Air Traffic Control in The Usa: Practice 78

PRACTICE 78
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL IN THE USA
A. An accident that occurred in the skies over the Grand Canyon in 1956 resulted in the establishment of
the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to regulate and oversee the operation of aircraft in the skies
over the United States, which were becoming quite congested. The resulting structure of air traffic control
has greatly increased the safety of flight in the United States, and similar air traffic control procedures are
also in place over much of the rest of the world.
B. Rudimentary air traffic control (АТС) existed well before the Grand Canyon disaster. As early as the
1920s, the earliest air traffic controllers manually guided aircraft in the vicinity of the airports, using lights
and flags, while beacons and flashing lights were placed along cross-country routes to establish the
earliest airways. However, this purely visual system was useless in bad weather, and, by the 1930s, radio
communication was coming into use for АТС. The first region to have something approximating today’s
АТС was New York City, with other major metropolitan areas following soon after.
C. In the 1940s, АТС centres could and did take advantage of the newly developed radar and improved
radio communication brought about by the Second World War, but the system remained rudimentary. It
was only after the creation of the FAA that full-scale regulation of America’s airspace took place, and this
was fortuitous, for the advent of the jet engine suddenly resulted in a large number of very fast planes,
reducing pilots’ margin of error and practically demanding some set of rules to keep everyone well
separated and operating safely in the air.
D. Many people think that АТС consists of a row of controllers sitting in front of their radar screens at the
nation’s airports, telling arriving and departing traffic what to do. This is a very incomplete part of the
picture. The FAA realised that the airspace over the United States would at any time have many different
kinds of planes, flying for many different purposes, in a variety of weather conditions, and the same kind
of structure was needed to accommodate all of them.
E. To meet this challenge, the following elements were put into effect. First, АТС extends over virtually the
entire United States. In general, from 365m above the ground and higher, the entire country is blanketed
by controlled airspace. In certain areas, mainly near airports, controlled airspace extends down to 215m
above the ground, and, in the immediate vicinity of an airport, all the way down to the surface. Controlled
airspace is that airspace in which FAA regulations apply. Elsewhere, in uncontrolled airspace, pilots are
bound by fewer regulations. In this way, the recreational pilot who simply wishes to go flying for a while
without all the restrictions imposed by the FAA has only to stay in uncontrolled airspace, below 365m,
while the pilot who does want the protection afforded by АТС can easily enter the controlled airspace.
F. The FAA then recognised two types of operating environments. In good meteorological conditions,
flying would be permitted under Visual Flight Rules (VFR), which suggests a strong reliance on visual cues
to maintain an acceptable level of safety. Poor visibility necessitated a set of Instrumental Flight Rules
(IFR), under which the pilot relied on altitude and navigational information provided by the plane’s
instrument panel to fly safely. On a clear day, a pilot in controlled airspace can choose a VFR or IFR flight
plan, and the FAA regulations were devised in a way which accommodates both VFR and IFR operations
in the same airspace. However, a pilot can only choose to fly IFR if they possess an instrument rating
which is above and beyond the basic pilot’s license that must also be held.
G. Controlled airspace is divided into several different types, designated by letters of the alphabet.
Uncontrolled airspace is designated Class F, while controlled airspace below 5,490m above sea level and
not in the vicinity of an airport is Class E. All airspace above 5,490m is designated Class A. The reason for
the division of Class E and Class A airspace stems from the type of planes operating in them. Generally,
Class E airspace is where one finds general aviation aircraft (few of which can climb above 5,490m
anyway), and commercial turboprop aircraft. Above 5,490m is the realm of the heavy jets, since jet
engines operate more efficiently at higher altitudes. The difference between Class E and A airspace is
that in Class A, all operations are IFR, and pilots must be instrument-rated, that is, skilled and licensed in
aircraft instrumentation. This is because АТС control of the entire space is essential. Three other types of
airspace, Classes D, С and B, govern the vicinity of airports. These correspond roughly to small municipal,
medium-sized metropolitan and major metropolitan airports respectively, and encompass an increasingly
rigorous set of regulations. For example, all a VFR pilot has to do to enter Class С airspace is establish
two-way radio contact with АТС. No explicit permission from АТС to enter is needed, although the pilot
must continue to obey all regulations governing VFR flight. To enter Class В airspace, such as on
approach to a major metropolitan airport, an explicit АТС clearance is required. The private pilot who
cruises without permission into this airspace risks losing their license.
Question 14- 19
Reading Passage 78 has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Choose the correct heading for paragraph A & C-G from the list below.
Write the correct number i-ix, in boxes 14- 19 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings:
i. Disobeying FAA Regulations
ii. Aviation disaster prompts action
iii. Two coincidental developments
iv. Setting Altitude Zones
v. An oversimplified view
vi. Controlling pilots’ licence
vii. Defining airspace categories

viii. Setting rules to weather conditions
ix. Taking of Safety
x. First step towards ATC
Example: Paragraph B
Answer: X
14. Paragraph A
15. Paragraph C
16. Paragraph D
17 Paragraph E
18. Paragraph F
19. Paragraph G
Question 20-26
Do the following statements agrees with the given information of the reading passage?
In boxes 20-26 on your answer sheet, write:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
20. The FAA was created as a result of the introduction of the jet engine.
21. Air traffic control started after the Grand Canyon crash in 19 56.
22. Beacons and flashing lights are still used by the ATC today.
23. Some improvements were made in radio communication during World War II.
24. Class F airspace is airspace which is below 365m and not near airports.
25. All aircraft in class E airspace must use AFR.
26. A pilot entering class C airspace is flying over an average-sized city.

PRACTICE 98
HELIUM’S FUTURE UP IN THE AIR

A. In recent years we have all been exposed to dire media reports concerning the impending demise of
global coal and oil reserves, but the depletion of another key nonrenewable resource continues without
receiving much press at all. Helium – an inert, odourless, monatomic element known to lay people as the
substance that makes balloons float and voices squeak when inhaled – could be gone from this planet
within a generation.
B. Helium itself is not rare; there is actually a plentiful supply of it in the cosmos. In fact, 24 per cent of our
galaxy’s elemental mass consists of helium, which makes it the second most abundant element in our
universe. Because of its lightness, however, most helium vanished from our own planet many years ago.
Consequently, only a miniscule proportion – 0.00052%, to be exact – remains in earth’s atmosphere.
Helium is the byproduct of millennia of radioactive decay from the elements thorium and uranium. The
helium is mostly trapped in subterranean natural gas bunkers and commercially extracted through a
method known as fractional distillation.
C. The loss of helium on Earth would affect society greatly. Defying the perception of it as a novelty
substance for parties and gimmicks, the element actually has many vital applications in society. Probably
the most well known commercial usage is in airships and blimps (non-flammable helium replaced
hydrogen as the lifting gas du jour after the Hindenburg catastrophe in 1932, during which an airship burst
into flames and crashed to the ground killing some passengers and crew). But helium is also instrumental
in deep-sea diving, where it is blended with nitrogen to mitigate the dangers of inhaling ordinary air under
high pressure; as a cleaning agent for rocket engines; and, in its most prevalent use, as a coolant for
superconducting magnets in hospital MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scanners.
D. The possibility of losing helium forever poses the threat of a real crisis because its unique qualities are
extraordinarily difficult, if not impossible to duplicate (certainly, no biosynthetic ersatz product is close to
approaching the point of feasibility for helium, even as similar developments continue apace for oil and
coal). Helium is even cheerfully derided as a “loner” element since it does not adhere to other molecules
like its cousin, hydrogen. According to Dr. Lee Sobotka, helium is the “most noble of gases, meaning it’s
very stable and non-reactive for the most part … it has a closed electronic configuration, a very tightly
bound atom. It is this coveting of its own electrons that prevents combination with other elements’.
Another important attribute is helium’s unique boiling point, which is lower than that for any other
element. The worsening global shortage could render millions of dollars of high-value, life-saving
equipment totally useless. The dwindling supplies have already resulted in the postponement of research
and development projects in physics laboratories and manufacturing plants around the world. There is an
enormous supply and demand imbalance partly brought about by the expansion of high-tech
manufacturing in Asia.
E. The source of the problem is the Helium Privatisation Act (HPA), an American law passed in 1996 that
requires the U.S. National Helium Reserve to liquidate its helium assets by 2015 regardless of the market
price. Although intended to settle the original cost of the reserve by a U.S. Congress ignorant of its
ramifications, the result of this fire sale is that global helium prices are so artificially deflated that few can
be bothered recycling the substance or using it judiciously. Deflated values also mean that natural gas
extractors see no reason to capture helium. Much is lost in the process of extraction. As Sobotka notes:
“[t]he government had the good vision to store helium, and the question now is: Will the corporations have
the vision to capture it when extracting natural gas, and consumers the wisdom to recycle? This takes
long-term vision because present market forces are not sufficient to compel prudent practice”. For Nobel-
prize laureate Robert Richardson, the U.S. government must be prevailed upon to repeal its privatisation
policy as the country supplies over 80 per cent of global helium, mostly from the National Helium
Reserve. For Richardson, a twenty- to fifty-fold increase in prices would provide incentives to recycle.
F. A number of steps need to be taken in order to avert a costly predicament in the coming decades.
Firstly, all existing supplies of helium ought to be conserved and released only by permit, with medical
uses receiving precedence over other commercial or recreational demands. Secondly, conservation
should be obligatory and enforced by a regulatory agency. At the moment some users, such as hospitals,
tend to recycle diligently while others, such as NASA, squander massive amounts of helium. Lastly,
research into alternatives to helium must begin in earnest.
Questions 27–31
Reading Passage 3 has six paragraphs, A–F.

Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A–F, in boxes 27–31 on your answer sheet.
27. a use for helium which makes an activity safer
28. the possibility of creating an alternative to helium
29. a term which describes the process of how helium is taken out of the ground
30. a reason why users of helium do not make efforts to conserve it
31. a contrast between helium’s chemical properties and how non-scientists think about it
Questions 32–35
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 98?
In boxes 32–35 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
32. Helium chooses to be on its own.
33. Helium is a very cold substance.

34. High-tech industries in Asia use more helium than laboratories and manufacturers in other parts of
the world.
35. The US Congress understood the possible consequences of the HPA.
Questions 36–40
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 36–40 on your answer sheet.
Sobotka argues that big business and users of helium need to help look after helium stocks
because 36 ……………….. will not be encouraged through buying and selling alone. Richardson believes that
the 37 ……………….. needs to be withdrawn, as the U.S. provides most of the world’s helium. He argues that
higher costs would mean people have 38 ……………….. to use the resource many times over.
People should need a 39 ……………….. to access helium that we still have. Furthermore, a 40 ………………..
should ensure that helium is used carefully.
PRACTICE 159
Endless Harvest
More than two hundred years ago, Russian explorers and fur hunters landed on the Aleutian Islands, a
volcanic archipelago in the North Pacific, and learned of a land mass that lay farther to the north. The
islands’ native inhabitants called this land mass Aleyska. the ‘Great Land’; today, we know it as Alaska.
The forty-ninth state to join the United States of America (in 1959), Alaska is fully one-fifth the size of the
mainland 48 – states combined. It shares, with Canada, the second, longest river system in North
America and has over half the coastline of the United States. The rivers feed into the Bering Sea and Gulf
of Alaska – cold, nutrient-rich waters which support tens of millions of seabirds, and over 400 species of
fish, shellfish, crustaceans, and mollusks. Taking advantage of this rich bounty, Alaska’s commercial
fisheries have developed into some of the largest in the world.
According to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), Alaska’s commercial fisheries landed
hundreds of thousarids of tonnes of shellfish and herring, and well over a million tones of ground fish
(cod, sole, perch and pollock) in 2000. The true cultural heart and soul of Alaska’s fisheries, “however, is
salmon. ‘Salmon,’ notes writer Susan Ewing in The Great Alaska Nature Fact book, 4pump through Alaska
like blood through a heart, bringing rhythmic, circulating nourishment to land, animals and people.’ The
‘predictable abundance of salmon allowed some native cultures to flourish,’ and ‘dying spankers” feed
bears, eagles, other animals, and ultimately the soil itself’ All five species of Pacific salmon – chinook, or
king; chum, or dog; Coho, or silver; sockeye, or red; and pink, or humpback – spawn in Alaskan waters, and
90% of all Pacific salmon commercially caught in North America arc produced there. Indeed, if Alaska
was an independent nation, it would be the largest producer of wild salmon in the world. During 2000,
commercial catches of Pacific salmon in Alaska exceeded 320,000 tonnes, with an ex-vessel value of
over $US260 million.
Catches have not always been so healthy. Between 1940 and 1959, over fishing led to crashes in salmon
populations so severe that in 1953 Alaska was declared a federal disaster area. With the onset of
statehood, however, the State of Alaska took over management of its own fisheries, guided by a state
constitution which mandates that Alaska’s natural resources be managed on a sustainable basis. At that
time, statewide harvests totaled around 25 million salmon. Over the next few- decades average catches
steadily increased as a result of this policy of sustainable management, until, during the 1990s, annual
harvests were well in excess of 100 million, and on several occasions over 200 million fish.
The primary reason for such increases is what is known as In-Season Abundance-Based Management’.
There are biologists throughout the state constantly monitoring adult fish as they show up to spawn. The
biologists sir. in streamside counting towers, study sonar, watch from aeroplanes, and talk to fishermen.
The salmon season in Alaska is not pre-set. The fishermen know die approximate time of year when they
will be allowed to fish, but on any given day, one or more field biologists in a particular area can put a halt
to fishing. Even sport filing can be brought to a halt It is this management mechanism that has allowed
Alaska salmon stocks – and, accordingly, Alaska salmon fisheries – to prosper, even as salmon
populations in the rest of the United States arc increasingly considered threatened or even endangered.
In 1999, the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)*** commissioned a review of the Alaska salmon fishery.
The Council, which was founded in 19%, certifies fisheries that meet high environmental standards,
enabling them to use a label that recogmses their environmental responsibility. The MSC has established
a set of criteria by which commercial fisheries can be judged. Recognising the potential benefits of being
identified as environmentally responsible, fisheries approach the Council requesting to undergo the
certificauon process. The MSC then appoints a certification committee, composed of a panel of fisheries
experts, which gathers information and opinions from fishermen, biologists, government officials, industry
representatives, non-governmental organisations and others.
Some observers thought the Alaska salmon fisheries would not have any chance of certification when, in
the months leading up to MSC’s final decision, salmon runs throughout western Alaska – completely
collapsed. In the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, chinook and chum runs were probably the poorest since
statehood; subsistence communities throughout the region, who normally have priority over commercial
fishing, were devastated.
The crisis was completely unexpected, but researchers believe it had nothing to do with impacts of
fisheries. Rather, they contend, it was almost certainly the result of climatic shifts, prompted in part by
cumulative effects of the el nino/la nina phenomenon on Pacific Ocean temperatures, culminating in a
harsh winter in which huge numbers of salmon eggs were frozen. It could have meant the end as far as
the certification process was concerned. However, the state reacted quickly, closing down all fisheries,
even those necessary for subsistence purposes.
In September 2000, MSC announced that the Alaska salmon fisheries qualified fop certification. Seven
companies producing Alaska salmon were immediately granted permission to display the MSC logo on
their products. Certification is for an initial period of five years, with an annual review to ensure dial the
fishery is continuing to meet the required standards.
* spawners: fish thai have released eggs

* spawn : release eggs
Questions 14-20
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 159?
In boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet, write

14. The inhabitants of the Aleutian islands renamed their islands 4Aleyska\
15. Alaska’s fisheries are owned by some of the world’s largest companies.
16. Life in Alaska is dependent on salmon.
17. Ninety per cent of all Pacific salmon caught are sockeye or pink salmon.
18. More than 320,000 tonnes of salmon were caught in Alaska in 2000.
19. Between 1940 and 1959, there was a sharp decrease in Alaska’s salmon population.
20. During the 1990s, the average number of salmon caught each year was 100 million.
Questions 21-26
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-K. below.
Write the correct letter, A-K. in boxes 21-26 on your answer sheet.
21. In Alaska, biologists keep a check on adult fish

22. Biologists have the authority
23. In-Season Abundance-Based Management has allowed the Alaska salmon fisheries
24. The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) was established
25. As a result of the collapse of the salmon runs in 1999, the state decided
26. In September 2000, the MSC allowed seven Alaska salmon companies
_________________________________________________
A to recognise fisheries that care for the environment.
B to be successful.
C to slop fish from spawning
D to set up environmental protection laws.
E to stop people fishing for sport.
F to label their products using the MSC logo.
G to ensure that fish numbers are sufficient to permit fishing.
H to assist the subsistence communities in the region.
I to freeze a huge number of salmon eggs.
J to deny certification to the Alaska fisheries.
K to close down all-fisheries.
PRACTICE 158
Pulling string to build pyramids

