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SN 5 Bauzon, Franchesca D.

HETHICS Notes
4G – Pharmacy April 25, 2019

1ST Shifting Notes

Introduction Characteristically, as a rational being (with intellect


Is Ethics an indispensable knowledge? & will) we are able to: (as RATIONAL Beings we are
Is the study of Ethics important? therefore MORAL because)
1. We can distinguish good from bad/evil.
Basically, 2. We feel within our self an obligation to do
 To know what is right & wrong. good and avoid evil.
 To understand why it’s right/moral 3. We feel that we are accountable for our
(wrong/immoral) actions, expecting “reward” or punishment
 To be corrected, clarified for them.
 To be affirmed & to deepen one’s
knowledge & moral conviction DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO ETHICS/MORALITY:
 To be formed by moral principles & have I. Foundation (Two Ethical Systems)
moral integrity a. Theistic
b. Atheistic
 To exercise my freedom correctly
II. Framework/Approach
 To be able to choose the good
a. Utilitarian
b. Rights
Ethics serves as the foundation of every human
c. Fairness/Justice
society.
d. Common Good
 “Without civic morality, communities
e. Duty
perish…”
f. Virtue
- B. Russell
 “When the moral foundations of a nation CLARIFICATION OF TERMS
are threatened the society itself is ETHICS & MORALITY/MORALS DIFFERENCE:
threatened.” Etymologically they are the same.
- L. Shahani ETHICS
 “At the bottom of our economic problems,  from the Gk. word ethikos, which means
& political instability is the weakness and character, & ethos, which means custom.
corruption of the moral foundations of our  “Custom” means a more or less permanent
society. We do need an economic recovery moral behavior in accordance with the
program. We also urgently need a precepts of natural moral law which is
moral…recovery program.” universally known and common to all men.
- N. Joaquin MORALS
 from the Latin mos, mores, meaning
We need: tradition or custom (hence, etymologically,
 Correct ethical principles the Latin equivalent of the Greek ethos).
 Correct state laws
AND of course: A Nuance:
 Good moral conduct – by applying the laws  MORALS are intrapersonal in nature. One is
& will truly become a: acting with moral virtue, or character, when
 VIRTUE he or she strives to “do the right thing.”
 Morality/Morals deeper because it is about
the whole person, his very character.
 One may be ethical but is he/she moral? Ethics
 Difference:  a practical science.
 We talk of “morals” when a person  also known as moral philosophy.
has already interiorized the ethical  a philosophical science dealing with the
principles, making it one’s personal rightness or wrongness of human acts.
beliefs, principles, &values. Therefore, a practical science.
 He is therefore not only applying  the (practical) science of human acts with
ethics but acting according to reference to right & wrong.
values.
MATERIAL OBJECT OF ETHICS:
Ethics & Moral Theology Human Acts (Constituents):
Difference between Ethics (as a branch of 1. Knowledge
Philosophy) and Moral Theology 2. Freedom
Difference ETHICS MORAL THEOLOGY 3. Voluntariness
FORMAL OBJECT OF ETHICS:
1. Human Reason
1. Human It is the study of the rectitude of human conduct.
2. Human Experience
Reason
Sources 3. Divine Revelation
2. Human HUMAN ACTS:
(Sacred Scripture,
Experience
Sacred Tradition)  Doing an act with knowledge makes it
Material deliberate.
Human Acts Human Acts  Human acts are free acts that may or may
Object
The rightness not be done by the agent. He can choose
The rightness and between doing & not doing the act. His
and wrongness
Formal wrongness of human choice is based on freedom.
of human acts
Object acts in view of its
in view of its  No person may claim that his act is
supernatural end.
natural end. voluntarily done unless he has knowledge
of his act & he has freedom in doing the act.
Logic  ACTS WHICH LACK THESE ELEMENTS ARE
 guides man’s intellect in the acquisition of NOT CLASSIFIED AS HUMAN ACTS; RATHER
truth. THEY ARE CALLED ACTS OF MAN.
Ethics
 guides the intellect in the acquisition & ACTS OF MAN: (involuntary actions)
application of the moral principles.  Actions which merely happen in the body or
 a natural science. through the body without the awareness of
 employs the power of human reason the mind or the control of the will.
 the study of the moral behavior or conduct  Nutritive processes of the body, circulation,
of man as viewed from ultimate principles respiration, growth, chemical reaction.
in so far as these principles are known by  They comprise all spontaneous, biological,
human reason. & sensual processes without the use of
reason.
