Pandya dynasty

The Pandya dynasty was an ancient Tamil dynasty of South India, one of the three Tamil
dynasties, the other two being the Chola and the Chera.[5] The kings of the three dynasties were
Pandya Empire
referred to as the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam.[6] Pandya Nadu
பா ய நா
The Early Pandyas ruled parts of Southern India from at least 4th century BCE. Pandya rule ended
300 BCE–1650 CE
in the first half of the 16th century CE.[7] They initially ruled their country Pandya Nadu from
Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, and in later times moved to
Madurai. Pandyas had diplomatic relations as far as Rome.[8] The country of the Pandyas was
described as Pandaie by Megasthenes, Pandi Mandala in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and
described as Pandya Mediterranea and Modura Regia Pandionis by Ptolemy.[9][10]
Note: A modern illustration of Pandya flag
(early historic, approximate)
The Pandya empire was home to temples including Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, and Nellaiappar
Temple in Tirunelveli. Jainism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism flourished during the reign of the early
Pandya kings, but after the revival of the Pandya power by Kadungon, the Shaivite Nayanars and
the Vaishnavite Alvars rose to prominence and the non-Hindu sects declined.[11] Strabo states that
an Indian king called Pandion sent Augustus Caesar "presents and gifts of honour".[12]

Traditionally, the legendary Sangams were held in Madurai under their patronage, and some of the
Pandya Kings were poets themselves. The early Pandya Dynasty of the Sangam Literature faded
into obscurity upon the invasion of the Kalabhras. The dynasty revived under Kadungon in the
early 6th century, pushed the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and ruled from Madurai.[13][14]
They again went into decline with the rise of the Cholas in the 9th century and were in constant
conflict with them. The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing
the Chola empire until they found an opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th
century. The Later Pandyas (1216–1345) entered their golden age under Maravarman Sundara
Pandyan and Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (c. 1251), who expanded the empire into Telugu Extent of the Pandya Territories c. 1250
country, conquered Kalinga (Orissa) and invaded and conquered Sri Lanka. They also had CE
extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. Capital Madurai (3rd
century BCE –
The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the 1345 CE)
South Indian coast between Sri Lanka and India which produced some of the finest pearls in the Korkai (ancient
known ancient world. second capital)[1]
Tenkasi (1345 –
During their history, the Pandyas were repeatedly in conflict with the Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas 1630 CE, part of
Tirunelveli.
and finally the Muslim invaders from the Delhi Sultanate. The Islamic invasion led to the end of Medieval second
Pandya supremacy in South India and in 1323, the Jaffna Kingdom of Sri Lanka declared its capital)[2]
independence from the crumbling Pandya Empire.[15][16] The Pandyas lost their capital city
Official languages Tamil [3][4]
Madurai to Madurai Sultanate in 1335. However, they shifted their capital to Tenkasi and continued
Religion Hinduism,
to rule the Tirulnelveli, Tuticorin, Ramanad, Sivagangai regions. Meanwhile, Madurai sultanate Jainism,
was replaced by Nayaka governors of Vijayanagara in 1378. In 1529 Nayaka governors declared Buddhism
independence and established Madurai Nayak dynasty.
Government Monarchy
• 560–590 CE Kadungon
• 1309–1345 CE Vira Pandyan IV
Contents • 1422–1463 CE Jatavarman
Parakrama
Etymology Pandyan
Mythology Historical era Iron Age to
Renaissance
Sources
Sangam literature • Established 300 BCE
Epigraphy • Disestablished 1650 CE
Foreign sources
Preceded by Succeeded by
History
Kalabhra Delhi
Literary sources
dynasty Sultanate
Tamil literary sources
 Sanskrit literary sources Chola Madurai
Early Pandyas (3rd century BCE – 3rd century CE)
dynasty Nayak
dynasty
First Pandyan Empire (6th – 10th centuries CE)
Jaffna
Under Chola Influence (10th – 13th centuries) kingdom
Second Pandya Empire (13th and 14th centuries) Sambuvaraya
Pandya Civil War (1308 to 1311 CE)
Decline and fall Today part of India
Architecture Sri Lanka

Coinage
Government and Society
Trade
Pearl fishing
Religion
See also
References
Further reading

Etymology
The word Pandya is thought to be derived from the Tamil word "Pandu" meaning "old".[17] Robert Caldwell derives the word Pandya from Pāṇḍu, the
father of the Pandavas from Mahabharata, and believed that the name was intended to establish a claim of descent from the Pandavas.[18]

Another theory suggests that in Sangam Tamil lexicon the word Pandya means old country in contrast with Chola meaning new country, Chera meaning
hill country and Pallava meaning branch in Sanskrit. The Chera, Chola and Pandya are the traditional Dravidian siblings and together with the Pallavas
are the major Kings that ruled ancient Tamilakam.