No one knows exactly how- the pyramids were built. Marcus Chown reckons the answer could be ‘hanging
in the air’
The pyramids of Egypt were built more than three thousand years ago, and no one knows how. The
conventional picture is that tens .of thousands of slaves dragged stones on sledges. But there is no
evidence to back this up. Now a Californian software consultant called Maureen Clemmons has
suggested that kites might have been- involved. While perusing a book on the monuments of Egypt, she
noticed a hieroglyph that showed a row of men standing in odd postures. They were holding what looked
like ropes that led, via some kind of mechanical system, to a giant bird in the sky. She wondered if
perhaps the bird was actually a giant kite, and the men were using it to lift a heavy object.
Intrigued, Clemmons contacted Morteza Gharib, aeronautics professor at the California Institute of
Technology. He was fascinated by the idea. ‘Coming from Iran, I have a keen interest in Middle Eastern
science/ he says. He too was puzzled by the picture that had sparked Clemmons’s interest. The object in
the sky apparently had wings far too short and wide for a bird ‘The possibility certainly existed that it was
a kite/ he says. And since he needed a summer project for his student Emilio Graff, investigating the
possibility of using kites as heavy lifters seemed like a good idea.
Gharib and Graff set themselves the task of raising a 4.5-metre stone column from horizontal to vertical,
using no source of energy except the wind. Their initial calculations and scale-model wind-tunnel
experiments convinced them they wouldn’t need a strong wind to lift the 33.5-tonne column. Even a
modest force, if sustained over a long lime, rose, the base would roll across the ground on a trolley.
Earlier this year, the team put Clemmons’s unlikely theory to the test, using a 40-square- meter rectangular
nylon sail. The kite lifted the column clean off the ground. ‘We were absolutely stunned/ Gharib says. The
instant the sail opened into the wind, a huge force was generated and the column was raised to the
vertical in a mere 40 seconds.’
The wind was blowing at a gentle 16 to 20 kilometers an hour, little more than half what they thought
would be needed. What they had failed to reckon with was what happened when the kite was opened.
There was a huge initial force – five times larger than the steady state force/ Gharib says. This jerk meant
that kites could lift huge weights, Gharib realised. Even a 300-tonne column could have been lifted to the
vertical with 40 or so men and four or five sails. So Clemmons was right: the pyramid builders could have
used kites to lift massive stones into place. ‘Whether they actually did is another matter,’ Gharib says.
There are no pictures showing the construction of the pyramids, so there is no way to tell what really
happened. The evidence for using kites to move large stones is no better or worse than the evidence for
the brute force method/ Gharib says.
Indeed, the experiments triage left many specialists unconvinced. The evidence for kite- lifting is non-
existent/ says Wallace Wendrich, an associate professor of Egyptology at the University of California, Los
Angeles.
Other feel there is more of a case for the theory. Harnessing the wind would not have been a problem for
accomplished sailors like the Egyptians. And they are known to have used wooden pulleys, which could
have been made strong enough to bear the weight of massive blocks of stone. In addition, there is some
physical evidence that the ancient Egyptians were interested in flight. A wooden artifact found on the step
pyramid at Saqqara looks uncannily like a modern glider. Although it dates from several hundred years
after the building of the pyramids, its sophistication suggests that the Egyptians might have been
developing ideas of flight for a long time. And other ancient civilisations certainly knew about kites; as
early as 1250 BC, the Chinese were using them to deliver messages and dump flaming debris on their
foes.
The experiments might even have practical uses nowadays. There are plenty of places around the globe
where people have no access to heavy machinery, but do know how to deal with, wind, sailing and basic
mechanical principles. Gharib has already been contacted by a civil engineer in Nicaragua, who wants to
put up buildings with adobe roofs supported by concrete arches on a site that heavy equipment can’t
reach. His idea is to build the arches horizontally, then lift them into place using kites. ‘We’ve given him
some design hints/ says Gharib. ‘We’re just waiting for him to report back.’ So whether they were actually
used to build the pyramids or not, it seems that kites may make sensible construction tools in the 21st
century AD.
Questions 1-7
Do the following statement with the information given in Reading Passage 158?

1. It is generally believed that large numbers of people were needed to build the pyramids.
2. Clemmons found a strange hieroglyph on the wall of an Egyptian monument.
3. Gharib had previously done experiments on bird flight.
4. Ghari band Graff tested their theory before applying it.
5. The success of the actual experiment was due to the high speed of the wind.
6. They found that, as the kite flew higher, the wind force got stronger.
7. The team decided that it was possible to use kites to raise very heavy stones.
Questions 8-13
Choose NO MORE THAN WORDS from the passage for each answer
Write your answers in boxes 8-13 your answer sheet.
Addition evidence for theory of kite lifting

The Egyptians had 8………………, which couldlift large pieces of 9……………….., and they knew how to use the
energy of the wind from their skill as 10………………. The discovery on one pyramid of an object which
resembled a 11……………..suggests they may have experimented with 12 ………….. . In addition, over two
thousand years ago kites used in china as weapons, as well as for sending 13………………
PRACTICE 157
Forests are one of the main elements of our natural heritage. The decline of Europe’s forests over the last
decade and a half has led to an increasing awareness and understanding of the serious imbalances
which threaten them. European countries are becoming increasingly concerned by major threats to
European forests, threats which know no frontiers other than those of geography or climate: air pollution,
soil deterioration, the increasing number of forest fires and sometimes even the mismanagement of our
woodland and forest heritage. There has been a growing awareness of the need for countries to get
together to co-ordinate their policies. In December 1990, Strasbourg hosted the first Ministerial
Conference on the protection of Europe’s forests. The conference brought together 31 countries from
both Western and Eastern Europe. The topics discussed included the co-ordinate study of the destruction
of forests, as well as how to combat forest fires and the extension of European research programs on the
forest ecosystem. The preparatory work for the conference had been undertaken at two meetings of
experts. Their initial task was to decide which of the many forest problems of concern to Europe involved
the largest number of countries and might be the subject of joint action. Those confined to particular
geographical areas, such as countries bordering the Mediterranean or the Nordic countries therefore had
to be discarded. However, this does not mean that in future they will be ignored.
As a whole, European countries see forests as performing a triple function: biological, economic and
recreational. The first is to act as a ‘green lung’ for our planet; by means of photosynthesis, forests
produce oxygen through the transformation of solar energy, thus fulfilling what for humans is the
essential role of an immense, non-polluting power plant. At the same time, forests provide raw materials
for human activities through their constantly renewed production of wood. Finally, they offer those
condemned to spend five days a week in an urban environment an unrivalled area of freedom to unwind
and take part in a range of leisure activities, such as hunting, riding and hiking. The economic importance
of forests has been understood since the dawn of man – wood was the first fuel. The other aspects have
been recognised only for a few centuries but they are becoming more and more important. Hence, there
is a real concern throughout Europe about the damage to the forest environment which threatens these
three basic roles.
The myth of the ‘natural’ forest has survived, yet there are effectively no remaining ‘primary’ forests in
Europe. All European forests are artificial, having been adapted and exploited by man for thousands of
years. This means that a forest policy is vital, that it must transcend national frontiers and generations of
people, and that ft must allow for the inevitable changes that take place in the forests, in needs, and
hence in policy. The Strasbourg conference was one of the first events on such a scale to reach this
conclusion. A general declaration was made that ‘a central place in any ecologically coherent forest policy
must be given to continuity over time and to the possible effects of unforeseen events, to ensure that the
full potential of these forests is maintained’.
That general declaration was accompanied by six detailed resolutions to 3ssist national policymaking.
The first proposes the extension and systematic sitter of surveillance sites to monitor forest decline.
Forest decline is still poorly understood but leads to the loss of a high proportion of a tree’s needles or
leaves. The entire continent and the majority of species are now affected: between 30% and 50% of the
tree population. The condition appears to result from the cumulative effect of a number of factors, with
atmospheric pollutants the principal culprits. Compounds of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide should be
particularly closely watched. However, their effects are probably accentuated by climatic factors, such as
drought and hard winters, or soil imbalances such as soil acidification, which damages to roots. The
second resolution concentrates on the need to preserve the genetic diversity of European forests. The
aim is to reverse the decline in the number of tree species or at least to preserve the ‘genetic material’ of
all of them. Although forest fires do not affect all of Europe to the same extent the amount of damage
caused the experts to propose as the third resolution that the Strasbourg conference consider the
establishment of a European databank on the subject. All information used in the development of national
preventative policies would become generally available. The subject of the fourth resolution discussed by
the ministers was mountain forests. In Europe, it is undoubtedly the mountain ecosystem which has
changed most rapidly and is most at risk. A thinly scattered permanent population and development of.
leisure activities, particularly skiing, have resulted in significant long-term changes to the local
ecosystems. Proposed developments include a preferential research program on mountain forests. The
fifth resolution relented the European research network on the physiology of trees, called Euro Silva
should support joint European research on tree diseases and their physiological and biochemical aspects.
Each country concerned could increase “the number of scholarships and other financial support for
doctoral theses and research projects in this area, finally, the conference established the framework for a
European research network on forest ecosystems. This would also involve harmonizing activities in
individual countries as well as identifying a number of priority research topics relating to the protection of
forests The Strasbourg conference’s main concern was to provide for the future. This was the initial
motivation, one now shared by all 31 participants representing 31 European countries. Their final text
commits them to on-going discussion between government representatives with responsibility for
forests.
Questions 27-33
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information-

27. Forest problems of Mediterranean countries are to be discussed at the next meeting of experts.
28. Problems in Nordic countries were excluded because they are outside the European – Economic
Community.
29. Forests are a renewable source of raw material.
30. The biological functions of forests were recognised only in the twentieth century.
31. Natural forests still exist in parts of Europe.
32. Forest policy should be limited by national boundaries.
33. The Strasbourg conference decided that a forest policy must allow for the possibility of change.
Questions 34-39
Look at the following statements issued by the conference.
Which six of the following statements. A-J, refer to the resolutions that were issued?
Match the statements with the appropriate resolutions (Questions 34-39).

Write the correct letter. A-J. in boxes 34-39 on your answer sheet.
A. All kinds of species of trees should be preserved.
B. Fragile mountain forests should be given priority in research programs.
C. The surviving natural forests of Europe do not need priority treatment.
D. Research is to be better co-ordinate throughout Europe:
E. Information on forest fires should be collected and shared.
F. Loss Of leaves from trees should be more extensively and carefully monitored
G. Resources should be allocated to research into tree diseases.
H. Skiing should be encouraged in thinly populated areas.
I. Soil imbalances such as acidification should be treated with compounds of nitrogen and sulphur.
J. Information is to be systematically gathered on any decline in the condition of forests.
34. Resolution 1
35. Resolution 2
36. Resolution 3
37. Resolution 4
38. Resolution 5
39. Resolution 6
Question 40
Choose the correct letter, A. B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in box 40 on your answer sheet
40. What is the best title for Reading Passage 157?

A The biological, economic and recreational role of forests
B Plans to protect the forests of Europe
C The priority of European research into ecosystems
D Proposals for a world-wide policy on forest management
PRACTICE 156
Population movements and genetics
A. Study of the origins and distribution of hum on populations used to be based on archaeological and
fossil evidence. A number of techniques developed since the 1950s however have placed the study of
these subjects on a sounder and more objective footing. The best information on early population
movements is now being obtained from the archaeology of the living body the clues to be found in
genetic material.
B. Recent work on the problem of when people first entered the Americas is an example of the value of
these new techniques. North-east Asia and Siberia have long been accepted as the launching ground for
the first human colonisers of the New World 1. But was there one major wave of migration across the
Bering Strait into the Americas, or several? And when did this event, or events, take place? In recent years,
new clues hove come from research into genetics, including the distribution of genetic markers in modern
Native Americans2.
C. An important project, led by the biological anthropologist Robert Williams, focused on the variants
(called Gm all types) of one particular protein – immunologic G – found in the fluid portion of human
blood. All proteins ‘drift’, or produce variants, over the generations, and members of an interbreeding
human population will share a set of such variants. Thus, by comparing the Gm allotypes of two different
populations (e.g. two Indian tribes), one can establish their genetic distance, which itself can be
calibrated to give an indication of the length of time since these populations last interbred.
D. Williams and his colleagues sampled the blood of over 5,000 American Indians in western North
America during a twenty- year period. They found that their Gm allotypes could be divided into two
groups, one of which also corresponded to the genetic typing of Central and South American Indians.
Other tests showed that the Inuit (or Eskimo) and Aleut 3 formed a third group. From this evidence it was
deduced that there had been three major waves of migration across the Bering Strait. The first, Paleo –
Indian wave more than 15,000 years ago was ancestral to all Central and South American Indians. The
second wave, about 14,000-12,000 years ago, brought No-Dene hunters ancestors of the Navajo and
Apache (who only migrated south from Canada about 600 or 700 years ago). The third wave perhaps
10,000 or 9,000 years ago saw the migration from North-east Asia of groups ancestral to the modem
Eskimo and Aleut.
E. How far does other research support these conclusions? Geneticist Douglas Wallace has studied
mitochondrial DNA4 in blood samples from three widely separated Native American groups: Pima- Papa
go Indians in Arizona, Maya Indians on the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico, and Ticuna Indians in the Upper
Amazon region of Brazil. As would have been predicted by Robert Williams’s work, all three groups appear
to be descended from the same ancestral (Paleo-Indian) population.
F. There are two other kinds of research that have thrown some light on the origins of the Native
American population; they involve the study of teeth and of languages. The biological anthropologist
Christy Turner is on expert in the analysis of changing physical characteristics in human teeth. He argues
that tooth crowns and roots5 have a high genetic component, minimally affected by environmental and
other factors. Studies carried out by Turner of many thousands of New and Old World specimens, both
ancient and modern, suggest ‘hot the majority of prehistoric Americans are linked to Northern Asian
populations by crown and root traits such as incisor6 shoveling (a scooping out on one or both surfaces
of the tooth), single-rooted upper first premolars6 and triple-rooted lower first molars 6.
According to Turner, this ties in with the idea of a single Paleo-Indian migration out of North Asia, which
he sets at before 14,000 years ago by calibrating rates of dental micro-evolution. Tooth analyses also
suggest that there were two later migrations of Na-Denes and Eskimo- Aleut.
G. The linguist Joseph Greenberg has, since the 1950s, argued that all Native American languages belong
to a single Amerind family, except for No-Dene and Eskimo-Aleut – a view that gives credence to the idea
of three main migrations. Greenberg is in a minority among fellow linguists, most of whom favor the no I
on of a great money waves of migration to account for the more than 1,000 – languages spoken at one
time by American Indians. But there is no doubt that the new genetic and dental evidence provides strong
backing for Greenberg’s view. Dates given for the migrations should nevertheless be treated with caution,
except where supported by hard archaeological evidence.
1. New World: the American continent, as opposed to the so-called Old World of Europe, Asia and Africa
2. Modern Native America: an American descended from the groups that were native to America
3. Inuit and Aleut: two of the ethnic groups native to the northern region of North America (i.e. northern
Canada and Greenland)
4. DNA: the substance in which genetic information is stored
5. Crown/ Root: Parts of the tooth
6. incisor/premolar/molar: kinds of teeth
Questions 14-19
Reading Passage 156 has seven sections, A-G.
Choose the correct headings for sections A-F from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-x, in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.
____________________________________________________________
List of Headings
i The results of the research into blood-variants

ii Dental evidence
iii Greenberg’s analysis of the dental and linguistic evidence
iv Developments in the methods used to study early population movements
v Indian migration from Canada to the U.S.A.
vi Further genetic evidence relating to the three-wave theory
vii Long-standing questions about prehistoric migration to America
viii Conflicting views of the three-wave theory, based on non-genetic Evidence
ix Questions about the causes of prehistoric migration to America
x How analysis of blood-variants measures the closeness of the relationship
between different populations
_____________________________________________________________
14. Section A
15. Section B
16. Section C
17. Section D
18. Section E
19. Section F
Questions 20 and 21
The discussion of Williams’s research indicates the periods at which early people are thought to have
migrated along certain routes.
There are six routes, A-F, marked on the map below.
Complete the table below.
Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 20 and 21 on your answer sheet.
Route Period (number of years ago)

20…………… 15,000 or more
21…………… 600 to 700
Early Population Movement to the Americas

Questions 22-25
Reading Passage 156 refers to the three-wave theory of early migration to the Americas. It also suggests
in which of these three waves the ancestors of various groups of modern native Americans first reached
the continent.
Classify the groups named in the table below as originating from

A. the first wave
B. the second wave
C. the third wave
Write the correct letter. A. B or C. in boxes 22-25 on your answer sheet.

Name of Group Wave Number
Inuil 22 …………………
Apache 23 …………………
Pima-Papago 24 ………………..
Ticuna 25 …………………
Question 26
Choose the correct letter. A. B. C or D.
Write the correct letter in box 26 on your answer sheet.
Christy Turner’s research involved the examination of ….