Ethics as a branch of philosophy, investigate Human Act Acts of Man
truths by means of:
Deliberate Indeliberate
1. Human reason
Free Not free
2. Human Experiences
Voluntary Involuntary
 Personal experience, and the
experience of others (contemporary &
TWO KINDS OF ELICITED HUMAN ACTS:
historical).
A. Elicited Acts (a simple WILL-ACT)
Kinds of Elicited Human Acts:
1. Wish  Ex. study which involves the use of
 the first tendency of the will intellect, and the use of eyes in
towards a thing, whether this reading
thing be realizable or not. It is
the simple love of a thing. Question: Knowing that our human acts are not
(Desire) always elicited, what then is the importance of
2. Intention knowing about commanded human acts?
 the purposive tendency of the
will towards a thing regarded as MORAL THEOLOGY
realizable, whether the thing is  Christian Ethics
actually done or not. (Active  when ethics is treated from the
Desire; will to obtain it). point of view of Christian faith.
3. Consent  Moral Theology
 the acceptance by the will of the  the term used in Catholic thought as
means necessary to carry out the a study of morality.
intention. (A definite decision).  Sources:
4. Selection → ELECTION →CHOICE 1. Divine Revelation in the Catholic
 the selection by the will of the Tradition
precise means to be employed in 2. Human reason
carrying out the intention. 3. Experience
5. Use
 the employment by the will of Moral Theology
powers to carry out its intention  a systematic attempt to understand Divine
by the means elected. Revelation in reference to the Christian
6. Satisfaction/Fruition person’s loving response in faith to God’s
 the enjoyment of the thing salvific invitation.
willed & done; the will’s act of  the material object of moral theology is
satisfaction in intention fulfilled. Human Acts.
(The actual attainment &  the formal object of moral theology is the
enjoyment of the desired good). morality of human acts in relation to our
Supernatural End (GOD).
B. Commanded (under orders from the will)
Kinds of Commanded Human Acts: Specific Goals of Moral Theology:
1. Internal 1. To understand, appreciate, & accept the
 acts done by internal mental powers moral norms and principles given to us by
under command of the will. the Church.
 Ex. effort to remember, conscious 2. To assimilate in our life these moral norms.
reasoning, effort to control anger, 3. To follow Christ.
and deliberate use of the
imagination in visualizing a scene General Goals of Catechesis:
2. External  ORTHODOXY
 acts effected by bodily powers  correct understanding of the Faith.
under the command of the will.  ORTHOPRAXIS
 Ex. deliberate walking, and chores  integration of Doctrine, Morals, and
3. Mixed Worship
 acts that involve the employment of  the correct application of the Faith
bodily & mental powers. in moral living and in worshipping.
 Living the challenges & demands of faith  to follow Christ.
with the support of prayer & sacraments. 5. A Biblical & Sacramental morality
 Biblical: teachings rooted in the
Word of God.
 Sacramental: moral life needs to be
sustained by prayer and sacramental
life.
6. A Communitarian morality
 concerned about the whole
humanity’s welfare not just
members of the Catholic Church.
 moral discernment is made not just
by one person but the community
(Pope, college of Bishops,
consultation with other experts).;
7. A Dialogical & Ecumenical morality
 dialogues with: experts, other
cultures and religion.
Moral Theology: 8. A morality of praxis
 Proximate Goa  to follow Christ, his attitudes and
 to say no to sin and yes to love dispositions. Thus Christian morality
 to say no to sin and yes to God NOW is not mere head knowledge but
 it is continuing conversion, integral applying the teachings of Christ,
liberation, to be holy genuinely following Jesus.
 NOW, the present moment
 Immediate Goal Divisions of Ethics & Moral Theology:
 to develop moral adulthood I. Fundamental of General Ethics
 Christian maturity  present truths about human acts,
 Ultimate Goal and from these truths deduces the
 union with God in heaven in the general principles of morality.
company of all the saints  treats basic components of the
moral action.
