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Introduction To World Religions and Belief Systems PDF
Introduction To World Religions and Belief Systems PDF
Curriculum
Compliant
T H E P A D A Y O N S E R I E S
A u t h o r : N A P O L E O N M . M a b a q u ia o JR ., P h D
Project Director: RONALDO B. MACTAL, PhD
1 0 ! TABLE OF CONTENTS
Series Introduction, v
Preface, vii
| Unit )
Lesson 4\ Christianity
Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts
Section 2: Doctrines and Practices
Section 3: Denominations and Challenges
Lesson 5: Islam
Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts
Section 2: Doctrines and Practices
Section 3: Denominations and Challenges
PADAYON iii
Cs l D
R eligions O riginating in I ndia , C hina , and J apan
Chapter Hinduism and Buddhism, 137-198
Lesson 6: Hinduism
Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts
Section 2: Doctrines and Practices
Section 3: Denominations and Challenges
Lesson 7: Buddhism
Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts
Section 2: Doctrines and Practices
Section 3: Denominations and Challenges
Lesson 9\ Taoism
Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts
Section 2: Doctrines and Practices
Section 3: Denominations and Challenges
References, 277
Content Performance
LEA R N IN G OUTCOME
The unit generally aims to introduce the nature of religion and the Abrahamic
faiths consisting of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These three are generally
referred to as Abrahamic faiths or religions since they all trace their spiritual roots
to Abraham’s belief in one God. After going through the various lessons under
this unit, you are expected to come up with a reflection paper about how these
lessons have broadened your view of life and have deepened your spiritual life.
UNIT I 1
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
At this point, answer only the left column (Before Studying Unit!). Answer
the right column {After Studying Unit I) after you have studied all the lessons
in the unit.
UNIT I 5
—
T he N ature of R eligion
Overarching Question
LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES
Learning Competency
TOPICS
Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions on page 27.
This can be done individually or as a class.
CULTIVATING
; j Knowledge and Skills
ETYMOLOGY
There are at least three closely related accounts on the etymology of
the term religion. According to the first account, the term comes from a Latin
UNIT I 9
word that means “to tie or bind.” Some identify this Latin word as religare
(Palmer 2004, 14) while some identify it as religio (Saucier and Skrzypiska
2006, 1259). In any case, this etymological meaning of religion, to tie or
bind, indicates the two objectives of religion: first, to bind humanity and the
divine together; and second, to bind humans into a community that is bound
with the divine. The second account states that the term religion consists of
two Latin words, namely, re, which means “again,” and lig-, which means to
“join” or “connect” (Molloy 2010, 5). Religion, based on the combination of
these two Latin words, therefore means “to join again” or “to reconnect.” And
what is being joined again or being reconnected, in this context, is humanity
and the divine, or the human world and the sacred world. This meaning of
religion suggests that there was originally a unity between the human world
and the sacred world which was somehow lost or strained; and religion is
the way for humans to recover or reestablish that unity.
According to the third account, the word religion derives from the Latin
word relegare which literally means “to tread carefully” and which indicates
“respect and care for both the natural and supernatural worlds” (Palmer 2004,
14). This further suggests that a primary concern of religion is to provide
guidance on how humans ought to live.
It can be observed in these three etymological accounts of the meaning
of the word “religion” that religion serves as a bridge between the human
world and the sacred world. Accordingly, the etymological accounts suggest
that a higher purpose in human living is unity with the divine, and religion
provides the necessary way or guidance to accomplish this purpose.
UNIT I 11
THE KEY ELEMENTS
Though the human desire and effort to unite or reconnect with some
sacred or divine reality may be an essential feature of religion, as indicated
by its etymology and the definitions of some scholars, religion, as commonly
understood and practiced, has other important features. In identifying the
key elements of religion, two things need to be noted. First, these elements
are limited to those shared by the particular religions that we shall examine
in this textbook (Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism,
Confucianism, and Shinto). This means that there is no claim that these key
elements are final and complete, for once we include other religions, other
elements may have to be included or some of the elements in our list may
no longer be applicable. Second, not all of these key elements are essential
in the sense that not all particular religions have all of them in the same
degree. Most of these elements are shared by these religions, but some of
these elements are shared only by most of them. (For instance, while most
religions have a definite set of ethical codes, Shinto does not.) In any case,
in what follows, we shall look into the following key elements of religion:
worldview, spiritual world, sacredness, community, central stories, rituals,
ethical codes, and artistic expressions.
W orldview
Religion contains a worldview. A worldview refers to a set of beliefs that
is both coherent and comprehensive. As a coherent set of beliefs forms a
belief system, another way of saying the same is that a worldview refers
to a comprehensive belief system. First, religion consists of beliefs. Beliefs
generally refer to assertions, claims, or thoughts about things that are held
to be true. Beliefs are, strictly speaking, mental states that advance claims
or knowledge about the world, and are expressible in the form of statements
(or propositions). Examples of religious beliefs are the beliefs that humans
have immortal souls, that there is a God or gods, and that there is universal
justice in the world in which wrongdoings shall be appropriately punished
and good deeds shall be appropriately rewarded, if not in this world, in the
afterlife.
Second, a set of beliefs forms a system when these beliefs are coherent;
and they are coherent when they are consistently interrelated. Being
interrelated, the beliefs in a system influence or affect one another. For
instance, the belief that humans are free and thus are accountable for their
actions is related to the belief that there is universal justice; or the belief
S piritual W orld
Religion believes or assumes that there is a spiritual world or a
transcendent reality (see Hick’s and Robertson’s definitions of religion on
page 11), in addition to the physical, natural world that we live in. By spiritual,
we simply mean nonphysical or nonnatural. As such, the spiritual world refers
to what is sometimes also called the transcendental world or supernatural
world (by “transcendental” and “super,” we mean “outside the physical or
natural”). Being nonphysical, the spiritual world is known or accessed not by
means of scientific methods (generally the methods of sense observation and
quantification), but by other means of knowing such as visions, revelations,
and mystical (or religious) experiences. Moreover, the acceptance of its
reality or truth is not a matter of having some objective evidence or method of
verification; rather, it is a matter of having faith. Religion is therefore opposed
to materialism (sometimes also called physicalism or naturalism), which
is the belief that reality is just physical and nothing more, or that the only
real world is the world that is known through the methods of the sciences.
Depending on the particular religions being considered, the spiritual world
of religion usually includes a God, gods, souls, angels, principles (like the
law of karma), and values, among others.
UNIT I 13
We earlier noted that religion contains a worldview or a comprehensive
belief system. It shall, however, be noticed that it is not only religion that
contains a worldview. Science, some philosophies, and ideologies (like
Marxism) also contain worldviews, for they too hold a set of beliefs that are
coherent and comprehensive. One essential difference, however, between
the religious worldview and these other worldviews is that the religious
worldview includes a spiritual world.
S acredness
Religion regards certain things as sacred (on page 11, see Livingston’s,
Durkheim’s, and Clouser’s definitions of religion). The sacred is contrasted
with the ordinary, secular, or profane. While ordinary things can be used as
mere instruments to satisfy human interests, sacred things are treated with
respect or reverence. Also, the value of ah ordinary thing depends on human
interests (it is “mind-dependent”), while the value of a sacred thing does
not (it is “mind-independent”). A sacred thing either has its own (intrinsic or
inherent) value or it derives its value from association with a sacred thing
which has value on its own. In this consideration, we can distinguish between
two kinds of sacredness, which we shall call inherent sacredness and derived
sacredness. Something has inherent sacredness if it has value on its own (or
it is valuable by itself), while something has derived sacredness if its value
is derived from something that has inherent sacredness. Accordingly, we
respect the inherently sacred because it is worth respecting on its own; and
we also respect the derivatively sacred because we respect the inherently
sacred that is associated with it.
