AhAbAbhhMhhaAasAhnaaahsaaaaad. AAMAAhAhAhhhaAahaaaasahaaaad, TVW VV VW VV VV VV VT VV VV VV VV AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA, AAAAAasshhsssssssassadad. AAbAbAhAhhshshsahsasAsaasasaaad. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAasaaaaaad, AAhAbAAAhsahshshsaaasasssaaad. AAAAAAshshsAbshhasssasaaada. AAhhhhahsahshhahsssahsaaaadd, AAAAAhAhhAAhAhaAaAssaaaaad, MAAAAbAAhshshaAaAshssaasasassAadad. AAhhbahshsahsasassssassadad, MAAhhhhahhshshsasAahsaahasaadad, AAAAAAAAAAhAhAaaAasAahaaad. MAAhhAbhhshshsbshsassssssadd, MAAAhAbAAshshashssssssassadd. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA,Welcome to WORE INSIDE THE HUMAN BODY Inside the Human Body takesyou ona fascinating journey — startingat the ery beginning, we explore how human beings cameto existand thewaysin which our early ancestors evolved ‘andadapted aver hundreds of thousands of years. From here we getunder the skin, takingan in-depth look at our most vital brgansand body parts, from the complexity othe human brain tothe structural upportandstrength ofered by our muscles {and skeleton. Working in tandem with modern medicine, our ‘body doesan amazing eb of keepinguusftand healthy we Aiscover some ofthe body's most common complaints a well ‘as investigating what the future of medicine may look ike. ‘We eventacklethebody’s weirdand wonderful functions — cexploringeverythingirom why we laugh tothe biology ofa sneeze. This book will help youapprecate just howspecial you areand ensure yournever take your body for granted again!4 L FUTURE 4 rWeen INSIDE THE BODY(anc rasa aNd Tas MADE OF? The human body Your first year Your amazing brain Your skeleton Inside a blood vessel How cells work The heart - a vital organ Inside the liver and panereas What's inside your head Inside the knee What is thermoregulation? Muscle power Science of vision The retina The human pelvis, The lymphatic system \ Outbreak ‘Anatomy of an Olympic athlete The truth about hair transplants The antibiotic apocalypse Why do we get fat? Immunisation: how it keeps. you healthy How do we heal? Placebos - do they work? Kidney transplants, How cloning works. ‘Anaesthetics Strokes Rheumatoid arthritis explained Why is there no cure for the How a marathon affects your body The future of medicine Why do we get headaches? Asthma Cramp explained Blood clotting How metabolism functions How does the liver detoxify? How do gastric bands work? How skin grafts work Is cholesterol bad for you? 109 Hypermobile joints 109 What is a fit? SERREEHESS € SERKSRRR ERRSASseen) Cie Why do we get angry? What are grommets? Anaphylactic shock Brain surgery How hyperthermic surgery works What are probiotic bacteria? What are tonsils for? Secrets of stem calls Colour blindness What causes stomach uleers? Understanding chickenpox ‘The war against superbugs Curing deafness Ebola virus How enzymes keep you alive Bacteria explained How to check your pulse Keeping hydrated Understanding diabetes Perfect posture How corrective lenses work Inside laser eye surgery BESSSSSEEERESSESE REREES a 136 Food & your body 144 The science of happiness 148 The gutbrain axis 150 The five basic human tastes 151_Unraveling the mystery of DNA 152 Correcting heart rhythms. 152 Carpal tunnel syndrome 153. What are pheromones? 153 Eczema explained 154 Inside the flu 156. How we swallow 156 Why do we get drunk? 157 The human tongue 157 How do we laugh? 158 What happens when you sneaze? 158 Knee-jrk reactions explained 159 How do we touch and feel? fT 2 eeHOW WE CROSSED CONTINENTS AND CONQUERED THE PLANET oyDID YOU KNOW? The earliest human footprints found autside of Africa were discovered in Norfolk, Englane een ee te ee terrae eR eee ete Cees: GSpe emir aie palstnogcanbientiageerintawetacdhcenfstnsfhninns-al, _ honininanpindvate monn eo eee Pape eee eae ee ee Bc ee eee er er Rel ae a Se a Oe es Pees 5 Cee eer Wome naledt ee ere ‘Australopithecus anamensis ee een rR: ny eer Ardipithecus amidus rndft Sts e180 A Sea LULA T The Homo genus What set our closest relatives apart from earlier human species? -Everyhuman on heplanettodayisamemberot ‘onesinglespecis: Homosapiens. Together with our extinetancestorsand closest relatives, weare partofthe broader genus ofHomo, whose ‘membersallshareunmistaeablyhuman traits ‘The Homo genus emerged somewhere around three illionyearsagoinAlica when the region was home toatleast11 species ofhominin. The oldest Homo fossl~datedat2.8milionyearsold ~wasa member ofthespecies Hornohabilis. ts »amemeans‘handy man, asitisbelleved tobe the Homo species identifier Discover the characteristic features of some tf the most prominent members ofthe genus Evolving brai Thebrain wr ss, first hominin thatusedstonetools.Althoughit retained manyoftheape ike body eaturesof earlier Ausralopitecus ts brain was much larger. Toaluseand brainsizeare twoolthedefining characteristicsofthe Homo genus. Thethirdisan Upright skeleton thatenables walking ontwo feet. ‘Togetherthese changes gavean evolutionary edge ‘nexploiting the environment, solving problems, andjourneying overion distances Ourownspeciesisthoughttohaveevolved 200,000 yearsago om thestrong, athletic Homo Petite skull The skal was advanced Iramease: eomtaneda pursing micof mde beidetbergensisTheyinturn evolved from Homo exectus-oneofthe most successful homininsin history survvingfortwo million years. Foralongtime scientists haveargued over ‘whether, sapiens evolved within Africa before ‘spreadingaround the world the Out of Africa hypothesis orevolved simultaneously inmany locations the mairegional hypothesis, Recent tues ofDNA suggest we descend fromasingle population iving150,000yeersago, which heavily ‘supports the Ou ofAfic theory. Increased brain size Thebran ize approached the tomer Distinctive theaistaoptecas "ace Seeaethenst ss Apeish snotarc vase Sone to }/ upper body ‘wth tow Mixed Ae ae forehead andthe features wee Team Thesgecerts etongate tinge, eee rater face and Cpe Aes nose. tet tan eer We a orca, } Adgptable Bo ‘ AY snccerore ¥ Stowe =i t } ‘Serine Humane cmotreee (lower body Ciao Loan Versa emda, ‘pea se ‘Sturdy skeleton "oa asst erate waking ond “tance rong Frapreiiecontsre) ponents B stoieetoeiniereury ty peasDID YOU KNOW? The term Hama sapiens comes from Latin and means ‘wise man’ Opposable thumbs ‘Thegrasping hands ofour primate ancestors evolved asan adaptation toifeinthe trees. posable thumbs -whichare abletomovearoundandtouch the other ngers~and lat Aingertippadsboth help tree dwellers to grab on to branches aswellasholdand manipulate mall objects. ‘Ourmodem thumb has changed litlesincethe last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. tis longer, comparedtofingerlength,thananyotherprimate'sthim, 9. cpsesaye num sivingbothstrengthand precision. Thishelpedourancestors Srp the hand oop sgathera wide variety ofoodsandeventually developtools, _withsvength and dextenty Reorganised skal Massive, Strong tigated ah oval-shaped Am rounded ska etc fads fas tt y ‘An outwardly ‘thick, rounded houses avery Ie Small, bulge rarase bron, ane tagetran retracted face commodity chenorcs tnd ‘he car foe bran ino oe. ten Flat face Sra died The ace waaay row noe Thick trunk ‘tte tan ear ‘tunes cet hansen ha ty and upwardly ‘wide nasel opening, rng hon ges Eee sous ashore ser sche ow ge. voor hance \ S Ne \ Short lower limbs oY) Thempeces washer Leaner trunk out tng an proportions Comput over wmsand pe aieiereretee) ogtoomasve rest tty cued athe icone ca. erate j t 1 LY Lightly but ' / voiaieton { more delat than J c % yy in earlier humans, 4 Robust seteton, WE) WSs XN, wirbony nae somest | S\ hk Saeenes le g es \ _ Wi > UL Swe ‘Height 1.5-1.6m Weight 54-65kg Height 1.6-1.8m Weight SI-62ky Height: 1.6-L.8m Weight 62-78kg ‘Average brain size: 1,420 em? ‘Average brain sie: 1,270em? ‘Average brain size: 1,350 em? corer crea onSts e180 A Sea LULA TDID YOU KNOW? Life expectancy for early humans was anywhere between 1s ta 30 years Culture ont el eat humans make sense ofthe wor? Sy, rituals, musi and other forms of symboke expression. But she ase made nea 100,000 yer 90 ant £40,000-jearald cove dronngsin Europe ae dence of sant der ntaeeaux France Brain size tn most mann bala sis proportions bodys Not pinates bras eed ato sono coer inger Ath sare tne thea won eoeare Problem solving oc ita emeto cepa eee ere eee ger SE ieee ee ag Cemeeten eee ee etceleias pore Tools of the age eee eres See Ce eee Ry ean Communication ere ee eer Ses pena forhunting,strippinganimal carca perry rectly when nd whore ngage engined untnowm. The descended ary evolved und 300,000 ars 00, but experts Behe spoke ange only tof amore baste potolanguage’ comprised of ‘eoturer and body anguoge net 0 simple ound Cooperation When we work together cooperatively, wetend to Sehove mora nls tna and wth eer. Te ‘save was tvs of cur encesters By baning together they col rng down ger anal in hchun forage greater arty food, ty canesta Simytery Setar evidence of corral vse appears {oatmaking debe, ured seeds and wood mark more thane dare ety earths ares ase at Geshe Bnet Carotene ony proved warmth an protection rots foot ene fe 013ft Sts e180 A Sea LULA T ror por or iow we ire | EE BN isang conquered: =>" === 6== the planet 2 Humans went from African natives to citizens of the world nour brie 200,000 years on Earth, Homo sapiens-unlikeany ofthe hhumanspecies before us has ‘managed to colonise the entire lobe. Butiwe were notte firstto ‘venture beyond Africa. Some of our ancestors took those initial stepsat least millionyearsago. The frst waves ofadventurous hhominins travelled east towards Asia, before eventually moving west and north into Europe. Homo erectus spread throughout Asia, reachingas farsouthas Java, and Homo heidetbergensis dispersed through both Asiaand Europe. Asforour ownspecies, ll evidence suggests that welived in Africa for the first 100,000 years of ‘ur200.000-year existence. Aftera shaky first migratory attempt it wasanother30,000 years before Wwestruck outagain. This time ‘marked the startofa mass exodus; Homo sapiens spread rapidly toall continents except Antarctica within 50,000 years, making us ‘ne ofthe most invasive species the world has ever known, Why the itchy Feet? Some scientists think we simply followed the roaminganimals we ate; certainly other large predatory species made similar territorial expansions alongside us. Other cexpertshold the more romantic view thatwanderlustis simply part ofwhat makes us human, ( a toe ‘A Be RNa a Be BT cr er Sd ow cavendicateseary Europeans” years ago thoy were fst sdecovsed hte ‘venture turthes Taforalt, Morece® Jebel Faya, 82,000. Saudi Arabia ‘years ago 75,000 eres cy ‘years ago ‘outed cht tredesene hoe rma od inaeaong homens vanee Return to Africa Sond sae 40-45,000 Banstadersnow Jwalapuram, india ‘ome dessndots of 74,000 years age 2 fc er fn rom the erion of humans n Saud Arabia 30,000 years te, Herto, Ethiopia Andaman Islands Border Cave, South Africa Btorccanatee Gonintnasuertresen 82,000 yeas age peter es y “sapiens remains ever found, from the first south Asian settlers, ‘@scovered lon with younger tor osDID YOU KNOW? The oldest Homo sopiens remains were discovered in Ethiopio, Africa Siberia Homo sapiens Be is 43,000, b tecor tree et goes global err Joye rom th ido artefacts ond DNA tel 9 g er the aan steppes compelling migration story Tanyuan P Sore Gra 2 ‘G00 Central Asia 4 a ee Greve USA ee | seams E300 oars ag tidene ie mating at humane ari 2.000°3000 Niah Great Cave, Borneo 40, “paongedta 3 Iara Arbemtand Austria" HUMONS Ore ONE of the Themobiunnetroasteres —_- MOSt invasive species thecarert evidence of Menon ceapaton nasa. the world has known" % Bent Raed _, Monte Verde, Chile {ake Mungo, Australia . Be 15,000 years ag fovten to 90 e3- sndzolen tam ater semanas crenata ‘St coastal migration by oat eee eer poauereniieiten caer aisft Sts e180 A Sea LULA T Renee ed Petts eto Choe ere Surviving How modern humans overcame threats and evaded extinction After over six million yearsofhuman evolution, Homo sapiensisthe only species left standing, Whats the secretto ou fentists pacity for ability to cooperate. Indeed, no other animal species ha toaswide a range of habitatsandsuch divergent pursuits asmodern humans. As dispersed throughout the word, ‘place how tofind and ea local food and tosurvive different climat Erp ncaa adversity ‘mimic one another, communicate concepts, and learn new skills. Thisallows the work of the most skilled or intelligent to benefit entire populations, instead of forcing eac generation to reinvent the wheel, These characteristics made usresilientin the face of change, During the Ice Age intersot 15,000 years ago, for example, modern human ‘meastern Europe came up with clever waysto cope with the cold By sewingclothes from. yermafrost and using fireto keep warm, they were ableto ride out the tough times together and ensure the survival ofthe species. rag petepted rere Neanderthals die out? Dee eee eee ec ts Er ec Pretest ee mee eee ee Se eee eee eect Cerne ea ea ‘Neanderthal gene pool might have been to blame, Some studies suggest tha the ‘Neanderthal population never grew bigger ee eee eee Ce eee ed Perens icy reeset ree ents Pommteretr nee ee x Pato. LeenaDID YOU KNOW? The next stage of human evolution could invalve the colonisation of Mars + Es a A thriving { species Howsoil, society and science elevated modern humans transitioned from merely survivingto convincingly thriving happened somewhere around:2,000 years ago coinciding withthe advent of agriculture. For milliosof years leading up to thistime, earlyand moder humans lke were preoccupied with foraging, hunting and scavenging food. Butonce we discovered that ‘we could control the growth and breeding of certainplantsandanimals, we quickly became farmersandherders As these practices gained momentum, settlements began to formaround them These grew from villages to townsto ctiesas food ‘became more plentiful. Within them, the human population began to explode, eventually reachinglevels where we were unlikely to bewiped outby anything essthan a global catastrophe. Cities became the foes of social interaction {dea exchange and technological innovation. Theballooning population allowed knowledge and creativeexpressiontoflourish 2s Individuals were ble tospecialiseand learn from each other. (Over centuries and millennia, the ate of progress has continued toaccelerate and Innovations -fromtheprintingpress othe Internet, rom surgery to vaccines rom the ‘wheel to global air travel ~ continue to make our lives longer, sferand more rewarding. 