Characteristics of Moral Theology:
1. A dynamic morality II. Special or Applied Ethics
 Church teachings are not static,  a.k.a. applied moral theology/ethics.
addresses the situations of the time  applies principles of general ethics in
while remaining faithful to God’s different areas of human activity
Law. (individual and social).
2. A personalist morality  studies moral behavior in a specific
 helps us to be accountable and life.
responsible for our choices, and to  special moral issues, cases,
understand and integrate or problems.
interiorize the Church’s teachings.
3. A positive morality Human Acts can be:
 focuses on genuine happiness and  Ethical
freedom, values and virtues not  right, correct, acceptable
merely “dos and don’ts.”  Unethical
4. A God and Christ-centered morality
 not right, incorrect, unacceptable  (from the Principle of Double
standard of behavior. Effect)
 Good, Moral  Nonmoral
 specific sense  a nonmoral act/neutral or
 Good Moral: one who correctly indifferent:
judges between right & wrong, and  ex. wearing a pink baseball
consequently act on what is cap
virtuous. general sense: deals with
the question of good or bad.
 Bad, Immoral, Evil
 not only wrong or bad, but also evil OTHER TERMS:
& sinful.  Imputable
 when one does not only act in  to impute
conformity with the principles of  to implicate, charge or accuse a
right and wrong but also chooses to person with fault, an offense or a
do what is evil and sinful. crime
 Indifferent, Amoral  Culpable
 lacking moral sensibility; one who is  (Latin) “mea culpa” – my fault
not concerned with any moral  guilty or blameworthy
standards at all.  Accountable
 not caring about right and wrong.  answerable or responsible
 having no moral standards,  Liable
restraints or principles.  legally responsible
 with callous conscience.
 when a person is blind to some
moral Popular Notions of Morality
 values. A. DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS or ETHICS OF DUTY
 unaware of what is right or wrong. - the theory of duty or moral obligation
 not “neutral” or “indifferent” - “What one is compelled to do by reason of
duty”
 neither good nor bad
The most famous deontological theory was advanced by the
 term used in the Principle of Double German philosopher Immanuel Kant.
Effect
 do not possess ethical notions at all Immanuel Kant's theory of ethics is considered deontological
as a result of: for several different reasons.
 unusual upbringing, First, Kant argues that to act in the morally right way, people
 culture must act according to duty (deon).
 mentally handicapped
 still an infant/child. Second, Kant argued that it was not the consequences of
 Clarification: actions that make them right or wrong but the motives of the
person who carries out the action.
 Should we use “amoral”
synonymously or Kant's argument that to act in the morally right way, one
interchangeably with morally must act from duty, (begins with an argument that the
neutral or indifferent acts? highest good must be both good in itself, and good without
qualification.
 Neutral
 The act must be good never bad or Something is 'good in itself' when it is “intrinsically good” and
at least “neutral” or “indifferent.” “good without qualification” when the addition of that thing
 e.g. Cutting the fallopian never makes a situation ethically worse.
tube
CHARACTERISTICS - the moral principle which advocates that the use of
1. UNIVERSAL force is wrong for any reason
- What is right or wrong for one person is the same - this applies to both the initiation of force, as well as
- For any other person anytime, anywhere defensive or retaliatory force
2. RATIONAL - if your life is being threatened, pacifism holds that
- the test for the rightness of an action is reason you should not defend yourself
3. CATEGORICAL - if someone has stolen from you, pacifism holds that
- absolute you should not retrieve your property
- unqualified - if someone has murdered other people, pacifism
- without condition holds that nothing should be done about it
4. CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE 10. HUMANISM
- denotes an absolute, unconditional requirement - expresses renewed confidence in the power of man
that exerts its authority in all circumstances. to respond positively to his own problems and so
- “it is wrong to commit murder” discover new things for himself
- hence the principle, act only according to that - humanism entails a commitment to the search for
maxim by which you can also will that it would truth and morality through human means in support
become a universal law of human interests
5. ALTRUISM - in focusing on the capacity for self-determination,
- is a code of ethics which holds the welfare of others humanism rejects dependence on faith, the
as the standard of "good" and self-sacrifice as the supernatural or divinely revealed texts
only moral action. 11. ANARCHISM
- the unstated premise of the doctrine of altruism is - expresses man’s freedom to express himself without
that all relationships among men involve sacrifice repression of any kind
- this leaves one with the choice: - freedom is the highest attainment of a humanity
- maliciously exploiting the other person or being - anarchism is centered on rejection of any form of