Our division of the sacred into the inherent and the derived can be gleaned
from the following remarks by Zinnbauer and Pargament (2005, 34) on the
nature of the sacred in consideration of the views of Durkheim (1915) and
Pargament and Mahoney (2002): “As stated by Durkheim (1915, 52), by
sacred things one must not understand simply those personal beings which
are called Gods or spirits; a rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood,
a house— in a word, anything can be sacred. Thus, the designation is not
limited to higher powers or imminent forces, but includes other aspects of life
that take on divine character and meaning through their association with or
representation of the holy.” These remarks indicate that the inherently sacred
are usually spiritual in nature, such as God or gods, souls, principles, and
values; while the derivatively sacred are usually physical in nature, such as
spaces (like the places of worship and the places where important events
or turning points in the development of a religion occurred—which may be a
Ethical C odes
Religions have ethical or moral codes (see Martineau’s, Durkheim’s, and
Smart’s definitions of religion on pages 10 and 11), referring to guidelines
concerning how humans ought to relate to the divine, treat one another, or
behave towards one another, God, gods, and revered teachers. In some
cases, these codes also include rules about what types of food to refrain
from eating generally, what type of clothes to wear on specific occasions,
and others. Some of these ethical codes are revealed by a God to chosen
messengers; while some are realized through a heightened form of spiritual
activity like meditation.
C ommunity
Religions have communities. A religious belief system is shared and
practiced by a community of believers (see Durkheim’s and Otto’s definitions
of religion). The community of believers usually involves an organization
consisting of a hierarchy of authorities. Each level in the hierarchy has
designated rights and duties. How people get to occupy the higher positions
vary in different religions.The ways include revelations, reincarnations, blood
relations, and election by revered members of the religious community.
S acred W ritings
Religions have sacred writings, which contain their main teachings or
doctrines, central stories, ethical codes, and prophecies. Sacred writings
are divinely inspired. Their contents are usually revealed by a God or gods
through chosen messengers. In some cases, they are arrived at by revered
teachers as realizations during spiritual activities like meditation. Sometimes
the mere recitation of passages in the sacred writings can already produce
religious effects like blessings, forgiveness, spiritual calmness, and power to
UNIT I 15
overcome sin and fear or to exorcise evil spirits. Sometimes, too, the mere
presence or sight of a sacred book is enough to produce these religious
effects.
C entral S tories
Religions have central stories. Some scholars refer to these stories as
“myths,” but due to a connotation of the term “myth” as being a story that is
purely imaginary or that is historically untrue, we shall use the (hopefully)
neutral term “story.” The central stories of religions include accounts of how
the world and the human race (or a chosen human race) began; how God
was personified or manifested in the world; how a great teacher came to a
realization of religious truths or received messages and instructions from
God, the gods, or the heavens; how the important events in the life of a
great teacher came about; and how some actions of faithful followers (like
acts of martyrdom) became worthy of emulation or sources of religious
inspiration. ^ "
R ituals
Religions have rituals (see Smart’s, Durkheim’s, and Yinger’s definitions
of religion on page 1 1 ), which include ceremonies that reenact sacred stories,
and various activities, such as songs and dances that express praise or
thanksgiving to God, gods, or a revered teacher or prophet.
A rtistic E xpressions
Religions engage in various artistic expressions for their beliefs. These
artistic expressions can be in the form of music, dance, architectural design,
sculpture, poetry, drama, and others. Many of the world-renowned artistic
works were religiously inspired.
scussion Questions
We noted that among the key elements of religion are the belief in a
spiritual reality and the sacredness of certain things. In this section, we
shall discuss concepts related to these two elements, which are important
considerations in understanding the meaning of religion. Related to the belief
in the spiritual world is the concept of spirituality, while related to sacredness
is the concept of the divine absolute. Concerning spirituality, we shall examine
how it relates to and differs from religiousness (or “religiosity”). Concerning
the divine absolute, we shall look into the nature of its existence and how it
relates to the natural or secular world.
UNIT I 17
These findings, among others, point to a difference between the concepts
of spirituality and religiousness. Some of the questions that arise, in this
consideration are: Is spirituality opposed to religiousness? Is it possible to
be religious without being spiritual? Is spirituality not an essential component
of religion such that we can have a religion without spirituality? How do we
make sense of the expressions “spiritual but not religious” and “religious but
not spiritual”? What is the role of spirituality in religion?
Zinnbauer and Pargament (2005) identify two general perspectives on
the relationship between spirituality and religiousness. Both perspectives
assume that religiousness and spirituality are not identical concepts; but while
the first perspective regards the two concepts as incompatible opposites
(or mutually exclusive, that is, they cannot go hand in hand), the second
one does not. For the first perspective, it is not possible to be religious and
spiritual at the same time. A religious person, in this regard, is not a spiritual
person, and a spiritual person is not a religious person. On the other hand,
the second perspective maintains that it is possible to be religious and
spiritual at the same time. A religious person can be a spiritual person,
and a spiritual person can be a religious person. What makes them different
or not identical is simply that one is a form or version of the other. That is,
either religiousness is a form of spirituality or spirituality is a form of
religiousness.
Analysis
The question with these two views is, are they right in separating the
substantive and the functional features of religion, as well as its institutional and
personal features? The answer, of course, is no. First, limiting religiousness
to substance alone does not explain how religion affects the personal lives of
believers or what religion does to make the lives of the believers meaningful.
On the other hand, limiting spirituality to functionality alone without any basis
on substance will not explain what makes spirituality different from other ways
of attaining unity with the divine or living a meaningful life. There are different
ways to address the existential questions of humans (questions concerning
the meaning and purpose of human existence), and what makes a spiritual
response to these questions different from nonspiritual ones must be based
on some beliefs and doctrines. The substance and functionality of religion,
in short, cannot be separated from one another.
Second, inasmuch as religiousness involves communal or organizational
activities, the end goal is still a personal relationship with the divine. The
communal activities, in certain respects, are ways by which the believers
strengthen or enhance one another’s personal relationship with the divine.
On the other hand, inasmuch as some forms of spirituality are antireligious
institutions, spirituality cannot occur in a vacuum. Spirituality exists in the
context of a tradition or culture; and so while it can be practiced individually, it
is still community-dependent. Moreover, there are also spiritual organizations
where those practicing spirituality of some form organize themselves into
groups. This implies that there is nothing contradictory in being individually
spiritual and being part of an organized group of fellow spiritual persons.
UNIT I 19
In short, we cannot separate the communal and the personal features of
religion.
Analysis
These views show that regardless of which concept is regarded as
broader, spirituality or religiousness, spirituality and religiousness can ramain
compatible with one another.The possibility that one can be spiritual without
UNIT I 21
just one God or there are many gods; and (c) relation with nature, that is,
whether God or the gods exist outside or within the natural world.
Discussion Questions
Activity
Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept
map.
Worldview relegare Rituals to tie or bind
Sacred Writings Spirituality Monotheism Religiousness
Pantheism Theism Sacredness Religion
Review Questions
UNIT I 25
KWL Chart
Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about the meaning What 1want to know about the
of religion meaning of religion
L
What 1have learned about the meaning of religion
(Write at least the five most important ones.)
Guide Question
UNIT I 27
EXPEC TED LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES
I^A ctivit^l
Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be
done individually or as a class.
CULTIVATING
Knowledge and Skills
THEOLOGY
The etym ological meaning of
the word theology— based on its
Greek origin, namely theo, which
means “God,” and logos which means
“discourse” or “study,”— is “study of
God.” Theology, however, is not just
limited to the study of the nature of
God, for it also studies in a systematic way the main doctrines of a particular
religion. In addition to the main scriptures of a particular religion, theology
often involves the study of the works of recognized theologians who are
usually believers of the religion. These theologians, through their works,
systematically explain the main doctrines of their own respective religions.
For instance, Christian theologians explain the doctrines of Christianity, and
their works constitute Christian theology. The term “theology,” though often
used to refer to Christian theology, also applies to the systematic study of
the other monotheistic religions, standardly referring to Judaism and Islam.
Hence, we also have Jewish theology (and Jewish theologians) and Islamic
theology (and Islamic theologians).
