence it satisfies continuity equation and the flow is continuous and Stream function exists.

Stream Function

Let ψ be the velocity potential.

2 2
Then ( ∂ ψ / ∂ x) = v = (x -y ) (02)

and ( ∂ ψ / ∂ y) =- u = -(2xy) (03)

Integrating Eq. 3, with respect to y, we get

ψ = -xy 2 + K(x) (04)

Where K(x) is an integral constant, which is independent of y and can be a function of x.

Differentiating Eq. 5 w.r.t. x, and from Eq. 2, we get

Page 32 of 59
 2 2 2
( ∂ ψ / ∂ x) = -y + ( ∂ K(x) / ∂ x) ⇒ (x -y )
2
Hence, we get ( ∂ K(x) / ∂ x) = x
3
Integrating the above expression, we get K(x) = x /3

Substituting the value of K(x) in Eq. 5, we get the general expression as

ψ = x 3 /3 - x y

Chapter 4: Dynamics of Fluids

1. The following are the data given of a change in diameter, effected in laying a water supply pipe line.
The change in diameter is gradual from 200 mm at A to 500 mm at B. Pressure at A and B are 78.5
2 2
kN/m and 58.9 kn/m respectively with the end B being 3 m higher than A. If the glow in the pipe
line is 200 lps, find:

a) direction of flow and

b) the head lost in friction between A and B.
Solution:
2
Q = 0.2 m3/s;D A = 0.2 m; D B = 0.5 m; g = 10 m/s (assumed)

p A = 78.5 kN/m2; p B = 58.9 kN/m2; Z B – Z A = Z = 3 m; h f = ?

π and π
AA = D A2 = 0.0314 m 2 AB = DB2 = 0.1965 m 2
4 4

From discharge continuity equation, we get

Q and
Q
vA = = 6.3662 m/s vB = = 1.0186 m/s
AA AB

From modified Bernoulli’s equation applied between A and B, we have

pA VA2 p V2
+ + Z A = B + B + Z B + hL
γ 2g γ 2g

78.5 ×10 3 6.3662 2 58.9 ×10 3 1.0186 2

+ = + + 3 + hL
10 ×10 3 2 ×10 10 ×10 3 2 ×10

h L = 0.9345 m

The flow is always from higher pressure to lower pressure and hence from A to B.

2. Water flows up a conical pipe 450 mm diameter at the lower end and 250 mm diameter at 2.3 m
2
above the lower end. If the pressure and velocity at the lower end are 63 kN/m (gauge) and 4.1 m/s,

Page 33 of 59
assuming a head loss in the pipe to be 10% of the pressure head at the lower end, calculate the
discharge through the pipe. Also calculate the pressure and velocity at the upper end

Solution

D A = 0.45 m; D B = 0.25 m; Z B – Z A = Z = 2.3 m; V A = 4.1 m/s;

2
p A = 63 kN/m (gauge); h L = 10%(p A / γ ); Q = ?; p B = ?; V B = ?

ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 , g = 10 m/s 2 (assumed)

From modified Bernoulli’s equation applied between A and B, we have

pA VA2 p V2
+ + Z A = B + B + Z B + hL
γ 2g γ 2g

π π
AA = D A2 = 0.1590 m 2 and AB = DB2 = 0.0491m 2
4 4

From discharge continuity equation, we have Q = A A V A = A B V B

AB
vB = v A = 13.284 m/s
AB

63 ×10 3
hL = 0.1× = 0.63 m
10 3 ×10

Substituting in the modified Bernoulli’s equation, we get

63 ×10 3 4.12 pB 13.284 2

+ = + + 2.3 + 0.63
10 ×10 3 2 ×10 10 ×10 3 2 ×10
2
Simplifying, we get p B = -102.83 kN/m (gauge)

3. A pipe 400 mm diameter carries water at a velocity of 2.5 m/s. The pressure head at pints A and B
are given as 30 m and 23 m respectively, while the datum head at A and B are 28 m and 30 m
respectively. Find the loss of head between A and B.

Solution:

D = 0.4 m; V = 2.5 m/s; p A = h A = 30 m; p B = h B = 23 m; Z A = 28 m;

ρg ρg

Z B = 30 m; hL = ?

As the pipe is of uniform diameter V A = V B = 2.5 m/s

Applying modified Bernoulli’s equation between A and B

Page 34 of 59
pA VA2 p V2
+ + Z A = B + B + Z B + hL
γ 2g γ 2g

V2 V2
30 + + 28 = 23 + + 30 + hL
2g 2g

hL = 5 m

4. A conical tube of length 2 m is fixed vertically with its smaller end upwards. The velocity of flow at
the smaller end is 5 m/s while at the lower end it is 2 m/s. The pressure head at the smaller end is 2.5

m/s of liquid. The loss of head in the tube is 0.35

(v1 − v 2 )2 , where v 1 is the velocity at the smaller end
2g
and v 2 is the velocity at the lower end respectively. Determine the pressure head at the lower end.
Flow takes place in the downward direction.

Solution:

L = 2 m, v 1 = 5 m/s, v 2 = 2 m/s, g = 10 m/s

2 p1 p
= 2.5 m, 2 = ?
ρg ρg

Let the smaller end be represented as 1 and lower end as 2 as shown in Fig.