A. teeth from both prehistoric and modern Americans and Asians
B. thousands of people who live in either the New or the Old World
C. dental specimens from the majority of prehistoric Americans
D. the eating habits of American and Asian populations
PRACTICE 155
Ant Intelligence
When we think of intelligent members of the animal kingdom, the creatures that spring immediately to
mind are apes and monkeys. But in fact the social lives of some members of the insect kingdom are
sufficiently complex to suggest more than a hint of intelligence. Among these, the world of the ant has
come in for considerable scrutiny lately, and the idea that ants demonstrate sparks of cognition has
certainly not been rejected by those involved in these investigations.
Ants store food, repel attackers and use chemical signals to contact one another in case of attack. Such
chemical communication can be compared to the human use of visual and auditory channels (as in
religious chants, advertising images and jingles, political slogans and martial music) to arouse and
propagate moods and attitudes. The biologist Lewis Thomas wrote Ants are so much like human beings
as to be an embarrassment. They farm fungi, raise aphids as livestock, launch armies to war, use
chemical sprays to alarm and confuse enemies, capture slaves, engage in child labour, exchange
information ceaselessly. They do everything but watch television.
* aphids: small insects of a different species from ants
However, in ants there is no cultural transmission – everything must be encoded in the genes – whereas
In humans the opposite is true. Only basic instincts are carried in the genes of a newborn baby, other
skills being learned from others in the community as the child grows up. It may seem that this cultural
continuity gives us a huge advantage over ants. They have never mastered fire nor progressed. Their
fungus farming and aphid herding crafts are sophisticated when compared to the agricultural skills of
humans five thousand-years ago but have been totally overtaken by modem human agribusiness.
Or have they? The farming methods of ants are at least sustainable. They do not ruin environments or use
enormous amounts of energy. Moreover, recent evidence suggests that the crop farming of ants may be
more sophisticated and adaptable than was thought.
Ants were farmers fifty million years before humans were. Ants can’t digest the cellulose in leaves – but
some fungi can. The ants therefore cultivate these fungi in their nests, bringing them leaves to feed on,
and then use them as a source of food. Farmer ants secrete antibiotics to control other fungi that might
act as ‘weeds’, and spread waste to fertilise the crop.
It was once thought that the fungus that ants cultivate was a single type that they had propagated,
essentially unchanged from the distant past. Not so. Ulrich Mueller of Maryland and his colleagues
genetically screened 862 different types of fungi taken from ants’ nests. These turned out to be highly
diverse: it seems that ants are continually domesticating new species. Even more impressively, DNA
analysis of the fungi suggests that the ants improve or modify the fungi by regularly swapping and
sharing strains with neigh boring ant colonies.
Whereas prehistoric man had no exposure to urban lifestyles – the forcing house, of intelligence – the
evidence suggests that ants have lived in urban settings for close on a hundred million years, developing
and maintaining underground cities of specialised chambers and tunnels.
When we survey Mexico City, Tokyo, Los Angeles, we are amazed at what has been accomplished by
humans. Yet Hoelldobler and Wilson’s magnificent work for ant lovers, the Ants, describes a supercolony
of the ant Formica yessensis on the Ishikari Coast of Hokkaido. This ‘megalopolis’ was reported to be
composed of 360 million workers and a million queens living in 4,500 interconnected nests across a
territory of 2.7 square kilometers.
Such enduring and intricately meshed levels of technical achievement outstrip by far anything achieved
by our distant ancestors. We hail as masterpieces the cave paintings in southern France and elsewhere,
dating back some 20,000 years. Ant societies existed in something like their present form more than
seventy million years ago. Beside this, prehistoric man looks technologically primitive. Is this then some
kind of intelligence, albeit of a different kind?
Research conducted at Oxford, Sussex and Zurich Universities has shown that when; desert ants return
from a foraging trip, they navigate by integrating bearings and distances, which they continuously update
their heads. They combine the evidence of visual landmarks with a mental library of local directions, all
within a framework which is consulted and updated. So ants can learn too.
And in a twelve-year programme of work, Ryabko and Reznikova have found evidence that ants can
transmit very complex messages. Scouts who had located food in a maze returned to mobilise their
foraging teams. They engaged in contact sessions, at the end of which the scout was removed in order to
observe what her team might do. Often the foragers proceeded to the exact spot in the maze where the
food had been Elaborate precautions were taken to prevent the foraging team using odour clues.
Discussion now centers on whether the route through the maze is communicated as a ‘left- right
sequence of turns or as a ‘compass bearing and distance’ message.
During the course of this exhaustive study, Reznikova has grown so attached to her laboratory ants that
she feels she knows them as individuals – even without the paint spots used to mark them. It’s no
surprise that Edward Wilson, in his essay, ‘In the company of ants’, advises readers who ask what to do
with the ants in their kitchen to: ‘Watch where you step. Be careful of little lives.’
Questions 1-6

1. Ants use the same channels of communication as humans do.

2. City life is one factor that encourages the development of intelligence.
3. Ants can build large cities more quickly than humans do.
4. Some ants can find their way by making calculations based on distance and position.
5. In one experiment, foraging teams were able to use their sense of smell to find food.
6. The essay. ‘In the company of ants’ explores ant communication.
Questions 7-13
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-O, below.
Write the correct letter, A-O, in boxes 7-13 on your answer sheet.
Ants as farmers
Ants have sophisticated methods of farming, including herding livestock and growing crops, which are in
many ways similar to those used in human agriculture. The ants cultivate a large number of different
species. of edible fungi which convert 7………………… into a form which they can digest. They use their own
natall 8………………… as weed-killers and also use unwanted materials as 9…………………… Genetic analysis
shows they constantly upgrade these fungi by developing new species and by 10………………… species with
neighboring ant colonies. In fact, the farming methods of ants could be said to be more advanced than
human agribusiness, since they use 11………………… methods, they do not affect the 12……………… and do not
waste.
A. aphids
B. agricultural
C. cellulose
D. exchanging
E. energy
F. fertilizers
G. food
H. Fungi
I. growing
J. interbreeding
K. natural
L. other species
M. secretions
N. sustainable
O. environment
PRACTICE154
Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project

Section A
The disappointing results of many conventional road transport projects in Africa led some experts to
rethink the strategy by which rural transport problems were to be tackled at the beginning of the .1980s. A
request for help in improving the availability of transport within the remote Makete District of south-
western Tanzania presented the opportunity to try a new approach.
The concept of’ integrated rural transport was adopted in the task of examining the transport needs of the
rural households m the district The objective was to reduce the time and effort needed to obtain access
to essential goods and services -through an improved rural transport system. The underlying assumption
was that the time saved would be used instead for activities that would improve the social and economic
development of the communities. The Makete Integrated Rural Transport -Project (MIRT P) started in
1985 with financial support from the Swiss Development Corporation and was coordinated .with the help
of the Tanzanian government.
Section B
When the project began. Makete District was virtually totally isolated dunng the rainy “sensory. The
regional road was in such bad shape that access to the main towns was impossible for about three
months of the year. Road traffic was extremely rare with the district, and alternative means of transport
were restricted to donkeys in the north of the distinct people relied primarily on the paths, which were
supper and dangerous during the rains.
Before solutions cook be proposed, the problems had to be understood. Little was known about the
transport demands of the rural households, so Phase I. between December 1985 and December 1987,
(ocused’on research. The socio-economic survey of more then 400 households in the district indicate of
that a household in Makete spent, on average, seven hours a day on transporting themselves and their
goods, a figure which seemed extreme but which has also been obtained in surveys in other rural areas in
Africa. Interesting facts regarding transport were found; 95% was on foot 80% was within the locality: and
70% was related to the collect on of water and firewood and travelling to gunning mills-
Section C
Having determined the main transport needs, possible solutions were identified which might reduce the
time and burden During Phase II. from January to February 1991, a number of approaches were
implemented in an effort to improve mobility and access to transport
An improvement of the rotted network was considered necessary to ensure the import and export of
goods to the distinct These improvements were carried out using methods that were heavily dependent
on labour. In addition to the improvement of roads, these methods provided training in the operation of a
mechanical workshop and bus and truck services Hoverer. the difference from the conventional approach
was that this time consideration was given to local transport needs outside the road network.
Most goods were transported along the paths that provide short-cuts up and down the hillsides, but the
paths were a real safety ask and made the journey on foot even more arduous. It made sense to improve
the paths by building steps, handrails and footbridges.
It was uncommon to fixit means of transport that were more efficient than walking but less
technologically advanced than motor vehicles. The use of bicycles was constrained by their high cost and
the lack of available spare parts. Oxen were not used at all but donkeys were used by a few households in
the northern part of the district MIRTP focused on what would be most appropriate for the inhabitants of
Makete in terms of what was available, how much they could afford and what they are willing to accept
After careful consideration, the project chose the promotion of donkeys – a donkey costs less than a
bicycle – and the introduction of a locally manufacturability wheelbarrow.
Section D
At the end of Phase II, it was dear that the selected approaches to Makete’s transport problems had had
different degrees of success. Phase III. from March 1991 to March 1993, focused on the refinement and
must of these activities.
The road improvements and accompanying maintenance system had helped make the district centre
accessible throughout the year. Essential goods from outside the district had become more readily
available at the market and prices did not fluctuate as much as they had done before.
Paths and secondary roads were improved only at the request of communist who were willing to
participate in construction and maintenance. However, the improved paths impressed the inhabitants,
and requests for assistance greatly increased soon after only a few improvements had been completed.
The efforts to improve the efficiency of the existing transport services were not very successful because
most of the motorised vehicles in the district broke down and there were no resources to repair, them.
Even the introduction of low-cost means of transport was difficult because of the general poverty of the
district The locally manufactured wheelbarrows were still too expensive for all but a few of the
households. Modifications to the original design by local carpenters cut- production time and costs. Other
local carpenters have been trained in the new design So that they can respond to requests. Nevertheless,
a locally produced wooden wheelbarrow which costs around 500QTanzanian shillings (less than US$20)
in Makete, and is about one quarter the cost of a metal wheelbarrow, is still too expensive for most
people.
Donkeys, which were imported to the district have become more common and contribute, in particular, to
the transportation of crops and goods to market Those who have bought donkeys are mainly from richer
households but with an increased supply through local breeding, donkeys should become more
affordable. Meanwhile, local initiatives are promoting the renting out of the existing donkeys.
It should be noted, however, that a donkey, which at 20,000 Tanzanian shillings costs less than a bicycle,
is still an investment equal to an average household’s income over half a year. This dearly illustrates the
need for supplementary measures if one wants to assist the rural poor.
Section E
It would have been easy to criticize the MIRTP for using in the early phases atop-down’ approach, in which
decisions were made by experts and officials before being handed down to communities, but it was
necessary to start the process from the level of the governmental authorities of the district It would have
been, difficult to respond to the requests of villagers and other rural inhabitants without the support and
understanding of district authorities.
Section F
Today, nobody in the district argues about, the importance of improved paths and inexpensive means of
transport But this is the result of dedicated work over a long penned particularly from the officers in
charge of community development They played an essential role in raising awareness and interest among
the rural communities.
The concept of integrated rural transport is now well established in Tanzania, where a major program of
rural transport is just about to start The experiences from Makete will help in this initiative, and Makete
Distinct will act as a reference for future work.
Questions 27-30
Reading Passage 3 has six sections, A-F.
Choose the correct heading for sections B, C, E and F from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-xi, in boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet.
_______________________________________________________
List of Headings
i MIRTP as a future model
ii Identifying the main transport problems
iii Preference for motorised vehicles
iv Government Authrities’ instructions
v Initial improvements in mobility and transport modes
vi Request for improves transport in Makete
vii Transport improvements in the northern part of the district
viii Improvements in the rail network
ix Effects of initial MIRTP measures
x Co-operation of district officials
xi Role of wheelbarrows and donkeys
_________________________________________________________________________________
Example Answer
Section A vi
27 Section B
28 Section C
Example Answer
Section D ix
29 Section E
30 Section F
Questions 31-35
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in reading passage 154?
In boxes 31-35 on your answer sheet write:

31. MIRTP was divided into five phases.
32. Prior to the start of the MIRTP the Makete district was almost inaccessible during the rainy reason.
33. Phase I of MIRTP consisted of a survey of household expenditure on transport.
34. The survey concluded that one-fifth or 20% of the household transport requirement as outside the
local area.
35. MIRTP hopes to improve the movements of goods from Makete district to the country’s capital.
Questions 36-39
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-J,below.
Write thecorrect letter, A-J,in boxes 36-39 on your answer sheet.
36 Construction of footbridges, steps and handrails

37 Frequent breakdown of buses andtrucks in Makete
38 The improvement of secondary roads and paths
39 The isolation of Makete for part of the year
Question 40
Choose the correct letter.A, B, C or D.
Which of the following phrases best describes the main aim of Reading Passage 154 ?
A. to suggest that projects such as MIRTP are needed in other countries

B. to describe how MIRTP was implemented and how successful it was
C. to examine how MIRTP promoted the use of donkeys
D. towarn that projects such as MIRTP are likely to have serious problems
PRACTICE 153
A. Bullying can take a variety of forms, from the verbal -being taunted or called hurtful names- to the
physical- being kicked or shoved- as well as indirect forms, such as being excluded from social groups. A
survey I conducted with Irene Whitney found that in British primary schools up to a quarter of pupils
reported experience of bullying, which in about one in ten cases was persistent. There was less bullying in
secondary schools, with about one in twenty-five suffering persistent bullying, but these cases may be
particularly recalcitrant.
B. Bullying is clearly unpleasant, and can make the child experiencing it feel unworthy and depressed. In
extreme cases it can even lead to suicide, though this is thankfully rare. Victimised pupils are more likely
to experience difficulties with interpersonal relationships as adults, while children who persistently bully
are more likely to grow up to be physically violent, and convicted of anti-social offences.
C. Until recently, not much was known about the topic, and little help was available to teachers to deal
with bullying. Perhaps as a consequence, schools would often deny the problem. ‘There is no bullying at
this school’ has been a common refrain, almost certainty lllltrue. Fortunately more schools are now
saying: There is not much bullying here, but when it occurs we have a clear policy for dealing with it.’
D. Three factors are involved in this change. First is an awareness of the severity of the problem. Second,
a number of resources to help tackle bullying have become available in Britain. For example, the Scottish
Collllcil for Research in Education produced a package of materials, Action Against Bullying, circulated to
all schools in England and Wales as well as in Scotland in summer 1992, with a second pack, Supporting
Schools Against Bullying, produced the following year. In Ireland, Guidelines on Countering Bullying
Behaviour in Post-Primary Schools was published in 1993. Third, there is evidence that these materials
work, and that schools can achieve something. This comes from carefully conducted ‘before and after I
evaluations of interventions in schools, monitored by a research team. In Norway, after an intervention
campaign was introduced nationally, an evaluation of forty-two schools suggested that, over a two-year
period, bullying was halved. The Sheffield investigation, which involved sixteen primary schools and seven
secondary schools, found that most schools succeeded in reducing bullying.
E. Evidence suggests that a key step is to develop a policy on bullying, saying clearly what is meant by
bullying, and giving explicit guidelines on what will be done if it occurs, what record will be kept, who will
be informed, what sanctions will be employed. The policy should be developed through consultation, over
a period of time-not just imposed from the head teacher’s office! Pupils, parents and staff should feel they
have been involved in the policy, which needs to be disseminated and implemented effectively.
Other actions can be taken to back up the policy. There are ways of dealing with the topic through the
curriculum, using video, drama and literature. These are useful for raising awareness, and can best be tied
in to early phases of development while the school is starting to discuss the issue of bullying. They are
also useful in renewing the policy for new pupils, or revising it in the tight of experience. But curriculum
work alone may only have short-term effects; it should be an addition to policy work, not a substitute.
There are also ways of working with individual pupils, or in small groups. Assertiveness training for pupils
who are liable to be victims is worthwhile, and certain approaches to group bullying such as ‘no blame’,
can be useful in changing the behaviour of bullying pupils without confronting them directly, although
other sanctions may be needed for those who continue with persistent bullying.
Work in the playground is important, too. One helpful step is to train lunchtime supervisors to distinguish
bullying from playful fighting, and help them break up conflicts. Another possibility is to improve the
playground environment, so that pupils are less likely to be led into bullying from boredom or frustration.
F. With these developments, schools can expect that at least the most serious kinds of bullying can
largely be prevented. The more effort put in and the wider the whole school involvement, the more
substantial the results are likely to be. The reduction in bullying – and the consequent improvement in
pupil happiness- is surely a worthwhile objective.
Questions 27-30
Reading Passage 153 has six sections,
Choose the correct heading for sections A-D from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-vii, in boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet.
______________________________________________________
List of Headings
i The role of video violence

ii The failure of government policy
iii Reasons for the increased rate of bullying
iv Research into how common bullying is in British schools
v The reaction from schools to enquiries about bullying
vi The effect of bullying on the children involved
vii Developments that have led to a new approach by schools
______________________________________________________
27 Section A
28 Section B
29 Section C
30 Section D
Questions 31-34
Choose the correct letter. A. B. C or D.
Write the con·ect letter in boxes 31-34 on your answer sheet.
31 A recent survey found that in British secondary schools
A. there was more bullying than had previously been the case.
B. there was less bullying than in primary schools.
C. cases of persistent bullying were very common.
D. indirect forms ofbullying were particularly difficult to deal with.
32 Children who are bullied
A. are twice as likely to commit suicide as the average person.
B. fmd it more difficult to relate to adults.
C. are less likely to be violent in later life.
D. may have difficulty forming relationships in later life.
33 The writer thinks that the declaration ‘There is no bullying at this school’
A. is no longer true in many schools.
B. was not in fact made by many schools.
C. reflected the school’s lack of concern.
D. reflected a lack of knowledge and resources.
34 What were the findings of research canied out in Norway?