"moral" and offering oneself up as the sacrificial compulsory government and supporting its
victim elimination
6. INTRINSICISM - the term "anarchism" is derived from the geek word
- the belief that value is a non-relational characteristic αναρχια "without archons" or "without rulers“
of an object 12. EXISTENTIALISM
- this means that an object can be valuable or not, - a philosophical movement which posits that
good or bad, without reference to who it is good or individuals create the meaning and essence of their
bad for, and without reference to the reason it is lives
good or bad - existentialism generally postulates the absence of a
7. SUBJECTIVISM transcendent force
- the belief that values are subjective. - this means that the individual is entirely free, and,
- this means that values are whatever we choose to therefore, ultimately responsible
pursue and whatever we desire - it is up to humans to create an ethos of personal
- it means there is no such thing as good or evil, responsibility for themselves, outside of any branded
except what you think is good or evil belief system
- if you believe something is evil, that's just your own - “the highest attainment of man is to find his own
personal preference. it is not, and cannot be, a unique vocation”-soren kierkegaard
statement about reality 13. EUDAIMONISM
8. COLLECTIVISM - comes from the greek word eudaimonia which
- the concept of value requires a purpose and a means happiness
beneficiary - refers to any conception of ethics that puts human
- it requires answers to the questions "value to happiness and the complete life of the individual at
whom?" and "value for what?" the center of ethical concern
- collectivism says value to the collective, whether 14. UTILITARIANISM
that is society, tribe, family, nation, race, sex, or any - the ethical doctrine which believes that the moral
other group or category one "belongs" to worth of an action is solely determined by its
- the standard of good is that which benefits the contribution to overall utility
group - utility, the good to be maximized, whatever brings
9. PACIFISM the greatest happiness to the greatest number of
people has been defined by various thinkers as
happiness or pleasure versus suffering or pain
15. PRAGMATISM Administration (FDA), no Common Rule, and no
- the meaning of concepts is to be sought in their Institutional Review Board (IRB). What follows is a
practical bearings brief discussion of why federal rules and regulations
- the function of thought is to guide action were established and why the IRB became a
- truth is preeminently to be tested by the practical necessity.
consequences of belief A. Nuremberg Trials
 A well-known chapter in the history of
CONCLUDING NOTES research with human subjects opened
- the people today have a strong sense of freedom on December 9, 1946, when an
veritatis splendor (31) American military tribunal opened
- according to dignitatis humanae. criminal proceedings against 23 leading
German physicians and administrators
- one of the positive achievements of the modern
for their willing participation in war
culture is the heightened sense of dignity of the
crimes and crimes against humanity.
human person
Among the charges were that German
- however, some trends diverge from the truth about physicians conducted medical
man as a creature and image of god experiments on thousands of
- some trends absolutize freedom to the point of concentration camp prisoners without
atheism making the individual conscience the their consent. Most of the subjects of
supreme moral judge these experiments died or were
permanently crippled as a result.
THE CRISIS OF TRUTH  As a direct result of the trial, the
- the loss of the idea of universal truth about good Nuremberg Code was established in
knowable by human reason. 1948, stating that "The voluntary
- changes the notion of conscience: consent of the human subject is
o an act of the person’s intelligence which seeks to absolutely essential," making it clear
apply universal knowledge of good in a specific that subjects should give consent and
situation… that the benefits of research must
o this tendency leads to individualist ethic outweigh the risks.
o where every individual is faced with his own B. Declaration of Helsinki
version of truth different from the truth of  In 1964, the World Medical Association
others. established recommendations guiding
o this new found freedom would lay claim to medical doctors in biomedical research
moral autonomy or absolute sovereignty where
involving human subjects. The
individuals or social groups have right to
determine what is good or evil Declaration of Helsinki (DoH) is a set of
o when people lay claim to absolute sovereignty, ethical principles regarding human
people “create” values disregarding the experimentation developed for the
dependence of human reason on divine wisdom medical community by the World
Medical Association (WMA). It is widely
regarded as the cornerstone document
Healthcare Ethics on human research ethics. The
I. INTRODUCTION Declaration of Helsinki was revised in
Ethics is concerned with moral principles, values and 1975, 1983, 1989 and 1996 and is the
standards of conduct. The field of health and health basis for Good Clinical Practices used
care raises numerous ethical concerns, related to, today.