0.35(v1 − v 2 ) 0.35(5 − 2 ) 1
2 2
hL = = = 0.16 m
2g 2g

Applying modified Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2

2
p1 V12 p V2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
52 p 22
2.5 + +2= 2 + + 0 + 0.16
2g γ 2g
p2 5.39 m
=
ρg

A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 200 mm diameter and throat diameter 100 mm is used
to measure the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.8. The discharge of oil through venturimeter is 60 lps.
Find the reading of the oil-mercury differential manometer. Take C d = 0.98. (2005 Feb and 2006 Feb)
(08)

Solution:
3
d 1 = 0.2 m; d 2 = 0.1 m; Q = 0.06 m /s; C d = 0.98; S m = 13.6 (assumed)

x=?

Page 35 of 59
 π 2 π
a1 = d1 = × 0.2 2 = 0.03142 m 2
4 4

π 2 π
a2 = d 2 = × 0.12 = 0.007854 m 2
4 4 2

a1a2 1
Q = Cd × 2 gh
a −a
2
1
2
2

x
0.03142 × 0.007854
0.06 = 0.98 × 2 × 10 × h
0.03142 2 − 0.007854 2

h = 2.849 m of oil

 Sm   13.6 
But h = x  S − 1 ⇒ 2.849 = x − 1
 o   0.8 
∴ x =17.81 mm

2003 July/Aug

6. A venturimeter is to be fit in a 200 mm diameter horizontal pipe line. The inlet pressure is 100 kPa.
If the maximum flow of oil (s=0.85) is 200 Lps, calculate the least diameter of the throat, so that the
pressure does not fall below 250 mm mercury (vacuum). Assume that 3% of the differential head is
lost between the inlet and the throat. (08)

Solution:
3
D 1 = 0.2 m; p 1 = 100 kPa; Q = 0.2 m /s; s = 0.85; p 2 ≥ - 0.25 m Hg;
3 2
h L = 3% h;Assume ρ = 1000 kg/m ; g = 10 m/s .
3
Pressure head at inlet = p 1 / ρ g = 100 x 10 /(0.85 x 1000 x 10) = 11.765 m of liquid

Pressure head at outlet = p 2 / ρ g = - 0.25 m of Hg = - 0.25 x 13.6/0.85 = - 4 m of liquid

Differential head = 11.765 – (-4) = 15.765 m of liquid, h L = 3% of 15.765 = 0.473 m of liquid.

 h − hL  15.765 − 0.473
Cd =   = = 0.985
 h  15.765

The discharge through the venturimeter is given by

a1a2
Q = Cd × 2 gh
a12 − a22

π 2 π
a1 = d1 = × 0.2 2 = 0.03142 m 2
4 4

Page 36 of 59
 0.03142 a2
0.2 = 0.985 × 2 ×10 ×15.765
0.03142 2 − a22

Solving the above equation, we get =d 2 = 12.13 mm.

Note: Due to mistake in DATA, the result is not compatible (may be in discharge).

7. A vertical venturimeter carries a liquid of relative density 0.8 and has inlet and throat diameters of
150 mm and 75 mm respectively. The pressure connection at the throat is 150 mm above that at the
inlet. If the actual rate of flow is 40 Lps and the C d = 0.96, calculate the pressure difference between
2
the inlet and throat in kN/m .( July/Aug 04)

Solution:
-3 3
S o = 0.8; Q = 40 x 10 m /s; d 1 = 0.15 m; d 2 = 0.075 m; Z 2 –Z 1 = 0.15 m

C d = 0.96; p 1 – p 2 = ?

π π
a1 = d12 = × 0.15 2 = 0.01767 m 2
4 4

π π
a2 = d 22 = × 0.075 2 = 0.004418 m 2
4 4

The discharge through the venturimeter is given by

a1a2 x
Q = Cd × 2 gh
a −a
2
1
2
2

0.01767 × 0.004418
0.04 = 0.96 × 2 × 10 × h
0.01767 2 − 0.004418 2

h = 4.17 m

 p1   p 
But for a vertical venturimeter, h = 
 + z1  −  2 + z 2 
 So ρ g   So ρ g 

 p − p2 
h =  1  − ( z 2 − z1 )
 So ρ g 
 p − p2 
4.17 =  1  − 0.15
 So ρ g 

p1 − p 2 = S o ρ g (4.17 + 0.15)

2
p 1 - p 2 = 34.56 kN/m (Ans).

Page 37 of 59
The differential manometer reading x

S   13.6 
h = x m − 1 ⇒ 4.17 = x − 1
 o
S   0.8 
∴ x = 0.26 m

8. Water flows upward a vertical 300 mm x 500 mm venturimeter with a

C d = 0.98. The deflection of manometer, filled with a liquid of S = 1.25 is 1.18 m. Determine the
discharge if the distance between the two pressure tapings is 457 mm. Work the problem from the
first principles. (2005 July/Aug) (10)

Solution:

d 1 = 0.5 m; d 2 = 0.3 m; C d = 0.98;

S m = 1.25; x = 1.18 m;

Z 2 – Z 1 = Z = 0.457 m; Q = ?

 h − hL 
Cd =   = 0.98
 h 

Squaring both sides, we get

2
C d h = h – h L and
2
h L = h (1 – C d ) = 0.0396 h

where

 p − p2 
h =  1  + (Z 1 − Z 2 )
 ρg 

Also

S   1.25 
h = x m − 1 ⇒ 1.18  − 1
 So   1.0 
∴ h = 0.295 m

From Modified Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1 and 2, we get

p1 v12 p v2
+ + Z 1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + hL
ρ g 2g ρ g 2g

v 22 − v12 p1 − p 2
= + (Z 1 − Z 2 ) + hL … (01)
2g ρg

Page 38 of 59
But from discharge continuity equation, we have
2 2
Q = a 1 v 1 = a 2 v 2 or d 1 v 1 = d 2 v 2

2  4

Substituting in Eq. 01, we get v 2 1 −  d 2   = h + 0.0396 h

2g   d1  
 

v 22   0.3  
4

1−    = 1.0396 × 0.295
2g   0.5   or v 2 = 2.655 m/s

2 3
Q = a 2 v 2 = ( π /4)d 2 v 2 = 0.1876 m /s (Ans)

9. A submarine moves horizontally in a sea and has its axis 15 m below the surface of water. A pitot-
tube properly placed just in front of the sub-marine and along its axis is connected to the two limbs of
U-tube manometer containing mercury which reads 170 mm. Find the speed of the sub-marine
knowing that the specific gravity of sea water as 1.026 with respect to fresh water.