7. rk “LE Aan Ss “uf Ki Te] eaeae allowed se fi Gnd foir=ia/a\V/ae peop i s]e ene * owow ‘The human body Your first year Your amazing brain Your skeleton Inside a blood vessel How cells work ‘The heart-a vital organ Inside the liver and pancreas What's inside your head Inside the knee What is thermoregulation? ‘Muscle power Science of vision The retina ‘The human pelvis ‘The lymphatic system. Your first year fhe human body is composed ofan T estimated 7 octillion which written out 1s7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 00,000} atoms, making up over 75 trillion cells. AAtthe atomic lve, the human body comprisesabout 60 elements, bt the function fofmany ofthem!s unknown. in fact, 99 percent ofthe human body is made from just ix clements(see chart forspecificpercentages) Like ll other life discavered to date, weare carbon-based; the biomolecules that makeup urbodiesare constructed using frameworks of carbon atoms. Carbon isalmost uniqueamong, theelements;tissmall nsizeand can make four covalent bonds to other atoms, allowingst to formthe backbone of key molecules that form the human body, including proteins, fats, sugarsand DNA. The bondsare strong enough tohold the molecules ina stablestructure, but not so strong that they cannotbe taken apart again, allowing the body to break and reform ‘molecules over and aver as require. 020 Journey inside the body to discover just what we are made of... Calcium isthe mostabundant mineral inthe ‘human body, important forthe regulation of protein production and activity Complex cascades ofchemical reactions ‘occur within the gel-like cytoplasm and organelles ofcells-tiny structures that perform specific functions within a cel Phosphorusisusedtomake adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which has high-energy phosphate bonds thatcan be broken in order rt topower cellular processes: ATP ss essentially ourcels'fuel. Cells are coated in receprorsand respond rapidly to environmental changes, communieating via chemical signalsand electrical impulses. During ‘embryonicdevelopment, chemical gradients tell developing cells where to go, and what cell type to become, resulting na new person. Interestingly, the majority of thecellsin the ‘human body are not human, Microbes make up od od 1 twee coset between oneand three percent of ourbody ‘massand are hugely important fr our proper functioning, They have million different coding genes formaking proteins, compared to less than 3,000 inthe human genome. The bacteria that liven our digestive system provide essential support toa; they ferment undigested carbohydrates, allowing usto access energy we couldn'totherwise digest, and they havearole inthe production ofvitaminslike biotinand ‘vitamin K.Thetr presence in the gutalso prevents bad’ bacteria from talingholdand making us unwell, Even more unusually, atleast eight percent ofthe human genomeisviralin origin. Retrovirusesare able to insert their DNA into our chromosomes, and at several points in ‘human evolution genes that started outin viruses have become permanently entwined with ourown geneticinformation,DID YOU KNOW? Bone works lke reinforced concrete with its collagen fibres the steel supports and the minerals cement The structure of bones ‘The long bones of the body, such asthe fermur (highbond), contain two distinct types of bone Cortical bone The tough outer byer of bones contains densely Osteocyte bone matric vertaly They ap rene Blood vessels: Bethe tssueanda geod biood supply tows or neal exchange, Win the ee fn honeycomb structure From storage as eae Osteoclast Ostencaet aerated cal of tig bone toreease minerals nd Osteoblast producing te colagen sea Hair under the microscope A strand of hair canbe divided into three estinct regions Matrix Cate tte rate toproduce naw ha Papillae Boos vessel supty metres thecal emataandvost Six main elements of the body (99%) DH owvoen: 659% © carbon: 18% DH Hydrogen: 10% PH wirosen: 394 calcu: 2% DH Phosphorus: 1%6 Beneath the s| ‘Skin has several layers with a unique function Stem cells, Ainjerofetomealle fiderm dies to repace the deadone. Dermis ‘tw om Sndaupor tal ‘esses tat uy the sincae Fat ‘pos tse proves Cuticle The cutie of the ais ‘mode oflayers of fttened als that over, protecting tea Comnified layer ‘Tho very outer yer of of fatened ead cs protective bare Largest organ er Epidermis isfomedot eas inom saat. ina matioyred testuctre Papillae ‘The bumpy structure wean derma andepidermis hops tounchorthe tae Iners together }-Epidermis ;-Dermis L-Subcutis Medulla ‘Anopen, unstructured ‘cores up the ‘centre ofthe hae Cortex “The boey ofthe has made tomealed strands of erat, Nan grist the ‘ovtestendit ts cour Body composition by tissue type Skeletal muscle: 36-42% Fat: 13-20% Bone: 12.20% ‘Skin: 16% vvvvyv Brain: 2% oat7 NVR aUS A/S 8 = aad feet cSteplerm race. ieee! Coll membrane Sbstarce tht THecalig erie tee Close u Mitochonérion with cells Co ede! antics shaw se ae ae anesae elena eee apes cee pay nee oo ee. Pai pertlent eb eco re pe ean ade ‘ een eres Endoplasmic ee a G cascnie ‘genetic message and assemble the corresponding Proteins tt 16 poten sing amino aeds a5 buaing blocks. rots tobe tobecaported Exported from the cal for example, abodes or digestive Bee from te eat are ‘naymes reconstructed within a sares of membranes Here : trade rie ses ‘they gain a number of modfcations which enable them to survive the ‘fmembranes, hareh envrrment when they Teve tho eal fo travel around the body Key cells of the body Blood and Contractile cells, Stem cells Endocrine cells, e immune cells Type: Muscle ‘Type: Undifferentiated Type: Hormones of the mmune sistemare all producedin th edgesef thecal together locations and provi areola ent om acl nerves or by oer nucleus, enabling them to pack more of Nerve cells ‘maintain andepasrthe Body ‘ceptors that are on the cel surface oemogin, to er ctope Neve cals hove Extracellular matrix cells, Germ call Specaiedmembranes, ype: Connective sue Type Reproductive Epithelial cells ‘whchuse molecular Thecats athe dy ar supported by Sperm and eg calls have ‘ype: Skin and membranes Dumpstomantainan networks of foes nein colagen sd Iustone copy ofeach Thecallsthat cover curbods and ne eactroceial gradient thi allows them tr. The are generated by Shrmosome an are ‘curbody envtestorm bncions withone totrranit cecal signals Neves.” extracelidar mat cle robot, formas by aspect pe ‘create strong bariers to protec the body. covered bya ftty sheath of myelin ‘ones that make up the matrix has.afull set of 46 chromosomes. 022ID YOU KNOW? The biggest molecule in the body is chromasame 1, a cantinuous strand of DNA containing 10 billion atoms Muscle and movement Lbaararae Why our bodies Por acd Skeletal muscle tate than shea ‘when stretched vo ongHypothalamusThe red colour of blood isn't due ta iran, but the shape of the porphyrin molecule that contains it The ageing body Hair loss DOtycrtestasteone OH ‘Tpehuman body changes as ages andthe peak Paneesenerong OAT) tine for orn ution though tobe = ‘sfound the age 30. The boy has aman ‘Sonnhargrowth sed ‘aoacty forregeneration butcallscanoniy vide Sownhaatawahand atte number fines, ad os we get our our Sayersye fovecome Eyesight Abley te rparr damaged tsve dereaces. svat enn ‘Asthelensof te eye ons t Dramate changes, such the menopause Seca Becomes les ie, whch produce obvious effects onthe body. Fema Sex hormones are not st involved in reproduction, But als pay aroleln athe processes, such ashe ‘maintenance of bone density Inthe absence of an oad to osteopross. Asia, but ess testosterone levels begin to drop. ‘Simlardecine in fenctonaiy canbe observed bogs te decreso, usted atone n te rain {wan ever greater sk of cancer Homever it's not all ba. Life expectancy ison Understanding ~and beng able to stow =the t “tances more atk Issding to luring of ion Smell receptors however ‘wth age. Oder acts Mires inte olaeory leading to seduced Hearing Theatr hal cols of these specials sensory ‘ecoptrs re nti to reon eng | Wrinkles ‘ppt network tha oe Ahr the cas prose es 0257} WHAT ARE WE MADE OF? YOUR FIRST , YEAR What happens to the human body in the first 12 months of life 026: BIRTH Babies enterthe world with alot of growing eft todo.Fromaround3 weeks ofpregnancy babies start becoming cramped, As the foetus gets biggeritelemandsmoreand more energy, and there only so much thatthe mother can supply Before theyareborn,theirgrowthstartsto slow. Entering the world forthe first time isa shock toababy’ssystem, and the ist daysof life are ‘rtical. Until the moment they emerge from the ‘womb, theirmother’sbady has supported every one oftheir needs. She maintainsa constant temperature digests food to supply nutrients ‘nd breathes o supply oxygen. She alsodeals with wasteand fends ofinfection. Then suddenly the baby hasto fend frtselt. Asithitsthe coldair ofthe delivery room, a powerful inward breath pullsits lungs openand fills them witha. nthe safety ofthe womb, all the oxygen the baby needed came from the ‘umbilical cord. The lungs werefullofamniotic fiuidand the heart diverted blood past them through hole called the foramen ovaleanda tube called the ductusarteriosus, Suddenly the baby needs to breathe. The hole nthe heart slams shutand blood rushes into the lungs. Within hours or daysafterbirth the tube, and ‘another thatcartied blood from the umbilical, corditothe heart ductus venosus, closes too,Sr 0aF of eh .2.— go>rj NVR aUS A/S 8 = aad ‘The other organ systemsalso spring nto action. Thebaby has been practising breathing and swallowingin the womb, and the kidneys have already started working, Within 2g hours the gutstarts moving, passinga darigreen or black, tarry substance called meconium. It contains bile, mucus, amniatiefluldand anythingelse the baby has ingested in utero, (Once this luldis ou ofthe way milk digestion canbegin, ‘The newborn stomach istiny — barely the size ofa marble —so the baby needs towake every few hoursto fed. Itcan only takea few small mouthfulsatatime. ‘Themother producesathick, golden-yellow breast milk called colostrum. sacked with energy butislowerin fatthan normal breast milk, which newborns canfind hard to digest. Instead, i'sfullof protein perfect foragrowing baby. Colostrum hasa mild laxative effect, which hhelpstogetthe baby’s gut moving, anditcomes witha secret weapon: antibodies. These neutralise bacteria and viruses, tickingthem together and triggering their destruction, Throughout pregnancy they cross from mother tobaby viathe placenta, butthistype of immunity is only temporary. Thebaby will be ableto makeitsown, butthistakesa ‘months, Inthe meantime, colostram provides boost, helpingtostaveoff infection, ‘Thenewborn hassome ricksofits own tohelp \tsurvivethisvulnerabletime. Though they havea lato learn, babies are born with some Vital reflexes builtin. These include simple things ke blinking, swallowingand yawning, alongwith more complicated responses. Therootingreflex makes the baby turn their head oropen their mouth when something “Babies are iefeeRV ita RVite)| Silene le touchestheircheek or lip and thesuekcreflex ‘makes them suckifsomethingtouches the roof oftheir mouth. Theseinstinetshelp ‘with feeding. Then thereare the Mororeflexand the palmargrasp reflex. The firsthappens when baby feelsasifthey are‘alling. They extend thelrarmsandlegsandarch thelr backs before culingup. The second makes the fingers ‘and tes culifyou touch the palm oftheir hand orthesoles oftheir feet. Together they help the baby tosurvive FIRST WEEKS Brand newbablescanhearand respond tonolsesandareborn with the beginnings of ‘communication. hey willturn theirhead towards lightandsound, make out the face ofthe person holding themand cry when they rein need. tonly takesa few weeks forthese skillstostarto improve. They rapidly startto recognise the voice oftheir mother, and soon they begin tomake different noises, cooing ‘and gurglingas wellas crying Forthe fist few weeks bables can only focus ‘onobjects right in frontof thelr faces, and thelr eyes frequently cross. Atthisstage the hand-eye coordination ispoor Very young babies willinvestigate their own hands and fingers, but they can't yet use them properly, and they often keep their hands infists. Inside, their bodiesare undergoingrapid change fuelled by milk the baby sbeing breastfed, normal breast milkhas now replaced colostrum. l'shigherin fatand contains enzymes that help the digestive system to access the nutrients. I’salso packed with sugars. Not ‘only dothese provideeneray, they alsohelp, friendly bacteria to colonise thelargeintestine 2b aro ready tory the rst Mader Ly Srey ena ed Pecos or ‘TWO MONTHS OLD Babies spend much oftheirtime eatingand sleeping, and their bodiesstartto grow rapidly Inthe womb, cells divide constantly to form tissues and organs, butafter birth growth shifts, Rather than makingnew ells, bablesincrease thesize ofthe cells theyalready have ‘The issues of newborn bablesare very diferent to those of children and adults. Thereis ‘more fd around theirmuscleand nervecells, ‘and they have less cytoplasm inside, As the baby develops thisbalanceshifts. Muscle cells expand, illingwith cytoplasm and molecules {involved in contraction. Nerve cellsextend, strengthening connections and making new ‘ones, and theamount fluid outside these cells start tofall, With newfound strength babies learntopushup with theirhands when placed ontheirtummiesandstarttoholdtheir ada little steadier, their movements becomingless Jerky and more coordinated Fatcontinuesto quickly build up underthe ‘kin, helpingto keep the infant warm. By theDID YOU KNOW? The average length of a full-term newborn is 5a-sicm. By their first birthday, they've grawn by esc Anterior fontanelle Set ecween the bones of thes else ter Brown fat Aspe typeof fat chestond ares ‘generates est, epg Lungs rel fine soy to dies rts. Bladder ‘The ney stark aft al fA\ ri ° Immune cells Brest mk eon ants broviding extra protection. ll { tNVR aUS A/S 8 = aad twomonth markbablesarealreadystartingto Ithasprovidedenergyandcontributedtoa __and