For other religions, the systematic study of their doctrines is usually
referred to as “philosophy” instead of “theology.” One obvious reason is that
the term theology implies a belief in one God but other religions may not
subscribe either to the belief in God or gods or to the belief that there is only
one God. Consequently, the systematic study of the doctrines of Buddhism
and Hinduism, for instance, are respectively called Buddhist philosophy
and Hindu philosophy, and not Buddhist theology and Hindu theology. We
also have Confucian, Taoist, and Shinto philosophies; instead of Confucian,
Taoist, and Shinto theologies.
UNIT I 29
Religious Studies and Comparative Religion
If theology focuses on a particular religion, religious studies examine the
different religions of the world. In particular, a student of theology intends
to deepen his/her understanding of a particular religion, while a student of
religious studies intends to understand the different religions of the world.
Furthermore, if theology studies a particular religion always from the inside,
religious studies study different religions mostly from the outside. This means
that a student of theology is a follower of the particular religion he/she is
studying; whereas a student of religious studies is usually not a follower of
the religions he/she is studying. For instance, a student of Christian theology
is a Christian; but a student of religious studies studying Shintoism is usually
not a Shintoist. Still another difference is that while theology limits itself to its
own internal theory of religion (its own account for its origins and functions),
religious studies considers external theories of religion (accounts of the
origins and functions of religion by other academic disciplines). On the
other hand, comparative religion refers to a branch of religious studies that
is concerned with the systematic comparison of the doctrines and practices
of two or more particular religions.
In light of these considerations, our approach in examining the different
world religions in the subsequent chapters mainly falls under religious studies.
Given this, we, however, also use other approaches especially comparative
religion and philosophy of religion—which we will discuss next.
The most influential proponent of comparative religion in the nineteenth
century was Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1900). Muller, an authority of
Sanskrit (the classical religious language of India), urged that the study
of religion should not be limited to the religions of the Mediterranean
(Christianity, Judaism, and Islam) and that the great religions of the East
should also be seriously studied. He also introduced a broad program and
methodology of comparing religions, which “included principles like gaining
knowledge of others through their own writings, grouping religions according
to their regional, linguistic contexts, and avoiding the common distortion of
comparing the positive aspects of one religion with the negative aspects
of another” (Paden 2005, 212-213). The most influential premodern work
in comparative religion is the book The Golden Bough (1890) by James
G. Frazer (1854-1941). The book is a vast collection of rituals, myths, and
religions organized by patterns and themes, which made extensive use of
sources from primitive and folk cultures (Paden 2005, 213). And the best-
known scholar of comparative religion of the last generation was Mircea
P hilosophy of R eligion
Philosophy of religion deals with philosophical issues found in religion.
These philosophical issues include, among many others, whether we can
adequately prove the existence of God, reconcile the existence of evil
with the existence of a God who is wholly good and all-powerful, reconcile
God’s omniscience (the power to know everything) and foreknowledge
(the power to know future events) with human freedom, explain the nature
of miracles, determine the meaningfulness of religious language (how
religious linguistic expressions acquire their meanings), and many others.
Philosophy of religion tries to settle issues in religion solely by means of the
human power of reasoning. This means, among others, that the philosophy
of religion justifies claims by the strength and coherence of arguments.
Some theologians also engage in philosophy of religion to show that
what is believed by faith can also be demonstrated by reason.
Two famous and highly influential Christian theologians who also engaged
in philosophy of religion were St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas. One
contribution of St. Augustine was his theory that evil is the absence of good
(which he adopted from the view of the Greek philosopher Plotinus on the
nature of light and darkness). St. Augustine used this theory to resolve the
philosophical question, “If everything comes from God, where does evil
come from?” According to him, evil exists in the world but it does not come
from God, for what only comes from God is good. The absence of good (the
moral kind) is caused by our disobedience to the will of God.
Aquinas is famous for his five proofs for the existence of God: his arguments
from causation, motion, necessity, design, and degrees of protection. Briefly,
the arguments from causation and motion claim that the series of causes and
effects, and movements in the world, must begin with God being the first cause
and mover; the argument from design claims that the intricate design of the world
cannot be attributed to mere chance but only to God as the divine intelligence;
the argument from necessity claims that there must be a God who is a necessary
being (one who has always been existing) to explain how contingent beings
(those that presently exist but previously did not) have come to exist; and the
argument from degrees of perfection claims that there must be a God whose
perfection serves as the standard for determining the degrees of qualities that
we attribute to things (like that they are good or better).
i
UNIT I 31
Psychology of Religion
Psychology, in general, is defined as the study of “psychological
and biological processes and behavior in humans and other animals”
(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013). Psychology of religion is the application
of the different psychological theories and methods to explain religious
phenomena, which include the belief in God, religious experiences and
behaviors, and spirituality. In brief, it is the study of religious phenomena in
so far as they may be understood psychologically (Merkur 2005,165).
Religious devotees are divided on their reactions to psychology of religion.
On the one hand, some view psychology of religion as a program that reduces
religious phenomena believed to be real to mere psychological phenomena.
On the other hand, some view it as a way of purifying religion from the
idolatry or worship of human-made objects. Three famous psychologists who
examined and analyzed religious phenomena psychologically were William
James, Sigmund Freud, and Carl Jung.
William James (1842-1910) focused on the psychological process that
occurs in a religious conversion, when a nonreligious person becomes
religious (Merkur 2005, 172). Some of the contributions of William James
were his distinction between institutional religion and personal religion, his
analysis of religious experiences as mystical experiences, and his pragmatic
approach to the value of religion—that the truth and value of a religious
belief for an individual depend on the beneficial effects of the belief on the
life of the individual.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was the founder of psychoanalysis, which
generally claims that our behaviors are largely controlled by our unconscious
mind which contains our repressed sexual and violent desires. Freud viewed
religion negatively. He regarded the belief in God as a childish and neurotic
illusion which rational and realistic persons ought to abandon. It is an illusion
because it is just a product of the human imagination. It is a childish illusion
for, as Freud remarked, “religion originates in the helplessness and anxiety
of childhood and early manhood” (quoted in Merkur 2005,166). Accordingly,
God is just the projected ultimate father image that helps humans deal with
their feelings of helplessness and guilt. God, in this regard, serves as a
source of security and forgiveness.
Carl Jung (1875-1961) was the founder of analytic psychology, the
name given to Jung’s psychological-therapeutic system which divides
the unconscious mind into the personal and the collective. Related to
Freud’s concept, the personal unconscious mind contains all our personal
experiences that we are not aware of (because we have suppressed them);
S ociology of R eligion
Sociology “studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes
that preserve and change them. It does this by examining the dynamics of the
constituent parts of societies such as institutions, communities, populations,
and gender, racial, or age groups” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013). Sociology
of religion, on the other hand, studies religious beliefs, practices, and
organizations using the theories and methods of the discipline of sociology.
Sociologists are primarily interested in examining the effects of religion on
society. Influential sociological theories of religion came from Karl Marx
(1818-1893), Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), and Max Weber (1864-1920).
During his time, Marx observed that the capitalists, in their pursuit of
profits, eventually exploited the workers. The goods that the workers helped
produced by means of their labor (using the materials and machines owned
by the capitalists) were sold in the market at a certain value. But what the
capitalists gave back to the workers as payment for their labor were merely
their subsistence wages that were just enough for the workers to survive.
Aside from being exploited, the workers were also dehumanized or alienated
in the workplace. For the workers to bear their miserable and unfulfilling life,
the capitalists created various belief-systems, foremost of which was religion,
for the working class to see their state as something positive and justified.
In this regard, Marx described religion as “the opium of the masses.”
Durkheim was more interested in the unifying effect of religion among
members of a society. After studying the indigenous Australians, Durkheim
claimed that the totems (sacred objects used as emblems or symbols of a
group of people, family, clan, or tribe) that the aborigines worship represented
their own conceptions of a unified group or society. Durkheim further claimed
that more complex societies had more complex religious systems, but they
were all same in that they had religions as ways of unifying their societies.