Historians have used several sources to identify the origins of the early Pandya dynasty with the pre-Christian Era and also to piece together the names of
the Pandya kings. The Pandyas were one of the longest ruling dynasty of Indian history.[19]

Historian Gustav Solomon Oppert derives the Pandi word from the Tamil word "Pallandi " meaning "king of Pallas". The name "Pandi' is a contraction of
Pallandi which is a composite of two Tamil words "palla" and "andi". In Sangam Period, the word "andi" means " king" or "ruler ".[20]

Mythology
According to Tamil legends, the three brothers Cheran, Cholan and Pandyan ruled in common at Korkai. While Pandya remained at home, his two
brothers Cheran and Cholan after a separation founded their own kingdoms in north and west.[21]

According to the Epic Mahabharatha the legendary Malayadhwaja Pandya, who sided with the Pandavas and took part in the Kurukshetra War of the
Mahabharata, is described as follows in Karna Parva (verse 20.25):[22][23]

"Although knowing that the shafts (arrows) of the high souled son of Drona employed in shooting were really inexhaustible, yet Pandya, that bull among
men, cut them all into pieces".

Malayadhwaja Pandya and his queen Kanchanamala had one daughter Thataathagai alias Meenakshi who succeeded her father and reigned the kingdom
successfully.[24] The Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple was built after her. The city of Madurai was built around this temple.[25][26]

Local folklore attributes Alli Raani as one of the Sangam age queens of the Pandya kingdom. She is attributed as a amazonian queen whose servants were
males and administrative officials and army were women.[27] She is thought of ruling the whole western and northern coast of Sri Lanka from her capital
Kudiramalai, where remains of what is thought of as her fort are found.[28] She is sometimes seen as an incarnation of the Pandya associated deities,
Meenakshi and Kannagi.[29]

Sources

Sangam literature
Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam Literature. Among them Nedunjeliyan
II, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam', and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi 'of several sacrifices' deserve special
mention. Beside several short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are
two major works – Mathuraikkanci and the Netunalvatai (in the collection of Pattupattu) – which give a
glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandya kingdom during the Sangam age.[30][31]
In the work Maduraikkanci, the author Mankudi Maruthanaar, refers to his patron, king
Nedunchezhiyan, as the lord of Korkai and the warlord of the southern Parathavar.[32]

Silappatikaram mentions that the emblem of the Pandyas was that of a fish.[33] The Pandyas assumed Mangulam inscription
several titles, one of them being Meenavan meaning "He of the Fish".[34] This seems to indicate a
fishermen origin of the Pandyas.[35]

Epigraphy
The earliest Pandya king to be found in epigraph is Nedunjeliyan, figuring in the Tamil-Brahmi
Mangulam inscription assigned from the 2nd to the 1st centuries BCE.The record documents a gift of
rock-cut beds, to a Jain ascetic.[36] Silver Punch-marked coins with the fish symbol in the Pandya
country dating from around the same time have also been found.[37]

Pandyas are also mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 – 232 BCE). In his inscriptions
Ashoka refers to the peoples of south India – the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas and Satiyaputras – as
recipients of his Buddhist proselytism.[38][39] These kingdoms, although not part of the Mauryan
Empire, were on friendly terms with Ashoka:

The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred
yojanas (5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there
where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in
Four-armed Vishnu, Pandya Dynasty, the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni river.[40]
8th–9th century CE.