for example, health care delivery, professional C. Issues addressed in the Declaration of Helsinki
integrity, data handling, use of human subjects in include:
research, and the application of new techniques,  Research with humans should be based
such as gene manipulation. on the results from laboratory and
animal experimentation
II. HISTORY  Research protocols should be reviewed
Prior to 1906, when the Pure Food and Drug Act was by an independent committee prior to
passed, there were no regulations regarding the initiation
ethical use of human subjects in research. There  Informed consent from research
were no consumer regulations, no Food and Drug participants is necessary
 Research should be conducted by In medicine, autonomy refers to the
medically/scientifically qualified right of the patient to retain control
individuals over his or her body. A health care
 Risks should not exceed benefits professional can suggest or advise,
D. The Belmont Report but any actions that attempt to
 A report created by the National persuade or coerce the patient into
Commission for the Protection of making a choice are violations of this
Human Subjects of Biomedical and principle. In the end, the patient
Behavioral Research. Its full title I the must be allowed to make his or her
Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and own decisions – whether or not the
Guidelines for the Protection of Human medical provider believes these
Subjects of Research, Report of the choices are in that patient’s best
National Commission for the Protection interests – independently and
of Human Subjects of Biomedical and according to his or her personal
Behavioral Research. values and beliefs.
 The Belmont Report was first written by 2. Beneficence
the National Commission for the This principle states that health care
Protection of Human Services of providers must do all they can to
Biomedical and Behavioral Research. benefit the patient in each situation.
Prompted in part by problems arising All procedures and treatments
from the Tuskegee Syphilis Study recommended must be with the
(1932–1972) and based on the National intention to do the most good for
Commission for the Protection of the patient. To ensure beneficence,
Human Subjects of Biomedical and medical practitioners must develop
Behavioral Research (1974–1978). The and maintain a high level of skill and
Belmont Report is one of the leading knowledge, make sure that they are
works concerning ethics and health trained in the most current and best
care research. It allows for the medical practices, and must take
protection of participants in clinical their patients’ individual
trials and research studies. circumstances into account: what is
E. Indian Council of Medical Research Guidelines good for one patient will not
on Code of Conduct for Research Scientists necessary benefit another.
engaged in field of Life Sciences 3. Non-Maleficence
 Guidance on transfer of human Non-maleficence is probably the
biological material for best known of the four principles. In
research/commercial purposes short, it means, “to do no harm.”
 'ICMR-DBT' Guidelines for evaluation of This principle is intended to be the
probiotics in food end goal for all of a practitioner’s
 Knowledge Management policy for decisions, and means that medical
Health - Service, Education and providers must consider whether
Research (Draft) other people or society could be
 Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical harmed by a decision made, even if
Research on Human Participants it is made for the benefit of an
 Intellectual Property Rights Policy individual patient.
4. Justice
The principle of justice states that
there should be an element of
III. PRINCIPLES fairness in all medical decisions:
The four principles of health care ethics fairness in decisions that burden and
developed by Tom Beauchamp and James benefit, as well as equal distribution
Childress in the 1985 Principles of Biomedical of scarce resources and new
Ethics provide medical practitioners with treatments, and for medical
guidelines to make decisions when they practitioners to uphold applicable
inevitably face complicated situations laws and legislation when making
involving patients. choices.
1. Autonomy
IV. CASE STUDY
A Closer Look: Case Study V. SUMMARY
 Nazi atrocities in World War II drew
One hypothetical case study involves a patient attention to the lack of international
who has an ovarian cyst that, left untreated, standards on research with human
will result in kidney failure. An operation to subjects and led to the formulation of
remove the cyst is the best treatment, but the the Nuremberg Code, the first
patient is frightened of needles and is against international document which
the surgery which would require a needle to advocated voluntary participation
give her anesthesia. The doctor must work and informed consent.
with the patient to respect the fact that she  The Declaration of Helsinki is the
dislikes needles and doesn’t want the basis for Good Clinical Practices used
operation (her autonomy), and needs to find today.