One of the significant sociological findings of Max Weber was the
significant contribution of that the Calvinist religious ideas had on the
development of the economic system of capitalism. While for Marx religion
UNIT I 33
is a creation of capitalism, for Weber it is the other way round—capitalism is
largely due to religion, more specifically, the Calvinist religion. Accordingly,
Calvinists believed in predestination, the view that God has already decided
on who will enter heaven or not. But because they wanted to know who would
eventually be saved and enter heaven, they thought that financial success
was one good indicator. The idea is that one who experiences financial
success is blessed and is thus favored by God. This idea led Calvinists to
engage in activities that would increase their wealth, paving the way for the
development of capitalism.
A nthropology of R eligion
The word “anthropology” means science of human beings or humanity.
As an academic discipline, anthropology “studies human beings in aspects
ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of Homo sapiens to the
features of society and culture that decisively distinguish humans from other
animal species.” Anthropology has two major fields: physical anthropology,
which studies the “the origin, evolution, and diversity of people,” and cultural
anthropology, which studies “culture in all of its aspects and uses the methods,
concepts, and data of archaeology, ethnography and ethnology, folklore,
and linguistics in its descriptions and analyses of the diverse peoples of the
world” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013).
Anthropology of religion, on the other hand, “explores the ways religious
practices are embedded in .. . specific forms of sociality, regimes of power,
historical struggles, and modes of production” (Lambek 2008, 5). It studies
religion in relation to other social institutions and compares religious beliefs
and practices across cultures. Most of the major thinkers recognized in this
area are also those recognized in the sociology of religion like Durkheim
and Weber. This suggests that the works of these thinkers cut across the
disciplines of sociology and anthropology. For this reason, let us examine
the ideas of another pioneering anthropologist of religion, namely Edward
Burnett Tylor (1832-1917).
Tylor, in his work Primitive Culture (1871), claimed that the essence
of religion or the minimum defining property of religion, is “the belief in
Spiritual Beings,” which he called animism. Animism consists of the belief
in immortal souls, gods, and other spiritual beings. It is present in varying
forms in the religions of the lower races up to the civilized races of mankind.
In fact, the religions of civilized races evolved from the animism of the lower
races. Tylor cited the association of morality with animism which was little
represented in the lower races but became an integral part of the religions
Discussion Question
I^Activityl
UNIT I 35
Second, “is the fact that in order to grasp the meanings and values of the
plural cultures of today’s world, we need to know something of the worldviews
which underlie them.” Meaning, the world’s religions contain the worldviews
that underlie the different cultures of the present. Therefore if we want to
understand the meanings and values of these cultures, or the practices
and behaviors of people of different cultures, we need to understand the
religions associated with these cultures. As Smart (1992, 9) remarks, “To
understand the Middle East, you need to know something about Islam, not
to mention Christianity and Judaism; and to understand Japan, you need
some insight into Buddhism, Shinto, and the Confucian heritage.” And third,
“we may as individuals be trying to form our own coherent and emotionally
satisfying picture of reality, and it is always relevant to see the great ideas
and practices of various important cultures and civilizations.” Meaning, the
different religions of the world provide different models of spirituality from
which we can learn or which we can eventually follow as we desire to improve
our own spiritual lives.
Discussion Question
Aside from your own religion, what other religion or religions are you
most interested in studying? Why?
UNIT I 37
I. Write a reflection paper on the value of religion on your personal life. In
what way has your religion helped you become a better person?
II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept
map. ■
Anthropology Practical Theology Artistic Theoretical
Philosophy James Frazer Karl Marx Psychology Sigmund Freud
Studying Religions
KWL Chart
Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about the methods and What 1want to know about the methods
value of studying religions and value of studying religions
L
What 1have learned about the methods and value of studying religions
(Write at least the five most important ones.)
Overarching Question
UNIT I 41
Morality
Liberation and
Ultimate Happiness
Practices
Denominations
Challenges
LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES
Learning Competency
r
Lesson 3. Judaism «s- Trace the origins of Judaism and identify its
sacred texts.
Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Judaism.
"3s Distinguish the different denominations of
Judaism and discuss some of its challenges.
Lesson 4. Christianity ■s- Trace the origins of Christianity and identify its
sacred texts.
is- Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Christianity.
•a- Distinguish the different denominations
of Christianity and discuss some of its
challenges.
Lesson 5. Islam •s- Trace the origins of Islam and identify its
sacred texts.
«3= Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Islam.
«*• Distinguish the different denominations of
Islam and discuss some of its challenges.
UNIT 43
JUDAISM
Guide Question
TOPICS
I^A ctivit^l
Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions on page 75.
This can be done individually or as a class.
CULTIVATING
Knowledge and Skills
UNIT I 45
In this section, we shall examine the origins and sacred texts of Judaism.
We shall begin with a short historical account of the terms “Judaism” and
“Jews.” This is intended to clarify how we shall use these terms in our
discussion. After which, we shall trace the history of Judaism and briefly
discuss the central events in the lives of Abraham and Moses. Lastly, we shall
examine the different sacred texts of Judaism, the primary and secondary
ones, and the various books that constitute the Hebrew Bible.
UNIT I 47
Abraham was the first patriarch (which originally means “father-source”)
among the three patriarchs of the Jewish people. The second was Abraham’s
son, Isaac, and the third was Isaac’s son, Jacob. Abraham was first called
Abram but he was later on called Abraham by God after God made his
covenant with him and his descendants. His wife was first called Sarai but
was later on called Sarah by God also after this covenant. Abraham lived
in Ur of the Chaldeans (in present-day Iraq). His family included Terah (his
father), Sarah (his wife), Nahor (his brother), Milcah (Nahor’s wife), and Lot
(his nephew, the son of Haran, his deceased brother).
God’s covenant was revealed to Abraham in several occasions. The first
encounter of Abraham with God was when God spoke with him in Harran
(where he was settled at the time along with his family), asking him to leave
Harran and go to Canaan to be the father
of a nation. God said to him (Gen.12:
2), “Go from your country, your people,
and your father’s household to the land
I will show you. I will make you into a
great nation, and I will bless you; I will
make your name great, and you will be
a blessing. I will bless those who bless
you, and whoever curses you I will curse;
and all the people on earth will be blessed through you.” Abraham followed
without any question and he brought with him his wife Sarah, his nephew
Lot, and all his possessions. In return for his obedience, God would make
him the father of a great nation and God would bless and protect him and
his descendants.
There was, however, one big problem. How would Abraham be the
father of a great nation when he was childless? Sarah could not conceive
a child. Abraham told God that if that were the case, his only heir would
be his servant. But God assured him that he would later on have his own
son who would be his heir, and that his descendants would be as many as
the stars in the sky. Meanwhile, Sarah urged Abraham to have a child with
her Egyptian slave or maidservant named Hagar. Hagar got pregnant with
Abraham and gave birth to a boy whom they named Ishmael. Ishmael would
later on grow to become the patriarch of the Arab nations.
God expressed his covenant again with Abraham, but this time he made
it clear that this covenant would be everlasting between him and Abraham,
along with Abraham’s descendants. As a sign of obedience for this covenant,
God required every male in the family of Abraham and his descendants in
the generations to come to be circumcised (Gen. 17:1-16). It was after this
And so Jacob became the third patriarch to whom the covenant was
passed on. Jacob had two wives, Leah and Rachel. With his two wives and
with the maidservant of each of his two wives, Jacob had a total of twelve
sons (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebelun, Issachar, Dan, Gad, Asher,
Naphtali, Joseph, and Benjamin) and one daughter named Dinah. Each of
his sons would later be the patriarch of a tribe, and their tribes would later be
UNIT I 49
known as the twelve tribes of Israel. The name “Israel” here refers to Jacob
for he was given that name, which means “he who struggles with God,” after
wrestling with a man till daybreak and overcoming him (see Gen. 32:22-29).
