Principles of General Chemistry, 2nd ed. By M.

Silberberg
Chemistry, 8th ed. by W. Whitten, R. Davis, R., M. L. Peck, and G. Stanley.
Lecture Goals
Chemical Equations 1. Chemical Equations
and Reaction 2. Combination Reactions
3. Decomposition Reactions
Stoichiometry 4. Displacement Reactions
5. Metathesis Reactions
6. Gas-Formation Reactions
7. REDOX Reactions
8. Calculations Based on Chemical Equations
9. The Limiting Reactant Concept
10. Percent Yields from Chemical Reactions

Chemical Equations Chemical Equations

CH4 + 2O2
CO2 + 2H2O • the information an equation provides:
reactants yield products
∆
Fe2O3 + 3 CO 
 → 2 Fe + 3 CO2
1 formula unit 3 molecules 2 atoms 3 molecules
1 mole 3 moles 2 moles 3 moles
159.7 g 84.0 g 111.7 g 132g

Chemical Equations Balancing Chemical Equations

• Law of Conservation of Matter Translate the statement Within the cylinders of a car’s engine, the
hydrocarbon octane (C8H18), one of many
– There is no detectable change in quantity of components of gasoline, mixes with oxygen
matter in an ordinary chemical reaction. from the air and burns to form carbon
Balance the atoms dioxide and water vapor. Write a balanced
– Balanced chemical equations must always equation for this reaction.
include the same number of each kind of atom on
C8H18 + O2 CO2 + H2O
both sides of the equation. Adjust the coefficients
25
• Propane,C3H8, burns in oxygen to give C8H18 + O2 8 CO2 + 9 H2O
2
carbon dioxide and water. Check the atom balance 2C8H18 + 25O2 16CO2 + 18H2O

∆
C3H8 + 5 O 2 
→ 3 CO 2 + 4 H 2 O
2C8H18(l) + 25O2 (g) 16CO2 (g) + 18H2O (g)

Specify states of matter

Combination Reactions Combination Reactions
• addition or synthesis reactions 1. Element + Element → Compound
• occur when two or more substances
combine to form a compound. 2 Na (s ) + Cl 2 (g ) → 2 NaCl (s )

• three basic types: 2 Mg (s ) + O 2(g ) → 2 MgO (s )

1. Two elements react to form a new compound
2. An element and a compound react to form one
new compound 2 Al (s ) + 3 Br2 (l ) → 2 AlBr3(s )
3. Two compounds react to form one compound

Combination Reactions Combination Reactions

1. Element + Element → Compound
P4 (s ) + 5 O 2 (g ) → P4O10 (s )
P4 (s ) + 6 Cl 2 (g ) → 4 PCl 3(l )
2 As(s ) + 3 Cl 2 (g ) → 2 AsCl 3(s )
in limited chlorine
2. Compound + Element → Compound
AsCl3(s ) + Cl2 (g ) → AsCl5(s )
SF4 (s ) + F2 (g ) → SF6 (g )
2 CO (g ) + O 2 (g ) → 2 CO 2 (g )
2 As(s ) + 5 Cl 2 (g ) → 2 AsCl 5(s ) P4O6 + 2 O 2 → P4O10
in excess chlorine

Combination Reactions Decomposition Reactions

• Decomposition reactions occur when
3. Compound + Compound → Compound
– gaseous ammonia and hydrogen chloride
one compound decomposes to form:
1. Two elements
NH 3(g ) + HCl (g ) → NH 4Cl (s ) 2. One or more elements and one or more
compounds
– lithium oxide and sulfur dioxide 3. Two or more compounds

Li2O + SO2 → Li2SO3

Decomposition Reactions Decomposition Reactions
1. Compound → Element + Element 2. Compound → Element + Compound(s)
• decomposition of dinitrogen oxide
∆ – decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
2 N 2O ( g ) 
→ 2 N 2 (g ) + O 2 (g )
• decomposition of calcium chloride 3+
2 H2O2(aq) h →2 H2O(l) + O2(g)
ν or Fe or Mn

CaCl 2 (l ) electricit
 y → Ca (l ) + Cl 2 (g )
• decomposition of silver halides
hν
2 AgBr(s ) → 2 Ag (s ) + Br2 (l )

Decomposition Reactions Displacement Reactions

3. Compound → Compound + Compound • single replacement reactions
– decomposition of ammonium hydrogen carbonate • occur when one element displaces
another element from a compound.
∆ – these are redox reactions in which the
NH4 HCO3(s) 
→ NH3(g ) + H2O(g ) + CO2(g ) more active metal displaces the less
active metal of hydrogen from a
compound in aqueous solution.
– note: activity series of metals

Displacement Reactions Displacement Reactions

2 Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2 (SO4 )3(aq) + 3 H2(g )
AgNO 3(aq ) + Cu (s) → CuNO 3(aq ) + Ag (s)

• Total ionic equation

Ag(+aq) + NO3- (aq) + Cu(s) → Cu(+aq) + NO3- (aq) + Ag(s)

2 Al(s) + 6 H (+aq ) + 3 SO 24-(aq ) → 2 Al3(aq+ ) + 3 SO 42-(aq ) + 3 H 2(g )
• Net ionic equation

Ag (+aq ) + Cu (s) → Cu (+aq ) + Ag (s) 2 Al (s) + 6 H (+aq ) → 2 Al 3(aq

+
) + 3 H 2 (g )
Displacement Reactions Metathesis Reactions
Formula Unit Equation • double displacement or replacement
reactions
Cl 2 (g ) + 2 NaI ( aq ) → I 2 (s ) + 2 NaCl (aq) • occur when two ionic aqueous solutions are
mixed and the ions switch partners.
Total ionic equation AX + BY → AY + BX
Cl 2 (g ) + 2 Na (+aq ) + 2 I -(aq ) → I 2 (s ) + 2 Na (+aq ) + 2 Cl (- aq ) • remove ions from solution in two ways:
1. form predominantly unionized molecules like H2O
Net ionic equation 2. form an insoluble solid
• Ion removal is the driving force of metathesis
Cl 2 (g ) + 2 I -(aq ) → I 2 (s ) + 2 Cl (- aq ) reactions.