a solution that would prevent her from going  The National Research Act codified
into kidney failure, which is in her best the requirement that human subjects
interest (beneficence). Although the surgery is in research must be protected and
the best choice, forcing the patient to accept set the stage for the issuance of the
the needle would be harmful to her (non- Belmont Report.
maleficence). Finally, the doctor needs to
consider the impact that the patient’s choices Research ethics govern the standards of conduct for
might have on others if she starts to go into scientific researchers. It is important to adhere to ethical
preventable kidney failure, she’ll need principles in order to protect the dignity, rights and
dialysis, which affects other people who need welfare of research participants. As such, all research
the same treatment (justice). So before involving human beings should be reviewed by an ethics
making the final decision the doctor must committee to ensure that the appropriate ethical
consider all four principles of health care standards are being upheld. Discussion of the ethical
ethics which will help the physician make the principles of beneficence, justice and autonomy are
choice that will have the best possible central to ethical review.
benefits for both the patient and society.

2nd Shifting Notes


Principles subordinated to the good of the whole
body.”
─ that from which something proceeds  The term "totality" points to the duty to
─ principium (origin, cause) preserve intact the physical component of
─ principia (foundation) that integrated whole.
─ priceps (first, chief)  The well-being of the whole person must be
taken into account in deciding therapeutic
Natural moral law (do good, avoid evil) > procedures.
fundamental moral principle > chief principle  Parts exists for the good of the whole
(morality)  Removal of an organ is morally permitted:
o When the preservation of the organ
may cause grave injury
DISCIPLINE OF CASUISTRY o When the removal means avoiding
─ Casuistry is from the Latin word casus, more serious complications.
meaning “case” or “occurrence” o When the removal will diminish the
─ helps determine which principle applies risk of death.
or has precedence in particular cases  The whole is the sum total of its parts
─ each situation calls for a specific  Each part is essential:
principle that would fit it o Bodily Integrity
─ completeness of body parts
1. Double Effect o Functional Integrity
─ complete operation of body
 The principle that says it is morally
functions, systems and
allowable to perform an act that has at processes
least two effects, one good and one  Applications:
bad. o Body Mutilation
2. Toleration ─ to save the rest
 A moral attitude of being detached ─ to enhance/ beautify (grave
from a wrong doing while permitting it reason, psychologically
 Conditions: insecure, will not harm)
─ not if functioning right
o there is a wrongdoer present
o Functional Mutilation
before a tolerant person ─ between two systems,
o the tolerant person prioritize one with higher
o the scandal/wrong act function
 When to tolerate an act: ─ allowed and encouraged to
o to prevent greater harm sacrifice any lower function to
o to maintain the common good save a life
of the community/ majority o Organ Donation
─ informed consent (procedures,
consequences, effects, possible
3. Totality risk/dangers)
 "The parts of the physical entity, as ─ do not sell (except when
parts, are ordained to the good of the person is dead for science)
physical whole." ─ do not donate if it endangers
 Medical perspective the donor (unless consented)
"All the parts of the human body, as parts, are  Cannot be applied to society because it will
meant to exist and function for the good of the remove the dysfunctional members
whole body and are thus naturally
4. Cooperation In Evil • Providing the material that
 The principle of cooperation with evil is necessary for the immoral
act to occur. (Guilty of the
concerns a class of acts in which one immoral act)
person is considering committing an act o Mediate
that is related to the sinful act of • Providing material not
another person. necessary for the immoral
 Degrees of cooperation that measure act to occur (May be guilty
of liability and culpability: of the immoral act)
Formal Cooperation o Proximate
• Makes a contribution to the
o cooperator intends the evil
act that leads to the
Explicit commission of the act.