Kharavela, the Kalinga king who ruled during the 2nd century BCE, in his Hathigumpha inscription,
claims to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil states (Tamiradesasanghatam) which had lasted 132 years, and to have acquired a large quantity of
pearls from the Pandyas.[39]

Foreign sources
Pandyas are also mentioned by Greek Megasthenes where he writes about southern kingdom being ruled
by women.[41] Megasthenes knew of the Pandya kingdom around 300 BCE. He described it in Indika as
occupying the portion of India which lies southward and extends to the sea. According to his account, it
had 365 villages, each of which was expected to meet the needs of the royal household for one day in the
year. He described the Pandya queen at the time, Pandaia as a daughter of Heracles.[42][43]

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 60 – c. 100 CE) describes the riches of a 'Pandian Kingdom':

...Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred
stadia, and is of another Kingdom, the Pandian. This place also is
situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the Muziris, as shown in the Tabula
sea.... [44] Peutingeriana, with a "Templum
Augusti".
The Chinese historian Yu Huan in his 3rd-century text, the Weilüe, mentions the Panyue kingdom: ...The
kingdom of Panyue is also called Hanyuewang. It is several thousand li to the southeast of Tianzhu
(Northern India)...The inhabitants are small; they are the same height as the Chinese.... John E. Hill identified Panyue as Pandya kingdom.[45] However,
others have identified it with an ancient state located in modern Burma[46] or Assam.[47]

The Roman emperor Julian received an embassy from a Pandya about 361. A Roman trading centre was located on the Pandya coast at the mouth of the
Vaigai river, southeast of Madurai.
Pandyas also had trade contacts with Ptolemaic Egypt and, through Egypt, with Rome by the 1st century, and with China by the 3rd century. The 1st-
century Greek historian Nicolaus of Damascus met, at Antioch, the ambassador sent by a king from India "named Pandion or, according to others, Porus"
to Caesar Augustus around 13 CE (Strabo XV.4 and 73).[48][49]

The Chinese traveler Xuanzang mentions a kingdom further south from Kanchipuram, a kingdom named Malakutta, identified with Madurai described by
his Buddhist friends at Kanchipuram.[50]

In the later part of the 13th century Venetian traveller Marco Polo visited the Pandya kingdom and left a vivid description of the land and its
people.[51][52] Polo exclaimed that:

The darkest man is here the most highly esteemed and considered better than the others who are not so
dark. Let me add that in very truth these people portray and depict their gods and their idols black and their
devils white as snow. For they say that God and all the saints are black and the devils are all white. That is
why they portray them as I have described.[53]

History

Literary sources
Although there are many instances of the Pandyas being referred to in surviving ancient Hindu texts
including the Mahabharata, we currently have no way of determining a cogent genealogy of these
ancient kings. We have a connected history of the Pandyas from the fall of Kalabhras during the middle
of the 6th century.

Tamil literary sources

Several Tamil literary works, such as Iraiyanar Agapporul, mention the legend of three separate Tamil
Sangams lasting several centuries before the Christian Era and ascribe their patronage to the Pandyas.[54]

The Sangam poem Maduraikkanci by Mankudi Maruthanaar contains a full-length description of

Madurai and the Pandya country under the rule of Neduncheliyan III.[55] The Nedunalvadai by Nakkirar
contains a description of the king's palace. The Purananuru and Agananuru collections of the 3rd
century BCE contain poems sung in praise of various Pandya kings and also poems that were composed
by the kings themselves.[56]
Sculpture of Lord Rama
Sanskrit literary sources
The Sanskrit grammarian Kātyāyana mention in his commentaries on Pāṇini's Astadhyayi (4th century BCE) make references to the Pandya kingdom.[57]
The Arthashastra compiled by Kautilya (4th century BCE) mentions pearls from Pandya Kingdom and cotton textiles from Madurai.[58]

The Ramayana makes a few references to the Pandyas. For instance, when Sugriva sends his monkey warriors to search Sita, he mentions Chera, Chola
and Pandya of the Southern region.[59] Kalidasa's Raghuvamsha, an epic poem about Rama's dynasty, states that Ravana signed a peace treaty with a
Pandya king.[60]

The Mahabharata mentions the Pandyas a number of times. It states that the Pandya country was located on the sea shore, and supplied troops to the
Pandava king Yudhishthira during the war (5:19). The Pandya king Sarangadhwaja commanded 140,000 warriors (7.23). Pandya warrior Malayadhwaja
had a one-to-one fight with Drona's son Ashwatthama (8:20). Mahabharata mentions that tirthas (sacred places) of Agastya, Varuna and Kumari were
located in the Pandya country.[61]

Early Pandyas (3rd century BCE – 3rd century CE)