The man did not give his own name when Jacob asked for it, but the man
is traditionally considered to be either an angel or God himself. The man
said to Jacob: “Your name will no longer be Jacob, but Israel, because you
have struggled with God and with humans and have overcome.” And the
man blessed Jacob.
So God entered into a covenant with Abraham, and through his son
Isaac and grandson Jacob, the covenant extended to all their descendants.
God promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation,
giving them land and prosperity. In return, Abraham pledged that he and
his descendants would be loyal to God, following all of his commandments.
During the time of Abraham and his sons and grandsons, God made His
desires known to them by directly communicating with them and appearing
in their dreams. It was during the time of Moses that God gave the Jews
his commandments, which would constitute the Jews’ specific part of the
covenant.
MOSES
Moses was born during the time when the
Israelites were living in Egypt as slaves. How
did the Israelites become slaves in Egypt? It all
started when Joseph, one of Jacob’s twelve sons,
was sold as a slave by his own brothers because
they envied Joseph for being the favorite of Jacob.
Joseph was taken to Egypt by his masters. But
Joseph, because of his talent for interpreting
dreams, intelligence, and character, was well-liked
by the pharaoh and became a powerful leader in Egypt. Joseph was later on
reunited with his brothers when they, upon the advice of Jacob, travelled to
Egypt to buy grains because of food shortage in Canaan. Upon the request
of Joseph, all of his family to his brothers along with their families and his
father Jacob—settled in Egypt. Their numbers grew and they lived a good
life. But when Joseph died, things turned bad for the Israelites because they
were forced to become slaves in the Egyptian empire. When the Israelites
called on God for help, God chose Moses to lead them out of Egypt and
return them to the promised land of Canaan.
Moses was himself an Israelite but he spent the first half of his life as an
Egyptian prince. The growing population of the Israelites became a threat to
UNIT I 51
prophets (the prophets included Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, among others,
who were messengers or spokespersons of God).
T he T anakh
The sacred writings of the Jews are divided into the primary (or
foundational) and the supplementary ones. The primary ones are those found
in the Hebrew Bible (or Hebrew Scriptures), known in Hebrew as the Tanakh
(orTanak).The supplementary ones are called the Talmud (which contains
the Mishnah and Gemara) and Midrash. The Hebrew Bible is a collection of
particular books which were once separate scrolls. The word Bible, in fact,
was derived from the Greek word biblia, which means books. Thus a bible,
strictly speaking, means a collection of books. The particular books of the
Hebrew Bible are classified into three groups: (1) theTorah (TheTeachings),
(2) Nevi’im (The Prophets), and (3) Kethuvim or Ketuvim (The Writings).The
name Tanakh is actually an acronym for these three particular books. The
vowel “a” was added to the first Hebrew letter of each of the names of these
particular books, namely T-N-K. (See Molloy 2010, 292-94 and Matthews
2010, 238-39 for a discussion of the Hebrew Bible.)
T he T orah
The word Torah means “teachings and instructions.” The Torah is the set
of laws that God gave to Moses on Mount Sinai. This set of laws is believed
to have been given to Moses in two forms: the written form, known as the
Written Torah, and the oral form, known as the Oral Torah. The Written Torah
consists of 613 rules (m itzvot in Hebrew), which include the ten
commandments written on two stone tablets. The Oral Torah (which Moses
transmitted to Aaron, his brother, who in turn transmitted to his sons and
others), which supplements the Written Torah, was originally intended
toremain as an “oral tradition” and to be passed on from parent to child
throughout the generations. It was only later (fourth century BCE, after the
destruction of the second temple of Jerusalem) that the Oral Torah was
written to ensure its preservation during the times of war. What the Tanakh
contains is the Written Torah; the Oral Torah is what is contained in the
Talmud, which consists of the books of Mishnah and Gemara (previously
these books were separate until they were combined to form the Talmud).
T he N evi ’ im
The Nevi’im consists of materials from what are called former prophets
(or major prophets) and latter prophets (or minor prophets). There are in total
22 books comprising the Nevi’im. Each book is named after its respective
prophet.
T he K ethuvim
The Kethuvim consists of materials that are generally based on human
knowledge and experiences, some of which reflect Greek, Persian, and
Egyptian influences that greatly influenced the Israelites.
T he P articular B ooks
The following are the books under the three particular books of the
Tanakh.
UNIT I 53
The Tanakh generally corresponds to the Old Testament of the Christian
Bible with some minor differences in the order of the books. The name “Old
Testament,” however, is not acceptable to some Jewish scholars because of
its connotation that it is meaningful only in relation to the “New Testament.”
T he T almud
As noted above, the Talmud is a set of books consisting of the Mishnah
and Gemara, which are commentative and interpretative writings. The
Mishnah is a collection of writings that were originally oral instructions
intended to supplement the laws of the Written Torah. The Mishnah thus
refers to the Oral Torah. The Gemara, on the other hand, is a collection
of legal and ethical commentaries on the Mishnah. The Talmud has two
versions, the Babylonian Talmud and the Palestinian Talmud, produced by
the rabbis (Jewish teachers) from Babylonia and Palestine, respectively.
The Babylonian Talmud is considered the more authoritative version and
thus is what is standardly referred to when one speaks of the Talmud. The
Palestinian Talmud is considered incomplete and not clearly written.
T he Midrash
The Midrash examines the nonliteral meanings of the Tanakh. Midrash
writings are ordered around the layout of the Tanakh. They are mostly stories
that relate to words, themes, or stories in the Tanakh, which aim to make
these words, themes, or stories more understandable and applicable to a
person’s life. Sometimes a midrash changes the general understanding of
a biblical story. For example, many people familiar with the story of Adam
and Eve in the Garden of Eden will say that Eve ate an apple. The idea of
the apple came from a midrash, for in the biblical story the name of the fruit
is not mentioned.
lA ctivit^l
Watch a movie about the life of either Moses or Joseph (this can be
arranged as a class activity). After watching the movie, write a short reflection
paper about the movie.
Guide Question
The basic doctrines and practices of Judaism are mainly defined by the
Torah, which contains the commandments Moses received from God on
Mount Sinai. The most familiar among these commandments are the so-called
Ten Commandments, which are expressed in Exodus 20:1-17 as follows:
“I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of Egypt, out of the
land of slavery. You shall have no other gods before me.”
“You shall not make for yourself an image in the form of anything in
heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. You shall not
bow down to them or worship them; for I, the Lord your God, am a jealous
God, punishing the children for the sin of the parents to the third and
fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing love to a thousand
generations of those who love me and keep my commandments.”
“You shall not misuse the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord
will not hold anyone guiltless who misuses his name.”
“Remember the Sabbath day by keeping it holy. Six days you shall
labor and do all your work, but the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord
your God. On it you shall not do any work, neither you, nor your son
or daughter, nor your male or female servant, nor your animals, nor
any foreigner residing in your towns. For in six days the Lord made the
heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but he rested
on the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and
made it holy.”
“Honor your father and your mother, so that you may live long in the
land the Lord your God is giving you.”
“You shall not murder.”
“You shall not commit adultery.”
“You shall not steal.”
“You shall not give false testimony against your neighbor.”
“You shall not covet your neighbor’s house. You shall not covet your
neighbor’s wife, or his male or female servant, his ox or donkey, or
anything that belongs to your neighbor.”
UNIT I 55
3. You shall not pronounce the Holy Name of G-d needlessly.
4. Remember the Sabbath day to sanctify it, by ceasing productive
labor and dedicating it to spiritual rest.
5. Honor your father and mother.
6. Do not murder.
7. Do not commit any act of adultery.
8. Do not steal.
9. Do not testify as a false witness against your neighbor.
10. Do not covet your neighbor’s possessions.
(Note: the vowel “o” in the words referring to God and the Lord was
intentionally omitted so as to be faithful to the original Hebrew word referring
to Yahweh, namely “YHVH,” which does not contain any vowel. See discussion
below.)