o cooperator directly approves of (Guilty of the immoral act)
(intends and concurs with) the o Remote
principal agent’s immoral act • Makes a contribution to the
Implicit act that does not lead to the
o cooperator intends the evil of the commission of the act. (Not
principal agent, not for its own guilty when there is a
sake but as a means to some other proportionately reason to
end that, might be morally good. do so)
Material Cooperation  The morality of helping/ cooperating in
o cooperator does not intend the a wrongdoing
evil  Conditions:
o Immediate Material Cooperation o two agents: principal agent/
• cooperator does not share mastermind and cooperator
the intentions of the o principal agent’s act is morally wrong
principal agent o the act of cooperator helps the
o Mediate Material Cooperation principal agent (cooperator is liable)
• cooperator participates in o cooperator’s aim is as little as possible
circumstances that are not cooperation
essential
• Proximate Mediate 5. Compromise
Material Cooperation  “letting go and letting in”
 has direct causal
influence
 “Meeting halfway”
• Remote Mediate Material  “Win-win situation”
Cooperation  Finding middle ground
 has indirect causal  When one actively participates in
influence
actions that have a clear morally evil
o Cooperator
component
• The one who assists the evil
doer in some way.  One’s action in a step towards
o Formal achieving an ideal
• Intends the immoral act to  Maximizing the possible good in a
occur (Equally guilty of the concrete situation
immoral o act)
o Material
6. Lesser Evil
• Does not intend the
immoral act to occur. (May  Permitted only when it is the only
be guilty in the immoral act) way to prevent a greater evil
o Immediate
 But it is not justified when it means  demands a way of life that encourages
harming a third party whom the virtue and bears the fruit of solidarity
wrong doer had not intended to among peoples.
wrong  God is creator or author
 Revolves around the idea of  Man is co-creator or co-author or
choosing between two options that caretaker
have clear evil implications  Man’s responsibility:
 Pre-condition: o manage, utilize, and direct all
o exhausted all possible solutions resources for the glory of God and
(else moral blunders) the betterment of His creation
o implications are known (but it is  Everything we own is on loan from
not justified when it means God
harming a third party whom the  Solidarity means, one with others
wrongdoer had not intended to
 Limit of private property is sharing
wrong)
 Conditions:
o permitted only when it is the
9. Subsidiarity
only way to prevent a greater  an organizing, principle that matters
evil ought to be handled by the smallest,
lowest or least centralized competent
7. Epikeia authority
 A liberal interpretation of law in instances  based on the autonomy and dignity
not provided by letter of the law. of the human individual
 Etym. Greek epiikiea — reasonable  should be in the service of the human
 Applications of Epikeia person.
o Correct an impossible law  assumes that human beings are by
o Correct an inhuman law their nature social beings
o Correct a law which did not foresee  emphasizes the importance of small
this particular set of circumstances and intermediate-sized communities or
 Virtue of epikeia is built on the principles of institutions as mediating structures
human rights and dignity of man  ways:
 proof of moral strength and conscience of o technological transfer
doctors. o expertise transfer
 Between letters of the law and spirit of the o financial aid
law (only for life and death situations)  when to practice:
 In every rule, there is an exception (rule o politics (local, national
cannot be applied)/ exemption (rule can be government)
o economics (big communities
applied but is suspended): take exception as
help small communities help
the rule not an exception themselves)

8. Stewardship 10. Just Remuneration


 theological belief that humans are  Payment or compensation received
responsible for the world, and should take for services or employment. This
care of it. includes the base salary and any
bonuses or other economic benefits
that an employee or executive  Intrinsic goods
receives during employment. o objects, actions, or qualities
 There should be fair and full that is valuable in themselves
rewarding of a well-directed effort,  Non-intrinsic goods
but the rewarding should not o good only for developing or
produce overpayment beyond serving an intrinsic good
reason.  Sommum bonum
 Just means to give his due o principle of the highest good
that cannot be subordinated to
 Remuneration means payment
another
received due to services rendered
 commensurate = equitability
13. Legitimate Defense
 family wage
 “The act of self-defense can have a
 measured by:
double effect: the preservation of one's
o professional qualification
life and the killing of the aggressor...
o attitude
o experience The one is intended, the other is not”
o performance (bonus) (St. Thomas Aquinas)
o price (of goods), inflation: external  There are three situations where the
factors use of force may be justified:
 rights of workers: o Self-defense
o economic (salary, wage, bonus)  this is a common-law
o political (form unions) defense
 'private defence'
o social (maternity/ paternity leave,
 includes defense of another
sick leave)
person and defense of
o religious
property
o Defense of property
11. Solidarity  this area is regulated
 valuing our fellow human beings partially by common law
and respecting who they are as and partially by statute
individuals o Prevention of crime
 This is a public or statutory
defence
12. Hierarchy of Values
 Legitimate Defense
 deciding whether the value being o Legitimate defense of innocent
pursued is greater or at least equal persons is not an exception to
to the value sacrificed, one must be murder...
guided by the hierarchy of rights  Murder is intentional killing.
and values its moral object is to take
 universal moral order, manifesting innocent human life
 Self-defense — (or of 3rd
a hierarchy of values based on the
person)
degree of perfection naturally  Moral object is different
existing in things- beginning in God from murder
 natural law, the expression of this  i.e. protecting
moral order and demands that this innocent life!
natural order of things be  Love toward oneself
preserved and forbids it be remains a fundamental
principle of morality.
disturbed.