The following is a partial list of Pandya emperors who ruled during the Sangam age:[62][63]

Koon Pandyan
Nedunjeliyan I (Aariyap Padai Kadantha Nedunj Cheliyan)
Pudappandyan
Palyagasaalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi
Nedunjeliyan II
Nan Maran
Nedunj Cheliyan III (Talaiyaalanganathu Seruvendra Nedunj Cheliyan)
 Maran Valudi
Kadalan valuthi
Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan
Ukkirap Peruvaludi

First Pandyan Empire (6th – 10th centuries CE)

After the close of the Sangam age, the first Pandya empire was established by Kadungon
in the 6th century by defeating the Kalabhras. The following chronological list of the
Pandya emperors is based on an inscription found on the Vaigai riverbeds. Succeeding
kings assumed the titles of "Maravarman" and "Sadayavarman" alternately, where
Vettuvan Koil, Pandyan Empire, 8th century CE
Sadayavarman denotes themselves as followers of Lord Sadaiyan ("The one with Jata",
referring to Siva).[65][66]

After the defeat of the Kalabhras, the Pandya kingdom grew steadily in power and territory. With the
Cholas in obscurity, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas and the Pandyas, the river
Kaveri being the frontier between them.

After Vijayalaya Chola conquered Thanjavur by defeating the Muttarayar chieftains who were part of
Pandya family tree around 850, the Pandyas went into a period of decline. They were constantly
harassing their Chola overlords by occupying their territories. Parantaka I invaded the Pandya territories
and defeated Rajasimha III. However, the Pandyas did not wholly submit to the Cholas despite loss of
power, territory and prestige. They tried to forge various alliances with the Cheras and the Kings of
Lanka and tried to engage the Cholas in war to free themselves from Chola supremacy. But right from
the times of Parantaka I to the early 12th century up to the times of Kulottunga Chola I the Pandyas
could not overpower the Cholas who right from 880–1215 remained the most powerful empire spread
over South India, Deccan and the Eastern and Western Coast of India during this period.[67][68]

List of kings with dates as estimated by K. A. Nilakanta Sastri:[69]

Kadungon (r. c. 590–620 CE)

Maravarman Avani Sulamani (r. c. 620-645 CE)
Jayantavarman alias Seliyan Sendan (r. c. 645–670 CE)
Arikesari Maravarman (r. c. 670–700 CE) Manikkavacakar, Minister of Pandya
Kochadaiyan Ranadhiran (r. c. 700–730 CE) king Varagunavarman II (c. 862 –
Maravarman Rajasimha I (r. c. 735–765 CE) 885 CE)
Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadayan (r. c. 765–815 CE)
Maravarman Rajasimha II (r. c. 815–817 CE)
Varaguna I (r. c. 817–835 CE)
Srimara Srivallabha (r. c. 815–862 CE)
Varaguna II (r. c. 862–885 CE)
Parantaka Viranarayanan (r. c. 880–905 CE)
Maravarman Rajasimha III (r. c. 905–920 CE)

Kalugumalai Jain Beds, Pandya Empire, King Parantaka Nedunjadaiya (768–800 CE)

Under Chola Influence (10th – 13th centuries)

The Chola domination of the Tamil country began in earnest during the reign of Parantaka Chola
II. Chola armies led by Aditya Karikala, son of Parantaka Chola II defeated Vira Pandya in battle.
The Pandyas were assisted by the Sinhalese forces of Mahinda IV. Pandyas were driven out of their
territories and had to seek refuge on the island of Sri Lanka. This was the start of the long exile of
the Pandyas. They were replaced by a series of Chola viceroys with the title Chola Pandya who
ruled from Madurai from c. 1020 CE. Rajadhiraja III aided Kulesekhara Pandya III by defeating
the Sinhalese army and crowning him as king of Madurai.[70] The "Chola yoke" started from about
920 and lasted until the start of the 13th century.[71] The following list gives the names of the
Pandya kings who were active during the 10th century and the first half of 11th century.