Solution:

x = 0.17 m, S o = 1.026, Assume S m = 13.6 and C v = 1

 
We know that h = x  S m − 1 = 0.17  13.6 − 1 = 2.0834 m
S   
 1.026
o 

V = Cv 2 g h = 2 × 10 × 2.0834 = 6.455 m/s = 23.24 kmph (Ans)

10. A pitot-tube is inserted in a pipe of 300 mm diameter. The static pressure is 100 mm of mercury
(vacuum). The stagnation pressure at the centre of pipe recorded by the pitot-tube is 10 kPa.
Calculate the rate of flow of water through the pipe, if the mean velocity of flow is 0.85 times the
central velocity. Take C v = 0.98.

Solution:

D = 0.3 m, Static pressure head = 100 mm Hg (vacuum)

= − 0.1x13.6= − 1.36 m of water

3
Stagnation pressure = 10 kPa = 10 x 10 / (1000 x 10) = 1 m.
2 3
assume g = 10 m/s , ρ = 1000 kg/m and S Hg = 13.6

h = Stagnation pressure – Static pressure = 1 – (-1.36) = 2.36 m of water.

V = Cv 2 g h = 2 × 10 × 2.36 = 6.87 m/s.

Mean velocity = V = 0.85 x 6.87 = 5.8395 m/s.

From discharge continuity equation,

Page 39 of 59
Q = AV =
π π 3
× D2 × V = × 0.32 × 5.8395 = 0.4128 m /s (Ans).
4 4
o
11. A 45 degree bend is connected in a pipe line, the diameters at the inlet and outlet of the bend
being 600 mm and 300 mm respectively. Find the force exerted by water on the bend if intensity of
pressure at inlet to bend is 88.29 kPa and rate of flow of water is 600 lps. (Jan/Feb 2006)

Solution:
θ = 45 0 , D 1 = 0.6 m, D 2 = 0.3 m
p 1 = 88.29 kPa, Q = 0.6 m 3 /s
Assume g = 10 m/s 2 and ρ = 1000 kg/m 3
π D12 π × 0.6 2
A1 = = = 0.2827 m
2

4 4
π D22 π × 0.3 2
A2 = = = 0.07068 m
2

4 4
From discharge continuity equation, we have Q = A V
Q Q
V1 = = 2.122 m/s and V2 = = 8.488 m/s
A1 A2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between Sections 1 and 2, we get
p1 v12 p v2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2
ρ g 2g ρ g 2g
But Z 1 = Z 2
Substituting and solving for p 2 = 54.5 kPa
F x = ρ Q [V 1 – V 2 cos θ ] + p 1 A 1 – p 2 A 2 cos θ = 19911.4 N Fx
F y = ρ Q [ – V 2 sin θ ] – p 2 A 2 sin θ = - 6322.2 N
α
F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 19911.42 + 6322.22 = 20891 N
Fy F

 Fy  −1  6322.2 
Acting at α = tan −1   = tan  = 17.616o with horizontal.
 

 x
F 19911 . 4

12. Water flows up a reducing bend of weight 80 kN place in a vertical plane. For the bend, the inlet
o
diameter is 2 m, outlet diameter is 1.3 m, angle of deflection is 120 and vertical height (distance
3
between the inlet and the outlet) is 3 m. If the discharge is 8.5 m /s, pressure at the inlet is 280 kPa
and the head loss is half the kinetic head at the exit, determine the force on the bend. (12)

Solution:

W = Weight of the reducing bend acting downwards = 80 kN (↓), d 1 = 2 m,

o 3
d 2 = 1.3 m, θ = 120 , Z = 3 m, Q = 2.5 m /s, p 1 = 280 kPa. h L = 0.5 V2
2

2g

2 3
Assume g = 10 m/s , ρ = 1000 kg/m , F x = ? and F y = ?

π d12 π × 2 2 2 π d 22 π ×1.32 2
A1 = = = 3.142 m and A2 = = = 1.327 m /s
4 4 4 4

Page 40 of 59
Applying discharge continuity equation we have Q = A 1 V 1 = A 2 V 2

Applying Modified Bernoulli’s equation between the two sections of the bend shown in Fig. we get

p1 v12 p v2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + hL
ρ g 2g ρ g 2g

Substituting the values, we get

280 × 103 0.79582 p2 1.88352 1.88352

+ +0= + + 3 + 0.5 ×
1000 ×10 2 × 10 1000 ×10 2 × 10 2 × 10

p 2 = 247.656 kPa

Forces acting on the bend in x and y direction respectively are

F x = ρ Q[V 1 –V 2 cos θ ]+p 1 A 1 – p 2 A 2 cos θ = 1,048,423.63N
F y =–W+ρQ[–V 2 sin θ] –p 2 A 2 sin θ = – 288,688.06+80,000= – 368,688.06N

F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 1048423.632 + 368688.06 2 = 1,111,360.87 N

Acting at α = tan −1  y  = tan −1  288688.06  = 19.375o with horizontal.