forefinger andthey wil test new objects by velop social skills. They begin ofollow things growingstore offatundertheskin.Butnowthe shakingand banging. They will begin cruising, with theireyes and recognise peopleata digestive system sready for more. holdingon toobjects and moving around on two distance, and they begin tosmileand laugh. Anewborn'sdigestiveorgansarenotonly _legs.Some may even akettheir fist steps. smallerthanan adult’ butthey also work ‘The holethatshunted blood through the heart HALFWAY THROUGH diferently.Theymake diferentquantitiesot __ when they were born is nov fully healed ove. Babies can inallyholdtheirheadssteady at _enzymesandbileand they operateatadifierent Backteetharestartingtocomethroughand the aroundsweeks ofage. hey willalsostartto pH Butatsxmonthsoldthingsarestartingto _digestivesystem processing ull meals. The ppushdownwith helrlegsifthey're heldabove change. Thefirstteeth comethrough,starting lungs havemorealt sacs, nreasingsurface area ahardsurface,and bysixmonthsthey anroll withthe bottom frontteeth then the top. forgas exchange, and thebrain has developed over, pushuptoacrawlingpositionandeven _Swallowingimprovesand thedigestivesystem billions uponbillions of ew connections stand with support, ‘willstartto produce enzymes to breakdown Overthe coming months, babies transform ‘taround thistimebabiesalsobegintouse complicated meals, into toddlers. Asthey beginto develop their theirhandsandeyestogether. They reach for understanding ofthe world they star wanting, objectsand rakewiththeirfingerstograbthem, FIRST BIRTHDAY tobemoreindependent. They learntawalk, andtheystarttousetheirmouthstoexplore _Bytheirfirstbirthday, babiesarestartingto _theystarttotalkand they even play games. objects further. Withallthisextrastrengthand develop complex behaviours. They have Human bablesareborn tiny and vulnerable, but coordination, thegraspandMororeflexesareno favourltethingsand favourite people. They tart _ ina few short months they arealready wellon longer needed. These early fall-safesfadeaway. tounderstand object permanence’—theldea the way togrowing up. Bablesstarttoleamtopasstoysfromonehand that objects and people exist even though you totheother. can‘talways se them, They look for hidden Theireyesightimprovestoo.By thisstagethey objects and they begin tograsp the effects of are becoming moreperceptivetothesubtleties gravity bylearningtodrop thingsand watching AM ofdifferentcolours, and theystarttocopy facial how'they allto the ground. aur ‘movements. They recognise and express ‘They also beginto respond torequestsand emotion and beginto = - make demandso!thelr fd theirmice Thay Tred Mens Ripe) own-teywitcopy progress, six-month- blow saspberriesand and use gestures lke startto make consonant ‘waving, pointingand ee ee cece arnt Pena once atientonandwoerres EMMIGM ERRORS eR Cerere Bd understand fort Tofuelallthisprogress six-month oldinfants they willstartto communicate using babble’ oftenswitchtosolidfood. Asthebabygrows,the Their coordination hasby now improved to. fatcontentofbreastmilkhasbeen increasing The grasp rflexis ong gone, and they can move fromaboutag/dLofcolostrum (grams per objects easily from one handt the other. They ecilite, equivalentto oomililitres|to49/4L. _canpickupsmall things between theirthumb Babies sarteraing {hr stepandmove ‘wating | 030Baby boys gain around 6kg in weight in their first year. Girls, on the ather hand, gain araund s.5kg in weight Compact bone meee ‘Skeletons start out as cartilage and gradually turn to bone Secondary centre of ossification five years Poe Newborn brains grow from 25 to 90 per cent of adult. co es Rey 123456789101112345678910 11121314 153617 18 19 = 2 © re z a 3 = ~“ - Gi = a. Sg ‘atl i a < fe a ca i Soe| Modern neuroscience is unravelling the body’s most complex organ and rebuilding it from the bottom up10 YOU KNOW? When Albert Einstein died in 955, pathologist Thamos Horvey stole his bin, cut it up and preserved itn jars Brain map ‘The brain an be dvded into Teint tractors’ cach with { speciaist set of hnctons Information transfer ‘CORPUS CALLOSUM. Latin or tough body; this wide sheet of ares comets he tana ht es tthe bran ransferng information Memory ccenERRUM rakes up the maonty ie cded re our nas complex of aks irl peonina ramon ana. ‘Temperature and hydration HYPOTHALAMUS “The potas responsible for trating ‘Sula wai the brady tmantors na Setar ‘zal parameters the the boy temperate sd yan, Hormones PITUITARY GLAND “This eosin glands potatos and produces homca messages stead ofelectal mp, Perception "THALAMUS. ‘Te thalamus iea ‘Sensory infomation, onmocting th parts {tthe ban ond bey inva in pereeption ‘sea contol the Sleepnate cee ‘Sleep and dreaming Pons ‘he ponsicancther ry avon within he bain, Siloning nee inte ‘ere to contact those m te cortex The Important inthe step le ad reg, {hat ep sal ae, he ‘eating, swallowing tom onetothe other Visual and ‘auditory ‘systems ‘MnDBRAIN "te main Ie buted near Thecentreot ‘hetbrin andi athway response for Coordinated movement. sentiotheby. Connects nerves ‘BRAINSTEM ‘The bra stom mars th en ofthe train and connect the nerves tthe ‘pinaora contains we dint Stetures the pons andthe mela he human brains the most complicated T structure in the known universe. thas taken hundreds ofmillonsofyears of evolution to construct, and over the last seven millionyearsithas tripled in size. Itveighs litle more thana bag of sugar, but packed Inside tare G6 billion neurones, inked together by over:00 tilion connectionsina network more powerful than even themost advanced supercomputers ever built By far the largest partof the human brainisthe forebrain, andlike the brains ofother mammals, itis covered ina thicklayer of neurones knownas the cerebral cortex. Butin humans, this layer has been massively expanded, The human cerebral cortex has1,c00 timesas many neuronesasthe samestrucure na mouse, andithas not yet stopped evolving. ‘Thesmallest processing unitsinthe cortex arelnownas neocortical columns, where each contains thousands ofdiferent connections. Over the course ofevolution, these neocortical columns hhave been duplicated over and over again, until spaceln the skull started torun out The cortex developed deep ridges and foldsto it oreand ‘more processing power into thesametiny space, andifunfolded, would coveran area measuring ‘wosquare metres 5square feet). Theneurones that make up the brain risseross ‘over one anotherina vastnetworkand each Individual cell makes up 010,000 connections, building the most complex circuit in history. Inaov,ateamat the Cente for Regenerative ‘Therapies in Dresden, Germany, examined the formation ofneurone connections in doned mice. They wanted toleam how much thestructure ofthe brain is inluenced by ile experience. Because the mice were clones, each ‘was genetically identical, meaningthatany differences in their brains would be purely down totheir environment. ‘Themicelivedin large cages, with lots of toys ‘and places toexplore,andafter usta few months, ferences became apparentin thelr brains. The ‘mast exctable, outglng,curfous mice had many more new nerves and new connections than thet lazier counterparts; their rainshadadaptedas they eart. ‘While the undertying fabricofthe brainisthe ‘same, every neurone in every brainisiferent, ‘and each makes ts own unique path. Every brain{s wired differently, and the unique set of connections is based on experiences. ‘Mappingthe connections in the human brain {san enormous ask and work isongoing. The Human Connectome Project, launched in 2009, Finding peace Meditation has been practised for thousands of yar a a means to relax think ot fn {Elghtenment In 2014, an international team of researchers based in Norway and Ausra, ‘collaborated to understand why Ie such 2 powerful took There are tw types of meditation: concertrative, where a person focuses on specific ‘thoughts and nonectiv, were they lt their rind wander. By stusying MRI scans of ‘experienced meeitaton practitioners, the eam ‘discovered that wien you et your mind wander in hondrectivemedaton, ranactity Increases, patil inthe pattsof te bran Irvoived ‘emetionl processing UTM NS 033‘sesigned to map the intricate connections between ll ofthe neurones inthe human brain, Jinan effortanalogousto the Human Genome Project. Computers can be programmed to trace the paths of neurones through brain-scan mages, ut even the most advanced machines ‘make mistakes, and everything has to be double checked bya human, ‘Asanalternatve, some research teamsare ‘oyinga new approach, where instead of using computersto analyse the data they re using volunteers. In2on, the online game Foldt made the headlines when players managed tosolvea {decade-old biological question. By tapping into the spatial skills of videogamers, researchers used volunteers to solve three-dimensional protein puzzles hata computer would strugle to complete. By simply playing the game, hundreds ofpeople worked together tohelpsolvethe structute ofa protein made byasimian retrovius {hat causes AIDS ke symptoms in monkeys. Thisapproach isnowbeing extended tothe field of neuroscience and crowd-sourcingis being ‘used to map the connections between neurones, Inthe back ofthe eye. Tracking the intricate pathways ofneurones inthe brainisa dificult ‘aslcfor computers, butpeopleare much betterat spotting patterns. yeWireisa project designedtomap the nerve connections inthe human retina, Players are given half-finished neurone and asked to work through slices ofthe brain, colouring in the connections. Each cubesection s manually checked muliple dmesby diferent people, so \someonemakesa mistake tsaveraged out by the community. More experienced players oversee the work andl can make changes ifthey feel they ate needed. This approach speedsup the process by thousands of times. BU eo (s ity of sleep By monitoring the brain's Picatinny Pete ered Crue eat STAGE 2 Bs STAGE 4 Bray pn) a crrrel oo The developing brain ray A ie Se Baby Inordero trough the bth canal human abs rust ‘bom well before thor rains we Feed devon, 034 Infant Stpport cls known as la provide protectin, tesietofom ad ol Cees Pe ced Cod rd child By tho age of tno 1, the apd development of new eften and losing ones that ae longer vale.(DID YOU KNOW? You sleep far around a third of your life and have araund five dreams every night Making memories ‘The human brain has an amazing capacity for retaining information pcg IMPLICIT MEMORY ‘Thesesypesof memories conotequre oneiou real nd ae ten ase on motor ‘hl 8y reposting tasks bering abe Paying the plano, pathways become azomate. ‘The brain very goed at mating asocatins, and incoming nfrmaten s compared © Sore data sowing to qu reel tings ‘we cleady in or have experances blo corer) eres h EXPLICIT MEMORY Erp mamares ar aecese conscious, ‘They canbe trea eosodes, eked to spec evnt or lace, or stored by eaten) a5 ‘more abstract inom, ana one pata linked to thes. Recogntion areca ean Bo tiger ‘ter lated meron. pred comet Eee ete Eee se oer Human sworsby ri pices tinfmaton tagather Memories re rotstoodse ‘naval ties but ‘ing sever ‘Stren sts the ban pera Pd Peta pay Teenager ‘nrg austin the bron starts tthe baka ver ora eotnuing nt th eonage ere The Drees cortex woe npn, gerard ‘otra conto thet ob eevee ao Sungests thot adlescents body clocks ore weed “ferent so he natraly goo bed a wake vo le. Adult Most gronth and remodeling complete by citbroin albeit ot much slower ote tan cre Staying active snd providing he ban wth engagement ‘ew pathways contin forma we eam Old age Damage tothe ran cannot easly be epaked sos t 23ers of wear stato appa Connections et ‘smapses, pd gradualy mental function can decie, lending to ape-ated nesses the Asheimer’s asee snaPakineo's. 035Although projects lke ByeWire provide etaled and biologically accurate picture of what {sgoingon inside the human brain, rebuilding the entiestructure using this method wil sil take decades. The alternative isto simulate the brain, taking what we already know andusingitasa scaffold to build the parts we have yt to study. By going backandtesting the model brain against the eal data, sclentists can check that thelr simulation s workingas itshould Japan's K Computeris one ofthe fastestand ‘most powerfulin the world and in 24, 83,000.01 Itsprocessors were combined in order to simulate ‘oneper cent ofone second of human brain activity. This was a hugeachievement, butittook {he machine go minutesand barely represented fraction of the power ofthe human brain, ‘The problem i that most modern computers are builtonarchitecure completely different tothe human brain. The brain smade up of processing cores, capable of specialising to perform highly speciitasks. They are ess precise, buthave much more flexibility, and most Importantly, the capacity to learn. Memories are not stored inone particular place, andate instead distributed across the network. Incontrast, ‘modern computers use programs inorder to ecide what todo, and they store elementsina bierarchial memory In20n, the European Commission funded the Human Brain Project witha grant of billion (€800 million, billion) in order toaccomplish justthat. Thisambitious, ten-year endeavour ‘alms to develop cutingedge computational tools ‘oassistin the understanding of brain function, bringing together the fragments from diferent diseiplinesand providingan unprecedented ‘map of human bain activity. The Human Brain Project hopes touse this information to build supercomputer capable ofsimulating the network that makes up the human brain, ‘They estimate that it would take one laptop to 036 Imaging the brain ‘Take a look at the most common techniques used to study the living brain cr Computed tomoaraoy (CT) scans use Xrays to bla ‘bevedmenional mage of he bran, The radon, Slowing» dnsty mop te preduced. prods Senthying tumours. ‘stone tomer brain att. y lbeling oxigen ‘an Bemtred. The fags emt low-energy adaten wa Se, ore more ace, ther anand blot ee nd chav otiecrre ban eveytwo sends Ka EEG Bectroencegholerams take advantage ofthe octal gras produced by nerves to produce 3 ‘re blo detec the patterns of nerve ati seul for slep studs.