A. Bullying declined by 50% after an anti-bullying campaign.
B. Twenty-one schools reduced bullying as a result of an anti-bullying campaign
C. Two years is the optimum length for an anti-bullying campaign.
D. Bullying is a less serious problem inN orway than in the UK.
Questions 35-39
Complete the summary below
Choose NO MORE THAN TW’O WORDS from the passage for each answer
Write your answers in boxes 35-39 on your answer sheet.
What steps should schools take to reduce bullying?
The most important step is for the school authorities to produce a 35 ………………….. which makes the
school’s attitude towards bullying quite clear. It should include detailed 36 …………………… as to how the
school and its staff will react if bullying occurs. In addition, action can be taken through
the 37 ……………………… This is particularly useful in the early part of the process, as a way of raising
awareness and encouraging discussion On its own, however, it is insufficient to bring about a permanent
solution. Effective work can also be done with individual pupils and small groups. For example,
potential38 ……………………. of bullying can be trained to be more self-confident. Or again, in dealing with
group bullying, a ‘no blame’ approach, which avoids confronting the offender too directly, is often
effective. Playground supervision will be more effective if members of staff are trained to recognise the
difference between bullying and mere 39 ……………………. .
Question 40
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Which of the following is the most suitable title for Reading Passage 153?
A. Bullying: what parents can do
B. Bullying: are the media to blame?
C. Bullying: the link with academic failure
D. Bullying: from crisis management to prevention
PRACTICE 152
Literate women make better mothers?

Children in developing countries are healthier and more likely to survive past the age of five when their
mothers can read and write. Experts in public health accepted this idea decades ago, but until now no one
has been able to show that a woman’s ability to read in itself improves her children’s chances of survival.
Most literate women learnt to read in primary school, and the fact that a woman has had an education
may simply indicate her family’s wealth or that it values its children more highly. Now a long-term study
carried out in Nicaragua has eliminated these factors by showing that teaching reading to poor adult
women, who would otherwise have remained illiterate, has a direct effect on their children’s health and
survival.
In 1979, the government of Nicaragua established a number of social programmes, including a National
Literacy Crusade. By 1985, about 300,000 illiterate adults from all over the country, many of whom had
never attended primary school, had learnt how to read, write and use numbers.
During this period, researchers from the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, the Central American
Institute of Health in Nicaragua, the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua and the Costa Rican
Institute of Health interviewed nearly 3,000 women, some of whom had learnt to read as children, some
during the literacy crusade and some who had never learnt at all. The women were asked how many
children they had given birth to and how many of them had died in infancy. The research teams also
examined the surviving children to find out how well-nourished they were.
The investigators’ findings were striking. In the late 1970s, the infant mortality rate for the children of
illiterate mothers was around 110 deaths per thousand live births. At this point in their lives, Those
mothers who later went on to learn to read had a similar level of child mortality(105/1000).For women
educated in primary school, however, the infant mortality rate was significantly lower, at 80 per thousand.
In 1985, after the National Literacy Crusade had ended, the infant mortality figures for those who
remained illiterate and for those educated in primary school remained more or less unchanged. For those
women who learnt to read through the campaign, the infant mortality rate was 84 per thousand, an
impressive 21 points lower than for those women who were still illiterate. The children of the newly-
literate mothers were also better nourished than those of women who could not read.
Why are the children of literate mothers better off? According to Peter Sandiford of the Liverpool School
of Tropical Medicine, no one knows for certain. Child health was not on the curriculum during the
women’s lessons, so he and his colleagues are looking at other factors. They are working with the same
group of 3,000 women, to try to find out whether reading mothers make better use of hospitals and
clinics, opt for smaller families, exert more control at home, learn modem childcare techniques more
quickly, or whether they merely have more respect for themselves and their children.
The Nicaraguan study may have important implications for governments and aid agencies that need to
know where to direct their resources. Sandiford says that there is increasing evidence that female
education, at any age, is ‘an important health intervention in its own right’ .The results of the study lend
support to the World Bank’s recommendation that education budgets in developing countries should be
increased, not just to help their economies, but also to improve child health. ‘We’ve known for a long time
that maternal education is important,’ says John Cleland of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine. ‘But we thought that even if we started educating girls today, we’d have to wait a generation for
the pay-off. The Nicaraguan study suggests we may be able to bypass that.’
Cleland warns that the Nicaraguan crusade was special in many ways, and similar campaigns elsewhere
might not work as well. It is notoriously difficult to teach adults skills that do not have an immediate
impact on their everyday lives, and many literacy campaigns in other countries have been much less
successful. ‘The crusade was part of a larger effort to bring a better life to the people,’ says Cleland.
Replicating these conditions in other countries will be a major challenge for development workers.
Questions 14-18
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-J, below.
Write the correct letters, A-J, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
The Nicaraguan National Literacy Crusade aimed to teach large numbers of illiterate 14 ……………… to read
and write. Public health experts have known for many years that there is a connection between child
health and 15……………… However, it has not previously been known whether these two factors were directly
linked or not. This question has been investigated by 16……………….. in Nicaragua. As a result, factors such
as 17 …………………. and attitudes to children have been eliminated, audit has been shown that 18…………….
can in itself improve infant health and survival.
_________________________________________________________________________
A child literacy B men and women C an international research team
D medical care E mortality F maternal literacy
G adults and children H paternal literacy I a National Literacy Crusade
J family wealth
_________________________________________________________________________
Questions 19-24

19. About a thousand or the women interviewed by the researchers had learnt to read they were children.
20. Before the National Literacy Crusade, illiterate women had approximately the same levels of infant
mortality as those who had learnt to read in primary school.
21. Before and after the National Literacy Crusade, the child mortality rate for the illiterate women stayed
at about 110 deaths for each thousand live births.
22. The women who had learnt to read through the National Literacy Crusade showed the greatest
change in infant mortality levels.
23. The women who had learnt to read through the National Literacy Crusade had the lowest rates of child
mortality.
24. After the National Literacy Crusade, the children of the women who remained illiterate were found to
be severely malnourished.
Questions 25 and 26
Choose TWO letters, A-E
Write the correct letters in boxes 25 and 26 on your answer sheet
Which TWO important implications drawn from the Nicaraguan study are mentioned by the writer of the
passage?
A It is better to educate mature women than young girls

B Similar campaigns in other countries would be equally successful.
C The effects of maternal literacy programmes can be seen very quickly
D Improving child health can quickly affect a country’s economy.
E Money spent on female education will improve child health.
PRACTICE 151
Doctoring sales
Pharmaceuticals is one of the most profitable industries in
North America. But do the drugs industry’s sales and
marketing strategies go too far?
A. A few months ago Kim Schaefer. sales representative of a m8:ior global pharmaceutical company,
walked into a medical center in New York to bring information and free samples of her company’s latest
products. That day she was lucky- a doctor WAS available to see her. ‘The last rep offered me a trip to
Florida. vVhat do you have?’ the physician asked. He was only half joking.
B. What was on offer that day was a pair of tickets for a New York musical. But on any given day what
Schaefer can offer is typical for today’s drugs rep -a car trunk full of promotional gifts and gadgets, a
budget that could buy lunches and dinners for a smell county hundreds of free drug samples and the
freedom to give a physician $200 to prescribe her new product to the next six patients who fit the drug’s
profile. And she also has a few $ 1,000 honoraria to offer in exchange for doctors’ attendance at her
company’s next educational lecture.
C. Selling Pharmaceuticals is a daily exercise in ethical judgment. Salespeople like Schaefer walk the line
between the common practice of buying a prospect’s time with a free meal, and bribing doctors to
prescribe their drugs. They work in an industry highly criticized for its sales and marketing practices, but
find themselves in the middle of the age-old chicken-or-egg question – businesses wont use strategies
that don’t work, so are doctors to blame for the escalating extravagance of pharmaceutical marketing? Or
is it the industry’s responsibility to decide the boundaries?
D. The explosion in the sheer number of salespeople in the Reid- and the amount of funding used to
promote their causes- forces close examination of the pressures, influences and relationships between
drug reps and doctors. Salespeople providemuch-needed information and education to physicians. In
many cases the glossy brochures, article reprints and prescriptions they deliver are primary sources of
drug education for healthcare givers. vVith the huge investment the industry has placed in face-to-face
selling, sales people have essentially become specialists in one drug or group of drugs – a tremendous
advantage in getting the attention of busy doctors in need of quick information.
E. But the sales push rarely stops in the office. The flashy brochures and pamphlets left by the sales reps
are often followed up with meals at expensive restaurants, meetings in warm and sunny places, and an
inundation of promotional gadgets. Rarely do patients watch a doctor write with a pen that isn’t
emblazoned with a drug’s name, or see a nurse use a tablet not bearing a pharmaceutical company’ logo.
Millions of dollars are spent by pharmaceutical companies on promotional products like coffee mugs,
shirts, umbrellas, and golf balls. Money well spent? It’s hard to tell. I’ve been the recipient of golf balls
from one company and I use them, but it doesn’t make me prescribe their medicine,’ says one doctor.’ I
tend to think I’m not influenced by what they give me.’
F. Free samples of new and expensive drugs might be the single most effective way of getting doctors
and patients to become loyal to a product. Salespeople hand out hundreds of dollars’ worth of samples
each week-$7.2 billion worth of them in one year. Though few comprehensive studies have been
conducted, one by the University of Washington investigated how drug sample availability affected what
physicians prescribe. A total of 131 doctors self-reported their prescribing patterns-the conclusion was
that the availability of samples led them to dispense and prescribe drugs that differed from their preferred
drug choice.
G. The bottom line is that pharmaceutical companies as a whole invest more in marketing than they do in
research and development. And patients are the ones who pay-in the form of sky-rocketing prescription
prices-for every pen that’s handed out, every free theatre ticket, and every steak diimer eaten. In the end
the fact remains that pharmaceutical companies have every right to make a profit and will continue to find
new ways to increase sales. But as the medical world continues to grapple with what’s acceptable and
what’s not, it is clear that companies must continue to be heavily scrutinized for their sales and marketing
strategies.
Questions 1-7
Reading Passage I has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-x, in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i Nat all doctors are persuaded

ii Choosing the best offers
iii Who is responsible for the increase in promotions?
iv Fighting the drug companies
v An example of what doctors expect from drug companies
vi Gifts include financial incentives
vii Research shows that promotion works
viii The high costs of research
ix The positive side of drugs promotion
x Who really pays for doctors’ free gifts?
1 Paragraph A
2 Paragraph B
3 Paragraph C
4 Paragraph D
5 Paragraph E
6 Paragraph F
7 Paragraph G
Questions 8-13
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 1?
YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks
8 Sales representatives like Kim Schaefer work to a very limited budget.

9 Kim Schaefer’s marketing technique may be open to criticism on moral grmmds.
10 The information provided by drug companies is of little use to doctors.
11 Evidence of drug promotion is clearly visible in the healthcare environment.
12 The drug companies may give free drug samples to patients without doctors’ prescriptions
13 It is legitimate for drug companies to make money.
PRACTICE 149
Motivating Employees under Adverse Condition
THE CHALLENGE
It is a great deal easier to motivate employees in a growing organisation than a declining one. When
organisations are expanding and adding personnel, promotional opportunities, pay rises, and the
excitement of being associated with a dynamic organisation create Slings of optimism. Management is
able ta use the growth to entice and encourage employees. When an organisation is shrinking, the best
and most mobile workers are prone to leave voluntarily. Unfortunately, they are the ones the organisation
can least afford to lose- those with me highest skills and experience. The minor employees remain
because their job options are limited.
Morale also surfers during decline. People fear they may be the next to be made redundant.
Productivity often suffers, as employees spend their time sharing rumours and providing one another with
moral support rather than focusing on their jobs. For those whose jobs are secure, pay increases are
rarely possible. Pay cuts, unheard of during times of growth, may even be imposed. The challenge to
management is how to motivate employees under such retrenchment conditions. The ways of meeting
this challenge can be broadly divided into six Key Points, which are outlined below.
KEY POINT ONE
There is an abundance of evidence to support the motivational benefits that result from carefully
matching people to jobs. For example, if the job is running a small business or an autonomous unit within
a larger business, high achievers should be sought. However, if the job to be filled is a managerial post in
a large bureaucratic organisation, a candidate who has a high need for power and a low need for
affiliation should be selected. Accordingly, high achievers should not be put into jobs that are inconsistent
with their needs. High achievers will do best when the job provides moderately challenging goals and
where there is independence and feedback. However, it should be remembered that not everybody is
motivated by jobs that are high in independence, variety and responsibility.
KEY POINT TWO
The literature on goal-setting theory suggests that managers should ensure that all employees have
specific goals and receive comments on how well they are doing in those goals. For those with high
achievement needs, typically a minority in any organisation, the existence of external goals is less
important because high achievers are already internally motivated. The next factor to be determined is
whether the goals should be assigned by a manager or collectively set in conjunction with the employees.
The answer to that depends on perceptions the culture, however, goals should be assigned. If
participation and the culture are incongruous, employees are likely to perceive the participation process
as manipulative and be negatively affected by it.
KEY POINT THREE

Regardless of whether goals are achievable or well within management’s perceptions of the employee’s
ability, if employees see them as unachievable they will reduce their effort. Managers must be sure,
therefore, that employees feel confident that their efforts can lead to performance goals. For managers,
this means that employees must have the capability of doing the job and must regard the appraisal
process as valid.
KEY POINT FOUR
Since employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcement far one may not for another.
Managers could use their knowledge of each employee to personalise the rewards over which they have
control. Some of the more obvious rewards that managers allocate include pay, promotions, autonomy,
job scope and depth, and the opportunity lo participate in goal-setting and decision-making.
KEY POINT FIVE
Managers need to make rewards contingent on performance. To reward factors other than performance
will only reinforce those other factors. Key rewards such as pay increases and promotions or
advancements should be allocated for the attainment of the employee’s specific goals. Consistent with
maximising the impact of rewards, managers should look for ways to increase their visibility. Eliminating
the secrecy surrounding pay by openly communicating everyone’s remuneration, publicising performance
bonuses and allocating annual salary increases in a lump sum rather than spreading them out over an
entire year are examples of actions that will make rewards more visible and potentially more motivating.
KEY POINT SIX
The way rewards ore distributed should be transparent so that employees perceive that rewards or
outcomes are equitable and equal to the inputs given. On a simplistic level, experience, abilities, effort
and other obvious inputs should explain differences in pay, responsibility and other obvious outcomes.
The problem, however, is complicated by the existence of dozens of inputs and outcomes ana by the Fact
that employee groups place different degrees of importance on them. For instance, a study comparing
clerical and production workers identified nearly twenty inputs and outcomes. The clerical workers
considered factors such as quality of work performed and job knowledge near the top of their list, but
these were at the bottom of the production workers’ list. Similarly, production workers thought that the
most important inputs were intelligence and personal involvement with task accomplishment, two factors
that were quite low in the importance ratings of the clerks. There were also important, though less
dramatic, differences on the outcome side. For example, production workers rated advancement very
highly, whereas clerical workers rated advancement in the lower third of their list. Such findings suggest
that one person’s equity is another’s inequity, so an ideal should probably weigh different inputs and
outcomes according to employee group.
Questions 14-18
Reading Passage 149 contains six Key Points.
Choose the correct heading for Key Points TWO to SIX .from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet.
_____________________________________________
List of Headings
i Ensure the reward system is fair
ii Match rewards lo individuals
iii Ensure targets are realistic
iv Link rewards to achievement
v Encourage managers to take more responsibility
vi Recognise changes in employees’ performance over time
vii Establish targets and give feedback
viii Ensure employees are suited to their jobs
_______________________________________________
Example Answer
Key Point One viii
14 Key Point Two

15 Key Point Three
16 Key Point Four
17 Key Point Five
18 Key Point Six
Questions 19-24
YES if the statement t agrees with the claims of the writer

19 A shrinking organisation lends to lose its less skilled employees rather than its more skilled
employees.
20 It is easier to manage a small business ban a large business.
21 High achievers are well suited lo team work.
22 Some employees can fee! manipulated when asked to participate in goal-setting.
23 The staff appraisal process should be designed by employees.
24 Employees’ earnings should be disclosed to everyone within the organisation.
Questions 25-27
Look at the follow groups of worker (Question25-27 )and the list of descriptions below
Match each group with the correct description, A -E.
Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 25-27 on your answer sheet.
25 high achievers
26 clerical workers
27 production workers
List of Descriptions
A They judge promotion to be important.