F
1048423.63 
 Fx 
o 2 2
13. In a 45 bend, a rectangular air duct of 1.0 m cross-sectional area is gradually reduced to 0.5 m .
Find the magnitude of the force required to hold the duct in position, if the velocity of flow is 20.0
2 2
m/s at 1 m cross-section and the pressure at both sections is 40 kN/m . Specific weight of air is 11.0
3
N/m . (10)

Solution:

θ = 45 0 , A 1 = 1.0 m 2 , A 2 = 0.5m 2 , γ = 11.0 N/m 3

p 1 = p 2 = 40.0 kPa, v 1 = 20.0 m/s, Assume g = 10 m/s 2

2
p2A2
45o
1
V2

p1A1
V1

ρ = γ /g = 1.10 kg/m 3
From discharge continuity equation,
we have Q = A 1 V 1 = A 2 V 2
20 = 0.5V 2

Page 41 of 59
Hence V 2 = 40 m/s and
Q = 20 m 3 /s
Forces acting on the bend in x and y direction respectively are
F x = ρ Q [V 1 – V 2 cos θ ] + p 1 A 1 – p 2 A 2 cos θ = 25,675.61N
F y = ρ Q [ – V 2 sin θ ] – p 2 A 2 sin θ = − 14,764.39 N
F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 29617.97 N

Acting at α = tan −1  y  = 29.9 o with horizontal

F
 
 Fx 

Dimension Analysis &Hydraulic Similitude

1. Velocity of sound in air varies as bulk modulus of electricity K, Mass density ρ. Derive an
expression for velocity in form C= K
ρ

Solution: o -1
C – Velocity – LM T
C = f (K, ρ ) -1 -2
K – Bulk modulus – L MT
a b
C = M⋅K ⋅ ρ

M – Constant of proportionality
a b
[C] = [K] ⋅ [ρ]
o -1 -1 -2 a 3 o b
[LM T ] = [L MT ] [L MT ]
o -1 -a+(- 36) a+b -2a
[LM T ] = [L M T ]

- a – 3b = 1

a+b=0

- 2b = 1

1 1
b= − and a =
2 2
1/2
C = MK ρ -1/2

C=M K
ρ

If, M = 1, C = K
ρ

Page 42 of 59
2. Find the equation for the power developed by a pump if it depends on bead H discharge Q and
specific weight γ of the fluid.

Solution: P = f (H, Q, γ )
a b c
P = K ⋅ H ⋅ Q ⋅γ
a b c
[P] = [H] ⋅ [Q] ⋅ [ γ ]
2 -3 o o a -2 -2 b -2 -2 c
[L MT ] = [LM T ] ⋅ [L MT ] ⋅ [L MT ]

2 = a + 3b – 2c
2 -3
Power = L MT
1=c
o o
Head = LM T
-3=-b-2

-3= -b–2

b=-2+3

b=1

2=a+3–2

a=1
1 1 1
P=K⋅H ⋅ Q ⋅γ

P=K⋅H⋅ Q⋅γ

When, K = 1

P = H ⋅ Q ⋅γ

3. Find an expression for drag force R on a smooth sphere of diameter D moving with uniform velocity
V in a fluid of density ρ and dynamic viscosity µ .

Solution: R = f (D, V, ρ , µ )
a b c d
R=K⋅D ⋅ V ⋅ρ,µ
a b c d
[R] = [D] ⋅ [V] ⋅ [ ρ ] ⋅ [ µ ]
-2 o o a o -1 b -3 o c -1 -1 d
[LMT ] = [LM T ] ⋅ [LM T ] ⋅ [L MT ] ⋅ [L MT ]
-2
Force = LMT
c+d=1
o o
Diameter = LM T
c=1–d
o -1
Velocity = LM T
–b–d=–2

Page 43 of 59
 b=2–d

1 = a + b – 3c – d

1 = a + 2 – d – 3 (1 – d) – d

1 = a + 2 – d – 3 + 3d – d

a=2–d
2-d
R=K⋅D ⋅ V 2-d ⋅ ρ 1-d , µ d

D2 V 2 ρ
R=K ⋅ d ⋅ d ⋅ µd
D V ρ
d

d
R=K ⋅ ρV D  µ 
2 2
 ρVD 
 

R = ρV D φ
2 2  µ 
 ρVD 
 

R = ρV D φ
2 2  ρVD 
 µ 
 
2 2
R = ρ V D φ [N Re ]

4. The efficiency of a fan depends on the density ρ dynamic viscosity µ, angular velocity ω, diameter
D, discharge Q. Express efficiency in terms of dimensionless parameters using Rayleigh’s Method.

Solution η = f( ρ , µ , ω, D, Q)

η = k ⋅ ρ a ⋅ µ b ⋅ ωc ⋅ D d ⋅ Q e
a b c d e
[ η ] = [ ρ ] ⋅ [ µ ] ⋅ [ ω] ⋅ [D] ⋅ [Q]
o o o -3 o a -1 -1 b o o -1 c o o d
[L M T ] = [L MT ] ⋅ [L MT ] ⋅ [L M T ] ⋅ [LM T ] ⋅
3 o -1 -1 o o o -3a-b+d+3e
[L M T ] ⋅ [L M T ] ⋅ [L ⋅ M a+b ⋅ T -b-c-e ]

a+b=0

a=– b

– b–c–e=0

c=–b–e

– 3a – b + d + 3e = o

Page 44 of 59
+ 3b – b + d + 3e = 0

d = – 2b – 3e

∴ η = K ⋅ ρ -b ⋅ µ b ⋅ ω-b-e ⋅ D -2b-3e ⋅ Q e

1 1 1
η=K⋅ ⋅ µb ⋅ Q2 o o
ρ b
ω ⋅ω
b e
D ⋅ D3
2 b
( ) ( ) e H - LM T

γ - L-2MT-2
b

η=K  µ 2
 
e
 Q 
⋅ 3 
 ρω D   ωD 

η = φ  µ , Q 
 ρω D ω D 
2 3

5. The capillary rise H of a fluid in a tube depends on its specific weight γ and surface tension σ and

radius of the tube R prove that H = ϕ  σ  .