‘A human broin weighs around faur times as much as a chimpanzee’s brain Brain damage Dene ca eon a ety ra ped MODERATE SEVERE RCuricay simalate the activity of neneuroneand are working casey with IBM to develop powerful neuromorphiesupercomputers ‘Neuromorphlechipsare computer chips ‘modelled on the architecture ofthe human brain. 1BMreleaseda chip modelled on the human brainin.aotg. Known asthe S/NAPSE chip, it bas one milion ‘neurones’ connected by 256 million ‘synapses. They are arranged into 4.096 ‘smnapticcores, which function in parallel with #oneanothe, ust ke the processing cores inthe brain, Just ke the bain, they operate on demand and can compensate fone core happens ofall By feeding these computers with inputs that ‘mimicbiological signals, scentistscan then Sa ey ‘examine the electricalactvty and can see where information is being processed and store. The proectisa collaboration between over 100 Instutdons in 24 countries. ‘New technology isthe key to modelinga structureas complexasthe human brain, and other international eforsarealsoin placeto providenew technology. Inox, USPresdent Barack Obama announced the Brain Research through Advancing innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) initiative, The NIH National Institutes of eat) allocated £24 milion $4omilion}in 2ox4todevelopnew technologesto find the best \way tounderstandthebrain. In order to break thebrain downand rebuild taccuately the Peay Peay projectcombinedsilcon-based echniquesand advancements in stem cel biology, brain imaging ‘and medical drug development. ‘The practical applications ofthis future technology ae incredible, but we are already ‘able to interface with the brain in more ways than leverbefore Light sensitive retinal implantscan restore sight to the bind by sending electrical signals tothe opticnerve whileauditory brainstem implants communicate sound signals elrectly tothe bain inpatients who are profoundly deat However, one ofthe most incredible technological developments ofallis the BrainGate system, frst revealed in 2006, The technology o37j NVR aUS A/S 8 = aad Cutting-edge neuroscience ‘Thehuman brain sone ofthe most complex structures inthe known universe and understanding how it works is ‘an enormous scentific undertaking. Modem neuroscience brings together experts roma hugearrayoffelds and by usinga combination ofthe most advanced technologies, medical techniques, biological research and computational ‘modelling, scientists are finally beginning to untangle the many profound mysteries ofthe human brain. Building How mind control works Single eaiont an compen computer rrning allow a brain ‘our thoughts to be transmitted over the internet Large-scale prosects aim to record Signal analysis Emulate the human Mimimcwattharegmss |) neupetusee tomes, iain at every level Gedesonetecovan gencatng __ weret ncarowed wie Stenqaniie toa Gamat ta, DNA and L dies neurotransmitters % Wireless transmission ee Ture norectartetwobran ‘manipulate the 3D structures, e ee ee of rein using computer ice verte f ftects that anges mot | ™s eee ey eta des. ( sia Sart Nerves and a eed support cells cone we Understanding thw he ran teaame, Soprach By cresting otal ‘sags, Rishoped that he fEanbe sates. Neural pathways Some projets aim toman ll ‘th conection inthe, humana generating 330 ‘ing Others aim to sults blogal les. Lobes and structures Satine wl lon to more sey examin the Interactons between different Whole brai 12013, tek Comouterin slated human rin seshty. wh 705028 Imsctine 80 mites to eno he siz ofthe human doein the moet ears 50 Slice. ‘na groundbreaking experiment in 2013, escachers atthe Univers of Washington succesfully Erked two human brains together and prove their Principle with videogame. ‘The city i under attack by prates, where payer one, the sender, must Intercept thei rockts. They can see the serena ar aed with 3 cannon, but they do not have aeyboard and cannot presi’ layer tw, the receiver, [siting another rooms he cannot se the game, But he does have keyboard. Player one thinks about fring the enon and raclons of» second late, payer ‘wo pushes the button, saving the ct and winning the gar Player one was wired up to an elctroencephalogram (EEG) an his bain activity was being mentored. When he was thinking about pressing the button, there wasa characterise signal nthe ru band ofthe EES, tagerg the ‘rogram to send a wireless signal to player twa. Payer two was wearing a special designed co on his scalp that gonerated 3 ‘maaneti eld positioned over the part ofthe brain that contro contraction in {the ight had. The signal from player one was converted ito magnetic stimulation, which nturn triggered electrical ctv in the bra causing layer ‘wort involuntary fete cannon 038Your brain praduces enough electricity to power a light bulb and consumes 20% of the axygen you take in Decoding the brain ‘Computer programs can learn to decode brain-sean data and essentially read our thoughts Training images ‘MRI scan Theprogrm straneducegaseves Funetona mane rezonanceknaing ‘used ont the part fhe ban setae by ferent visual strlen _ @ fimages, songs thei ferresponangt Ml ators TRAINING TESTING [+] ? Test image ‘Whentheifjects shown ar tnags, he pagram sascha Voxel pattern The MR data ctored vol — Fa =SHOE Identification A machine that can read your mind Have yt ver withed someone ole ould S80 ‘ohat you can see? In 201, ateam atthe University of Carma, Berkey, developed a program that cou tell what fm you were watching jst by reading your bra activity. The Program could even red the images you ore ‘watching an dspay them n sree ‘Volunteers wre shown hours of vdeo cps and foreach nether bran sethity was mapped using functional magnetic esonancelmaging (MRD, The program ins thon trained to acsocite patos of brain att withthe coresponding mages Using thi dataset a 2 reference, the program wos than shown new {MR data recorded se people as they watched unknown clips. The Program was abl a eompare the new data oaist ts waning dato and guess wnat the test Subject was watching by comping and averaing the closest matches in tommoving ealages. The resulting images were cel close tothe originals. ‘usesa sensor implanted on the motor cortex of thebrain to pick up electrical signals generated ‘when the patient thinks about moving, These signalsare then decoded bya computer program ‘and sent toa prostheticlimb, By carefully training the program to recognise specfcsignals, patients areable tomovetheirbionichands sing ustthe Power oftheir brains. ‘Taldng electrical brain interacesonestep further at the University of California, San Diego, rescarchersare using electricity to selectively ‘erase memories. They have shown that by using particular frequencies of electrical pulses they ‘anproduce changes in the nerve celisinthe brains ofrats, making them forget traumatising ‘experiences in their past. ‘Aswecontinueto learn moreabout the connections in thebrain, the possblitiesfor Interacting with twill only continue to increase. ‘The held ofneurescience advancing faster than ever before, and hugeinterational ‘collaborations ike the Human Brain Projectand the BRAIN initiative, are bringing mountains of research datatogether, creating resources that ill revolutionise the field of neuroscience The puzzle ofthe human brain has been veringsclentiss, dactors, and philosophers forthousands ofyearsand understanding how itworkss perhaps the most challenging problem inthe history ofscience. However, with acombination ofpowerfulnewtechnologyand = Intemational collaboration, the complexity ofthis 2 mass ofneuronesis starting to unravel. Verysoan, £ ‘wemighteven be abletorebullda functioning Algal brain rom the bottom up, 5 039j NAW AC aol Vw sae are YOUR SKELETON This incredible living framework provides more than just structural support day he06 bones oftheadutthuman T skeleton make upa strong, exible Framework hatprotects our vital ECT Da) tera organs and allows our bodes to move, as well as beinga mineral storeand stem. cell reserve Boneisa composite material, constructed from three basic ingredients: collagen strands, asugary protein glueand {Inorganic calcium salts, The collagen fbres are arranged inalternating layers, crossing over oneanother, providinga Aloxible scaffold, and calcium saltsare luedin between forstrength and rgtaty The outside ofeach bone is composed of plates, orhollow tubes, ofdense cortical ‘bone, supported onthe inside bya honeycomb network ofsponay trabecular bone. This networkisslightly exible and helpsto distribute theload, curving the 80% een 20% Sa tensileand compressive forcesacrossthe ‘es ‘ends ofthe bone, while providing em tmaximumstrength ‘Spongy bone isalso home to the bone a arrow, which housesciem cellscapabe \ of producing most ofthe cells ofthe blond \ se nr anol and immune system. They are constantly, oe ‘the skeleton is to provide active, and millions upon millions of new: _ setructural Framework redand white blood celisare produced a aoe every minut. ‘Embedded within the bonematrixare cellsknownas osteocytes. They do not move, butare capable ofdetectingstresses Inside the bone itself, and can trigger the formation ofnew boneina process known asremodelling. The old bone is broken down by large cells knownas osteoclasts, and new collagen and mineralsare {deposited by smaller osteoblasts. Together, thetwo celltypesareableto releaseand store calciumand phosphorous inthe skeleton for use elsewhereinthebody-Theyareunderthe influence of hormones released by glands inthe brain, and when levels of minerals runlowinthe body, thesignals encourage the osteoclasts to begin wearingaway at the surface ofthe bone, releasing minerals {nto the bloodstream, When mineral levels are high, osteoblasts ay dawn new bone, replenishing thestore. 040‘DID YOU KNOW? The hands and feet contain aver half of the bones in the bady, with a total of 105 between them Bone structure a The long bones are formed into tubes, closed ‘ompact bone supported at both ends and capped with cartilage eee Articular cartilage eenterset te Red bone marrow Sher ae covered ni Bootes re rede in Siopoy crap preven tebe arn and Stor ele oneyeom tracts fhe Compact bone Blood vessels Sreeuete she Bociveren ino ower Soot bre trond peed Sra cine idee we covet ata Su ody. Spongy bone Z Tieaesiantd nneeorb Periosteum ‘scene en on j Tea one bone Sn nee reeadieatyeral scum ocho Pmttccteey armor Srna coed emoaetbone adult ‘Teqrowth late tse s child {hme to bene snd stops Medullary cavity [ Cartiope continues to proscing carte Thecenveatthelong Feematthe growth reverting the bones om bones tited withyetow | pnts end ettum (engthening any fre. bone mar, comaining many ates. fit are ae tthe ene iergtening the inedty ane How bones Sree grow Gromth Seow Ossfed grow ‘Secondary late sere, om __ Blood cavity supply newton BONne marrow cells bipunerts iccertsnaest tavou hig rent cetera rao he aoe Tecoaredtbmca omer co eee cance tear et eee eee cane eae errs Corer ned ieee nearest Soe ae eo process of developmentrn 8 o rm Q < = WwW = ae < Ed ae = Ce Or ee oy Cec ‘Uoja[arJs UeUMY ay} 0} apIns Ino jim Apoq N04 ut saui0g at} MOLD] 0} 199 UWla}SAs |E}9JOH4S ;‘01D YOU KNOW? Tendons attach muscles to bones, while ligaments attach bones to bones and are involved in stability 043 Cree Perot7) NVR aUS A/S 8 = aad Joints For individual bones to function together, they must be linked by joints ‘Some bones, like thse inthe skull, donot ‘need to move,andare permanently fused togetherwith mineral sutures. These are lknownas xed joints and provide ‘maximum stability. However, mostbonesneed exible linkages. Insome parts ofthe skeleton, partial lexbiityissufficent, soa thatthe ‘bones requireisalittlecushioningto preventrubbing, The bonesare joined bya rigid gel ike issue known ascartilage, ‘which allows fora small range of ‘compression andstretching These typesof jointsareused where theribsmeetthe sternum toprovideflexibility when f breathing. and between the stacked vertebrae ofthe spinal column, allowing ittobend and fexwithout crushingthe spinal cord. ‘Mostjointsrequirea largerrange of ‘movement. Coveringthe ends ofthe bones Imcartlge providessockabsorption bat ( y forthem to move freely na socket, the \ cartilage must be lubricated tomake it slipperyand wear proof. Atsynovil joints, ends ofthe two bonesare encased ina Basal joint {heen ofthe evo bo i” Thethumbisieined —Thebumps atthe andby atone called insite ing ofthe thetrapecim.itis—frstvertbra Shopesixeasoddle lowing the head to Sndatlows the thumb —tipup down and febendandpiot.tromsdeto se «capsule, coveredon the inside by a synovial ‘membrane, which fillsthe Joint with synovial fluid, allowingthe bones toslide smoothly past oneanother. There are different types ofsynovial joint, ‘each witha different range of motion. sall-and:-socket joints are usedat Hinge joint Ball-and-socket jointsare used atthe Hinge joint ‘boa, ae bane 6 oor, Whee he rounded, ‘lowing the wo 0 together and move thea hae shoulder and hip, and providea wide range ‘of motion, allowing the curvedsurface atthe topend ofeach limb tostide insidea cartilage covered cup. The kneesand elbows hhave hinge Joints, which interlock n one plane, allowing the joint to openand close. Forareas that need tobe flexible, but donot ‘need to move freely, such as the feet, gliding joints allow the bonesto slidesmall distances without rubbing. 