Metathesis Reactions Metathesis Reactions

1. Acid-
Acid-Base (neutralization) Reactions • Molecular equation
– formation of the nonelectrolyte H2O HBr (aq) + KOH (aq) → KBr (aq) + H 2O (l)
– acid + base → salt + water
• Total ionic equation
H (+aq ) + Br(-aq ) + K (+aq ) + OH (-aq ) → K (+aq ) + Br(-aq ) + H 2O ( l )

• Net ionic equation

H (+aq ) + OH -
(aq ) → H 2O (l)

Metathesis Reactions Metathesis Reactions

2. Precipitation reactions • Molecular equation
- an insoluble compound is formed.
- the solid precipitates out of the solution
Ca(NO3 ) 2 (aq) + K 2 CO3(aq) → 2 KNO3( aq) + CaCO3(s)
much like rain or snow precipitates out of
the air. • Total ionic equation

Ca (2aq+ ) + 2 NO 3- (aq ) + 2 K (+aq ) + CO 32(-aq ) →

2 K (+aq ) + 2 NO -3(aq ) + CaCO 3(s )
• Net ionic equation
3 Ca (2aq+ ) + 2 PO 34 -(aq ) → Ca 3 (PO 4 )2 (s )
Gas-Formation Reactions
• a type of reaction in which there is a
formation of an insoluble or slightly
soluble gas when there are no gaseous
reactants.
Gas-Formation Reactions
• Example: hydrochloric acid with calcium carbonate
to form carbonic acid.
Formula Unit
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3 (s) → H2CO3 (aq) + CaCl2 (aq)
Total Ionic
2[H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)] + CaCO3 (s)
→ H2CO3 (aq) + [Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)]

Net Ionic
2H+(aq) + CaCO3 (s) → H2CO3 (aq) + Ca2+(aq)

Gas-Formation Reactions
• Enough heat is generated in the reaction to
cause thermal decomposition of carbonic
acid.
H2CO3 (aq) → CO2 + H2O(l)
• The net effect of the chemical reaction and
subsequent decomposition is
Oxidation-Reduction
(REDOX) Reactions
• Oxidation is an increase in the oxidation
number.
– Corresponds to the loss of electrons.
• Reduction is a decrease in the oxidation
number.
– Corresponds to the gain of electrons

2HCl(aq) + CaCO3 (s) → CO2 + H2O(l) + CaCl2 (aq)

Oxidation-Reduction Oxidation-Reduction
(REDOX) Reactions (REDOX) Reactions
Oxidizing agents are chemical species that: Good Mnemonic:
– oxidize some other substance LEO (the lion) says GER
– contain atoms that are reduced in the reaction Loss of Electron = Oxidation
– gain electrons Gain of Electron = Reduction
Reducing agents are chemical species that:
– reduce some other substance LEORA / GEROA
– contain atoms that are oxidized in the reaction Loss of Electron = Oxidation = Reducing Agent
– lose electrons Gain of Electron = Reduction = Oxidizing Agent
Oxidation-Reduction Oxidation-Reduction
(REDOX) Reactions (REDOX) Reactions
• Examples of redox reactions.
Example: the oxidation of sulfurous acid to
• Discoloration of KMnO4 with sulfuric acid by oxygen in acidic aqueous
Fe2+ solution.
– Fe2+ is oxidized to Fe3+
– MnO41- is reduced to Mn2+ • Formula unit equation
• Combustion of Mg 2 H2SO3(aq) + O2(g ) → 2 H2SO4(aq )
– Mg is oxidized to MgO
• Total ionic equation
– O2 is reduced to O2- + −
2 H2SO3(aq) + O2(g ) → 4 H(aq) + 2 SO24(aq)

Oxidation-Reduction Oxidation-Reduction
(REDOX) Reactions (REDOX) Reactions
• Which species are oxidized and reduced?
• Net ionic equation • Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents.
+ −
2 H 2SO 3(aq ) + O 2(g ) → 4 H (aq) + 2 SO 24(aq) • H2SO3 is oxidized.
– The oxidation state of S in H2SO3 is +4.
• Which species are oxidized and reduced? – In SO42-, S has an oxidation state of +6.
• Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents. • O2 is reduced.
– Oxidation state of O in O2 is 0
– In SO42-, O has an oxidation state of –2.
• H2SO3 is reducing agent.
• O2 is oxidizing agent.

Calculations Calculations
Based on Chemical Equations Based on Chemical Equations
• Can work in moles, formula units, etc.
Stoichiometry • Frequently, in mass or weight (grams
- description of quantitative or kg or pounds or tons).
relationships among elements in
∆
compounds (composition Fe2O3 + 3 CO 
 → 2 Fe + 3 CO2
stoichiometry) and among substances
1 formula unit 3 molecules 2 atoms 3 molecules
as they undergo chemical changes 1 mole 3 moles 2 moles 3 moles
(reaction stoichiometry). 159.7 g 84.0 g 111.7 g 132g
Calculations Calculations
Based on Chemical Equations Based on Chemical Equations

“The Lord is my
shepherd, I shall not
want..”
want..” Psalm 23:1

questions?