B They have less need of external goats.
C They think that the quality of their work is important.
D They resist goals which are imposed.
E They have limited job options.
PRACTICE 145
Climate change and the Inuit

The threat posed by climate change in the Arctic and the problems faced by Canada’s Inuit people
A Unusual incidents are being reported across the Arctic. Inuit families going off on snowmobiles to
prepare their summer hunting camps have found themselves cut off from home by a sea of mud,
following early thaws. There are reports of igloos losing their insulating properties as the snow drips and
refreezes, of lakes draining into the sea as permafrost melts, and sea ice breaking up earlier than usual,
carrying seals beyond the reach of hunters. Climate change may still be a rather abstract idea to most of
us, but in the Arctic it is already having dramatic effects – if summertime ice continues to shrink at its
present rate, the Arctic Ocean could soon become virtually ice-free in summer. The knock-on effects are
likely to include more warming, cloudier skies, increased precipitation and higher sea levels. Scientists are
increasingly keen to find out what’s going on because they consider the Arctic the ‘canary in the mine’ for
global warming – a warning of what’s in store for the rest of the world.
B For the Inuit the problem is urgent. They live in precarious balance with one of the toughest
environments on earth. Climate change, whatever its causes, is a direct threat to their way of life. Nobody
knows the Arctic as well as the locals, which is why they are not content simply to stand back and let
outside experts tell them what’s happening. In Canada, where the Inuit people are jealously guarding their
hard-won autonomy in the country’s newest territory, Nunavut, they believe their best hope of survival in
this changing environment lies in combining their ancestral knowledge with the best of modern science.
This is a challenge in itself.
C The Canadian Arctic is a vast, treeless polar desert that’s covered with snow for most of the year.
Venture into this terrain and you get some idea of the hardships facing anyone who calls this home.
Farming is out of the question and nature offers meagre pickings. Humans first settled in the Arctic a
mere 4,500 years ago, surviving by exploiting sea mammals and fish. The environment tested them to the
limits: sometimes the colonists were successful, sometimes they failed and vanished. But around a
thousand years ago, one group emerged that was uniquely well adapted to cope with the Arctic
environment. These Thule people moved in from Alaska, bringing kayaks, sleds, dogs, pottery and iron
tools. They are the ancestors of today’s Inuit people.
D Life for the descendants of the Thule people is still harsh. Nunavut is 1.9 million square kilometres of
rock and ice, and a handful of islands around the North Pole. It’s currently home to 2,500 people, all but a
handful of them indigenous Inuit. Over the past 40 years, most have abandoned their nomadic ways and
settled in the territory’s 28 isolated communities, but they still rely heavily on nature to provide food and
clothing. Provisions available in local shops have to be flown into Nunavut on one of the most costly air
networks in the world, or brought by supply ship during the few ice-free weeks of summer. It would cost a
family around £7,000 a year to replace meat they obtained themselves through hunting with imported
meat. Economic opportunities are scarce, and for many people state benefits are their only income.
E While the Inuit may not actually starve if hunting and trapping are curtailed by climate change, there
has certainly been an impact on people’s health. Obesity, heart disease and diabetes are beginning to
appear in a people for whom these have never before been problems. There has been a crisis of identity
as the traditional skills of hunting, trapping and preparing skins have begun to disappear. In Nunavut’s
‘igloo and email’ society, where adults who were born in igloos have children who may never have been
out on the land, there’s a high incidence of depression.
F With so much at stake, the Inuit are determined to play a key role in teasing out the mysteries of
climate change in the Arctic. Having survived there for centuries, they believe their wealth of traditional
knowledge is vital to the task. And Western scientists are starting to draw on this wisdom, increasingly
referred to as ‘Inuit Qaujimajatugangit’, or IQ. ‘In the early days scientists ignored us when they came up
here to study anything. They just figured these people don’t know very much so we won’t ask them,’ says
John Amagoalik, an Inuit leader and politician. ‘But in recent years IQ has had much more credibility and
weight.’ In fact it is now a requirement for anyone hoping to get permission to do research that they
consult the communities, who are helping to set the research agenda to reflect their most important
concerns. They can turn down applications from scientists they believe will work against their interests, or
research projects that will impinge too much on their daily lives and traditional activities.
G Some scientists doubt the value of traditional knowledge because the occupation of the Arctic
doesn’t go back far enough. Others, however, point out that the first weather stations in the far north date
back just 50 years. There are still huge gaps in our environmental knowledge, and despite the scientific
onslaught, many predictions are no more than best guesses. IQ could help to bridge the gap and resolve
the tremendous uncertainty about how much of what we’re seeing is natural capriciousness and how
much is the consequence of human activity.
Questions 27-32
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 145.
Reading Passage 145 has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-G from the list of headings below..
Write the correct number i-ix, in boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i The reaction of the Inuit community to climate change

ii Understanding of climate change remains limited
iii Alternative sources of essential supplies
iv Respect for Inuit opinion grows
v A healthier choice of food
vi A difficult landscape
vii Negative effects on well-being
viii Alarm caused by unprecedented events in the Arctic
ix The benefits of an easier existence
Example Answer
Paragraph A viii
27 Paragraph B
28 Paragraph C
29 Paragraph D
30 Paragraph E
31 Paragraph F
32 Paragraph G
Questions 33-40
Complete the summary of paragraphs C and D below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from paragraphs C and D for each answer.
If you visit the Canadian Arctic, you immediately appreciate the problems faced by people for whom this
is home. It would clearly be impossible for the people to engage in 33 ……………….. as a means of
supporting themselves. For thousands of years they have had to rely on catching 34 ……………….. and 35
……………….. as a means of sustenance. The harsh surroundings saw many who tried to settle there pushed
to their limits, although some were successful. The 36 ……………….. people were an example of the latter
and for them the environment did not prove unmanageable. For the present inhabitants, life continues to
be a struggle. The territory of Nunavut consists of little more than ice, rock and a few 37 ……………….. . In
recent years, many of them have been obliged to give up their 38 ……………….. lifestyle, but they continue to
depend mainly on 39 ……………….. their food and clothes. 40 ……………….. produce is particularly expensive.
PRACTICE 143
WHY PAGODAS DON’T FALL DOWN?

In a land swept by typhoons and shaken by earthquakes, how has Japan’s tallest and seemingly flimsiest
old buildings – 500 or so wooden pagodas-remained standing for centuries? Records show that only two
have collapsed during the past 1400 years. Those that have disappeared were destroyed by fire as a
result of lightning or civil war. The disastrous Hanshin earthquake in 1995 killed 6,400 people, toppled
elevated highways, flattened office blocks and devastated the port area of Kobe. Yet it left the
magnificent five-storey pagoda at the Toji temple in nearby Kyoto unscathed, though it level led a number
of buildings in the neighbourhood.
Japanese scholars have been mystified for ages about why these tall, slender buildings are so stable. It
was only thirty years ago that the building industry felt confident enough to erect office blocks of steel
and reinforced concrete that had more than a dozen floors. With its special shock absorbers to dampen
the effect of sudden sideways movements from an earthquake, the thirty-six-storey Kasumigaseki
building in central Tokyo-Japan’s first skyscraper–was considered a masterpiece of modern engineering
when it was built in 1968.
Yet in 826, with only pegs and wedges to keep his wooden structure upright, the master builder
Kobodaishi had no hesitation in sending his majestic Toji pagoda soaring fifty-five meters into the sky-
nearly half as high as the Kasumigaseki skyscraper built some eleven centuries later. Clearly, Japanese
carpenters of the day knew a few tricks about allowing a building to sway and settle itself rather than fight
nature’s forces. But what sort of tricks?
The multi-storey pagoda came to Japan from China in the sixth century. As in China, they were first
introduced with Buddhism and were attached to important temples. The Chinese built their pagodas in
brick or stone, with inner staircases, and used them in later centuries mainly as watchtowers. When the
pagoda reached Japan, however, its architecture was freely adapted to local conditions-they were built
less high, typically five rather than nine storeys, made mainly of wood and the staircase was dispensed
with because the Japanese pagoda did not have any practical use but became more of an art object.
Because of the typhoons that batter Japan in the summer, Japanese builders learned to extend the eaves
of buildings further beyond the walls. This prevents rainwater gushing down the walls. Pagodas in China
and Korea have nothing like the overhang that is found on pagodas in Japan.
The roof of a Japanese temple building can be made to overhang the sides of the structure by fifty
percent or more of the building’s overall width. For the same reason, the builders of Japanese pagodas
seem to have further increased their weight by choosing to cover these extended eaves not with the
porcelain tiles of many Chinese pagodas but with much heavier earthenware tiles.
But this does not totally explain the great resilience of Japanese pagodas. Is the answer that, like a tall
pine tree, the Japanese pagoda-with its massive trunk-like central pillar known as shinbashira-simply
flexes and sways during a typhoon or earthquake) For centuries, many thought so. But the answer is not
so simple because the startling thing is that the shinbashira actually carries no load at all. In fact, in some
pagoda designs, it does not even rest on the ground, but is suspended from the top of the pagoda-
hanging loosely down through the middle of the building. The weight of the building is supported entirely
by twelve outer and four inner columns.
And what is the role of the shinbashira, the central pillar? The best way to understand the shinbashira’s
role is to watch a video made by Shuzo Ishida, a structural engineer at Kyoto Institute of Technology. Mr
Ishida, known to his students as ‘Professor Pagoda’ because of his passion to understand the pagoda,
has built a series of models and tested them on a ‘shaketable’ in his laboratory. In short, the shinbashira
was acting like an enormous stationary pendulum. The ancient craftsmen, apparently without the
assistance of very advanced mathematics, seemed to grasp the principles that were, more than a
thousand years later, applied in the construction of Japan’s first skyscraper. What those early craftsmen
had found by trial and error was that under pressure a pagoda’s loose stack of floors could be made to
slither to and fro independent of one another. Viewed from the side, the pagoda seemed to be doing a
snake dance-with each consecutive floor moving in the opposite direction to its neighbours above and
below. The shinbashira, running up through a hole in the centre of the building, constrained individual
storeys from moving too far because, after moving a certain distance, they banged into it, transmitting
energy away along the column.
Another strange feature of the Japanese pagoda is that, because the building tapers, with each
successive floor plan being smaller than the one below, none of the vertical pillars that carry the weight of
the building is connected to its corresponding pillar above. In other words, a five storey pagoda contains
not even one pillar that travels right up through the building to carry the structural loads from the top to
the bottom. More surprising is the fact that the individual storeys of a Japanese pagoda, unlike their
counterparts elsewhere, are not actually connected to each other. They are simply stacked one on top of
another like a pile of hats. Interestingly, such a design would not be permitted under current Japanese
building regulations.
And the extra-wide eaves? Think of them as a tight rope walker balancing pole. The bigger the mass at
each end of the pole, the easier it is for the tightrope walker to maintain his or her balance. The same
holds true for a pagoda. ‘With the eaves extending out on all sides like balancing poles,’ says Mr. Ishida,
‘the building responds to even the most powerful jolt of an earthquake with a graceful swaying, never an
abrupt shaking. Here again, Japanese master builders of a thousand years ago anticipated concepts of
modern structural engineering.
Questions 1-4
TRUE if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

FALSE if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if there it impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
1 Only two Japanese pagodas have collapsed in 1400 years.

2 The Hanshin earthquake of 1995 destroyed the pagoda at the Toji temple.
3 The other buildings near the Toji pagoda had been built in the last 30 years.
4 The builders of pagodas knew how to absorb some of the power produced by severe weather
conditions.
Questions 5-10
Classify the following as typical of
A both Chinese and Japanese pagodas

B only Chinese pagodas
C only Japanese pagodas
Write the correct letter, A, B or C, in boxes 5-10 on your answer sheet.
5 easy interior access to top

6 tiles on eaves
7 use as observation post
8 size of eaves up to half the width of the building
9 original religious purpose
10 floors fitting loosely over each other
Questions 11-13
Choose the correct letter, A, B or C.
Write the correct letter in boxes11-13 on your answer sheet.
11 In a Japanese pagoda, the shinbashira

A bears the full weight of the building.
B bends under pressure like a tree.
C connects the floors with the foundations.
D stops the floors moving too far.
12 Shuzo Ishida performs experiments in order to

A improve skyscraper design.
B be able to build new pagodas.
C learn about the dynamics of pagodas.
D understand ancient mathematics.
13 The storeys of a Japanese pagoda are

A linked only by wood.
B fastened only to the central pillar.
C fitted loosely on top of each other.
D joined by special weights.
PRACTICE 140
Lost for Words

Many minority languages are on the danger list.
In the Native American Navajo nation which sprawls across four states in the American south-west, the
native language is dying. Most of its speakers are middle-age or elderly. Although many students take
classes in Navajo, the schools are run in English. Street sign, supermarket goods and even their own
newspaper are all in English. Not surprisingly, linguists doubt that any native speakers of Navajo will
remain in a hundred years’ time.
Navajo is far from alone. Half the world’s 6,800 languages are likely to vanish within two generations –
that’s one language lost every ten days. Never before has the planet’s linguistic diversity shrunk at such a
pace. “At the moment, we are heading for about three or four languages dominating the world”, says Mark
Pagel, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Reading. “It’s a mass extinction, and whether we will
ever rebound from the lost is difficult to know.’
Isolation breeds linguistic diversity as a result, the world is peppered with languages spoken by only a few
people. Only 250 language have more than a million speaker, and at least 3,000 have fewer than 2,500. It
is not necessarily these small languages that are about to disappear. Navajo is considered endangered
despite having 150,000 speakers. What makes a language endangered is not that the number of
speakers, but how old they are. If it is spoken by children it is relatively safe. The critically endangered
languages are those that are only spoken by the elderly, according to Michael Krauss, director o the
Alassk Native Language Center, in Fairblanks.
Why do people reject the language of their parent? It begins with a crisis of confidence, when a small
community find itself alongside a larger, wealthier society, says Nicholas Ostler of Britain’s Foundation for
Endangered Languages, in Bath. ‘People lose faith in their culture’ he say. ‘When the next generation
reaches their teens, they might not want to be induced into the old tradition.’
The change is not always voluntary. Quite often, governments try to kill off a minority language by
banning its use in public or discouraging its use in school, all to promote national unity. The former US
policy of running Indian reservation in English, for example, effectively put languages such as Navajo on
the danger list. But Salikoko Mufwene, who chairs the Linguistics Department at the University of
Chicago, argues that the deadliest weapon is not government policy but economic globalisation. ‘Native
Americans have not lost pride in their language, but they have had to adapt to socio-economic pressures’
he say. ‘They can not refuse to speak English if most commercial activity is in English”. But are languages
worth saving? At the very least, there is a loss of data for the study of languages and their evolution,
which relies on comparisons between languages, both living and dead. When an unwritten and
unrecorded language disappears, it is lost to science.
Language is also intimately bond up with culture, so it may be difficult to reserve one without the other. ‘If
a person shifts from Navajo to English, they lose something’ Mufwene says. ‘Moreover, the loss of
diversity may also deprive us of different ways of looking at the world’ say Pagel. There is mounting
evidence that learning a language produces physiological changes in brain. ‘Your brain and mine are
difference from the brain of some one, who speaks French, for instance’ Pagel says, and this could affect
our thoughts and perceptions. ‘The patterns and connections we make among various concepts may be
structured by the linguistic habits of our community.’
So despite linguists’ best efforts, many languages will disappear over the next century. But a growing
interest in cultural identity may prevent the direst predictions from coming true. ‘The key to fostering
diversity is for people to learn their ancestral tongue, as well as the dominant language’ says Doug
Whalen, founder and president of the Endangered Language Fund in New Haven, Connecticut. ‘Most of
these languages will not survive without a large degree of bilingualism’ he says. In New Zealand, classes
for children have slowed the erosion of Maori and rekindled interest in the language. A similar approach in
Hawaii has produce about 8000 new speakers of Polynesian languages in the past few years. In
California, ‘apprentice’ programmes have provided life support to several indigenous languages. Volunteer
‘apprentices’ pair up with one of the last living speakers of Native American tongue to learn traditional
skill such as basket weaving, with instruction exclusively in the endangered language. After about 300
hours of training they are generally sufficiently fluent to transmit the language to next generation. But
Mufwene says that preventing a language dying out is not the same as giving it new life by using every
day. ‘Preserving a language is more likely preserving fruits in a jar’ he says.
However, preservation can bring a language back from the dead. There are examples of languages that
have survived in written form and then been revived by latter generations. But a written form is essential
for this, so the mere possibility of revival has led many speakers of endangered languages to develop
systems of writing where none existed before.
Question 1-4
Complete the summary below. Choose no more than two words from the passage for each answer.
There are currently approximately 6,800 language in the world. This great variety of languages came
about largely as a result of geographical (1)….. But in today’s world, factors such as government initiatives
and (2)……… are contributing to a huge decrease in the number of languages. One factor which may help
to e…nsure that some endangered languages do not die out completely is people’s increasing
appreciation of their (3)……. This has been encouraged though programmes of languages classes for
children and through ‘apprentice’ schemes, in which the endangered language is used as the medium of
instruction to teach people a (4)…….. Some speakers of endangered languages have even produced
writing systems in order to help secure the survival of their mother tongue.
Question 5-9
Look at the following statements (Question 5-9) and the list of people in the box below. Match each
statement with the correct person A-E. Write the appropriate letter A-E in box 5-9 on your answer sheet.
5. Endangered languages cannot be saved unless people learn to speak more than one language.
6. Saving languages from extinction is not in itself a satisfactory goal.
7. The way we think may be determined by our language.
8. Young people often reject the established way of life in their community.
9. A change of language may mean a loss of traditonal cuture.
A. Michael Krauss
B. Salikoko Mufwene
C. Nicholas Ostler
D. Mark Pagel
E. Doug Whalen
Question 10-13
YES If the statement agrees with the view of the writer

NO If the statement contradicts the view of writer
NOT GIVEN If it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this.
10. The Navajo language will die out because it currently has too few speakers.
11. A large number of native speakers fails to guarantee the survival of a language.
12. National governments could do more to protect endangered languages.
13. The loss of linguistic diversity is inevitable.
PRACTICE 139
HIGHS & LOWS