Sundara Pandya I
Vira Pandya I
Vira Pandya II Jatavarman Veera Pandyan II's double
Amarabhujanga Tivrakopa fish carp black granite bas-relief of the
Jatavarman Sundara Chola Pandya Koneswaram temple in Trincomalee,
Maravarman Vikrama Chola Pandya reminiscent of the dynasty's coinage
Maravarman Parakrama Chola Pandya symbols found on the island from the pre-
Jatavarman Chola Pandya modern era, installed after defeating the
Seervallabha Manakulachala (1101–1124 CE) usurper Chandrabhanu of Tambralinga.
Maaravarman Seervallaban (1132–1161 CE) Pandya affairs in Northern Sri Lanka grew
Parakrama Pandyan I (1161–1162 CE) stronger following the intervention of
Kulasekara Pandyan III Srimara Srivallabha in 815 CE[64]
Vira Pandyan III
Jatavarman Srivallaban (1175–1180 CE)
Jatavarman Kulasekaran I (1190–1216 CE)[71]

Second Pandya Empire (13th and 14th centuries)

The 13th century is the greatest period in the history of the Pandya Empire. This period saw the rise of seven
prime Lord Emperors (Ellarkku Nayanar – Lord of All) of Pandya, who ruled the kingdom alongside Pandya
princes. Their power reached its zenith under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan in the middle of the 13th century.
The foundation for such a great empire was laid by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan early in the 13th
century.[72][73]

Parakrama Pandyan II (king of Polonnaruwa) (1212–1215 CE)

Maravarman Sundara Pandyan(1216–1238 CE)
Sundaravarman Kulasekaran II (1238–1240 CE)
Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II (1238–1251 CE)
Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1251–1268 CE)
Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I (1268–1310 CE) A Pandya Style sculpture
Sundara Pandyan IV (1309–1327 CE)
Vira Pandyan IV (1309–1345 CE)
The Pandya kingdom was replaced by the Chola princes who assumed the title as Chola Pandyas in the 11th century.[74] After being overshadowed by the
Pallavas and Cholas for centuries, Pandya glory was briefly revived by the much celebrated Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I in 1251 CE.[75]

Pandya power extended from the Telugu countries on banks of the Godavari river to Sri Lanka, which was invaded by Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I in
1258 and on his behalf by his younger brother Jatavarman Vira Pandyan II from 1262 to 1264.[76] They ruled the whole peninsula and reduced the power
of the Cholas and the Hoysala, also making Chera Nadu and Sri Lanka Pandya provinces.[77] Later Jatavarman Sundara Pandya appointed his brother to
rule Kongu country, Chola country and Hoysala country.[78]

The marital alliance of Kulothunga Chola III and one of his successors, Rajaraja Chola III, with the Hoysalas did not yield any advantage in countering
the Pandya resurgence, who got defeated by Maravarman Sundara Pandya I, who after the victory burnt down Uraiyur and Thanjavur.[79] The Cholas
renewed their control with the help of the Hoysalas under Hoysala king Vira Someshwara.[80] The later successor of Maravarman Sundara Pandya I,
Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II got defeated by Rajendra Chola III around 1250.[79]

Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I subdued Rajendra Chola III around 1258–1260 AD and was an equal antagonist of the Hoysalas whose presence he
absolutely disliked in the Tamil country.[79] He first vanquished the Kadava Pallavas under Kopperunchinga II, who had challenged the Hoysala army
stationed in and around Kanchipuram and killed a few of their commanders.[81]
 Around 1260, Jatavarman I first dragged the Hoysalas into war by routing Vira Someshwara's son
Ramanatha out of Tiruchirappalli. Vira Someshwara Hoysala, who had given the control of the empire to
his sons tried to challenge Jatavarman. Between Samayapuram and Tiruchy, the armies of Vira
Someshwara were routed with Vira Someshwara losing his life in this battle to Jatavarman Sundara
Pandya I in Kannanur.[75][82]

Jatavarman I next concentrated on completely wiping out the Chola empire. Rajendra Chola III had been
counting on Hoysala assistance in case he was challenged by the Pandyas, keeping in mind the earlier
marital alliance of the Cholas with the Hoysalas. Initially, Jatavarman consolidated the Pandya hold on
Tiruchirappalli and Thiruvarangam and marched towards Thanjavur and Kumbakonam.[83] The Hoysala
Pandya power in South India king Narasimha III joined hands with the Pandyas, opposing alliance with the Cholas.[80] When
challenged by Jatavarman Sundara Pandya, Rajendra III marched against the Pandyas between Tanjore
and Tiruchy, hoping for assistance and participation in war from the Hoysalas. However, the already
vanquished Hoysalas were in a defensive position. They did not want to go to war and risk yet another defeat by the resurgent Pandyas. Jatavarman
Sundara Pandya who defeated the Kadava Pallavas, Hoysalas and also the Telugu Choda, forced Rajendra III to become his tributary vassal.[84]

Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan invaded Sri Lanka in 1258 and took control over Jaffna Kingdom by defeating the Javaka king Chandrabhanu, making the
Javaka king paying tribute to him.[85] Chandrabhanu and two Sinhalese princes revolted against the Pandyas in 1270, and got his final defeat in 1270 by
the brother of Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I, Jatavarman Vira Pandya II.[86]

Around 1279 the combined force of Hoysala Ramanatha and Rajendra Chola III was defeated by Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, giving an ultimate
end to the Chola dynasty.[87]

Pandya Civil War (1308 to 1311 CE)

After the death of the king Maravarman Kulashekhara, his sons Vira and Sundara fought a war of succession for control of the kingdom. Kulasekhara had
two sons Sundara Pandya, the legitimate heir, and Vira Pandya, an illegitimate son who was nominated to the throne by their father. So, Sundara Pandya
killed his father and then ascended the throne but this victory lasted only for a short time as Vira Pandya soon defeated his brother and occupied the
throne in 1310 AD.[88] This caused Sundara Pandya to take refuge with the Delhi Sultanate and the former wasted no time and invited Malik Kafur, the
eunuch general of Allaudin Khilji to come to his aid.[89] Taking advantage of this situation, the neighbouring Hoysala king Ballala III invaded the Pandya
territory. However, Ballala had to retreat to his capital, when Malik Kafur invaded his kingdom at the same time.[90] After subjugating Ballala, Malik
Kafur marched to the Pandya territory in March 1311.[91] His army raided a number of places in the kingdom, massacring people and destroying temples.
The Pandya brothers fled their headquarters, and Kafur pursued them unsuccessfully, hoping to make one of them a tributary to the Delhi Sultan Alauddin
Khalji. Nevertheless, the invaders obtained a large number of treasures, elephants and horses.[92][93]

According to the 14th century Sanskrit treatise Lilatilakam, a general named Vikrama Pandya defeated the Delhi King. Some historians have identified
Vikrama as an uncle of Vira and Sundara, and believe that he defeated Malik Kafur. However, this identification is not supported by historical evidence:
Vikrama Pandya mentioned in Leelathilakam appears to have defeated a Muslim army during 1365–70.[94] By late April 1311, the rains had obstructed
the operations of the Delhi forces, and the invading generals received the news that the defenders had assembled a large army against them.[95] Kafur
gave up his plans to pursue the Pandya brothers, and returned to Delhi with the plunder.[96]

After Kafur's departure, Vira and Sundara resumed their conflict. Sundara Pandya was defeated, and sought help from the Delhi Sultanate. With their
help, he regained control of the South Arcot region by 1314.[95]

An aerial view of Madurai city from atop the Meenakshi Amman temple
Decline and fall
Subsequently, there were two other expeditions from the Khalji Sultanate in 1314 led by Khusro Khan (later Sultan Nasir-ud-din) and in 1323 by Ulugh
Khan (Muhammad bin Tughluq) under Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq. These invasions shattered the Pandya empire beyond revival and coinage
discoveries made imply that the Later Pandyas were left with the South Arcot District of Tamil Nadu. While the previous invasions were content with
plunder, Ulugh Khan annexed the former Pandya dominions to the Delhi Sultanate as the province of Ma'bar. Most of South India came under the Delhi's
rule and was divided into five provinces – Devagiri, Tiling, Kampili, Dorasamudra and Ma'bar.[97] Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan was appointed governor of the
newly created southern-most Ma'bar province of the Delhi Sultanate by Muhammad bin Tughluq. In 1333, Sayyid Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan declared his
independence and created Madurai Sultanate, a short lived independent Muslim kingdom based in the city of Madurai. Hoysala king Veera Ballala III,
from his capital in Tiruvannamalai, challenged the Madurai Sultans at Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam and died fighting them in 1343.[98][99]
Bukkaraya I of Vijayanagara Empire conquered the city of Madurai in 1371, imprisoned the Sultan, released and restored Arcot's Tamil prince Sambuva
Raya to the throne.Then Koneri Raya succeeded the throne. Bukka I appointed his son Veera Kumara Kampana as the viceroy of the Tamil region. Later,
Nayaka governors were appointed who would continue ruling till 1736.[100]