15% Poon pent the skeleton Giiding joint Teint etoen the cas bones ofthe et oly afow lmtedmonemert enabling the bones side past ech ote joints Pivot joint Tetum the head fromletto ht the ingahope it ‘ericra now asthe a) Fotaes round spk on ‘resecond vertebra rows ‘ean forming a pet. Elipsoid joint Ball-and- socket joint ‘The org bones of thelegs nd ars both end nba tke rtuberancen vse Inede sockets nthe ip and Souder ging wi Thebones arenes together with tnaments, Bttaced by tendons, Sowing erent ots of waysDID YOU KNOW? The bone marrow produces between twa and three milion new red blood cells every second use grouprans own the ont st eens our Why our joints the femur and “The syroil id sed to lubricate fnehesinatondon the joints contains dssoved atachedtothe "gasses The fd sealed within woes. Capsule, soit thejoint is stretched, Uiecapaue also sttches, ‘creating a vacuum asthe pressure ‘changes, andpuling the gas out of olution and int 2 bubble, which ops, producing 3 racking sound, ‘Synovial membrane Themembrane suroundng {heineror of hej Siovel id Knee cap The patalarevents the leg from wearing ways 300+ Pern porieeats togather by our d Igamens tat femurtothe Patella igament The atta psn both te anaes nthe Cartilage Synovial fluid Ligament I) 9k f i weight of [ e De | movie Beard membrane Capsule ; oe i Inside a joint i Tibia Synovalonts revert mobile ras ofthese rom ging apsinst Tepehdal cs Shacks athe noe tutrobuesseiceuycreadoyares cinta to ‘Fromostve sno colton mdtietveentcecercaed nL Ee: MY contccttntnstysonoidirorireatinoosmaconvan | wetoea te Sout roy te preven rasan ad th marae odes ‘tient. routing wre telont mos ere 0457 NVR aUS A/S 8 = aad Animal cells Atypical, non-specialised animal cell eal “mete steofprteh Nucleus Theale often refered reproduction are Cytoplasm protects rena fhe Mitochondria Mtochendrs ae sah, Cell membrane uch releaze chemical tigate sound ie retin he hat Chemical we el 046 The building blocks of life explained llsarethebullding blocksof allivingorganisms. Individual elisare classified aslivingthings, and thereare rilionsoforganisms which are “unicellularacrossthe planet. Astheyarelivingunits, cells consequently need energy, and therefore respireiosurvive.Partsof the cell called organelles, workllke organsofa body. Energy for the cell toprocesscanbe provided by the cell suchasthrough photosynthesis inplants, orabsorbed nto the cell through cell membranesan then processed withinithy the mitochondrion. Singlecelsoperate lke this, and therearebilliosof unicellular organismsthat survive Independently or within ‘multicellular organisms. These single cellorganismsare generally prokaryoticells,whichare much smallerandlhavefewer organeles, ‘mostimportantlylackinga nucleus. Multiellular organisms are primarily made up ofeularyotic cellswhichare more complexand canthereforespecialisesothe organismcan become more complex. They do thisby grouping {ogethertoformtissues, which then grouptoform ergans within the organism. Celisreproducetoreplace old, damaged cellsinanorganism, to allow growth ofa newindividual. In ‘unicellular organisms, cell reproductions obviously the only \waya population il grow. Prokaryotes favour binary Assion, \whereall geneticinformation s doubledandthen the cell divides {ntotwo new, dential cells Eukaryotecellsuse either mitosis, Which results intwoidentical organismsor ells, ormeiosis, which resultsineach new cellhavinghalf ‘thenumber ofchromasomesofthe original cellDID YOU KNOW? The heart pumps about 1 milion barrels of blood during the average lifetime eae The heart - bet the heart == a vital organ Your heart is a turbocharged double- pumping muscle that beats more than 40 million times every year Pulmonary veins N otonly doesyourheartdo Atertebee cet: tmazingtings does s0 peel eee tirelessly rom the moment SSeS yurreborn|ectaly evenabitbelore thenitotheintanthatyoudle vrlchssomevere between ght and Tsounces_ slightly morefjouemale, tesiyourefemale Rec purposeisto Left atrium push ood hroughyourcely Bindarengwch system proviingcacl onygenand ogenandothr | gthernutrentstoallyourorgans. ee “hehertisconsdereda double Screed pnp beens height alles wet eee ‘blood to your lungs. There, the blood sarees dapeaaloadafarbondioxideand ae picksupsome fresh oxygen which you x fave ebpflly providedby breathing Thenthe arygenatedbloodreturst Leftventrcle —thelethalotthehear. Thishareto- Talehyertisemat ing heartgaitpisknownes feoneydestene—pullonary relation Thelet ie ot ‘ventricle, So thas the heart then pumps this oxygenated BST bod tocveryrpaninyourbody ater oshergpe es, thanyourlungs Yourbrain youstn, Sete athe themuslesinyour thigh, yourspleen comemctngies tei hey al etiood and threo oa yen vite your beating hear. Drenthe eartisel gets blood viaa special setotvensandareresiaown a thecoroary syste. The myocadal Right atrium nmusclowthinthewallofth heart, Beacon be rae perenne Techontare teepbeatng Unfortunatly the the heart, wheret coronary arteries that do this ob are talets passive vverynarrow, between17and22 rillimetresin diameter. they become rimeeel are) clogged with cholesteralor other fatty When the iat atrium contracts, {deposits the heartstops working. Srey What's inside oitisctiine si aoe eo ht ventricle your heart oericcicc cits Blood enters the right ventricle under pressure from the atriur’s you out how your ‘chambers, allow for the build-up of ee ara eee enous ond pressure geno See ee ee em heart pumps BIOOM ne anacircihe ioodtothecorrect pulmonary veto Unepulmonary artery and tomar e ans Ground your body veinsandsreses 047j NR AUW ACA Sa UI\e st 6] Inside the liver and pancreas lobes caudate elghing more thanabag ofsugar, the How do these vital organs work together to digest food? lveristhe gest ofall the internal We: Wslocated mostly inthe rightside ofyourabdominal cavity ands ‘capable of holding roughly ten percent ofyour ‘body’ total blood volume, witharounda {quarter of your blood supply passing through it every minute ‘Theliverhas many rolesinthe body, one of hich isproducingile, the substance that breaksup ft moleculestoald digestion. Upto ‘onelitre ofthisgreenish-yellowliquidis producedand released every day, containinga combination ofsalts, water, cholesterolanda (part ofthesmall intestine} the gallbladderis stimulated to secrete this ile which travels {through the bile ductandreachesthe ‘duodenum. Hereitbreaks down complexfat moleculesintosmaller, circular globules~a processcalled emulsiiation. These globules aresmallerand havea largertota surlacearea, making them easier to digest. ‘Thepanereasalsoplaysa olen digestion, as itproducessubstances that helpto breakdown, food. When the stomach and duodenumare stretched by the presence ofa meal, the ppancreasis triggered to deliveranassortment ‘ofenzymesina cocktail known aspancreatic pigment called bilirubin. Bile travel from the liver tothe gallbladder, whereitisstored, When fat containing food reaches the duodenum Julee.An enzyme called amylase breaks down, starches, while trypsin digests proteinsand lipase works on fatty acids. Bile ducts ‘ct an oe to he Sinusoids Theploce formats to ranater we VT ag The portal ettroute fr brerefered 095 Portal venule Liver lobules where hepatocyte cals generate enero. cnc Thelobulesconsistofrowsofhepatocytes liver cells ileductsandblood ——mdesuestne_ vesels, Roughly 1000000fthese hexagonal-shapedstructuresstwithinthe Paina the organ each consistingofa central einsutroundedby sixhepaticportalvelns cyst andsixhepatic arteries. These blood vessels reconnected bysinusoids, whieh Sado. 0 are small tubes joining the central vein to the surrounding veins and arteries. — via the The products from digestionaretransportedin the loodtothesinusoids, ibe where they canbe absorbed Into thehepatocytes. come 048DID YOU KNOW? The liver is able to regenerate itself - up ta half of it can be removed and will eventually grow back <— esophagus Roughly 25 cantor ng this user tbe ears fod tus and ‘iva rom the tat othe stomach [— Duodenum ‘Theshortst port of the smal Intestin shee bl and pmvereatilce perform thee fgestwe functions Liver metabolism Netaolsm smorethanjst the bodys ayo reaking down o0dnto theenergy we needtsurve-ifste conversion fone chem compoundins aothet.nte vec called hepatneyte perform. ‘any ey metabolic tsk These cela workto conver protein sand Carteyates Into molecule that the bod can ase estore er trample mh ofthe coe that passes through the livrvabrbed bythe hepatoeyeswhichstokpietasalner molecule gjcagen Tiss eatertostoreandcan be qucky tured backino gcse when iesrequres. ‘ Thelverlsresponsbeformatnainingthe tery’ loo lutoselevel Ithereisno ( ) thucoersvalabe th ver breaks down he Stored lycopen instead. By bsorbingand 4 / teleaing gluco, thehepatoeyteshelp to % ( ‘maintaina balance in the body, preventing, = \ dlangerous spkesor éropsin yout blood sugarteve . Pancreatic duct Pareeati he ‘retin tht 5 uetbetre passes Into th omsmon le ~F Pancreas Sting behing oe stomach tis tianauar ara produces ensynes “hathelp breakdown all or ood ous, Mfbeececss, “euniemers” ‘iescbsere. andrapair ahinsinteody, _ muscwetoant exestatyanisin — Amocereaieg “Gowetelors "ovowghecamn” —ongcuntt ane meats “wasnt” “sec pacha mtesiaen ‘ous cays “Around a quarter of ) your blood Supply , passes through your | iver every minute” i J 049rom birth thehead ofa baby willgrow very rapidly. By the age oftwo the bones will havefused together, although growth continues until the age ofseven during which theshapeandsizeofthe skullarealtered.An ‘adulthuman head s made from 22 bones. Eight are presenti the cranium, and forthe face Together they make the skull, which providesa frameworkcforallthe features ofourhead, ‘Theprimary purpose ofthe skull isto prevent damageto the brain. Without, evena small forceagainst the head could cause serious brain damage. Beforebirth, theskull develops holes nwhich are ound the various featuresot the hea. ‘Thesicl hasthreemainstructural features Cavities known as orbitscontainthe «eyes, providing protection butalsoallowing ‘muscles, nerves blood supplyandtissueto reach the eyes. Paranasalsinuses house the nasal cavity andalzo containairfiled spaces, \hichare responsible formaking people sound diferent. Finally, the head is hel together by sutures, which ate soft fbresatbirth bt ater harden togive theappearance ofstitches. They ‘becomeimmovablejoints whichstop the head fallingapart. ‘Themusclesofthe headarestretched over the bonesin the craniumand face likesheets. Therearetwo main categories muscles. The ‘muscles of facial expressionsareresponsiblefor movingthe mouth alteringthechinand ‘movingthe cheeks toasssteatingand breathing Musclesof mastication directly controleating, \, openingana closingthejawand allow sideways movernents smaller musclescontrol otherportionsof theface Inctudingthe Innerearand theeye. Alook at how our thinking machines are put together a oa ofthe skal —— | of the stu = ae eee - Tevewal a eae ree ee eco’ es ae Zygomatic ae ‘bone, and forms partof ‘Sphenoid eae oo ee oe a, eae i ae Ethmoid ——— Mandible fe ee eee a Se ated‘DID YOU KNOW? By measuring the skull, forensic anthropologists con determine the age, race and gender of a skeleton Head anatomy ‘The main features ofthe head that keep us operational a SY tenucisinices —— What’s a Palen lied Spine ‘teatlalowngu Chewangsprnarty conlledysrongmuscisn thejanwhichcan peda yer rtarmutalpressue on shears NSSStouemuniep ——Hepepanmak the nowenentalowiagistochew tangueasoasstin tndmakefadalepressona,”eatngandtaingtaad, 22MDID YOU KNOW? The condition of narmal body temperature is knawn as narmathermia What is thermoregulation? Why do humans need to maintain a constant internal body temperature of 37°C? ourcels work best whenthe heodinglorshudewhonweeerpotedtotoocanmore cual alto beava,butitalao ¥ were insdeyourbodyisy7——-muchStn Teens sweat thoughthe pores The body desreescelsus se cegres that doesrthelpthebodyalsohasa_emsheattovaperise the molsure om he Fanrenhet) Mermoreuaonisahomeosate mimberofaviomatcreponeesthathelp skin cooingus nthe paces functonthatenablesyoutomelntainiiscore regulate temperature Themalnorganinvved Conversely when yursureundigs grow temperature ndependenofhow htorcold.istheein whichisconrled bythe cola yourblzed ves constrnarow), yoururroundingsare tutonomicnervussysem,Whenyour _redcngthefow tbloodtheeurace The Humane cle to repulate body furroundngshearup,ibebraintggerea_‘hlreonyoursintandonendand ou may temgerrreviancorbnalonfinteral _seregotchemnlswhehtellyurblood_slverand et goeebunpeasthe aks procesiesandextermaacions Thelater___Ysslso dae widen) This otoniybrings_arectrpll msc contac pling hal Includesbehavoutalresponessuchas, _warmbloodothesurlace ofthesKinwheret eet fotapal near the skins, Thermoregulation inaction ‘Learn how breathing through your nose ean rogulate temperature Inhaling through your nose het ram tothe coo! ar entering the ‘band atthe sama time, the Exhaling i rem yurlungs ou ‘asl blood sosele, hich ‘rots up your ose an cals dwn te ar you exo7) WHAT ARE WE MADE OF? Why are some people strong but others weak, and how does exercise and trainin; increase muscle strength? [Uf serestteeeye cn inayat ‘stotum energy nto motion. Musclesare broken down nto three categories Skeletal ‘musclesare the typethat peopleinthegym ‘wanandwhatindwvidualsare most commonlyawareol Smootharethe involuntary muselessuchas blood vessels, airwaysand yourbladder. Te final category {cardiac the masclesofthe heart is seletal muscle, however, thatallows hhumanstobothshapetheirbodiesand Ancrease thelr strength, ‘Skeletal muselesare incredibly complex, designed toconttactwhen askedto perform any action. you performa bicep cur for ‘example your brain willsendasignaltothe nervecelsindicating thattstime forthe biceps to engage.It'sthe same proces for cach muselethatSwithinthe skeletal category, butit'sthe way these are 054 Sa constructed that allows us todevelop them. Amuscleismade up of Aes each muscle will boast higher orlower amount -thatall Into wo distinct groups: slow twitching(type! res) and fast twitchingttypet fibres, ‘Type Imuscle utilise the oxygen inyour body betterto generate ‘more fuel, also known as adenosine {riphosphate(ATP} They can take extra strainand, moreoftenthan no fatigue slower. Typell muscles, onthe ther hand, are the opposite. Not needing oxygen to ‘generate fue, they createspurtsofstrength and exhaust far quicker. Thedistinctions aresimilartothat ofa marathon runnerand sprinter, withthe former relyingontheit musclestakinglongerto breakdown and thelatterusing the intensityand force of the faster twitching ibresto peak quickly. CiteDID YOU KNOW? The gluteus maximus ~ that's your bottom - is the largest muscle in the human body wT Ww io Wsthese pracessesthat allow us toboth ‘manipulatea museleand:make itstronge. Every timeyou ifta weight youre tearing these muscle fibresapart forcing the body to repair them. Once healed, thefibresare thicker han before, aprocessthatcan be manipulated with theright et. Bodybuilders gt protein into theirsystemassoon aspossibleatera workout asthe substance's broken down into aminoacids that are used to produce and repairmuscles. Your dietcaneven influence how effective thisis fast actng carbohydrates playanimportantroleinspikinginsulin levels, ‘which inturn replace masce glycogen reserve source ofglucose) used during raining. Sucha process willalso filter proteln where's ‘needed, for maximum recovery and growth, Thisis why muscles get bigger and stronger with rest, andnotat the gymwhereyourein factbreakingand destroying them, ‘These principles shift acossin termsof how muscles get stronger, too. The notion thatlifting heavy welghtsatalower rep range ill Increase body mass, whereas doingthe “Your body will remember how strong you are, even if you stop training” Bia le e ag Airs ary eet Pore Peer! eT ene cao aren erg eer nary eonme nancy Peer crane Pree een] tharSeaten, the quickerand mor onc lifers who ean pick upan eee eet ‘ean et oppositewillmakethemusclemorevisible sam myth. Instead, when you rain with heavy aaa weightsandforceyourmusclestoexpendall AN their ATP, you putthe body inastatetorecruit ‘more muscle fibres and stimulate thosethat are ‘missed when focusing on lighter weighs You'reessentially eachingyour muscles that they can become tronger.itworrtsuddenly ‘make them bigger butitwillactivate more fibres that in turn help ouliftmore.Thistype oftraining producesa form of muscle hypertrophy, which, inthisinstanceis ‘increasing the sizeof your muscle ells. Hypertrophy can be manipulated to bath boost ‘muscularstrength orsimplyfocuson Increasing body mass, ‘Your body willalsarememberhow strong youare, even fyoustoptraining Although yout have to work backup toyourprevious level, t would take halfthetimethanksto ‘muscle memory Followingthesameapproach show we remember to perform everyday ‘asks, your muscles get used to thesame ‘movementandadapt accordingly. 