Hormone levels – and hence our moods –may be affected by the weather. Gloomy weather can cause
depression, but sunshine appears to raise the spirits. In Britain, for example, the dull weather of winter
drastically cuts down the amount of sunlight that is experienced which strongly affects some people.
They become so depressed and lacking in energy that their work and social life are affected. This
condition has been given the name SAD (Seasonal Affective Disorder). Sufferers can fight back by making
the most of any sunlight in winter and by spending a few hours each day under special, full-spectrum
lamps. These provide more ultraviolet and blue-green light than ordinary fluorescent and tungsten lights.
Some Russian scientists claim that children learn better after being exposed to ultraviolet light. In warm
countries, hours of work are often arranged so that workers can take a break, or even a siesta, during the
hottest part of the day. Scientists are working to discover the links between the weather and human
beings’ moods and performance.
It is generally believed that tempers grow shorter in hot, muggy weather. There is no doubt that ‘crimes
against the person’ rise in the summer, when the weather is hotter and fall in the winter when the weather
is colder. Research in the United States has shown a relationship between temperature and street riots.
The frequency of riots rises dramatically as the weather gets warmer, hitting a peak around 27-30°C. But
is this effect really due to a mood change caused by the heat? Some scientists argue that trouble starts
more often in hot weather merely because there are more people in the street when the weather is good.
Psychologists have also studied how being cold affects performance. Researchers compared divers
working in icy cold water at 5°C with others in water at 20°C (about swimming pool temperature). The
colder water made the divers worse at simple arithmetic and other mental tasks. But significantly, their
performance was impaired as soon as they were put into the cold water – before their bodies had time to
cool down. This suggests that the low temperature did not slow down mental functioning directly, but the
feeling of cold distracted the divers from their tasks.
Psychologists have conducted studies showing that people become less skeptical and more optimistic
when the weather is sunny However, this apparently does not just depend on the temperature. An
American psychologist studied customers in a temperature-controlled restaurant. They gave bigger tips
when the sun was shining and smaller tips when it wasn’t, even though the temperature in the restaurant
was the same. A link between weather and mood is made believable by the evidence for a connection
between behavior and the length of the daylight hours. This in turn might involve the level of a hormone
called melatonin, produced in the pineal gland in the brain. The amount of melatonin falls with greater
exposure to daylight. Research shows that melatonin plays an important part in the seasonal behavior of
certain animals. For example, food consumption of stags increases during the winter, reaching a peak in
February/ March. It falls again to a low point in May, then rises to a peak in September, before dropping to
another minimum in November. These changes seem to be triggered by varying melatonin levels.
In the laboratory, hamsters put on more weight when the nights are getting shorter and their melatonin
levels are falling. On the other hand, if they are given injections of melatonin, they will stop eating
altogether. It seems that time cues provided by the changing lengths of day and night trigger changes in
animals’ behavior – changes that are needed to cope with the cycle of the seasons. People’s moods too,
have been shown to react to the length of the daylight hours. Skeptics might say that longer exposure to
sunshine puts people in a better mood because they associate it with the happy feelings of holidays and
freedom from responsibility. However, the belief that rain and murky weather make people more unhappy
is borne out by a study in Belgium, which showed that a telephone counseling service gets more
telephone calls from people with suicidal feelings when it rains.
When there is a thunderstorm brewing, some people complain of the air being ‘heavy’ and of feeling
irritable, moody and on edge. They may be reacting to the fact that the air can become slightly positively
charged when large thunderclouds are generating the intense electrical fields that cause lightning flashes.
The positive charge increases the levels of serotonin (a chemical involved in sending signals in the
nervous system). High levels of serotonin in certain areas of the nervous system make people more
active and reactive and, possibly, more aggressive. When certain winds are blowing, such as the Mistral in
southern France and the Fohn in southern Germany, mood can be affected – and the number of traffic
accidents rises. It may be significant that the concentration of positively charged particles is greater than
normal in these winds. In the United Kingdom, 400,000 ionizers are sold every year. These small machines
raise the number of negative ions in the air in a room. Many people claim they feel better in negatively
charged air.
Questions 26-28
Choose the appropriate letters A—D and write them in boxes 26—28 on your answer sheet.
26 Why did the divers perform less well in colder conditions?

A They were less able to concentrate.
B Their body temperature fell too quickly.
C Their mental functions were immediately affected by the cold.
D They were used to swimming pool conditions.
27 The number of daylight hours

A affects the performance of workers in restaurants.
B influences animal feeding habits.
C makes animals like hamsters more active.
D prepares humans for having greater leisure time.
28 Human irritability may be influenced by

A how nervous and aggressive people are.
B reaction to certain weather phenomena.
C the number of ions being generated by machines.
D the attitude of people to thunderstorms.
Questions 29-34
Do the following statements agree with the information in Reading Passage 139?
TRUE if the statement is true according to the passage
FALSE if the statement is false according to the passage
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
29. Seasonal Affective Disorder is disrupting children’s education in Russia.

30. Serotonin is an essential cause of human aggression.
31. Scientific evidence links ‘happy associations with weather’ to human mood.
32. A link between depression and the time of year has been established.
33. Melatonin levels increase at certain times of the year.
34. Positively charged ions can influence eating habits.
Questions 35-37
According to the text which THREE of the following conditions have been scientifically proved to have a
psychological effect on humans?
Choose THREE letters A—G and write them in boxes 35—37 on your answer sheet.
A. lack of negative ions

B. rainy weather
C. food consumption
D. high serotonin levels
E. sunny weather
F. freedom from worry
G. lack of counselling facilities
Questions 38-40
Complete each of the following statements with the best ending from the box below.
Write the appropriate letters A-G in boxes 38—40 on your answer sheet.
38. It has been established that social tension increases significantly in the United States during …….
39. Research has shown that a hamster’s bodyweight increases according to its exposure to…….
40. Animals cope with changing weather and food availability because they are influenced by…….
A. daylight
B. hot weather
C. melatonin
D. moderate temperatures
E. poor co-ordination
F. time cues
G. impaired performance
PRACTICE 141
ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE IN AUSTRALIA

The first students to study alternative medicine at university level in Australia began their four-year, full-time
course at the University of Technology, Sydney, in early 1994. Their course covered, among other therapies,
acupuncture. The theory they learnt is based on the traditional Chinese explanation of this ancient healing
art: that it can regulate the flow of ‘Qi’ or energy through pathways in the body. This course reflects how far
some alternative therapies have come in their struggle for acceptance by the medical establishment.
Australia has been unusual in the Western world in having a very conservative attitude to natural or
alternative therapies, according to Dr Paul Laver, a lecturer in Public Health at the University of Sydney.
‘We’ve had a tradition of doctors being fairly powerful and I guess they are pretty loath to allow any
pretenders to their position to come into it.’ In many other industrialized countries, orthodox and
alternative medicines have worked ‘hand in glove’ for years. In Europe, only orthodox doctors can
prescribe herbal medicine. In Germany, plant remedies account for 10% of the national turnover of
pharmaceutical. Americans made more visits to alternative therapist than to orthodox doctors in 1990,
and each year they spend about $US 12 billion on the therapies that have not been scientifically tested.
Disenchantment with orthodox medicine has seen the popularity of alternative therapies in Australia
climb steadily during the past 20 years. In a 1983 national health survey, 1.9% of people said they had
contacted a chiropractor, naturopath, osteopath, acupuncturist or herbalist in the two weeks prior to the
survey. By 1990, this figure had risen to 2.6% of the population. The 550,000 consultations with alternative
therapists reported in the 1990 survey represented about an eighth of the total number of consultations
with medically qualified personnel covered by the survey, according to Dr Laver and colleagues writing in
the Australian Journal of Public Health in 1993. ‘A better educated and less accepting public has become
disillusion with the experts in general and increasingly skeptical about science and empirically based
knowledge,’ they said. ‘The high standing of professionals, including doctors, has been eroded as a
consequence.’
Rather than resisting or criticizing this trend, increasing numbers of Australian doctors, particularly
younger ones, are forming group practices with alternative therapists or taking courses themselves,
particularly in acupuncture and herbalism. Part of the incentive was financial, Dr Laver said. ‘The bottom
line is that most general practitioners are business people. If they see potential clientele going elsewhere,
they might want to be able to offer a similar service.’
In 1993, Dr Laver and his colleagues published a survey of 289 Sydney people who attended eight
alternative therapists’ practices in Sydney. These practices offered a wide range of alternative therapies
from 25 therapists. Those surveyed had experience chronic illnesses, for which orthodox medicine had
been able to provide little relief. They commented that they liked the holistic approach of their alternative
therapists and the friendly, concerned and detailed attention they had received. The cold, impersonal
manner of orthodox doctors featured in the survey. An increasing exodus from their clinics, coupled with
this and a number of other relevant surveys carried out in Australia, all pointing to orthodox doctors’
inadequacies, have led mainstream doctors themselves to begin to admit they could learn from the
personal style of alternative therapists. Dr Patrick Store, President of the Royal College of General
Practitioners, concurs that orthodox doctors could learn a lot about beside manner and advising patients
on preventative health from alternative therapists.
According to the Australian Journal of Public Health, 18% of patients visiting alternative therapists do so
because they suffer from musculo-skeletal complaints; 12% suffer from digestive problems, which is only
1% more than those suffering from emotional problems. Those suffering from respiratory complaints
represent 7% of their patients, and candida sufferers represent an equal percentage. Headache sufferers
and those complaining of general ill health represent 6% and 5% of patients respectively, and a further 4%
see therapists for general health maintenance.
The survey suggested that complementary medicine is probably a better term than alternative medicine.
Alternative medicine appears to be an adjunct, sought in times of disenchantment when conventional
medicine seems not to offer the answer.
Question 14 and 15
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write your answers in boxes 14 and 15 on your answer sheet.
14. Traditionally, how have Australian doctors differed from doctors in many Western countries?
A They have worked closely with pharmaceutical companies.
B They have often worked alongside other therapists.
C They have been reluctant to accept alternative therapists.
D They have regularly prescribed alternative remedies.
15. In 1990, Americans

A were prescribed more herbal medicines than in previous years.
B consulted alternative therapists more often than doctors.
C spent more on natural therapies than orthodox medicines.
D made more complaints about doctors than in previous years.
Questions 16-23
In boxes 16-23 on your answer sheet write
YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer

NO if the statements contradicts the views of the writer
16. Australians have been turning to alternative therapies in increasing numbers over the past 20 years.
17. Between 1983 and 1990 the numbers of patients visiting alternative therapists rose to include a
further 8% of the population.
18. The 1990 survey related to 550,000 consultations with alternative therapists.
19. In the past, Australians had a higher opinion of doctors than they do today.
20. Some Australian doctors are retraining in alternative therapies.
21. Alternative therapists earn higher salaries than doctors.
22. The 1993 Sydney survey involved 289 patients who visited alternative therapists for acupuncture
treatment.
23. All the patients in the 1993 Sydney survey had long-term medical complaints.
PRACTICE 132
What is a port city?

The port city provides a fascinating and rich understanding of the movement of people and goods around
the world. We understand a port as a centre of land-sea exchange, and as a major source of livelihood
and a major force for cultural mixing. But do ports all produce a range of common urban characteristics
which justify classifying port cities together under a single generic label? Do they have enough in
common to warrant distinguishing them from other kinds of cities?
A. A port must be distinguished from a harbour. They are two very different things. Most ports have poor
harbours, and many fine harbours see few ships. Harbour is a physical concept, a shelter for ships; port is
an economic concept, a centre of land-sea exchange which requires good access to a hinterland even
more than a sea-linked foreland. It is landward access, which is productive of goods for export and which
demands imports, that is critical. Poor harbours can be improved with breakwaters and dredging if there
is a demand for a port. Madras and Colombo are examples of harbours expensively improved by
enlarging, dredging and building breakwaters.
B. Port cities become industrial, financial and service centres and political capitals because of their water
connections and the urban concentration which arises there and later draws to it railways, highways and
air routes. Water transport means cheap access, the chief basis of all port cities. Many of the world’s
biggest cities, for example, London, New York, Shanghai, Istanbul, Buenos Aires, Tokyo, Jakarta, Calcutta,
Philadelphia and San Francisco began as ports – that is, with land-sea exchange as their major function –
but they have since grown disproportionately in other respects so that their port functions are no longer
dominant. They remain different kinds of places from non-port cities and their port functions account for
that difference.
C. Port functions, more than anything else, make a city cosmopolitan. A port city is open to the world. In it
races, cultures, and ideas, as well as goods from a variety of places, jostle, mix and enrich each other and
the life of the city. The smell of the sea and the harbour, the sound of boat whistles or the moving tides
are symbols of their multiple links with a wide world, samples ofwhich are present in microcosm within
their own urban areas.
D. Sea ports have been transformed by the advent of powered vessels, whose size and draught have
increased. Many formerly important ports have become economically and physically less accessible as a
result. By-passed by most of their former enriching flow of exchange, they have become cultural and
economic backwaters or have acquired the character of museums of the past. Examples of these are
Charleston, Salem, Bristol, Plymouth, Surat, Galle, Melaka, Soochow, and a long list of earlier prominent
port cities in Southeast Asia, Africa and Latin America.
E. Much domestic port trade has not been recorded. What evidence we have sug3ests that domestic
trade was greater at all periods than external trade. Shanghai, for example, did most of its trade with other
Chinese ports and inland cities. Calcutta traded mainly with other parts of India and so on. Most of any
city’s population is engaged in providing goods and services for the city itself. Trade outside the city is its
basic function. But each basic worker requires food, housing, clothing and other such services. Estimates
of the ratio of basic to service workers range from 1:4 to 1:8.
F. No city can be simply a port but must be involved in a variety of other activities. The port function of
the city draws to it raw materials and distributes them in many other forms. Ports take advantage of the
need for breaking up the bulk material where water and land transport meet and where loading and
unloading costs can be minimised by refining raw materials or turning them into finished goods. The
major examples here are oil refining and ore refining, which are commonly located at ports. It is not easy
to draw a line around what is and is not a port function. All ports handle, unload, sort, alter, process,
repack, and reship most of what they receive. A city may still be regarded as a port city when it becomes
involved in a great range of functions not immediately involved with ships or docks.
G. Cities which began as ports retain the chief commercial and administrative centre of the city close to
the waterfront. The centre of New York is in lower Manhattan between two river mouths, the City of
London is on the Thames, Shanghai along the Bund. This proximity to water is also true of Boston,
Philadelphia, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Singapore, Bangkok, Hong Kong and Yokohama, where the
commercial, financial, and administrative centres are still grouped around their harbours even though
each city has expanded into a metropolis. Even a casual visitor cannot mistake them as anything but port
cities.
Questions 1-4
Reading Passage has seven paragraphs A-G.
From the list of headings below choose the most suitable headings for paragraphs B-E.
Write the appropriate numbers (i-viii)
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.
Example Answer
Paragraph A vii
List of Headings
i. A truly international environment
ii. Once a port city, always a port city
iii. Good ports make huge profits
iv. How the port changes a city’s infrastructure
v. Reasons for the decline of ports
vi. Relative significance of trade and service industry
vii. Ports and harbours
viii. The demands of the oil industry
1. Paragraph B
2. Paragraph C
3. Paragraph D
4. Paragraph E
Questions 5-8
Look at the following descriptions of some port cities mentioned in Reading Passage
Match the pairs of cities (A-H) listed below with the descriptions.
NB There are more pairs of port cities than descriptions, so you will not use them all.
5. required considerable harbour development

6. began as ports but other facilities later dominated
7. lost their prominence when large ships could not be accommodated
8. maintain their business centres near the port waterfront
A. Bombay and Buenos Aires

B. Hong Kong and Salem
C. Istanbul and Jakarta
D. Madras and Colombo
E. New York and Bristol
F. Plymouth and Melaka
G. Singapore and Yokohama
H. Surat and London
Questions 9-14
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? Write:
YES if the statement agrees with the information

NO if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the passage
9. Cities cease to be port cities when other functions dominate.