The Jews, however, believe that the rules or commandments, or mitzvot
in Hebrew, that God revealed to Moses are much more than these 10 rules.
Traditionally, they believe that these commandments, all found in the Torah,
amount to 613. Accordingly, what the Jews refer to when they speak of the
“Mosaic Law” or the “Law of Moses” are not just the Ten Commandments
but the entire 613 mitzvot. The 613 mitzvot were identified and itemized by
the Jewish philosopher and rabbi and Torah scholar Moses Maimonides
(1135-1204). Maimonides’s full name was Moses ben Maimon, but he is
known in the Hebrew world as Rambam, an acronym of his title as “Rabbi
Moses ben Maimon.” Maimonides is considered to be the first person to write
a systematic code of all Jewish law which he laid down in his book Mishneh
Torah (Deming 2015, 289-90). He itemized the mitzvot as consisting of 248
positive rules and 365 negative rules (Rich 2012).
While the Ten Commandments (Aseret ha-Dibrot in Hebrew) are also
part of the 613 mitzvot, Jewish scholars refer to the 10 Commandments
as the 10 category commandments, meaning, the ten general (or generic)
rules under which the particular rules in the 613 mitzvot can be classified.
They further note that the first five of these 10 commandments, written on
the first tablet, all concern love of God (the fifth, love of mother and father is
considered under love of God for a person’s mother and father are regarded
as God’s co-creators of the person); whereas the next five, written on the
second tablet, all concern love of neighbor. In any case, based on the list
identified by Maimonides, the 613 mitzvot concern the following themes:
(1) God, (2) Torah, (3) signs and symbols, (4) prayer and blessings, (5) love
and brotherhood, (6) the poor and unfortunate, (7) treatment of Gentiles,
UNIT I 57
The following is another translation (Urubshurow 2009, 113-114):
1. The Creator is the Author and Guide of everything that exists.
2. The Creator is a Unity.
3. The Creator is not corporeal.
4. The Creator is first and last.
5. It is right to pray to the Creator, but to no other being.
6. All the words of the prophets are true.
7. The prophecy of Moses is true and he was the father (criterion) for
all prophecy.
8. The Torah now in our possession is the one given to Moses.
9. The Torah will not be changed, nor will the Creator give any other
Torah.
10. The Creator knows the deeds and thoughts of people.
11. He rewards those who keep his commandments and punishes those
who disobey.
12. Though the Messiah delays, one must constantly expect his coming.
13. The dead will be resurrected.
Monotheism
Thus the Jews believe that there is only one God, the creator of the world
and the author of the divine laws, both written and oral, which were given to
Moses. God is pure spirit and has no beginning and end. He is wholly good
and all-powerful. As there is only one God, then all praises, prayers, and
worship should be directed to him alone. God is also just, for he rewards
those who do good (those who follow his divine laws) and punish those
who do evil (those who do not follow his divine laws). The Jews refer to God
as Yahweh or YHVH. Hebrew was traditionally not written with vowels, so
the name of the Lord that is translated as “Yahweh,” which was revealed to
Moses, was originally written as “YHVH.” When Moses asked the Lord his
name so he would know what to tell the Israelites if they asked who sent
him to deliver them from slavery in Egypt, the Lord replied, “Ehyeh asher
Ehyet3' (translated as “I am who I am.”). “YHVH” and the phrase “Ehyeh
asher Ehyef’ are related in terms of their grammatical roots. It is, however,
customary for Jews never to speak the name YHVH aloud. Instead, they
use the word Adonai (meaning “Lord”) as a substitute when reading
the Hebrew scriptures. It is only the high priest of the temple of Jerusalem
who is allowed to say “YHVH” and only during the celebration of the holy
Day of Atonement.
T he Messianic A ge
Regarding the Messianic Age, the Jews believe in the coming of the
Messiah and the resurrection of the righteous dead (dead Jews who lived a
righteous life).The Messiah, from the Hebrew word mashiach which literally
means “the anointed one,” is conceived by some Jews as a human being,
not a god or a demigod, who will be a great political and military leader. They
believe he will deliver the Jews all over the world from oppression, establish
peace on earth, create a world government based in Israel, and rebuild the
Temple of Jerusalem, among others.The Jews (except those affiliated with a
form of Judaism called Messianic Judaism) do not believe that Jesus Christ
is the Messiah. Before Christ, there were in fact others who also claimed
to be the Messiah, all of whom the Jews also rejected. They also believe
that the prophet Elijah, who did not die but simply ascended to heaven, will
someday return to the world to announce the coming of the Messiah. And
when the Messiah comes, the dead Jews who faithfully obeyed God will be
resurrected and will live among those still living.
UNIT I 59
Daily P rayers
Jewish males observe three daily prayer services during the day—in the
morning, afternoon, and evening. When making their prayers either in their
home or synagogue, they must face the direction of the site of the temple in
Jerusalem. A minyan, consisting of 10 Jewish male adults, was traditionally
required for a public service or any public reading of the Torah. After the
ruling by the Rabbinical Assembly Committee in 1973, women may now be
part of the minyan if agreeable to the presiding rabbi.
UNIT I 61
Yom Kippur is the Day of Atonement and is considered the holiest day
among Jewioh i .tuals. To atone means to make up for one s faults, and this
day has traditionally been kept by prayer and strict fasting, with no food or
drink during the entire day. Yom Kippur begins around sunset of that day and
continues into the next day until nightfall, lasting about 25 hours. Observant
Jews will fast throughout Yom Kippur and many attend synagogue services
for most of the day. The ten days in between the Rosh Hashanah and the
Yom Kippur are referred to as the Ten Days of Repentance.
I^ A c tiv it^ l
Choose two stories in the Old Testament that demonstrate the Jewish
belief in one God. Write a short reflection paper on these stories.
Guide Question
A ncient D enominations
After the war with the Seleucid Greeks for about 25 years, the Jews
were divided into four groups: the Essenes, Sadducees, Pharisees, and
Zealots (see Molloy 2010, 312-313; Matthews 2010, 251-52; Urubshurow
2009, 111-112). The Essenes were ascetics (living in the mountains,
isolating themselves from the world) who engaged in mysticism and devoted
Medieval D enominations
The Medieval Forms of Judaism consisted of Karaite Judaism, Rabbinical
Judaism, Hasidism, and Mitnagdism (see De Lang 2000,67-71; Molloy 2010,
314-15; Matthews 2010, 252-58). During the ninth century, a distinction
between Karaite Judaism and Rabbanical Judaism arose. The Karaites,
followers of Karaite Judaism, revived the position of the Sadducees. They
did not accept the Oral Torah for they believed that the teachings of the
rabbis, which formed part of the Oral Torah, were subject to human errors.
For them, only the Written Torah came from God. In contrast, the Rabbanites
maintained the position of the Pharisees, who believed that both the Written
and Oral Torah came from God, and that the interpretations and teachings
of the rabbis were inspired by God. It was Rabbinical Judaism, the kind
practiced by the Rabbanites, that became the dominant form of Judaism.
UNIT I 63
Hasidism, also called Chasidism, developed in Europe around the
1700s as a reaction to the formalistic ritualism of Rabbinical Judaism and its
emphasis on the study of the Torah to get closer to God. It sought to develop
a personal spiritual life in terms of experiencing the mystical presence of
God in everything. It believed that God is present in everything (the belief
called panentheism, see Chapter 1) and that we need to experience God in
everything we do. The Hasidic movement was founded by Israel ben Eliezer
(c. 1700-1760), a mystic and faith healer. He believed that devout practice
and obedience to the laws of the Torah and Talmud should be accompanied
by a direct personal experience of God who is present everywhere. Chasidism
encountered opposition from tradition-minded Jews whose practice of
Judaism was called Mitnagdism (meaning “opponents”). At first, the disputes
between followers of Chasidism and Mitnagdism were heated but later on
they were relatively unified in opposing liberal forms of Judaism.