055Shoulders o}e SENGT RATING: PAA ‘Mid-section smenamnarine: 22. calves ate ema en a Sener RATING: AY Deltoid ered oul thesouler it satel poster ad lotaltbrestosuporioatan ‘Trapezius Pectoralis major Biceps brachii Rectus abominus yosictponecren Senepacrcen Forearm, Vastus lateralis urowerarmieonelthenst Gastrocnemius Inside your muscle a rein pore Serene ety pecan een creer eens peter es cee ree eect ora Peer Serna eae ree Seng eee tees and fighting the Peeters cee erred eee he Seren lifting where, et een Sober ent Senne emney Rennrad Poor ates Chest y STRENGTHRATING OAD Biceps STRENATHRATING: Forearms STRENGTARATING: PPA CdMany peaple with muscular physiques have ‘unhealthy’ BMIs, as muscle weighs more than fat. ‘Splenius: Triceps Rhomboideus, Asthenamesugesstharesthre Wosiaginenneti part thems telong trl with emp the ndmedi bed, ombaidsconnetthe scapula aude lade Latissimus dorsi ‘onmoniy ello ae cae External oblique . Thelaesandoutermost tlthetreermscesotthe ‘Selaneenrabdemen luteus maximus ‘Thelen mann tebe $ourbecam hs tobe strong iepthelowerparina fms ees, = scene ‘Bletotanrewed yore = srrenemnarne: 22222 Biceps femoris ‘anang ops he “enghend an nea ‘nimpertantpatet ‘hehamsrng Many bodybuilders will supplement their diet with nutritional products - or SOTEN POWDER DENG” even illegal drugs to enhance thelr . physique. Discover these common ra stmenamHRarna: PAA Back Ritietaterbtoerend Pentel entre Kgronsuertnsnessann Sars opr 2 stmenamA RATING: PAA ae ae as SmmenamARaTNG: POAAY methods of bulking up... anbelnjc WHEY PROTEIN CREATINE ANABOLIC STEROIDS [Amustloranyonetryingtoinerease _Anaturalsubetancealreadyfoundin Rangingfrominjeetablee- suchas sizelstrengt, getting enough protein thebody,creatineisanaminoacid-_puretesosteronewhich enablesthe Iserucial.Notonlyisitthebuilding _compoundithat stores energy body to grow beyond its means-and blockfor museles-aminoacids Supplementingwithcreatinecan stop oral, sterodsenterthe muscecells constructproteinwhichthen builds ATPlevelsthesubstancethatstartsto__andstimulatethem which increases ruscle-buteatingenough asually _drainwhenmueclesarecontracted) _theirprodiction, Duetothis, more aroundis-2ogperlbofbodyweight) fromdepletingasquickly meaning _cellswillbedeveloped, makingthe willscethe body startto grow. youcanliftmoreweightforlonger. body bigger. os7OF VISION @ Uncovering one of the most complex constructs in the natural world Stra rome hestructure of the human eye is socomplex thatit'sdifieutto believethati’snotthe product of Intelligent design but by ookingatthe eyes of other animals, scientists have shown thatit evolved very gradually from asimplelightdark sensor aver the course ofaround x00 million years. The eye functions ina very similar way toa camera, withan opening through which the!ig Tens for focusinganda light-sensitive membrane atthe back. muscles in the ies, which contractand relaxtoalter the ize of the pupil. The light frst passes through a tough protective sheet called the cornea, and ‘then moves into the lens. This adjustable structure bends the light, focusing it down toa pointon the retina, atthe back oftheeye, The etinais covered in millions of light-sensitive receptors known asrods and cones. Each receptor contains plgment molecules, which change shape when theyare hitby light, triggeringan. ced Theamount of light that entersthe eye ‘scontrolledby thecircularandradial _brainviathe opticnerve, Seeing in three dimensions Each eye sees a slightly ciferent image, allowing the brain to perceive depth (ur eyes ar ot able to produce two-dimensional mages, but with some ‘ever processing, the ban abet bul these fla pctres nto 2 thvee dimensional ew Our eves are positioned abut five centimetres (we inches part, o each sees the world frm ashy aferent anole ‘The bean campores the two pictures, ing the ferences to create the Individual Ituson of pth ‘bout 5m GID any, Combined image Try it for yourself Syhogeayairrandin Retina his crap rote ‘ide nthe dr01D YOU KNOW? 285 milion peaple in the warld are estimated ta be visually impaired and 39 milion of them are blind Ciliary body lene ané conan te Vision problems ‘The most common problems. with our eyesight hanging its shape Farsightedness (hyperopia) theeyeis too short, thecorneats to at, ori thelent sitstoo ar back, incoming ight focused behindtheretina, making nearby objects appear blurry, pardculary inthe dark ‘Nearsightedness (myopia) the eyeis too long. orth corneaand lensare {oo curved, the ight is focused before ithits thebackofthe eve, and then starts to defocus againas treaches the retina, making distant objects cificultto see. > {- Colour-blindness Thisrare condition soften linked toa geneon thei=ogry- Punta ‘close your left eyeand focus onthecircle, ‘concentration of layers ofnerve ells, which processand | thenslowlygetclserto the page the plus a encodetheimagebetoresendingitvia | signwil vanish! epee theoptienerveto the brain. = 062ID YOU KNOW? Octopus eyes have nerves attached ta the rear of the retina, meaning they don't havea blind spat lke humans oo Fovea “iscanet tn hecentedtie “nde Optic nerve “isn alsa ‘rannipewe twos oneythevsal intoraponpeceed anipocesedbytheeye ‘omhetrn Ganglion cells Thistypecfaeuron | recewetherne ‘nfomarentom sephora Wotsandcones SBhokrelesynapse or communi ithe ‘osapdarerespontlefor Sopercentrthesgnals om {heptetrecpters Rods and cones ‘ereunacotalnsabounan smihonrodsandsalincones, \whichartnermingd thoughout ‘hereinaeceptfortemaca Synapses Neurons work together to combine data from rod and cone cells into messages that travel to the brain Horizontal cells “Theeenerens intranet ierentypest photoreepreandaso repeated Inlsscanningisthemorecommon formolbiometrcewnen itcomesto ‘ees but didyou know that our retinasalso have special identifying ‘characteristics? itallcomesdown to the complex network ofblood vessesintheretin;eventwins! ‘etinasare ferent. When youlook Intoaretinalscanner alowenergy arefastand reliable, butthe ‘ovsigeis that the scanners are fexpensiveand the patterncan change overtime with eeain dalseasesor other eve problems 063The human pe Linking our upper and lower body, this basil coro) ae dele Leet B Carel taneysy ees Ser ee ee ere ee ee eee eT re cleo See ee ae ro ered ee eee teeny pubicbone, pubicsymphysis, obturator —_ underside with two mainsets of holes. ph eee er ene ae ee ee ee ao ena Pe eae oe ae een mr re CR Ee ULC ou all aaah eran en nee erent See ute eu D on eh na an S ontennalheabieail Fis et tiairpriahettaeestnaienti re Loree Perron erpre nerenr mmmmanemr emer ns ny era [Barerariireimieraih ekpTRETTESTHRT ETC | ones pectic teen eee Se cary eee a Reece nie amen reen get bladderand internal sex organs. Deemed Ree ES = Ereerretrecere tsar erreur ee eee es ot era Oe ee eee eC LY mete Lrehrbrereacg cere oeerennnn rt am Tees rere UE anc bavecfthevertebralcolumn.Each _morethanten bones, withthe number oeeerr ere ory mr rey eenrerreyy OTe rssoveenrperener eres rr mmm Tar mtiret wt eemr tr EES ere Sorerrereroon Beenie et meetin nent mm cei ere eee et ret meen eect Feereterenseritteneri tir aaron eT entree once ooDID YOU KNOW? Forensic anthropolagists can use the pelvis to determine a skeleton’s sex and alsa guess its age at death Crrcs Male vs female Differences between the male and female pes arenumereus and stom, primary, rom the era's reproductive stom. For example, {he feral pli bain is reader thon the male equivalent the pubs symohyss short andthe pubic bores connect ina wicee Snglewath each ete n adliton, the coceyc has a aeatr doaroe of ‘ovement andthe two seetabus are spaced farther apart. Al {gether thee a rounded and spacious ith canal ~ which inant been an evaitonary Prortyin the male ofthe specs. on ec pera’ Peston cemetery Panza enti Acetabulum7) NVR aUS A/S 8 = aad The lymphatic system Learn what role our lymphaticsystem plays in keeping nasty bugs at bay hered blood celisthat carry oxygen around our bodies travel through blood vesselssuspendedin fuidknownas plasma, Itmoves through vesselsatsuch pressure that plasma can leak int the tissues. The lymphatiesystem helps remove from the Uissuesand return to thecitculation, ‘Thelymphaticsystem issimilarto the circulatory system, inthatitiscomposed ofa series o vessels, found mostly intheskinand Swoten mph glands Infection odeease aroundiinternal organs. Butthe tubes do not ‘make a circuitandthere sno pump. The faid, knownas lymph, relieson the contraction of nearby muscles areturnto the circulation atthe subclavian veins near the collarbone. Thelymphaticsystem isalsoa transportroute forthe immune system. Atintervalsalong the |ymphatievesselsarebetween around 6oo and ‘oolymph nodes. Larger organs ike thespleen and thymusarealso connected tothe network ‘These organs manage immune surveillance; if anantigen-presenting cell APC]ofthe immune system encountersa pathogen itwillreturnto thenearestlymphnodewith ntelabout the Intruder. Tespecialistattack cells ofthe Immunesystem, lymphocytes ciulate through the lymphatiesystem, scanning or ‘matching patternsand,ifone sfound, they use the lymph nodeasabasetoadaptuntilanarmy of enemy-specifcclones s created, When the lymphatic system goes wrong ‘One ofthe mast commen problems associated ‘withthe pti system i backage any of the vezels becomes occluded, fui cannot be propery cranes fom thei an trom tat pot begin to accumulate Ths condo, medial known as mohoedem, results na Ine fn the mb, suing sel, Certain species of parasiic worm rly onthe human iymphatc sytem fo part of Ue ‘yee and the presence ofa worm infection ean boone cause of lmphoedema. Tiss further ompleatedby the mune system, hich responds tothe worms, andany bactera they tight be ifected wits leading to thekening of the skin anda condton known a elephants nes also affects the lymph nodes, which became swellen during infection as immune cols divide Sometimes cancerous ‘wansfomation occurs none of he ene cals, lading to lymphoma and eventual forming. tumour nthe node.DID YOU KNOW? As lymph travels thraugh the lymph nodes it picks up immune cells, which then return to the blaad Capillary fluid exchange in action See how lymph is transferred between the ireulatory and iymphatie systems phatic capillary je ao Arteriolar end aa: ele 4 through 9008 in copes ‘Oncotic pressure e . ee 4 Fluid leak poder Interstitial space =) Simic Venular end angen thelymph ode . G yy Medulla ‘This cental ara conta antigen Nodules = fecundthe ouside ofthe lymph nde ‘rendu contanine epuions of ‘ntbed-preueing Bel. When ‘Sctvote thy vide toproduce potent inection the bo ‘ough eas a courte aninetionOutbreak Anatomy of an Olympicathlete ‘The truth about hair transplants ‘The antibiotic apocalypse Why do we get fat? Immunisation: how it Keeps you healthy How dowe heal? Placebos - do they work? Kidney transplants How cloning works Anaesthetics Strokes Rheumatoid arthritis explained Why is there no cure for the common cold? How a marathon affects your body The future of medicine ‘Why do we get headaches? Asthma, Cramp explained Blood clotting How metabolism functions How does the liver detoxify? How dogastric bands work? How skin grafts work Ischolesterol bad for you? Hypermobile joints What isa fit? Why do we get angry? What are grommets? Anaphylactic shock Brain surgery How hyperthermic surgery works What are probiotic bacteria? What are tonsils for? Secrets of stem cells Colour blindness What causes stomach ulcers?82 Ws Perera’ Ofrmedicing Understanding chickenpox ‘The war against superbugs Curing deafness Ebola virus How enzymes keep you alive Bacteria explained How to check your pulse Keeping hydrated Understanding diabetes Perfect posture How corrective lenses work Inside laser eye surgeryDID YOU KNOW? dur most common gene pravides no benefit ta us, but some viruses use the protein it encades to infect us ue a Hers ei. Teele aueakoot penn ated disease wil, withauta doubt, remaina ral threat eee es humanity forthe foreseeable future, however our growing, Pereira ete : e 5 workmakes Creare usbetterequipped than evertoightthem, Feo The word disease’ encompasses the wide range ot rere allmentsfrom which wecan sur. The ones that cause ct har re infectious diseases-those cold to HIVIAIDS. They are caused by biologieal agents or pathogens) frequently bacteria and viruses butalso parasites, fungi and prions suchas bovine spongiform encephalopathy, also known as mad cow disease). ‘Most micro-organisms living either on or inside our bodies are totally harmless. In fact, our bodies contain upto ten times more bacterial cells than they do human cells. ‘Thisstill eaves a good few handfuls of pathogens intent on ensuringtheir survival at our expense, Whether isthe common fla virus or more unusual bugs, these pathogens have evolved a whole arsenal oftricksto hop fromone human to