10. In the past, many port cities did more trade within their own country than with overseas ports.
11. Most people in a port city are engaged in international trade and finance.
12. Ports attract many subsidiary and independent industries.
13. Ports have to establish a common language of trade.
14. Ports often have river connections.
PRACTICE 117
Collecting Ant Specimens
Collecting ants can be as simple as picking up stray ones and placing them in a glass jar, or as
complicated as completing an exhaustive survey of all species present in an area and estimating their
relative abundances. The exact method used will depend on the final purpose of the collections. For
taxonomy. or classification, long series, from a single nest, which contain all castes (workers, including
majors and minors, and, if present, queens and males) are desirable, to allow the determination of
variation within species. For ecological studies, the most important factor is collecting identifiable
samples of as many of the different species present as possible. Unfortunately, these methods are not
always compatible. The taxonomist sometimes overlooks whole species in favour of those groups
currently under study, while the ecologist often collects only a limited number of specimens of each
species, thus reducing their value for taxonomic investigations.
To collect as wide a range of species as possible, several methods must be used. These include hand
collecting, using baits to attract the ants, ground litter sampling, and the use of pitfall traps. Hand
collecting consists of searching for ants everywhere they are likely to occur. This includes on the ground,
under rocks, logs or other objects on the ground, in rotten wood on the ground or on trees, in vegetation,
on tree trunks and under bark. When possible, collections should be made from nests or foraging
columns and at least 20 to 25 individuals collected. This will ensure that all individuals are of the same
species, and so increase their value for detailed studies. Since some species are largely nocturnal.
collecting should not be confined to daytime. Specimens are collected using an aspirator (often called a
poorer), forceps, a fine, moistened paint brush, or fingers. if the ants are known not to sting. Individual
insects are placed in plastic or glass tubes (1.5-3.0 ml capacity for small ants, 5-8 ml for larger ants)
containing 75% to 95% ethanol. Plastic tubes with secure tops are better than glass because they are
lighter, and do not break as easily if mishandled.
Baits can be used to attract and concentrate foragers. This often increases the number of individuals
collected and attracts species that are otherwise elusive. Sugars and meats or oils will attract different
species and a range should be utilised. These baits can be placed either on the ground or on the trunks of
trees or large shrubs. When placed on the ground, baits should be situated on small paper cards or other
flat, light-coloured surfaces, or in test-tubes or vials. This makes it easier to spot ants and to capture them
before they can escape into the surrounding leaf litter.
Many ants are small and forage primarily in the layer of leaves and other debris on the ground. Collecting
these species by hand can be difficult. One of the most successful ways to collect them is to gather the
leaf litter in which they are foraging and extract the ants from it. This is most commonly done by placing
leaf litter on a screen over a large funnel, often under some heat. As the leaf litter dries from above, ants
(and other animals) move downward and eventually fall out the bottom and are collected in alcohol
placed below the funnel. This method works especially well in rain forests and marshy areas. A method of
improving the cajch when using a funnel is to sift the leaf litter through a coarse screen before placing it
above the funnel. This will concentrate the litter and remove larger leaves and twigs. It will also allow
more litter to be sampled when using a limited number of funnels.
The pitfall trap is another commonly used tool for collecting ants. A pitfall trap can be any small container
placed in the ground with the top level with the surrounding surface and filled with a preservative. Ants
are collected when they fall into the trap while foraging. The diameter of the traps can vary from about 18
mm to 10 cm and the number used can vary from a few to several hundred. The size of the traps used is
influenced largely by personal preference (although larger sizes are generally better), while the number
will be determined by the study being undertaken. The preservative used is usually ethylene glycol or
propylene glycol, as alcohol will evaporate quickly and the traps will dry out. One advantage of pitfall traps
is that they can be used to collect over a period of time with minimal maintenance and intervention. One
disadvantage is that some species are not collected as they either avoid the traps or do not commonly
encounter them while foraging.
Questions 27-30

27. Taxonomic research involves comparing members of one group of ants.

28. New species of ant are frequently identified by taxonomists.
29. Range is the key criterion for ecological collections.
30. A single collection of ants can generally be used for both taxonomic and ecological purposes.
Questions 31-36
Classify the following statements as referring to
A. hand collecting
B. using bait
C. sampling ground litter
D. using a pitfall trap
Write the correct letter, A, B, C or D, in boxes 31-36 on your answer sheet.
31. It is preferable to take specimens from groups of ants.

32. It is particularly effective for wet habitats.
33. It is a good method for species which are hard to find.
34. Little time and effort is required.
35. Separate containers are used for individual specimens.
36. Non-alcoholic preservative should be used.
Questions 37-40
Label the diagram below.
PRACTICE 105
What is music?
1. Music has probably existed for as long as man has been human, and it certainly predates
civilization by tens of millenia. Yet even today there is no clear definition of exactly what music
is. For example, birdsong is certainly melodic, but it is not tuneful, and it is not created with the
intention of being musical (in fact it is sometimes meant to sound threatening) – therefore
does it count as music?
2. On the other hand, some modern composers have been challenging the idea that music
should be arranged in a pleasant manner with the notes falling in an orderly succession.
Others, famously the avant guarde composer John Cage have even used silence and called
the result music. As a result there is no one definition of music. Perhaps it should be said that
music, like beauty, is what the person who sees or hears it believes it to be.
3. Music is divided in many ways. Music itself is split into notes, clefts, quavers, and semi-demi
quavers. Ancient and medieval musicologists believed that these notes could be arranged
‘horizontally’ into melody (making notes that match on the same scale) and ‘vertically’ (going
up and down the scales to create harmony). Another very basic measurement of music is the
‘pulse’. This is present in almost all forms of music, and is particularly strong in modern
popular music. The pulse is the regular beat which runs through a tune. When you tap your
foot or clap your hands in time to a song, you are beating out the pulse of that song.
4. Another way of dividing music is by genre. Even a child who does not know that (for
example) rock and roll and classical music are different genres will be instantly aware that
these are very different sounds; though he will not be aware that one is a percussion-led
melody while the other emphasizes harmony over rhythm and timbre. Each genre of music
has numerous sub-divisions. Classical music is divided by type – for example symphonies,
concertos and operas, and by sub-genre, for example baroque and Gregorian chant. Just to
make it more fun, modern musicians have also been experimenting with crossover music, so
that we get Beatles tunes played by classical orchestras, and groups like Queen using operatic
themes in songs such as ‘Bohemian rhapsody’.
5. Almost all music is a collaboration between the composer, and the performer, while song
requires a lyricist to write the words as well. Sometimes old tunes are adapted for new lyrics –
for example the song ‘Happy Birthday’ is based on a tune originally called ‘Have a nice Day’. At
other times a performer might produce a song in a manner which the original composer would
not recognize. (A famous example is the punk rock band the Sex Pistols performing the British
national anthem ‘God save the Queen’.)
6. This is because the composer and lyricist have to leave the performer some freedom to
perform in the way that suits him or her best. While many classical compositions have notes
stressing how a piece should be performed (for example a piece played ‘con brio’ should be
light and lively) in the end, what the listener hears is the work of the performer. Jazz music has
fully accepted this, and jazz performers are not only expected to put their own interpretation
on a piece, but are expected to play even the same piece with some variation every time.
7. Many studies of music do not take into account where the music is to be played and who the
audience will be. This is a major mistake, as the audience is very much a part of the musical
experience. Any jazz fan will tell you that jazz is best experienced in small smoky bars some
time after midnight, while a classical fan will spend time and money making sure that the
music on his stereo comes as close as possible to the sound in a large concert hall. Some
music, such as dance music, is designed to be interactive, while other music is designed to
remain in the background, smoothing out harsh sounds and creating a mood. This is often the
case with cinema music – this powerfully changes the mood of the audience, yet remains so
much in the background that many cinemagoers are unaware that the music is actually
playing.
8. Music is very much a part of human existence, and we are fortunate today in having music of
whatever kind we choose instantly available at the touch of a button. Yet spare a thought for
those who still cannot take advantage of this bounty. This includes not only the deaf, but
those people who are somehow unable to understand or recognize music when they hear it. A
famous example is United President Ulysses Grant, who famously said ‘I can recognise two
tunes. One is ‘Yankee doodle’ and the other one isn’t.’
Questions 1 – 3
Choose which of these sentences is closest to the meaning in the text.
Write A, B or C in your answer sheet (1-3)
1. A) Modern composers do not always want their music to sound pleasant

B) Some modern composers do not want their music to be enjoyable
C) A modern musical composition should not be orderly2.
A) Crossover music is when classical orchestras play modern tunes
B) Crossover music moves between musical genres
C) Crossover music is a modern musical genre
3.
A) Performers, lyricists and composers each have a seperate function
B) Performers of a song will need to become lyricists
C) Composers instruct musicians to play their work ‘con brio’.
Questions 4 – 7
Match the follwowing groups of words(4-7) with one of the words in the box opposite(A- F).
NB. There are more workds in the right column than you need.
A. Collaborators
4. Rock and roll, classical music, jazz B. John Cage
5. Composer, lyricist, performer C. Classical
6. Symphony, concerto, opera D. Baroque
7. Cinemagoer, Jazz fan, dancer E. Audience
F. Genres
Questions 8- 12
The reading passage has 8 paragraphs which are numbered A-H.

On your answer sheet write the letter of the paragraph which contains the following information (You can
choose a paragraph more than once).
8. People can tell genres of music apart even without musical training.
9. Where you hear music can be as important as the skill of the performer.
10. Music has been a part of human existence for many thousands of years.
11. A piece of music might have more than one set of words to go with it.
12. Some people cannot tell the difference between classical music and birdsong.
PRACTICE 104
Antarctic Penguins
Though penguins are assumed to be native to the South Pole, only four of the seventeen species have
evolved the survival adaptations necessary to live and breed in the Antarctic year round. The physical
features of the Adelie, Chinstrap, Gentoo, and Emperor penguins equip them to withstand the harshest
living conditions in the world. Besides these four species, there are a number of others, including the
yellow feathered Macaroni penguin and the King penguin that visit the Antarctic regularly but migrate to
warmer waters to breed. Penguins that live in Antarctica year round have a thermoregulation system and
a survival sense that allows them to live comfortably both on the ice and in the water.
In the dark days of winter, when the Antarctic sees virtually no sunlight, the penguins that remain on the
ice sheet sleep most of the day. To retain heat, penguins huddle in communities of up to 6,000 of their
own species. When it’s time to create a nest, most penguins build up a pile of rocks on top of the ice to
place their eggs. The Emperor penguin, however, doesn’t bother with a nest at all. The female Emperor
lays just one egg and gives it to the male to protect while she goes off for weeks to feed. The male
balances the egg on top of his feet, covering it with a small fold of skin called a brood patch. In the
huddle, the male penguins rotate regularly so that none of the penguins have to stay on the outside of the
circle exposed to the wind and cold for long periods of time. When it’s time to take a turn on the outer
edge of the pack, the penguins tuck their feathers in and shiver. The movement provides enough warmth
until they can head back into the inner core and rest in the warmth. In order to reduce the cold of the ice,
penguins often put their weight on their heels and tails. Antarctic penguins also have complex nasal
passages that prevent 80 percent of their heat from leaving the body. When the sun is out, the black
dorsal plumage attracts its rays and penguins can stay warm enough to waddle or slide about alone.
Antarctic penguins spend about 75 percent of their lives in the water. A number of survival adaptations
allow them to swim through water as cold as -2 degrees Celsius. In order to stay warm in these
temperatures, penguins have to keep moving. Though penguins don’t fly in the air, they are often said to
fly through water. Instead of stopping each time they come up for air, they use a technique called
“porpoising,” in which they leap up for a quick breath while swiftly moving forward: Unlike most birds that
have hollow bones for flight, penguins have evolved hard solid bones that keep them low in the water.
Antarctic penguins also have unique feathers that work similarly to a waterproof diving suit. Tufts of
down trap a layer of air within the feathers, preventing the water from penetrating the penguin’s skin. The
pres¬sure of a deep dive releases this air, and a penguin has to rearrange the feathers through a process
called “preening.” Penguins also have an amazing circulatory system, which in extremely cold waters
diverts blood from the flippers and legs to the heart.
While the harsh climate of the Antarctic doesn’t threaten the survival of Antarctic penguins, overheating
can be a concern, and therefore, global warming is a threat to them. Temperate species have certain
physical features such as fewer feathers and less blubber to keep them cool on a hot day. African
penguins have bald patches on their legs and face where excess heat can be released. The blood vessels
in the penguin’s skin dilate when the body begins to overheat, and the heat rises to the surface of the
body. Penguins who are built for cold winters of the Antarctic have other survival techniques for a warm
day, such as moving to shaded areas, or holding their fins out away from their bodies.
Questions 1-5
Classify the following facts as applying to:
A Antarctic penguins
B Temperature-area penguins
Write the appropriate letter, A or B, in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
1 stand in large groups to keep warm

2 spend about three quarters of its time in the water
3 have feathers that keep cold water away from its skin
4 have areas of skin without feathers
5 have less blubber.
Questions 6-9
Complete each of the following sentences with information from the reading passage.
Write your answers in boxes 6-9 on your Answer Sheet. Write No MORE THAN THREE words for each
answer.
6 Most penguins use ………………………… to build their nests.

7 While the male emperor penguin takes care of the egg, the female goes away to ………………………… .
8 A ……………………….. is a piece of skin that the male emperor penguin uses to protect the egg.
9 Penguins protect their feet from the cold of the ice by standing on their …………………………
Questions 10-13
The article mentions many facts about penguins.
Which four of the following features are things that enable them to survive in very cold water?
Write the appropriate letters A-H in boxes 10-13 on your Answer Sheet.
A They move through the water very quickly.

B They hold their flippers away from their bodies. C They choose shady areas.
C When necessary, their blood moves away from the flippers and toward the heart.
D They breathe while still moving.
E The blood vessels in their skin dilate.
F They waddle and slide.
G Their feathers hold in a layer of air near the skin.
PRACTICE 103
An Era of Abundance
Our knowledge of the complex pathways underlying digestive processes is rapidly expanding, although
there is still a great deal we do not fully understand. On the one hand, digestion, like any other major
human biological system, is astonishing in its intricacy and cleverness. Our bodies manage to extract the
complex resources needed to survive, despite sharply varying conditions, while at the same time, filtering
out a multiplicity of toxins.
On the other hand, our bodies evolved in a very different era. Our digestive processes in particular are
optimized for a situation that is dramatically dissimilar to the one we find ourselves in. For most of our
biological heritage, there was a high likelihood that the next foraging or hunting season (and for a brief,
relatively recent period, the next planting season) might be catastrophically lean. So it made sense for our
bodies to hold on to every possible calorie. Today, this biological strategy is extremely counterproductive.
Our outdated metabolic programming underlies our contemporary epidemic of obesity and fuels
pathological processes of degenerative disease such as coronary artery disease, and type II diabetes.
Up until recently (on an evolutionary time scale), it was not in the int erest of the species for old people
like myself (I was born in 1948) to use up the limited resources of the clan. Evolution favored a short life
span – life expectancy was 37 years only two centuries ago – so these restricted reserves could be
devoted to the young, those caring for them, and laborers strong enough to perform intense physical
work.
We now live in an era of great material abundance. Most work requires mental effort rather than physical
exertion. A century ago, 30 percent of the U.S. work fo rce worked on farms, with another 30 percent
deployed in factories. Both of these figures are now under 3 percent. The significant majority of today’s
job categories, ranging from airline flight attendant to web designer, simply didn’t exist a century ago.
Our species has already augmented the “natural” order of our life cycle through our technology: drugs,
supplements, replacement parts for virtually all bodily systems, and many other interventions. We already
have devices to replace our hips, knees, shoulders, elbows, wrists, jaws, teeth, skin, arteries, veins, heart
valves, arms, legs, feet, fingers, and toes. Systems to replace more complex organs (for example, our
hearts) are beginning to work. As we’re learning the principles of operation of the hum an body and the
brain, we will soon be in a position to design vastly superior systems that will be more enjoyable, last
longer, and perform better, without susceptibility to breakdown, disease, and aging.
In a famous scene from the movie, The Graduate, Benjamin’s mentor gives him career advice in a single
word: “plastics.” Today, that word might be “software,” or “biotechnology,” but in another couple of
decades, the word is likely to be “nanobots.” Nanobots – blood-cell-sized robots – will provide the means
to radically redesign our digestive systems, and, incidentally, just about everything else.
In an intermediate phase, nanobots in the digestive tract and bloodstream will intelligently extract the
precise nutrients we need, call for needed additiona l nutrients and supplements through our personal
wireless local area network, and send the rest of the food we eat on its way to be passed through for
elimination.
If this seems futuristic, keep in mind that intelligent machines are already making their way into our blood
stream. There are dozens of projects underway to create blood -stream-based “biological
microelectromechanical systems” (bioMEMS) with a wide range of diagnostic and therapeutic
applications. BioMEMS devices are being designed to intellig ently scout out pathogens and deliver
medications in very precise ways.
For example, a researcher at the University of Illinois at Chicago has created a tiny capsule with pores
measuring only seven nanometers. The pores let insulin out in a controlled manner but prevent antibodies
from invading the pancreatic Islet cells inside the capsule. These nanoengineered devicesmhave cured
rats with type I diabetes, and there is no reason that the same methodology would fail to work in humans.
Similar systems could precisely deliver dopamine to the brain for Parkinson’s patients, provide blood –
clotting factors for patients with hemophilia, and deliver cancer drugs directly to tumor sites. A new
design provides up to 20 substance- containing reservoirs that can release their cargo at programmed
times and locations in the body. A new world is on the horizon and you will be part of it.
Questions 1-8
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
In the past it was essential to hoard our calories for as long as possible because our food source was
mainly restricted to 1 __________ and 2 __________ which brought in irregular supplies. However, these
reserves were intended for 3 __________ because they had the powe and energy to work hard. Nowadays,
the focus has moved away from jobs on 4 __________ and in 5 __________ to jobs that weren’t
available 6 __________ . Through technology, it has now become possible to replace many
body 7 __________ and as techniques improve we will be able to develop better 8 __________ .
Questions 9-12
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-J, below.
In the future, a nanobot’s ability to redesign our digestive system will be 9 __________ . One function is the
intel ligent 10 __________ of the exact nutritional requirements needed. If this all seems to be fantasy,
consider a tiny machine already developed that has now been used in the treatment of 11 __________
However, this has not been tried on 12 __________
A Parkinson’s B haemophilia C diabetes D humans E radical