 γ R2 
R  

Solution: H = f( γ , σ , R)
a b c
H = K ⋅γ ⋅ σ ⋅ R o
η-L M T
o o

a b c
[H] = [ γ ] ⋅ [ σ ] ⋅ [R] ρ - L-3MTo
o o -2 -2 a o -2 b o o c
[LM T ] = [L MT ] ⋅ [L MT ] ⋅ [LM T ] µ - L-1MT-1
o o - 2a+c
[LM T ] = [L ⋅ M a+b ⋅ T - 2a- 2b
]

–2a + c = 1

a+b=0

–2a – 2b = 0

a =  c − 1 
 2 

c −1
+b= 0
2

b= 
1− c

 2 

 c−1  1−c
 
H = K ⋅ γ 2 
⋅σ 2
⋅ Rc

Page 45 of 59
 c 1
H=K ⋅ γ 2
⋅
σ 2
⋅ Rc
1 c
γ 2
σ 2

H = K ⋅ γ c 2 σ 12 R c
⋅ c ⋅
R 1
γ 2 σ 2 R

H = K ⋅  12  1
γ ⋅ R ⋅ σ ⋅1
2

R  1  c
 σ  γ
2 2

-b b 1- 2b
H = K⋅ γ ⋅ σ ⋅ R

H = K σb ⋅ R
b
γ 2
(R ) b

b
H=K  σ 
 γ R2 
 

 σ 
=ϕ  2  .
H
R γ R 

2. Buckingham’s π Method

This method of analysis is used when number of variables are more.

Buckingham’s π Theorem

If there are n–variables in a physical phenomenon and those n-variables contain m dimensions, then
the variables can be arranged into (n-m) dimensionless groups called π terms.

Explanation:

If f(X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , ……… X n ) = 0 and variables can be expressed using m dimensions then.

f ( π 1 , π 2 , π 3 , ……… π n-m ) = 0

Where, π 1 , π 2 , π 3 , ……… are dimensionless groups.

Each π term contains (m+1) variables out of which m are of repeating type and one is of non-
repeating type.

Each π term being dimensionless, the dimensional homogeneity can be used to get each π
term.

Selecting Repeating Variables

Page 46 of 59
1. Avoid taking the quantity required as the repeating variable.
2. Repeating variables put together should not form dimensionless group.
3. No two repeating variables should have same dimensions.
4. Repeating variables can be selected from each of the following properties.
a. Geometric property  Length, height, width, area
b. Flow property  Velocity, Acceleration, Discharge
c. Fluid property  Mass density, Viscosity, Surface tension

6. Find an expression for drag force R on a smooth sphere of diameter D moving with uniform velocity
V in a fluid of density ρ and dynamic viscosity µ..

Solution: f(R, D, V, ρ , µ ) = 0

Here, n = 5, m = 3

∴ Number of π terms = (n – m) = 5 – 3 = 2

∴ f (π 1 , π 2 , π 3 ) = 0
R = LMT-2
Let D, V, ρ be the repeating variables.
D = LMoTo
π 1 = D a1 ⋅ V b1 ⋅ρ c1 ⋅ R
V = LT-1
o o o a1 -1 b1 -3 c1 -2
[L M T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [LMT ]
o o o a1+b1-3c1+1 c1+1 -b1-2
L M T = [L] [M] [T]

b 1 = –2

c1 + 1 = 0

c1 = – 1

a 1 + b 1 – 3 c1 + 1 = 0

a1 + 2 + 3 + 1 = 0

a1 = – 2

π 1 = D -2 ⋅ V - 2 ⋅ ρ -1 ⋅ R

π1 = R
D 2V 2 ρ

π 2 = D a2 ⋅ V b2 ⋅ ρ c2 ⋅ µ
o o o a2 -1 b2 -3 c2 -1 -1
[L M T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [L MT ]
o o o a2+b2-3c2- 1 c2+1 -b2- 1
[L M T ] = [L] [M] [T]

– b2 – 1 = 0

Page 47 of 59
 b 2 = – 1 and c 2 = – 1

a 2 + b 2 – 3c 2 – 1 = 0

a2 – 1 + 3 – 1 = 0

a2 = – 1

π 2 = D -1 ⋅ V - 1 ⋅ ρ -1 ⋅ µ

µ
π2 =
ρVD

f ( π 1, π 2 ) = 0


f 
R µ  =0
, 
 D V ρ ρVD 
22

R  µ 
=ϕ  
DV ρ
22
 ρVD 

 µ 
R = ρV 2 D 2ϕ  
 ρVD 

7. The efficiency of a fan depends on density η , dynamic viscosity µ , angular velocity ω, diameter D
and discharge Q. Express efficiency in terms of dimensionless parameters.

Solution: f ( η , ρ , µ ω, D, Q) = 0
η = LoMoTo
Here, n = 6, m = 3
ρ = ML-3
∴ Number of π terms = 3
µ = L-1MT-1
∴ f (π 1 , π 2 , π 3 ) = 0

Let, D, ω, ρ be the repeating variables.