 Therefore, it is legitimate to o make sure that they are trained in
insist on respect for one's the most current and best medical
own right to life. practices; and
 Someone who defends his o must take their patients’ individual
life is not guilty of murder circumstances into account
even if he is forced to deal  What is good for one patient will
his aggressor a lethal blow
 Principle of "double effect"
not necessary benefit another.

14. Autonomy 16. Non-Maleficence


 From Greek words autos ‘self’  probably the best known of the
+ nomos ‘law’ four principles (Autonomy,
Beneficence, Non-Maleficence, and
 (in medicine) The right of the
Justice).
patient to retain control over his or
her body  It means, “to do no harm.”
 A health care professional can  Intends to be the end goal for all of
suggest or advise, but any actions a practitioner’s decisions, and
that attempt to persuade or coerce means that medical providers must
the patient into making a choice are consider whether other people or
violations of this principle. society could be harmed by a
decision made, even if it is made for
 In the end, the patient must be
the benefit of an individual patient.
allowed to make his or her own
decisions—whether or not the
medical provider believes these 17. Justice
choices are in that patient’s best  From Latin word
interests—independently and iūstitia (“righteousness, equity”),
according to his or her personal iūstus (“just”), iūs (“right”)
values and beliefs.  States that there should be an
element of fairness in all medical
15. Beneficence decisions:
o in decisions that burden and benefit
 From Latin words bene (“good”) + -
o in distribution of scarce resources
ficens, combining form and new treatments; and
from faciens, present participle o for medical practitioners to uphold
of facere (“to make or do”). applicable laws and legislation when
 Health care providers must do all making choices
they can to benefit the patient in
each situation.
 All procedures and treatments Just War Theory
recommended must be with the  Jus ad bellum (Latin for "right to war")
intention to do the most good for  under self-defense
the patient.  To know when you are going to defend
 To ensure beneficence, medical yourself and to what extent should you
practitioners must: use force or engage in war
o develop and maintain a high level of  You cannot use non-conventional
skill and knowledge weapons to defend yourself
 Remember that you may win the signs of aggression would mean
battle/war, but you may not celebrate a crime against humanity. There
would be no justification that
the victory.
would serve as a valid ground.
o Because your enemies/opponents
o Retaliatory defense is not used
that are lands people are totally
to destroy civilians or people,
destroyed or wiped out but to destroy military satellites
o To win in a war is not a gain that are used to launch war.
o To gain is not the essence of war  According to the
o The true essence of war is to let International
your enemies understand the humanitarian law (IHL),
truths about the value of: “You are not allowed to
 Human life kill civilians, you may be
 Human dignity allowed to kill
 Private properties combatants/soldiers.”
 Preservation of sovereignty  When you see a civilian
 Preservation of peritoneal that needs help, you are
integrity bound by the IHL to help
 Nation; and the civilian (regardless
whether that civilian is
 People
your enemy or your
 Act: friend).
o Object  Even those who are
o Defense captured during wartime,
 Intrusion/invasion/aggressio they are supposed to be
n treated with dignity.
 Motive: They cannot be tortured
o Defend to preserve life unjustly.
o Defend to protect life  During wartime you are
not allowed to use
 Circumstances: chemical/biochemical
o Threat to national community weapons
o Should not amount to the
extraction itself
o Means must warrant to the loss of
destruction
1. Lives:
 Must have
commensurate/proportionate
reason
o The end should not justify the
means
o Have to consider the manner of
self-defense
 Preventive and retaliatory
o Two ways to defend yourself
o Preventive defense, follows the
principle “the best defense is
offense” meaning the best way
to defend yourself is to attack
first
o In morality, if you attack first
without the enemy showing

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