another spreading through coughs andsneezes, bodily uidsand more. Some even hitchhike on another organism that does: the legwork for them ~knownasa vector. Malaria example ofavector-dependent disease. Cat parasite, malaria is catried by mosquitoes, which spreadthe ness between humans when they bite them. Despite these clever tactics, it's relatively rare fora pathogen to infectenough people to sparka pandemic. One eason sthat our bodies possess. highly effective defence against thelr onslaught: the immune system, Aswe're exposed to diseases, ourimmune systems evelop tailor made antibodies to latch ontoattackersand either neutralise them or earmark them for destruction, Overtime, your body bulldsupavast atalogue of antibodies. Apathogen's ist attack might cause full blown infection, but fa repeat invasion occurs, the immune system respondsswiltly to defuse theattack, ‘Asa result jandalso thanks to vaccination), substantial proportion ofthe population is resistant to common diseases, making ithard for these pathogens to infect enough peopleatone time to cause a pandemic. Chickenpox, for instance is highly contagious, butaftera person has been attacked by itonce, thelr body ‘emembers the {Intruder and the vast majority are immune to it fore. andemics therefore tend tobe triggered by pathogens Which we have had very little exposure toand which can catch our immune systems unawares. Historically, diseases from other countries could do just that. When European settersarrived in North America they {introduced diseases which Native Americans had never encountered before, such as measles, influenza and smallpox. These pathogens set off waves of deadly epidemies Which killed vero percent ofthe indigenous population. ‘Nowadays, regular international travel spreads pathogens around, meaning’olddiseasesaren'ta threat. The ones to worry aboutare new diseases or variants ofknown diseases} which all come from one source: animals. ‘The animals most likely to pass on their diseases are our closest relatives, the great apes. The HIV virus, forexample, hasbeen traced back to chimpanzees in Afriawho were eaten by humansin te frst haf ofthe oth century. Like many other zoonoses (diseases which cross the species barrier) HIV Arstinfectedaa few igolated humans, but asthe vitus evolved crossed another very important hhurdle:itacquired the ability to transmit from one person to another. Once a disease possesses he capability to do this, it really does become ticking time bomb. ‘White it’ relatively easy fora pathogen to make the eap from anape tous, orviceversa, much greaterleapsare ‘possible, Very few of uscome into contact with apes, but we hhavea much closer relationship with domesticanimals. A precursor tothe infuenza virus which caused the 1918, Spanish Fluis thoughto have existed first in wild birds, then in domestic pigs, before jumpingover to people. For millennia humans were entirely atthe mercy of isease, but the late-i8th century saw theinvention ofour ‘best weapon against infection: the vaccine Vaccines fool the immunesystem into thinkingits being attacked by a pathogen, stimulating itto createan army of antibodiesand killerT-cellsspecifictothis disease. Ifwe ever encounter the rel thing, ourbodiesaretherelore primedto fight offthe infection, Todothisa tiny amount ofthe pathogen jusually attenuated, which means weakened) is injected into the ‘body - this processis known asinoculation, It might comeas ‘surprise butpeople were actually experimenting with {Inoculation in China and Indiaas longage as 1000 BCE. ora Inside influenza Meet the influenza virion, an expert ‘olfhlacker and renent offender ‘antl owes to comnts pertonion Lipid envelope sted hence RNP torngntoraa re Small but. dangerous ‘The van rus Dart frouahy ‘phercal and measires However it wasn’t until 1796 thatthe fist successful ‘vaccination was produced. ‘Throughout the 8th century, smallpox wasaleading cause of death around the world, English physician Edward Jenner noticed that milkmaids who had caught an liness called cowpoxseemed tobe immune smallpox. BY Injecting patients with pus taken rom cowpoxsores, hewas, ableto confirm his hypothestsand the fist vaccine was born. Vaccination wasadopted across the globeand smallpox was ofiially eradicated in1979. Jenner’ landmark work with smallpox paved the way for awidevarlety of vaccines tobe created, Inthe ate-29th ‘century, microbiology pioneer Louis Pasteur developed vaccines againstanthraxand rabies. Akey innovation was, thatPasteur’s method consisted of treating pathogens to render them totally harmless, ¥DID YOU KNOW? The ward vaccination comes from the Latin ‘vaca’ [co Surface proteins making them reat smagglutinin Zion channel Searchers vere emstoyed cane The Great Plague Ny tho deadliest pandemic in human or 1350, kiling up to half ofthe population lgue-causing Yersinia pasts bactr itchhiked on the rats that thrived inthe dinavia in 1388. oe struck ad killed its vietns with starting ‘lands ~ called buoes typical around theo ing, ‘tue repeatedly fr the next 200 years, due to Edward Jenner's cowpox research acd beret Pei} ens ee Parma Loree ee] SO CS Cerone Denar eet Perret restr tee Cee ee anne ene ait ‘There are various surveillance efforts eee Sree eens Pee ey Pee eee entree frankly, utits worth keeping trackot these diseases and characterising them ere ey ere Peete none ae ered ‘and dealing with pandemics? Rete eee gree rt Per etree neuer sequenced from top totailn a matter of carer ee een Pent rt eer Se as Creer ned een tern nanny Poe eet ee eet rene nee end now. But there'sasignificantriskto poate een yg ener eee ety ee ee eet ne ees ee eee See eee eres Perera cad Indonesta, What fit had jumped from there to Africa? Would wehave been able eee ee Seer eee er atid) ee eee ee eee! ney eee ee eet Pere eon td ee ea pre ieee as+ HEALTH AND MEDICINE developedatanastolshing ate American How pandemics go global ‘microbiologist Maurice Hilleman alone led the Track how three of the most common diseases spread around the work Invention ofover svaccines{including those Smallpox Ml Leprosy | Malaria against measles mumps, hepatitis, hepalisB tater andimeningltis} Widespread vaccination for LecatoneAmeris © Location peer ‘common pathogens means that most ofthe Sonne Seek tarape ‘Alexander the Great's Population snow resistantto them preventing ceria ea ae ei oa, ‘epidemics and forever changing ourrelationship Spreads totheNew Europe and Neth America ging leprosy to Europe th dinases hich pagal fr Mfoitomeuope, tanks te manga cont and ‘noroved ving sancads centuries or even millennia, ‘Butwhl tis easy to create vaccines against some diseases, others are far moreelusive due to the rapid changes they undergo. The most notorious ofthese shape-shifiersis the HIV virus. HIV has one ofthe highest mutation rates known, reshutfling its genes constantly to change the shape ofits surface proteins. By modityingits disguise, itmakesitselfunrecognisable to antibodies, dodging the immune system's guardsmen, Developinga vaccine against HIV is therefore tremendous challenge. HIV also attacks he immunesystem directly Other diseases, suchas influenza, are relatively easy tovaccinate against oncea newstrain has been identified, however the unpredictability of outbreaks means that they ae stllareal threat. Intuenza exists principally in wild birds, but © Location The Amarcas everysooftena newstrain ofthe virus ill Seasons become transmissible between humans, sparking sroipos one epidemicsand even pandemics, suchas the Hs. pepustors with virus. The time and location ofthese pllloversare devastating resis, virtually impossible to predict, though monitoring wild birdsisone way of keepingan eye out fr new strains of the viruswhich havethe potentialto mma theleap. ine number of ways moder socletyleves us tect: — mmoreexposedtopandems than we were inthe Nera Sout toca estas past. Foronething nowadays abouts pe cet of sans Bate foo Usliveinelies where we eometnt contact witha Cai ace Coie ‘huge number ofpeople ona daily basis, revert nl Peete ‘brea centinet he spread ofdsease nso rowing number ofinternational fights alsoaccelerates transmission, allowing pathogensto hop from one continent oanetherin ‘matter ofhours.In 2003, SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome) spread to29 countries across three continents in justa few months. Despite tis, our understanding of pathogens s continually improving. SARS wasa brand-new disease, but the global medical community See, BT) |/sleg rapidly goto knowit idiosyncrasies and brought in ns ivunder control, While wedon’t havea vaccine for : Sect HiVyet, treatments have improved dramatically tite epee suerte a and publicheslth measures have helped to reduce ener omen Perec ent: orstabilise infection ratesin most countries aaa Preece Pandemicswillinevitably continue tostrikein stealer Penman eer anette yearsto come, but we an ret assured that we are eet pee ste, betterarmed than ever nour eternal battle eee against pathogens. oma.DID YOU KNOW? The World Health Organisation uses a six-stage scale ta classify the severity of an influenza pandemic one" gaan ee seescte QUID OD SrotporDWstoud elas peri tepeayin ine pray encticnvent HITS RUE smn mediate Soe Petre ts Dates 1500 Pee Peet Penney ieee erats Pee eet Cre giemoe rae Preteens Dates 2000 8c en Theolestinouncoccot anal Peer enn cee Reducing travel eee Poereeeetet Sect ae veornenstares ERD aes, erred ate.e 10000866 Ee wh ts Paneer: Treamatoosving for00 yea callof meetings and asking Tecomericm ee ore Reaernenteerat ‘para tnesten hate Pro-outbreak he wor ppuon. monitoring Peeentrictenny atta ofa oacurr | ia theresa man eee Malaria “Though malariae ot contagious Ge releases sme sla which cts = Totpmsedfemperentoperson” svantcsogulant to keep the Sood Leprosy origin ike cok) tvedessceendemieto flowing. nding so she ao passes Location: East ea thetopiesin a weeeprend ier 's Gea parses ino the Wt atere S000 cE ananttedby thepresence fa" oodstesn Fhe symtoms Lepr batram bere Certainsinglecledparnteinthe sual occur between en das and Toorometeten SShaoffemalemesautoes When _fourveks after econ, however sinc ore ie a ‘emosqut pics the cknofher the parstcan be drmartin he tim athe sae proses ve Tors tour years btore mouthparts obtain bod, she ako making the victim Sk os.Brain Ine palfonorapentatte fidinathelehons, short training thebean fon Opn ‘Shoterggel ety Skeleton Asapurttany pysaaning enmstregthen tie sana gon ‘shontagrosiorconanspar Cardiovascular system ‘Acoonghearandbighngsmean| ‘naheecanastabngtinein “erent igh edtoodeal counlinease angen Selieredtothemnscesanda ereuliton means nen ‘wilpetweretsmestentd ANATOMY OF AN OLYMPIC ATHLETE How do these real-life superhumans differ from your average Joe? hhenwetalkabout superhumans, shooting lasers andturninginvisibleaside, there'sa process of comparable feats that \wenormally runthrough.So,for example, theaverage guy mightbe able tosprintat29 kilometres(i8 miles) per hour but Superman can travel faster thanaspeedingbullet roughly 1300 ‘dlometzes/800 miles per hour. Similarly, a strong person might be ableto luga 7-kilogram hs0-pound) canisterarounda pub, butin comparison TheThing could towa 14000-kilogram (1,000-pound) ouble-deckerbus, 076. These are featsof fantasy, but we don't hhave olookto the world of fition for trulyastonishing haman physical acts, Infact, alot ofsports people capable of testing the boundaries ofthe biological ‘machine thatsthe human body will currently be busy preparing forthe Tokyo Olymples in 2020, Sowhatisitexactly thats stopping any ofusfrom stepping upto the starting line and providinga serious challengeto Usain Boltor the next great sprinterfor ‘the 100-metregold medal? Theanswer "might seem obvious, buteven though we're made ofthesame fundamental building blocks, Olymplansarebuilt very differently. Think ofthetr bdlesas highly specialised machinesthat have ‘upgraded themselves through years of training, elevating them above the vast, majority ofusto become significantly faster and stronger, react quicker, last Inger improve balance, accuracy, exterity and endure levels ofsel- Inflcted physical discomfort that most ofus would quickly buckleunder the stresso. seems unfair but genetically, many, ifnot most ofusaren't evenonaneven keel with Olympians when we're ‘born, as many athletes-1m1968, Hons-Gunnar Lijenwall became the first person to be tested positive fora banned substance: alcohol An Olympian rd Finish work Ce eeSuper- human abilities Football Athletics unerenecdmoetstrsiaw-eh Chronersnedcoresuengihandhantye torn, whejumpersnecd Aextlyandiegstenah ‘Swimming ‘amispanthanheight phsbighandsand feetioprepaltnen toupee, tendtepertombeterthanothes ‘Modem pentathlon Table tennis Fateh mc iresandlghning ‘escionsereamosttuthebest pyr: Insc knowheret planter ‘eetandhavetheenduraneetlator Several hurslinse ps. Cycling (road) (arirasulrenduranceandstrongles ‘regen botjatsimprants mets Sten helingyutoleep gene Ieserathlevoulpve ove. have anatutalleaning towards orld record for the oo-metre sprint eee superhuman rals.Forexample,long—tatifedby the Internationalassocaion limbs, alargepoouptogo percenot ‘for Alec Federations} wasi0seconds, aaa slow-twitch muscle fbresanda setby LutherCaryin:8s..Thebencherk Aaa cardivascularystem witha hugerange tersecondbarrierwesatbroken until alg rmeansKenyanstendtodominatedistance _ 1968and Usain Bolt smashed hisown events overs,ovometres(16,400feet Even worldrecord in Berlinin.2009 witha ‘outside fractal predispositions, and bistering.58-second run, regardless ofthe besttrainingtechniques, _Whileoveraentury fsociveconomic some peopleareust genetically {improvementshavehelped open the ‘overqualified foracertainsportandwill _Olympicachievements up toeveryone, the leave their fellow competitors for dust ames themselves have provided a TheOlympicGamesthemselveshave competitive platform from which Olympic also beena catalystfor Herculean athleteshave been ableto further fachlevements.Beforethefirstmodern _lstingulsh themselves fromthe everyday COlympicGamesunder the Intemational man, provingthey'e capable of OlympieCommitteein1896, the fstofficial superhuman things. ite Cre Ta esy Coen! eo erformat ther peak theirbrains wil develop: San eee ene Sees eee tt ‘makesthe perfectshot suite methodical when you