π 1 = D a1 ⋅ ωb1 ⋅ ρ c1 ⋅ µ
o o o a1 -1 b1 -3 c1 -1 -1
[L M T ] = [L] [T ] [ML ] [L MT ]
o o o a1-3c1- 1 c1+1 -b1-1
[L M T ] = [L] [M] [T]

b 1 = – 1 and c 1 = –1

a1 – 3 c1 – 1 = 0

a 1 = –2

Page 48 of 59
 π 1 = D -2 ⋅ω- 1 ⋅ρ -1 ⋅µ

π1 = µ
D 2 .ω . ρ

π 2 = D a2 ⋅ωb2 ⋅ρ c2 ⋅ Q
o o o a2 -1 b2 -3 c2 3 -1
[L M T ] = [L] [T ] [ML ] [L T ]
o o o a2+3- 3C2 c2 -b2-1
[L M T ] = [L] [M] [T]

c2 = 0

-b 2 - 1 = 0

b2 = – 1

a 2 + 3 – 3c 2 = 0

a2 + 3 = 0

a 2 = -3

π 2 = D -3 ⋅ ω- 1 ⋅ ρ o ⋅ Q

π2 = Q
ω D3

π 3 = D a3 ⋅ωb3 ⋅ρ c3 ⋅η
o o o a3 -1 b3 -3 c3 o o o
[L M T ] = [L] [T ] [ML ] [M L T ]
o o o a3-3c3 c3 -b3
[L M T ] = [L] [M] [T]

b 3 = 0, c 3 = 0 and a3 = 0

π3 = η

f (π 1 , π 2 , π 3 ) = 0

f  µ µ 
 2 , ,η  = 0
 D ⋅ ω ⋅ ρ ωD
3


 µ µ 
η =ϕ  , 3 
 D ωρ ω D 
2

8. The resisting force of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered as dependent on the length
of the aircraft L, velocity V, viscosity µ , mass density ρ , Bulk modulus K. Express the fundamental
relationship between resisting force and these variables.

Page 49 of 59
Solution: f(R, L, K, µ , ρ , V) = 0

n=6

∴ Number of π terms = 6 – 3 = 3

∴ f (π 1 , π 2 , π 3 ) = 0

Let, L, V, ρ be the repeating variables.

π 1 = L a1 ⋅ V b1 ⋅ρ c1 ⋅ K
o o o a1 - 1 b1 - 3 c1 -1 -2
L M T = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [L MT ]
o o o a1+b1-3c1-1 c1+1 -b1-2
L M T = [L] [M] [T]

b 1 = –2 and c 1 = –1

a 1 + b 1 – 3c 1 – 1 = 0

a1 – 2 + 3 – 1 = 0

a1 = 0

π 1 = L o ⋅ V -1 ⋅ ρ -1 ⋅ K

π1 = K
V ⋅ρ2

π 2 = L a2 ⋅ V b2 ⋅ ρ c2 ⋅ R
o o o a2 - 1 b2 - 3 c2 -2
L M T = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [LMT ]
o o o a2+b2-3c2+1 c2+1 -b2-2
L M T = [L] [M] [T]

-b 2 – 2 = 0

b 2 = – 2 and c 2 = – 1

a 2 + b 2 – 3c 2 + 1 = 0

a1 + 2 + 3 + 1 = 0

a 2 = –2

π 2 = L - 2 ⋅ V - 2 ⋅ ρ -1 ⋅ R

π2 = R
L2V 2 ρ

π 3 = L a3 ⋅ V b3 ⋅ ρ c3 ⋅ µ

Page 50 of 59
 o o o a3 - 1 b3 - 3 c3 -1 -1
L M T = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [L MT ]
o o o a3+b3-3c3-1 c3+1 -b3-1
L M T = [L] [M] [T]

-b 3 – 1 = 0

b3 = – 1

c3 + 1 = 0

c3 = – 1

a 3 + b 3 – 3c 3 – 1 = 0

a1 – 1 + 3 – 1 = 0

a 3 = –1

π 3 = L - 1 ⋅ V - 1 ⋅ ρ -1 ⋅ µ

π2 = µ
LV ρ

 K
f 
R µ 
, 2 2 , =0
 V ρ L V ρ LV ρ 
2

=φ  K , µ 
R
LV ρ  2 
 V ρ LV ρ 
2 2

R=L V ρφ  K , µ 
2 2
 2 
 V ρ LV ρ 

9. Using Buckingham π - theorem, show that velocity of fluid through a circular orifice is given by
D µ .
V = 2 gh ϕ  , 
 H ρVH 

Solution: We have, f(V, D, H, µ, ρ , g) = 0

-1 -1 -1 -3 -2
V = LT , D = L, H = L, µ = L MT , ρ = ML , g = LT

n = 6 and m = 3

∴ Number of π terms = (6 – 3) = 3

Let H, g and ρ be repeating variables

π 1 = H a1 ⋅ g b1 ⋅ρ c1 ⋅ V
o o o a1 -2 b1 -3 c1 -1
[L M T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [LT ]

Page 51 of 59
 o o o c1+b1- 3c1+1 c1 - 2b1- 1
[L M T ] = [L] [M] [T]

-2b 1 = 1

b1 = −
1 and c 1 = 0
2

a 1 + b 1 – 3c 1 + 1 = 0

a1 − 1 – 0 + 1 = 0
2

a1 = − 1
2

−1 −1
π1 = H 2
⋅ g 2 ⋅ρ o ⋅ V

π1 = V
gH

π 2 = H a2 ⋅ g b2 ⋅ρ c2 ⋅ D
o o o a2 -2 b2 -3 c2
[L M T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [L]
o o o a2+b2-3c2+1 c2 - 2b2
[L M T ] = [L] [M] [T]