F rats G extract H radically I extraction J cells
PRACTICE 102
Wind Power
The power of the wind has been used for centuries to directly drive various machines to perform such
tasks as grinding wheat or pumping water. Recently, however, the wind has joined other natural forces
such as water and steam as a viable method of generating electricity.
Traditional means of electricity generation using coal or oil-fueled plants have two major drawbacks; they
pollute the environment and the fuels they use are inefficient and non-renewable. In response to growing
environmental awareness there have been calls for a greener alternative. Nuclear power, while more
efficient and less polluting, is seen by many people as unacceptable, because of the danger of accidents
such as those that happened at Chernobyl or Three Mile Island. Wind power, however, is clean, renewable
and, with modern advances, surprisingly efficient.
In the 1970s Britain was in the forefront of research into wind power. The interest in wind diminished in
the 1980s due to cheap North Sea oil, a strong pro-nuclear lobby and pricing structures that made it
uneconomical to set up wind farms. Britain, the windiest country in Europe, had to wait until 1991 for its
first wind farm. Located at Delabole in Cornwall, the farm was originally the idea of locals who opposed
the construction of a nuclear power plant nearby and decided to set up a private company to generate
power for the area using the wind. They had to fight opposition from local government and other local
residents, who thought the turbines would be noisy and might interfere with television signals, but
eventually, after showing local officials working wind farms in Denmark, they won and now there are 10
huge white wind turbines on the Delabole hills.
It is in Germany and Denmark that the greatest advances in wind power have come. Germany alone
produces half of the wind generated electricity in Europe. Every year Germany adds 400 Megawatts (Mw)
of capacity. In 2000 alone capacity expanded by 1669 Mw. Denmark now produces 30% of its electricity
from wind power and this is predicted to rise to 50% by 2010. Both countries have encouraged this growth
by “fixed feed tariffs” which guarantee a good price for private wind power operators.
The UK is catching up and the government has set a target 10% of all electricity to come from renewable
sources by 2010, half of this to be from wind power. The 900 wind turbines in operation generate 400Mw
of electricity and to meet the target roughly 400Mw will need to be added each year. With the advances in
technology this is technically possible. Each turbine can now produce 400 Kilowatts (KW) compared to
only 70 KW at the start of the 1980s. It will, however, need help from the government. This is being done
by offering financial support and giving private power companies targets to meet.
Because many people feel wind farms spoil the view and, also, because the wind is stronger at sea, many
wind farms are now being built offshore. They are usually built a few kilometres off the coast in shallow
water. The construction and maintenance costs are higher, but electricity output is higher. The first in
Britain was built in 2000 at Blyth, north of Newcastle, and was the largest in the world until May 2001,
when a 20 turbine farm was opened at Middelgruden off Copenhagen. There are plans to construct up to
18 more in the UK by 2010. Together they will produce 800 Mw of electricity annually.
The use of wind power is far less advanced in the USA. Only .5% of America’s power comes from the
wind, although it is estimated that this could be increased to as high as 12% with no changes to the power
grid. However, there is an increased interest in wind power. There are plans to build a huge offshore wind
farm off the coast of Cape Cod on the North East seaboard. The farm will take up over 25 square miles,
have 170 turbines and produce 420Mw at a cost of $600m. If constructed, it will be the world’s second
biggest wind farm, after the 520Mw farm planned in Ireland.
Questions 1 – 2
Choose the best answer to the questions below.
1. People do not like coal and oil powered power production because …
a) it damages the environment.
b) it is wasteful..
c) eventually it will run out.
d) all of the above.
2. Wind power …
a) has only been used recently.
b) promotes environmental awareness.
c) cleans the environment.
d) is not wasteful.
Questions 3 – 7
Complete the following summary of the third paragraph from the above reading passage using ONE OR
TWO WORDS from the reading texts.
British Wind Power.

While there was a great deal of interest in wind power in the 1970s, it (3) _______________ in the 1980s.
This was mainly due to intense support for (4) _______________ power and little help in making wind power
affordable. So, even though Britain has some of the best winds in Europe, the first wind farm was only
built in 1991. The farm at Delabole came out of opposition by (5) _______________ to a nuclear power plant.
Initially, they were opposed by local officials due to fears about noise and possible obstruction
to (6) ________________ . This opposition was eventually overcome only after they were shown successful
examples from (7) _______________.
Questions 8 – 13
Match the country or countries below to the statements taken from the IELTS sample reading.
BR______ Britain
G_______ Germany
D_______ Denmark
US______ The United States
IRE______ Ireland
N________ None of the countries
8. Plans to produce 5% of its power using wind power.
9. Produces 50% of its power from wind.
10. Produces very little of its power using wind.
11. Will have the world’s largest wind farm.
12. Has ambitious plans in developing its wind power capacity.
13. Was the leader in the early development of wind power.
X
PRACTICE 99
Investigating Children’s Language
A. For over 200 years, there has been an interest in the way children learn to speak and understand their
first language. Scholars carried out several small-scale studies, especially towards the end of the 19th
century, using data they recorded in parental diaries. But detailed, systematic investigation did not begin
until the middle decades of the 20th century, when the tape recorder came into routine use. This made it
possible to keep a permanent record of samples of child speech, so that analysts could listen repeatedly
to obscure extracts, and thus produce a detailed and accurate description. Since then, the subject has
attracted enormous multi-disciplinary interest, notably from linguists and psychologists, who have used a
variety of observational and experimental techniques to study the process of language acquisition in
depth.
B. Central to the success of this rapidly emerging field lies the ability of researchers to devise satisfactory
methods for eliciting linguistic data from children. The problems that have to be faced are quite different
from those encountered when working with adults. Many of the linguist’s routine techniques of enquiry
cannot be used with children. It is not possible to carry out certain kinds of experiments, because aspects
of children’s cognitive development – such as their ability to pay attention, or to remember instructions –
may not be sufficiently advanced. Nor is it easy to get children to make systematic judgments about
language, a task that is virtually impossible below the age of three. And anyone who has tried to obtain
even the most basic kind of data – a tape recording of a representative sample of a child’s speech –
knows how frustrating this can be. Some children, it seems, are innately programmed to switch off as
soon as they notice a tape recorder being switched on.
C. Since the 1960s, however, several sophisticated recording techniques and experimental designs have
been devised. Children can be observed and recorded through one-way-vision windows or using radio
microphones, so that the effects of having an investigator in the same room as the child can be
eliminated. Large-scale sampling programmes have been carried out, with children sometimes being
recorded for several years. Particular attention has been paid to devising experimental techniques that
fall well within a child’s intellectual level and social experience. Even pre-linguistic infants have been
brought into the research: acoustic techniques are used to analyse their vocalisations, and their ability to
perceive the world around them is monitored using special recording equipment. The result has been a
growing body of reliable data on the stages of language acquisition from birth until puberty.
D. There is no single way of studying children’s language. Linguistics and psychology have each brought
their own approach to the subject, and many variations have been introduced to cope with the variety of
activities in which children engage, and the great age range that they present. Two main research
paradigms are found.
E. One of these is known as ‘naturalistic sampling’. A sample of a child’s spontaneous use of language is
recorded in familiar and comfortable surroundings. One of the best places to make the recording is in the
child’s own home, but it is not always easy to maintain good acoustic quality, and the presence of the
researcher or the recording equipment can be a distraction (especially if the proceedings are being
filmed). Alternatively, the recording can be made in a research centre, where the child is allowed to play
freely with toys while talking to parents or other children, and the observers and their equipment are
unobtrusive.
F. A good quality, representative, naturalistic sample is generally considered an ideal datum for child
language study. However, the method has several limitations. These samples are informative about
speech production, but they give little guidance about children’s comprehension of what they hear around
them. Moreover, samples cannot contain everything, and they can easily miss some important features of
a child’s linguistic ability. They may also not provide enough instances of a developing feature to enable
the analyst to make a decision about the way the child is learning. For such reasons, the description of
samples of child speech has to be supplemented by other methods.
G. The other main approach is through experimentation, and the methods of experimental psychology
have been widely applied to child language research. The investigator formulates a specific hypothesis
about children’s ability to use or understand an aspect of language, and devises a relevant task for a
group of subjects to undertake. A statistical analysis is made of the subjects’ behaviour, and the results
provide evidence that supports or falsifies the original hypothesis.
H. Using this approach, as well as other methods of controlled observation, researchers have come up
with many detailed findings about the production and comprehension of groups of children. However, it is
not easy to generalise the findings of these studies. What may obtain in a carefully controlled setting may
not apply in the rush of daily interaction. Different kinds of subjects, experimental situations, and
statistical procedures may produce different results or interpretations. Experimental research is therefore
a slow, painstaking business; it may take years before researchers are convinced that all variables have
been considered and a finding is genuine.
Questions 1-5
Reading Passage 99 has eight paragraphs, A-H.
Which paragraphs contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-H in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
1. the possibility of carrying out research on children before they start talking
2. the difficulties in deducing theories from systematic experiments
3. the differences between analysing children’s and adults’ language
4. the ability to record children without them seeing the researcher
5. the drawbacks of recording children in an environment they know
Questions 6-9

6. In the 19th century, researchers studied their own children’s language.

7. Attempts to elicit very young children’s opinions about language are likely to fail.
8. Radio microphones are used because they enable researchers to communicate with a number of
children in different rooms.
9. Many children enjoy the interaction with the researcher.
Question 10-14
Ways of investigating children’s language
One method of carrying out research is to record children’s spontaneous language use. This can be done
in their homes, where, however, it may be difficult to ensure that the recording is of
acceptable 10 ………………… Another venue which is often used is a 11 ……………….., where the researcher can
avoid distracting the child. A drawback of this method is that it does not allow children to demonstrate
their comprehension.
An alternative approach is to use methodology from the field of 12 ………………… In this case, a number of
children are asked to carry out a 13 ……………….., and the results are subjected to a 14 …………………
Answer 78:
14. ii 15. iii 16. v 17. iv 18. viii 19. vii 20. FALSE 21. FALSE 22. NOT GIVEN 23. TRUE 24.
TRUE 25. FALSE 26. TRUE
Answer 98:
27. C;28. D;29. B;30. E; 31. A; 32. Yes; 33. Not given; 34. Not given; 35. No; 36. prudent practice; 37.
privatisation policy; 38. incentives; 39. permit; 40. regulatory agency
Answer 159:
14 FALSE 15 NOT GIVEN 16 TRUE 17 NOT GIVEN 18 TRUE 19 TRUE 20 FALSE
21 G 22 E 23 B 24 A 25 K 26 F
Answer 158:
1 TRUE
2 FALSE
3 NOT GIVEN
4 TRUE
5 FALSE
6 NOT GIVEN
7 TRUE
8 (wooden) pulleys
9 stone
10 (accomplished) sailors
11 (modern) glider
12 flight
13 messages
Answer 157:
27 NOT GIVEN
28 FALSE
29 TRUE
30 FALSE
31 FALSE
32 FALSE
33 TRUE
34 J
35 A
36 E
37 B
38 G
39 D
40 B
Answer 156:
14 iv 15 vii 16 x 17 I 18 vi 19 ii 20 E 21 D 22 C 23 B 24 A 25 A 26 A
Answer 155:
1 FALSE
2 TRUE
3 NOT GIVEN
4 TRUE
5 FALSE
6 NOT GIVEN
7C
8M
9F
10 D
11 N
12 O
13 E
Answer154:
27 ii
28 v
29 x
30 i
31 NO
32 YES
33 NO
34 YES
35 NOT GIVEN
36 D
37 I
38 G
39 E
40 B
Answer153:
27 iv
28 vi
29 v
30 vii
31 B
32 D
33 D
34 A
35 policy
36 (explicit) guidelines
37 (school) curriculum
38 victims
39 playful fighting
40 D
Answer 152:
14 B
15 F
16 C
17 J
18 F
19 NOT GIVEN
20 NO
21 YES
22 YES
23 NO
24 NOT GIVEN
25 C
26 E
Answer 151:
1v
2 vi
3 iii
4 ix
5i
6 vii
7x
8 NO
9 YES
10 NO
11 YES
12 NOT GIVEN
13 YES
Answer 149:
14 vii
15 iii
16 ii
17 iv
18 i
19 NO
20 NOT GIVEN
21 NO
22 YES
23 NOT GIVEN
24 YES
25 B
26 C
27 A
Answer 145:
27 i
28 vi
29 iii
30 vii
31 iv
32 ii
33 farming
34 sea mammals
35 fish
36 Thule
37 islands
38 nomadic
39 nature
40 Imported
Answer 143:
1. YES
2. NO
3. NOT GIVEN
4. YES
5. B
6. A
7. B
8. C
9. A
10. C
11. D
12. C
13. C
Answer 140:
1 isolation
2 economic globatisation/globalization /socio-economic pressures
3 cultural identity
4 traditional skill
5E
6B
7D
8C
9B
10 No
11 YES
12 NOT GTVEN
13 YES
Answer 139:
26 A
27 B
28 B
29 NOT GIVEN
30 FALSE
31 FALSE
32 TRUE
33 TRUE
34 NOT GIVEN
35 -37
B // rainy weather
D // high serotonin levels
E // sunny weather
( IN ANY ORDER)
38 B
39 A
40 F
Answer 141:
14 C
15 B
16 YES
17 NO
18 YES
19 YES
20 YES
21 NOT GIVEN
22 NO
23 YES
Answer 132:
1 ii
2i
3v
4 vi
5D
6C
7F
8G
9 NO
10 YES
11 NO
12 YES
13 NOT GIVEN
14 YES
Answer 117
27 TRUE
28 NOT GIVEN
29 TRUE
30 FALSE
31 A
32 C
33 B
34 D
35 A
36 D
37 heat
38 leaf litter
39 screen
40 alcohol
Answer 105
1. A (Modern composers do not always want their music to sound pleasant)
2. B (Crossover music moves between musical genres)
3. A (Performers, lyricists and composers each have a separate function)
4. F
5. A
6. C
7. E
8. D
9. G
10. A
11. E
12. H
Answer 104
1. A (Paragraph 2) 2. A (Paragraph 3) 3. B (Paragraph 3) 4. A (Paragraph 4) 5. B (Paragraph
4) 6. rocks 7. feed/ eat 8. brood patch 9. heels and tails 10. A 11. R 12. E 13. H
Answer 103
1. foraging 2. hunting (1 and 2 in any order) 3. labourers 4. farms 5. factories 6. a century
ago 7. parts 8. systems 9. radical 10. extraction 11. diabetes 12. humans
Answer: 102
1. D; 2. D; 3. diminished; 4. nuclear; 5. locals; 6. television signals; 7. Danish Farm / Denmark; 8. BR; 9.
N; 10. US; 11. IRE; 12. D; 13. B
Answer: 99
1. C 2. H 3. B 4. C 5. E 6. TRUE 7. TRUE 8. FALSE 9. NOT GIVEN 10. acoustic quality 11.
research centre/ center 12. experimental psychology 13. (relevant) task 14. statistical analysis

Air Traffic Control in The Usa: Practice 78

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Air Traffic Control in The Usa: Practice 78

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PRACTICE 78

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL IN THE USA

Reading Passage 78 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

i. Disobeying FAA Regulations

ii. Aviation disaster prompts action

iii. Two coincidental developments

iv. Setting Altitude Zones

vi. Controlling pilots’ licence

vii. Defining airspace categories

ix. Taking of Safety

x. First step towards ATC

In boxes 20-26 on your answer sheet, write:

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

25. All aircraft in class E airspace must use AFR.

26. A pilot entering class C airspace is flying over an average-sized city.

HELIUM’S FUTURE UP IN THE AIR

Reading Passage 3 has six paragraphs, A–F.

27. a use for helium which makes an activity safer

28. the possibility of creating an alternative to helium

30. a reason why users of helium do not make efforts to conserve it

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

32. Helium chooses to be on its own.

33. Helium is a very cold substance.

35. The US Congress understood the possible consequences of the HPA.

* spawners: fish thai have released eggs

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

21. In Alaska, biologists keep a check on adult fish

Pulling string to build pyramids

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

Write your answers in boxes 8-13 your answer sheet.

Addition evidence for theory of kite lifting

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information-

Match the statements with the appropriate resolutions (Questions 34-39).

40. What is the best title for Reading Passage 157?

Population movements and genetics

i The results of the research into blood-variants

Complete the table below.

Route Period (number of years ago)

21…………… 600 to 700

Early Population Movement to the Americas

Classify the groups named in the table below as originating from

Write the correct letter. A. B or C. in boxes 22-25 on your answer sheet.

Christy Turner’s research involved the examination of ….

* aphids: small insects of a different species from ants

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

1. Ants use the same channels of communication as humans do.

Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

36 Construction of footbridges, steps and handrails

A. to suggest that projects such as MIRTP are needed in other countries

i The role of video violence

34 What were the findings of research canied out in Norway?

Literate women make better mothers?

NB You may use any letter more than once.

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

A It is better to educate mature women than young girls

i Nat all doctors are persuaded

8 Sales representatives like Kim Schaefer work to a very limited budget.

Motivating Employees under Adverse Condition

KEY POINT ONE