Architecture
Rock cut and structural temples are significant part of pandya architecture. The Vimana and
mandapa are some of the features of the early Pandya temples.[101]

Groups of small temples are seen at Tiruchirappalli district of Tamil Nadu. The Shiva temples have
a Nandi bull sculpture in front of the maha mandapa.[102] In the later stages of Pandyas rule, finely
sculptured idols, gopurams on the vimanas were developed. Gopurams are the rectangular entrance
and portals of the temples.[103]

Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple in Tirunelveli were built during
the reign of the Pandyas.[104]

Coinage The Gopuram of Nellaiappar Temple

The early coins of Tamilakam bore the symbols of the Three Crowned Kings, the tiger, the fish and
the bow, representing the symbols of the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras.[105] Coins of Pandyas bear the legend of different Pandya ruler in different times.
The Pandyas had

issued silver punch-marked and die struck copper coins in the early period.[106] A few gold coins were attributed to the
Pandya rulers of this period. These coins bore the image of fish, singly or in pairs, which where their emblem.[107]

Some of the coins had the names Sundara, Sundara Pandya or merely the letter 'Su' were etched. Some of the coins bore
a boar with the legend of 'Vira-Pandya.[108] It had been said that those coins were issued by the Pandyas and the
feudatories of the Cholas but could not be attributed to any particular king.

The coins of Pandyas were basically square. Those coins were etched with elephant on one side and the other side
remained blank. The inscription on the silver and gold coins during the Pandyas, were in Tamil-Brahmi and the copper One of the early coins
coins bore the Tamil legends.[109] of the Pandyas
showing their emblem
The coins of the Pandyas, which bore the fish symbols, were termed as 'Kodandaraman' and 'Kanchi' Valangum of the two fishes.
Perumal'.[110] Apart from these, 'Ellamthalaiyanam' was seen on coins which had the standing king on one side and the
fish on the other. 'Samarakolahalam' and 'Bhuvanekaviram' were found on the coins having a Garuda, 'Konerirayan' on
coins having a bull and 'Kaliyugaraman' on coins that depict a pair of feet.[111]

Government and Society

Trade
Roman and Greek traders frequented the ancient Tamil country, present day Southern India and Sri Lanka, securing trade with the seafaring Tamil states
of the Pandya, Chola and Chera dynasties and establishing trading settlements which secured trade with South Asia by the Greco-Roman world since the
time of the Ptolemaic dynasty[112] a few decades before the start of the Common Era and remained long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.[113]
As recorded by Strabo, Emperor Augustus of Rome received at Antioch an ambassador from a South Indian King called Pandya. The country of the
Pandyas, Pandi Mandala, was described as Pandya Mediterranea in the Periplus and Modura Regia Pandya by Ptolemy.[114] They also outlasted
Byzantium's loss of the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea[115] (c. 639–645) under the pressure of the Muslim conquests. Sometime after the sundering of
communications between the Axum and Eastern Roman Empire in the 7th century, the Christian
kingdom of Axum fell into a slow decline, fading into obscurity in western sources. It survived, despite
pressure from Islamic forces, until the 11th century, when it was reconfigured in a dynastic squabble.

Pearl fishing
Pearl fishing was another industry that flourished during the Sangam age. The Pandya port city of
Korkai was the center of pearl trade. Written records from Greek and Egyptian voyagers give details
about the pearl fisheries off the Pandya coast. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions that "Pearls
inferior to the Indian sort are exported in great quantity from the marts of Apologas and Omana". The

inferior variety of pearls that the Tamils did not require for their use was in very great demand in the
foreign markets. Pearls were woven along with nice muslin cloth, before being exported. The most Temple between hill symbols and
elephant coin of the Pandyas Sri
expensive animal product that was imported from India by the Roman Empire was the pearl from the
Lanka 1st century CE.
Gulf of Mannar.[116]

The pearls from the Pandyan Kingdom were also in demand in the kingdoms of north India.
Several Vedic mantras refer to the wide use of the pearls. The royal chariots were decked with
pearls, as were the horses that dragged them. The use of pearls was so high that the supply of
pearls from the Ganges could not meet the demand.[117] Literary references of the pearl fishing
mention how the fishermen, who dive into the sea, avoid attacks from sharks, bring up the right-
whorled chank and blow on the sounding shell.[118] Convicts were according to the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea used as pearl divers in Korkai.[119]

Megasthenes reported about the pearl fisheries of the Pandyas, indicating that the Pandyas derived
great wealth from the pearl trade.[120] Silk Road map showing ancient trade
routes.