– 2b 2 = 0

b 2 = 0 and c 2 = 0

a 2 + b 2 – 3c 2 + 1 = 0

a 2 = –1

π 2 = H - 1 ⋅ g o ⋅ρ o ⋅ D

π2 = H
D

π 3 = H a3 ⋅ g b3 ⋅ρ c3 ⋅µ
o o o a3 -2 b3 -3 c3 -1 -1
[M L T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [L MT ]
o o o c3+1 a3+b3-3c3-1 -2b3-1
[M L T ] = [M] [L] [T]

c 3 = – 1 and b 3 = – 1
2

a3 – 1 + 3 – 1 = 0
2

c3 = – 3
2

Page 52 of 59
 −1
π 3 = H − 32 ⋅ g 2 ⋅ρ -1 ⋅µ

µ
π3 =
ρ gH 3

π3 = µ
ρ gH . H

f( π 1 , π 2 , π 3 ) = 0

f  V , H,  =0
µ
 
 gh D ρ gH ⋅ H 

V H µ 
=φ , 
gH  D ρ gH ⋅ H
 

D µ 
V = 2 gH φ  , 
 H ρVH 

10. Using dimensional analysis, derive an expression for thrust P developed by a propeller assuming
that it depends on angular velocity ω, speed of advance V, diameter D, dynamic viscosity µ, mass
density ρ, elasticity of the fluid medium which can be denoted by speed of sound in the medium C.

Solution: f (P, ω, V, D, µ , ρ , C) = 0 -2
P = LMT
n = 7 and m = 3
ω = LoMoT-1
Taking D, V and ρ as repeating variables. o -1
V = LM T
π 1 = D a1 ⋅ V b1 ⋅ρ c1 ⋅ P
D=L
o o o a1 -1 b1 -3 c1 -2
[L M T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [LMT ]
o o o c1+b1- 3c1+1 c1+1 -b1- 2
[L M T ] = [L] [M] [T]

– b 1 –2 = 0

b 1 = –2

c 1 +1 = 0

c 1 = –1

a 1 + b 1 – 3c 1 + 1 = 0

a1 – 2 + 3 + 1 = 0

a 1 = –2

Page 53 of 59
π 1 = D -2 ⋅ V -2 ⋅ ρ - 1 ⋅ P

π1 = P
D 2 V 2ρ

π 2 = D a2 ⋅ V b2 ⋅ ρ c2 ⋅ ω
o o o a2 -2 b2 -3 c2 -1
[L M T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [T ]
o o o a2+b2-3c2 c2 -b2-1
[L M T ] = [L] [M] [T]

– b2 – 1 = 0

b2 = – 1

c2 = 0

a2 – 1 + 0 = 0

a 2 = –1

π 2 = D 1 ⋅ V -1 ⋅ρ o ⋅ω

π 2 = Dω
V

π 3 = D a3 ⋅ V b3 ⋅ρ c3 ⋅µ
o o o a3 -1 b3 -3 c3 -1 -1
[M L T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [L MT ]
o o o a3+b3-3c3- 1 c3+1 -b3- 1
[M L T ] = [L] [M] [T]

b3 = – 1

c3 – 1 + 3 - 1 = 0

c3 = – 1
-1 -1
π3 = D ⋅ V ⋅ ρ- 1 ⋅ µ

π3 = µ
ρVD

π 4 = D a4 ⋅ V b4 ⋅ρ c4 ⋅ C
o o o a4 - 1 b4 - 3 c4 -1
M L T = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [LT ]
o o o a4-b4-3c4+1 c4 -b4-1
M L T = [L] [M] [T]

b 4 = – 1 and c 4 = 0

a 4 – 1 + 0 + 1 = 0 or a 4 = 0

Page 54 of 59
π 4 = Do ⋅ V- 1 ⋅ ρo ⋅ C

π4 = C
V

f (π 1 , π 2 , π 3 , π 4 ) = 0

 P Dω µ C
f 2 2 , , ,  =0
 D V ρ V ρVD V

 Dω µ C
P = D 2V 2 ρ φ  , , 
 V ρVD V 

11. The pressure drop ∆P in a pipe depends on mean velocity of flow V, length of pipe l, viscosity of
the fluid µ, diameter D, height of roughness projection K and mass density of the liquid ρ. Using
Buckingham’s method obtain an expression for ∆P.

Solution: f ( ∆ P, V, l, µ , D, K, ρ ) = 0
-1 -2
∆P = L MT
n=7
o -1
V = LM T
∴ number of π terms = 7 – 3 = 4
o o
l = LM T
Let D, V, ρ be the repeating variables

π 1 = D a1 ⋅ V b1 ⋅ρ c1 ⋅∆ P
o o o a1 -1 b1 -3 c1 -1 -2
[L M T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [L MT ]
o o o a1+b1-3c1- 1 c1+1 -b1- 2
[L M T ] = [L] [M ] [T ]

-b 1 – 2 = 0

b 1 = - 2 and c 1 = - 1

a 1 + b 1 – 3c 1 – 1 = 0

a1 – 2 + 3 – 1 = 0

a1 = 0

π 1 = D o ⋅ V -2 ⋅ ρ -1 ⋅ ∆ P

∆P
π1 =
V 2 ⋅ρ

π 2 = D a2 ⋅ V b2 ⋅ρ c2 ⋅ l
o o o a2 -1 b2 -3 c2
[L M T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [L]