Modern D enominations
Nowadays, there are many Jews living in the United States. It is even
said that there are at present more Jews living in the United States than in
Israel. While in Israel the only accepted form of Judaism is what is called
Orthodox, in the United States there are three major movements: the
Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox movements (De Lang 2000, 72-83;
Molloy 2010, 330-35; Matthews 2010, 259-61). Minor movements include
Reconstructionist Judaism and Messianic Judaism.
Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism,
seeks to modernize and make Judaism and its traditions compatible with the
surrounding culture. Some of the reforms that it introduces are the use of the
vernacular language of the country (thus abandoning the use of Hebrew in
religious ceremonies), equal role of women in religious activities (women can
participate in all forms of rituals), ordination of women as rabbis, participation
of Jews in the cultural and political activities of the country in which they find
themselves, interfaith marriage, and consideration of LGBT issues. Reform
Judaism began in Germany and later on became dominant in America. In
1854, Rabbi Isaac Mayer came to America from Germany and introduced
radical reforms in the practice of Judaism. For instance, he advocated the
abandonment of dietary restrictions and other practices such as covering
the head during synagogue services.
Orthodox Judaism was a reaction to Reform Judaism. It insisted on the
old ways.The German-Hungarian rabbi Moses Sofer (1762-1839), a strong
proponent of Orthodox Judaism, once taught that “anything new is forbidden
UNIT I 65
racial group. A person who holds such an attitude is called an anti-Semite.
There are many ways in which anti-Semitism is manifested such as social
and legal discrimination, verbal attacks, and violent acts against individual
Jews or Jewish communities. The attitude of hatred results from certain
prejudices or negative beliefs about the Jews. These prejudices can be
classified socially, economically, religiously, and racially.
Social prejudice against the Jews sees Jews as “corrupting a’ given
culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred
culture with a uniform, crude, “Jewish’ culture” (see Harap 1987,76). Religious
prejudice against the Jews is directed at the religious views of Judaism.
Jews are hated for holding on to Judaism. The reasons for this hatred
can involve religious practices such as the practice of no work during the
Sabbath day or Jewish actions that have religious implications, like the belief
of some previous Christians that it was the Jews who killed Jesus Christ.
Economic prejudice against Jews perceives them to be
performing activities that are harmful to the economy
of the country in which they happen to live. Some think
that powerful Jews control the economy of a certain
country for the benefit not of the country but of the.
Jews, and that Jews are greedy and manipulative
and cheat non-Jews in business transactions. Racial
prejudice against the Jews, on the other hand, does
not concern their religion but their racial or ethnic
group. Jews, in this regard, are believed to belong
to an inferior race relative to the race of their host
country. Racial anti-Semitism culminated in the rise
of Nazism in the twentieth century. Finally, political
prejudice against the Jews is based on the belief that
Holocaust Memorial, the Jews would like to dominate the country in which
Miami Beach, Florida, they happen to live, if not the whole world itself. Jews,
USA in this regard, are seen as power seekers. These
prejudices led to persecutions of the Jews. Some of the major persecutions
were the following.
First, when the Kingdom of Judah or Judea fell under the Seleucid
Empire of Babylonia in 167 BCE, the Jews were forced to embrace the
Greek gods. Jewish practices such as the observance of the Sabbath day
and circumcision were banned and outlawed. Statues of Zeus and other
Greek gods were placed in the altar of the Temple of Jerusalem. Possession
of Jewish religious writings was considered a capital offense. Any Jew not
conforming to these forced laws was persecuted.
Z ionism
Because of the diaspora (the dispersion of the Jews outside of Israel)
and the many persecutions and acts of discrimination that the Jews suffered
as a result of anti-Semitism, they dreamed of someday going back to their
promised land, Canaan or Palestine (now Israel), and establish their own
state. This dream was translated into a movement called Zionism, after the
word “Zion” which refers either to Jerusalem itself or to the mountain on
which Jerusalem is built. There were three highlights among the series of
events that eventually led to the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948.
The first was the publication of the influential book The Jewish State
(Der Judensaat) (1896) by Theodor Herzl (1860-1904), an Austrian Jewish
journalist. It was in this book that the notion of a Jewish state was envisioned
and the need to establish it was justified. The Jews needed a homeland of their
own where they would no longer be persecuted by anti-Semites. In August
1897, Herzl organized a world congress of Zionists in Basel, Switzerland
and became the first president of the World Zionist Organization.
The second was the Balfour Declaration in 1917 in which the British
government, then in control of Palestine (then called the British Mandate
of Palestine), supported the notion of a Jewish homeland. As a result,
UNIT I 67
the British allowed a limited immigration of Jews to the territory of
Palestine.
The third was the decision of the United Nations (United Nations [UN]
Resolution 181) after World War II to divide the British Mandate of Palestine
into two states, one for the Jews and the other for the Arab residents of
Palestine (who were Muslims). After this decision, the Arab residents of
Israel have been called Palestinians, while the Jews have been called Israelis
(see Matthews 2010, 2 6 1-62 for a discussion of Zionism and the
Holocaust).
| Activity |
II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept
map.
Primary/Foundational:
1. ___________ : Torah, Nevi’im, a n d ___________
Supplementary.
2. ___________ : Mishna and Gemara
3. Midrash
1. _ 4. Afterlife
_
Doctrines 2. 13 Principles of Faith 5. Messianic Age
3. Monotheism
1. DailyPrayers 3. Circumcision
Judaism
2. _ 4. Right of Passage
Practices 3. Holidays and Festivals: Pesah, Shavu’ot, Sukot,
Ro’sh ha-Shanah, 10 Days of Repentance,
1. ___________ 3. Zionism
2. Holocaust 4. ____________
Review Questions
UNIT I 69
4. God gave his commandments t o ____________ on Mount Sinai.
a. Abraham b. Moses c. Esau
5. The primary sacred writings of the Jews, also called the Hebrew
Bible, is c a lle d ________________
a. Tanakh b. Talmud c. Torah
, 6. What is contained in the Mishnah is what was originally regarded as
the.
a. Written Torah
b. Oral Torah
c. Written and Oral Torah
7. T h e ____________ consists of materials from the former and later
prophets.
a. Torah b. Nevi’im c. Kethuvim
8. The Talmud that is considered complete and more authoritative is
th e _____________
a. Babylonian Talmud
b. Palestenian Talmud
c. Greek Talmud
9. The Jewish philosopher and rabbi and Torah scholar who itemized
the 613 mitzvot and formulated the 13 principles of the Jewish faith
w a s_____________
a. Moses Maimonides
b. Moses Sofer
c. Solomon Schecter
10. The festival o f ____________ recalls the Lord’s liberation of the
Hebrews from the bondage of the Egyptians.
a. Pesah or Passover
b. Shevu’ot or Pentecost
c. Sukkot or Booths
11. The festival o f___________ _ is a celebration of spring harvest and
God’s gift of the Torah.
a. Pesah or Passover
b. Shevu’ot or Pentecost
c. Sukkot or Booths
UNIT I 71
20. ____________ is also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive
Judaism. It seeks to modernize and make Judaism and its traditions
compatible with the surrounding culture.
a. Orthodox Judaism
b. Reform Judaism
c. Conservative Judaism
21. ____________ sees Judaism as the evolving religious civilization of
the Jewish people.
a. Orthodox Judaism
b. Reconstructionist Judaism
c. Messianic Judaism
22. ____________ believes that Jesus Christ is the Messiah that the Jews
have been waiting for while adhering to the usual Jewish religious
practices like the Shabbat and others.
a. Reform Judaism
b. Reconstructionist Judaism
c. Messianic Judaism
23. ____________ refers to the hatred toward Jews either as a religious
or racial group.
a. Anti-Semitism
b. Holocaust
c. Zionism
24. T h e ____________ refers to the systematic state-sponsored killing
of six million Jewish men, women, and children and millions of others
by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II.
a. Anti-Semitism b. Holocaust c. Zionism
25. ____________ refers to the movement whose goal was to realize the
dream of the Jews to go back to Canaan or Palestine, their promised
land, and establish their own state there.
a. Anti-Semitism b. Holocaust c. Zionism
KWL Chart
Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson.