Religion
Historical Madurai was a stronghold of Shaivism and Vaishnavite. Following the invasion of Kalabhras, Jainism gained a foothold in the Pandya
kingdom. With the advent of Bhakti movements, Shaivism and Vaishnavism resurfaced. Pandya Nedumchadayan was a staunch Vaishnavite.[121]

See also
Pandyan Civil War (1169–1177) Tamilakam
History of Tamil Nadu Tammuzh
History of Kerala List of Tamil monarchs
Economy of ancient Tamil country Indo-Roman relations
Industry in ancient Tamil country Indo-Roman trade relations
Indian maritime history

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Further reading
Balambal, V. (1998). Studies in the History of the Sangam Age. Kalinga Publications. ISBN 978-81-85163-87-1.
Carswell, John. 1991. "The Port of Mantai, Sri Lanka." RAI, pp. 197–203.
Curtin, Philip D. (1984). Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26931-5.
Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilüe 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed
between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation. (http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html)
Holl, Augustin (2003). Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa-Arab Settlements. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-0407-1.
Husaini, A.Q. (1972). History of The Pandya Country.
Keay, John (2000) [2001]. India: A history. India: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India (4 ed.).
Lindsay, W S (2006). History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 0-543-94253-8.
Nagasamy, R (1981). Tamil Coins – A study. Institute of Epigraphy, Tamil Nadu State Dept. of Archaeology.
Purushottam, Vi. Pi. (1989). Cankakala Mannar Kalanilai Varalaru.
Ray, Himanshu Prabha, ed. 1996. Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean. Proceedings of the
International Seminar Techno-Archaeological Perspectives of Seafaring in the Indian Ocean 4th cent. BC – 15th cent. AD New Delhi,
28 February – 4 March 1994. New Delhi, and Jean-François SALLES, Lyon. First published 1996. Reprinted 1998. Manohar Publishers
& Distributors, New Delhi.
Reddy, P. Krishna Mohan. 2001. "Maritime Trade of Early South India: New Archaeological Evidences from Motupalli, Andhra
Pradesh." East and West Vol. 51 – Nos. 1–2 (June 2001), pp. 143–156.
Tripathi, Rama Sankar (1967). History of Ancient India. India: Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 81-208-0018-4.
Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. The Pandyan Kingdom: From the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century.
Shaffer, Lynda (1996). Maritime Southeast Asia to 1500 (Sources and Studies in World History). Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 1-
56324-144-7.
N. Subrahmanian (1962). History of Tamilnad (To A. D. 1336) (https://archive.is/20161123181101/http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/4
62306). Madurai: Koodal. OCLC 43502446 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43502446). Archived from the original (http://www.dli.ernet.i
n/handle/2015/462306) on 23 November 2016.
Venkata Subramanian, T. K. (1988). Environment and Urbanisation in Early Tamilakam (https://books.google.com/books?id=NN4fAAA
AIAAJ). Issue 92 of Tamil_p Palkalaik Kal_aka ve?iyi?u. Tamil University. p. 55. ISBN 978-81-7090-110-5.
Banarsi Prasad Saksena (1992). "The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji". In Mohammad Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (ed.). A
Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206–1526) (https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ). 5
(Second ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. OCLC 31870180 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/31870180).
 K.K.R. Nair (1987). "Venad: Its Early History" (https://books.google.com/books?id=EgSSAAAAIAAJ). Journal of Kerala Studies.
University of Kerala. 14 (1): 1–34. ISSN 0377-0443 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0377-0443).
Kishori Saran Lal (1950). History of the Khaljis (1290–1320) (https://books.google.com/books?id=2XXqAQAACAAJ). Allahabad: The
Indian Press. OCLC 685167335 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/685167335).
Peter Jackson (2003). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History (https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA
174). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54329-3.

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