Page 55 of 59
 o o o a2+b2-3c2+1 c2 –b2
[L M T ] = [L] [M] [T]

b 2 = 0 and c 2 = 0

a2 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 0

a2 = – 1

π 2 = D -1 ⋅ V o ⋅ρ o ⋅ L

π2 = l
D

π 3 = D a3 ⋅ V b3 ⋅ρ c3 ⋅ K
o o o a3 -1 b3 -3 c3
[L M T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [L]
o o o a3+b3-3c3+1 c3 –b3
[L M T ] = [L] [M] [T]

b 3 = 0 and c 3 = 0

a 3 + b 3 – 3c 3 + 1 = 0

a3 = – 1

π3 = K
D

π 4 = D a4 ⋅ V b4 ⋅ ρ c4 ⋅ µ
o o o a4 -1 b4 -3 c4 -1 -1
[L M T ] = [L] [LT ] [ML ] [L MT ]
o o o a4+b4-3c4- 1 c4+1 –b4-1
[L M T ] = [L] [M] [T]

b 4 = –1 and c 4 = –1

a 4 + b 4 – 3c 4 – 1 = 0

a4 – 1 + 3 – 1 = 0

a 4 = –1

π 4 = D -1 ⋅ V -1 ⋅ ρ - 1 ⋅ µ

π4 = µ
ρVD

 ∆P l K µ  = 0
f  2 , , , 
 V ρ D D ρVD 

L K µ 
∆P =ρV 2 ϕ  , , 
 D D ρVD 

Page 56 of 59
 -2
A pipe of diameter 1.5 m is required to transmit an oil of S = 0.9 and viscosity 3 x 10 poise at 3000
o
lps. Tests were conducted on 15 cm diameter pipe using water at 20 C. Find velocity and rate of flow
o
of model if µ water at 20 C is 0.01 poise.
-2 -3 2
Solution D p = 1.5 m, S p = 0.9, µ p = 3 x 10 poise = 3 x 10 Ns/m ,
-3 3 3
Q p = 3000 lps = 3000 x 10 m /s = 3 m /s, D m = 0.15 m, S m = 1

V m = ?, Q m = ?,

Ap Vp = Qp
3,
V p = 1.698 m/s, µ m = 0.01 poise= 0.001 poise, ρ m = 1000 kg/m

ρ p = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m 3

(R e ) m = (R e ) p

ρ m Vm Dm ρ p V p D p
=
µm µp

1000 × Vm × 0.15 900 ×1.698 × 1.5

=
0.001 3 × 10−3

V m = 5.094 m/s

Q = AmVm

π
( 0.15) =
( 5.094 )
2
=Q =
0.09 m3 /s 90 lps
4

3
13. In a 1 in 40 model of spillway velocity and discharge are 2 m/s and 2.5 m /s. Find the
corresponding velocity and discharge in prototype.

Solution: Since it is a spillway problem, Froude’s law of similarity is used.

(F γ ) m = (F γ ) p

 V   V 
  =   Lγ = Lm = 1
 gL  m  gL  p Lp 40

2
=
Vp Vm = 2 m/s
9.81×1 9.81× 40

V p = 12.65 m/s

For a spillway,
2.5
QαL

Page 57 of 59
 Qp L p 2.5 or Q p
= ( 40 )
2.5
=
Qm Lm 2.5 2.5

3
Q p = 25298.22 m /s

14. Experiments are to be conducted on a model ball which is twice as large as actual golf ball. For
dynamic similarity, find ratio of initial velocity of model to that of actual ball. Take fluid in both cases
as air at STP.

Solution

It is a case of motion of fully submerged body.

∴ Reynolds’s number of flow determines dynamic similarity.

∴ (R e ) m = (R e ) p

ρ m = ρ p and µm = µp

 ρVd   ρVd 
  = 
 µ m  µ  p

dm
=2
dp

V m ⋅d m = V p ⋅d p

Vm d p or Vm 1
= =
Vp dm Vp 2

V m = 0.5 V p

o o
15. Water at 15 C flows at 4 m/s in a 150 mm diameter pipe. At what velocity oil at 30 C must flow in
a 75 mm diameter pipe for the flows to be dynamically similar? Take kinematic viscosity of water at
o -6 2 o -6 2
15 C as 1.145 x 10 m /s and that for oil at 30 C as 3 x 10 m /s.

Solution: V p = 4 m/s, d p = 0.15 m, V m = ?, D m = 0.075 m

µ and µ

=  1.145 ×10−6 m 2 /s −6
  = 3 ×10 m /s
2

 ρ p  ρ m

 ρVd   ρVd 
  = 
 µ m  µ  p

Vm × 0.075 4 × 0.15
=
3 × 10−6 1.145 × 10−6

V m = 20.96 m/s

Page 58 of 59
16. A model with linear scale ratio (model to prototype) x, of a mach 2 supersonic aircraft is tested in
a wind tunnel where in pressure is y times the atmospheric pressure. Determine the speed of model in
tunnel given that velocity of sound m atmospheric air is Z.

Solution: L m = x , M = 2
Lp

P m = y p atm

ρ m = y ρ atm

C=Z

= 2 or
V V
=2
C Z

V p = 2Z

Dynamic similarity in this case is established by Reynold’s Model law.

(R e ) m = (R e ) p

 ρVL   ρVL 
  = 
 µ m  µ  p

y ρ atm × Vm × Lm = ρ p × V p × Lp
µm µp

y ρ atm ⋅ Vm ⋅ x µm = µ p
= ρ atm ⋅ 2Z
µm
µp

2Z
Vm =
xy

Page 59 of 59