cr Tse ots Pereeet earner See to ne poner eer weer ferent) Panacea Se cere cg Pee sea ee eet eee Ceri eee rere es pareer er senna a a om = # @ G OFF tae block: Drive phase one ‘velocity Stride phase C= velocity.The very first recorded Olympic event (in Greece, 776 BCE] was a igem (630ft] dash Dee It’s all in the genes Current, the only way we can ake chargeof our own destiny and give urselvesafighting chance ofeompeting nthe OlympieGamesis by hard work and dedication though that doesnt guarantee well even come lose ‘becoming Olympie-standard. Modern technology may change that however jgene-doping is theterm given toawave of genetic technogiesthat may allow anatlete to change their DNA in favour of becoming faster, strongerand allzound better attheir vent. PPAR-® peroxisome prliferator activated receptor alpha affects musle-ell metaboliem and can potentially boos. strength and power, as wellasaffect fat metabolism fora leaner physique, PRMMTPMEE Repoxygenisanothergene-therapyagent thatcan boost red blood cell Pre production increasing theamountat oxygen delivered tothemuscles Peery Eventhough either athese might put the average person onageneticparwith caps ‘lymple superheroes usingthem to Increase performance n professional sports SSI Vesa alintousinganabolicsterodsand otherbanned substances. Current however, theresno way o test forsuchgene-alterngdrugs. ¢ ¢ ¢ € © >» FF &F & SS > Liftphase Fail sprint (seas (posed Super- human abilities Rowing Again ong, songs makeforthe Tongass etre Dimpicroers need ogre tie Seda omanserobieburststt ‘woulderppe ese me, Boxing ‘Unt ost ter Oympisports boxers sreerpectadtoenditendegrecoiury tothe hada body et contnae erformingat tn pea nadonto Derallathledcety,antanjowada evant areal Wei dee ae fey Archery ee oes ae Novethanany other event concenvaton Andabcltefocuserevialtosave beesuseenterngthewatertrmsuch Ty algesthhewrongpasarecan Dbeseruay dangeousThe truth about hair transplants How this surgical technique battles baldness alepatternbaldnessiscommon, although nome people tcan lead to concerns verappearanceand evena severe lasso canfidence. Most choose to accept bbutathersare ightingthe balding process. Modern science has recently updatedancient techniques, meaningthat hairtransplantscan now rliablyrestorenormal hair patterns. Patientsare carefully screened before ‘undergoing hair transplantation, similarto patients before any cosmeticprocedures. While hate vansplants can restore self-confidence, its Important that they aren't used tofixproblemsin patients lives that can't besolvedthrougha changeinappearancealone. Hairtransplantshave been pratisedasfar backas thereth century. However, itisonlyinthe lastao years that modern techniques have led to rellableand realisticresults. Currently, two techniquesare used the most. The rstinvalves ‘akinga thinstrp ofhairfromthebackofthe scalp removingthehaifllclesand implanting them othefront ofthe haidine.Thesecond ‘doesn'tinvolveremovingastrip; rather, small units oftwo tour fllclesareremoved andthen transplanted intherequiredarea, ‘These techniques have becomeso sophisticated that the direction ofthe hairfolicle Iscontolied wien implantingitin thenew sie. ‘Thisglvesa natural halr-growth directonanda realisticpattern These proceduresaren't ‘withoutrisks, though, They canbe painful, and aswithany surgical wound, infection can setin, ‘Therefealsono guarantee ofsuccess as baldness canrecur, However, itisa generally sucessful procedureand can restorelost confidence. How to perform a hair transplant ‘Thebasie steps in performing a strip harvest of hair, the most commonly 7 } used method y haa har o> 1 2 Hairline ‘scar shinedpes are {nse athewgh thisis tial ‘rounding hi 8 New hair Inerted mo hese then growsin theDiscovery of baldness genes in 2008 suggests maternal ar paternal (ar both] inheritance is possible 4 Strippin ‘5 Cleaning up back? Tiere Trestpis moots ate Smal boss of wo {atandexcess sues {otour hot fll fromthe sds ats are used fepending on ‘where are placed ana the Thetwo most common techniques are strip harvesting and focus unt ‘extraction FUE). Srp harvesting invohes sr of skin and hair Being rica removed rom the Bock ofthe Scalp though ts successful and fas, iRrequirs a goneral anaesthetic and leaves a smal soar Compare the two types of procedure FUE done under lea anaesthetic and takes longer sometimes two {tree treatments on separate ca, Individual hai flies are tripped out ‘sing special device and then Implanted in the font ofthe sea ‘Theres no sear or noe for gener angesthati and 's vty pects How hair is lost ‘The most common typeof badness is mate pattern baldness which ean affect SO percent of men overthe age of 50, Typical, the ha onthe temples tins while thea on the top ofthe head recedes. It for the hart recede uly, leaving a smal im aod the ses and back, ‘Changes in signaling ofthe “inyrotestosterone (DHT) is primary respensible, The hairs ‘onthe head become susceptible fort, whieh causes thinning and then hat loss. Why the eest beardhair nt affected ie Unknown. This typeof age Felated baldness ean affect "omen too, uti ess common, Different types of har loss leo exist These nce patchy Raiioss on te scalp leaving, {eft lose of body har Cad, thst arms and oge), and Universal at fss(allnae Including eyebrows and eyelashes),Ceol Be Titi) (ae {asa N B IY 8) cay oe apocalypse Are we heading towards a future where infections are immune to treatment? Se nea Cn el Peete eres eee ear oe emi Pee nets ea eh ek Se cen eg ee ed ee ena pre as Pier arsed Cp ear me) them we can treatinfectionsthat were once eee eens ee ee ee Pe ee ee eet) See ei) cen pees ene eany ee ee Een Sey Sree eee acd od so ey Peete ene sc ieee ene ny Meena ete ree eer en Se een ocd betteratavoidinathe effects ofthe drugs. Andit See a Sree ee tee rae ‘genes with their neighbours. And notjust Se er ee er ed Pee ee eect ed like trading card, passingresistanceonto enn eee eee ees eee cere een ct Sorensen eet nT Cee eet eee Seed all Pp ere ee) rom hosp Se a ree ad nari hatter antics re avaiable Per eet een Hoople ym Rectecrusnbeet terete ed Saeed peste pees ta Paovareee peat pec temeeen i Peaetetigeemnr rate Penroeereeratectarentnsy Pease rotenone i] peenrinr apersntericcn peer iencerbeep iy eer eee Peper tateieertn ened Peete eee et a Eiaetreereen eaedibereonrtn {dnaw suge to hob esean tine Renee iressebtesereThe first antibiotic, penicilin, was discovered by accident when a blob of mauld got into an experiment Antibioties shut cell factories, acters havemelecle factors The war on bacteria ‘Antibiotics work by attacking bacteria, but thatiahe the moles they Antibiotic, Antibiotics ‘the bugs are fighting back reed survive. Some abies stop division hut them Some antivatie \ WAG his L) Sins sé ¢ Antibiotics burst bacteria Some nttles Bacteria neutralise antibiotics Scmevoctrs mate Bacteria change Ics tat to their molecules Bacteria pump antibiotics out “Ble to pum them straight ot again thar shape they ean Bacteria block“ vomeumes espe antibiotic entry evtped ays top oven beet wa ‘arm yourself with information Knowledge th most powerf sciponwetoe agar an ni Working over 150 countries, the ‘World Heh Organization selendng the font against ambit esstance place forte sed news and updates the National Eletrni Library of Infection have made ne top hub of Information about ante resistance, 083As the obesity epidemic grows, itis important to understand just what causes us to gain weight ally calorie intake foran average adult Issetbetweena,oo0and 2 00kealsand recommended fatintakeisbetween 70 and go grams.Thebody needs his levelof calories in orderto funciona maximum efficiency. However ifweconsumemore than Isneededto runourbody itstoresthese extra caloriesas at, Thesefatstorescanserveasa reserveifwe don'teat enough, butifsemeone consistently overeat, they'll become verweightas the body continues tostoe the excess calories, Obesity isbecoming more prevalentactoss theworld, within developedand developing countries, Highly ealorificfoodandsnacks, with generally poor nutritional value, have become more widely andcheaply available andtheamountofsaturated fat being consumed byanaverageadultismuch higher than20yearsago.Changesin behavioural patterns of societies havealso contributed to the problemasaveragelevels ofphysical actvityhave reduced. Eating patterns have also changed dueto lifestylechanges. Busy livesand more focusbeing placed on careers hhasledtothe advent ofthe ready meal'andan Iincreasein the number oftakeawayseaten Whichareoftenvery high insaturatedfatand calories. Genescanaleohavean impact on \weightgain, but mostcases of obesity that we seeareactualy due toaveragecalorie intake ‘increasing, with actual need reducing, (Overthe last2o years, child obesity levels hhavealso been increasing dramatically, again primarily dueto physical exertion decreasing andealorificintake inereasing. Thisis of particular concern because of the many health problemsassociated with obesity suchas ype diabetes, cardiovascular disease, strokesand certain forms ofcanceramongathers. Working out your body mass index (BMI) HE 084 Fhevectinlen rocesinaaionDID YOU KNOW? The tangue and the inside of the mouth are the fastest healing parts of our bodies How do we heal? We always expect our bodies to heal when we injure ourselves, but how does this happen? eingcanbe deeds te Hissin vorknufncton Tee sieteooainwysinwichtae htt ad pa ang les heal telcerentt damaged sea iostogae wil e ehmetto Akamape-athogh acme Cisandneronseteesampest ‘Rotatcana cr egenaaton Togeneaton son al eat winithesometisuemas at was Samana ese hen eee Notclnthebxyan a Seman mamer bate sursmaingclpenetwn mst temainingodentin rinse Bietooea tepals lace bene damaged secant vepeaecls sities anda ait thenfomed Rpaiacapo! 1. Skin injury the proliferativephaseand the ‘maturation phase. The inflammatory phase is when bacteriaiskilledoffby ‘macrophagesand phagocytic ells, and growth hormones released encourage cellgrowth inthearea of damage. The following stageis when the wound starts closingupand fling with collagen which wil form the car tissue, During the final ‘maturation phase, healing tissue ls replaced with tronger collagen and ‘unnecessary tissue produced during the earlierphasesisremoved, 2.Clotting ‘Thebes eat cals which inside Feros trl tod ery Sto 3.Parts ofthe brain emnmcaylt ‘meotrsngse hah foreman Placebos - do they work? Whatare placebos, how do they actually work, and can they really cure disease? he placebo effect occurs whena patient witha condition responds positively tatreatmentthat doesn’thaveany ‘medical value. tis thoughtto alleviate conditions dueto the patient believing they are being treated, and psychologically they start to fee better. Ris thought tha! the improvementsoften seen with placebos :mightbe due to conditioned responses far example, aking ‘medicines makes you feel better, therefore youfeel better because you're taking medicine) However sceptics commonly state that theso-called placebo effectisactually only seen because patents want to please the doctors or testers, and that Intruth placebos havennoeffectatal, Ultimately placebos will not curephysical conditions they canonlyffecttheindividyal's ental state, which maybeseen ‘othenaid physical and mental ecovery. Withsome patients andsome nesses, a placebo ispotentiallya very powerful mental and psychological toolforuseina numberof cases, but often isnota valid replacement fortreatment,+ HEALTH AND MEDICINE The kidneys are the body’s natural filters. You can survive on just one, but when that fails you may needa transplant fl ~ Kidney transplants ~ ransplanting organs sa T complex process although it cangiveanewlease of ileto recipients. he kidney isthe most frequently transplanted organ, both inthe UKandaround the world. However, there isa iscrepancy between the number of patients waiting fora transplant and the number ofavailable organs; only round one third of those waiting peryearreceivetheir ‘transplant. The number ofpatients registered fora kidney transplant Increases each year, and has risen bysoper centsince 2000, Kidney transplants come from ‘wo main sources: the livingand the recently deceased. Ifa healthy, compatiblefamily members vwiling te donate a kidney, they can survive with ustone remaining Kidney. inothercases, someone else tragedy is another person's \ fortune. For those who are declared brain-dead, the beating heart will keep the kidneys perfused until theyare ready to be removed. In some patients, the ventilator will be ‘switched offand isa raceagainst ‘ime to harvest organs. Either way, consent fom the family isneeded, fevenat such an emotionaland pressurised time. ‘Whena suitable organ becomes, available itismatchedviaa national register toa suitable recipient. retrieval team froma central transplantunit(of which there are2o basedaround the UK) vwillgo to whichever hospital the donors in. They willremove the ‘organs, while the recipients being prepared in the base hospital. During the tricky operation, the newkidney is plumbed” into the pelvis, leaving the old, non- functioning onesin situ How to a din transplant ‘Transplantinga kidney sa caseofcarefulandclever plumbing The firststep isto harvestthe donor kidney, and thenifsadashtotransplant thenewkidneyintothe reclpent-When the brain-dead donor stransferreato the operatingtheatrefor organ harvest theyaretretedwith thesamecareandrespectasi they erestialive, When consent hasbeen given for multiple organ harvest acutis made rom the opofthe chest tothe bottom thepelvis, The heart and ngs areretrieved frst folowedtby the abdominal organs L.The donor ‘Thdonor lang isharveted nding eughlength oars, ‘einardreehiharis {ennon reign thereon tthe tnd talon 2. Out with the old? y ‘Asingasthresnoquesnfcance ‘heonginalisinyeare nplce ee 3.Into the pelvis ateltheehdomenqain ‘smite apa 7. What's that ump? Thenewltdney en befotunderesth hescrintie recent These poversareoten recreato mete Srudenterame-be ‘weparedt torasbortiieso ‘hatte urne ouput ‘hee dayeane ricer xe 5. Plumbing it in ‘Therealarteryandvenareconnect othe ‘omespondingticarryandvenin three’ tty Hes greromiesire crete ihe rina, rt {helidneysveselsareanastomesedasurpcalyan © ei 4. Make space! sSenetiantamtieen el elocartersand wT 6. The final ink connctedote blader Tsalowsthe neyo 086