L
What I have learned about Judaism
(Write at least the five most important ones.)
L esson. 4
s a® ss#.
CHRISTIANITY
TOPICS
lActivityl
Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions on page 106.
This can be done individually or as a class.
CULTIVATING
Knowledge and Skills
Guide Questions
UNIT I 75
live in Africa, and about 25 percent live in Latin America; Europe accounts
for another 25 percent, Asia for about 15 percent, and North America for
about 10 percent.”
On a very general level, Christianity is the religion that is based on the
teachings of Jesus Christ, and Christians are the followers of these teachings.
But what are the teachings of Jesus Christ? We shall deal with this question
in the next section. First, let us briefly describe who Jesus Christ is and
examine the holy book in which his teachings are written.
UNIT I 77
The teachings and missionary work of Jesus got him into conflict with
political and religious authorities. Some of his pronouncements and actions
(such as his proclamations that he was the only begotten Son of God who
was sent to the world to redeem mankind of their sins and that he was the
prophesized Messiah, and his different views on certain established Jewish
laws such as those concerning Sabbath and fasting) were found to be
blasphemous by the Jewish high priests. He was also considered a threat
to the stability of the control the Romans had on Israel. The Romans feared
that he might cause an uprising against them. Specifically, Pontius Pilate,
the Roman authority who presided on the case of Jesus, feared that not
giving in to the demand of some Jews to have Jesus crucified might lead to
some political unrest. All these led to Jesus’s arrest and later on to his death
through crucifixion.
The night before his arrest, Jesus had supper to celebrate the Passover
with his apostles, which came to be known as the Last Supper or the Lord’s
Supper. Three days after his death, Jesus’s tomb was found empty by his first
visitors (the three Mary’s) and he was said to have resurrected. He appeared
to his disciples and friends, and ate and communicated with them. He told the
11 disciples (Judas committed suicide after betraying Jesus) about the great
commission—they were to travel and make disciples of all nations, baptize
people in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and teach them to
obey God’s commandments. Forty days after, he ascended into heaven.
In the Acts of the Apostles, the book in the Holy Bible after the Gospels,
we see Jesus’s disciples, especially Paul and Peter, carrying out the work
of spreading his teachings to various regions outside Israel. The early
Christians suffered persecution at the hands of the Romans until the Roman
emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and made it the state religion
of the Roman Empire. Christianity then spread further and continued to do
so after the fall of the Roman Empire. Meanwhile, various scholars and
religious leaders at different stages of Christianity’s development reflected,
examined, and analyzed the teachings of Jesus, giving rise to different forms
of Christianity.
T he H oly B ible
The sacred texts of Christianity are contained in the Christian Bible,
usually referred to as the Holy Bible. The Holy Bible is divided into two parts,
which are called the Old Testament and New Testament. The Old Testament,
which was originally written in Hebrew, is basically the Hebrew Bible, the
sacred text of Judaism. It contains all the books of the Hebrew Bible with
T he G ospels
The Gospels consist of the books of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John.The
word gospel comes from the old English godspell (which in turn came from
the Greek word evangelion and Latin word evangelium), which means “good
news” or “good tidings.” The good news of the gospel is the coming Kingdom
of the Messiah, and of redemption through the life, death, and resurrection
of Jesus, the central message of Christianity. The authors of these books,
namely, Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John, who were early followers of Christ,
are referred to as the Four Evangelists. The books of Matthew, Mark, and
Luke are referred to as the Synoptic Gospels (synoptic is a Greek word
which means “having a common view”) for their close similarities in form and
content and for relying on a common source. Scholars name this hypothetical
common source as the Q Gospel, from the German quelle, meaning “source.”
It is said that the book of Mark was written first, for the books of Matthew and
UNIT I 79
Luke are said to have used the book of Mark (in addition to the Q Gospel)
as a source. The book of John is not included in the Synoptic Gospels, and
as such can be called a non-Synoptic Gospel, for its differences from the
other Gospels in terms of form and content. The book of John is said to have
separate sources (see Molloy 2010, 357-358).
The four Gospels are usually likened to different ways that artists
would represent the same object or event. The Synoptic Gospels generally
emphasize the role of Jesus as the messianic teacher and healer sent by God
or as the promised Messiah of the Old Testament. Scholars note, however,
that their intended audience are different. Matthew is primarily addressed
to the Jews, Mark to the Christians in Rome, and Luke to the Greeks. The
book of John, on the other hand, emphasizes the mystery of Jesus being
the incarnation of God, or the divine nature of Jesus being the Son of God.
It is designed to appeal to all ethnic groups.
T he Epistles
The Epistles refer to the 21 letters in the Bible. The word epistle comes
from the Greek work epistole, which means “letter” or “message.’The Epistles
expound on the great themes of God’s saving work on the cross; thus they
play a major role in the formation of doctrines throughout the development
of Christian churches. These letters were written either by an apostle (Paul,
Peter, John) or a family member of Jesus (James, Jude), except for Hebrews
whose author is unknown (it was first attributed to Paul but later experts
doubted it due to the writing style).The Epistles are divided into two classes:
the Pauline Epistles and the General (or Universal) Epistles (Molloy 2010,
360).
The Pauline Epistles, consisting of the first thirteen letters, were written
by Paul. They were addressed to individuals and particular churches and
dealt with specific issues or problems. Some of the letters were written by
Paul while in prison, so they have been called Prison Epistles. The letters
addressed to individual church leaders and dealt with ministerial matters are
called Pastoral Epistles. The General Epistles, consisting of the remaining
eight letters, were written by other apostles: one by an unknown apostle,
three by John, two by Peter, and one each by James and Jude. Written for a
general audience, these letters are sometimes also called Catholic Epistles.
21 Epistles
13 Pauline Epistles 8 General Epistles
1. Romans; 6. Philippians (Prison Epistle);
2. 1 Corinthians; 7. Colossians (Prison Epistle);
3. 2 Corinthians; 8. 1 Thessalonians;
4. Galatians; 9. 2 Thessalonians;
5. Ephesians (Prison Epistle); 10. 1 Timothy (Pastoral Epistle);
UNIT I 81
11.2 Timothy (Pastoral Epistle); 17. 2 Peter;
12. Titus (Pastoral Epistle); 18. 1 John;
13. Philemon (Prison Epistle) 19. 2 John;
14. Hebrews; 20. 3 John;
15. James; 21. Jude
16. 1 Peter;
R evelation
The book of Revelation (written around 95 CE) is the last book of the
Christian Bible. It symbolically describes how the battle between good and
evil would come to an end as revealed in visions. In particular, it symbolically
describes how the forces of evil (Satan’s army) will be finally defeated and
the Kingdom of God will finally reign in the world. It is considered an example
of apocalyptic literature, referring to writings that describe how the end of
the world would come about. The author of this book, the one narrating his
visions which he believes are revelations from Jesus Christ, names himself in
the text as “John of Patmos” (Patmos is a small Greek island in the Aegean
Sea). It is traditionally believed that this is the apostle John, the same person
who wrote the Gospel of John, but some present-day scholars doubt this,
claiming that the author, though certainly a Christian, may be a different John.
The book is divided into two parts and it is the second part (the longer
part) that contains the visions and symbolisms. The first part (Chapters
2-3) are letters to the seven Christian churches of Asia Minor (presently
referring to Turkey), and they contain moral admonitions (but no visions or
symbolisms). The said churches referred to the churches of (1) Ephesus,
which was advised to return to its first love; (2) Smyrna, which was advised
to endure persecution; (3) Pergamum, which was advised to repent; (4)
Thyatira, which was advised to remove its false prophetess; (5) Sardis, which
was advised to wake up from its sleep; (6) Philadelphia, which was advised
to continue its patient endurance; and (7) Laodicea, which was advised to
end its lukewarm faith. Though these were actual churches in the past, they
also represented seven different forms of churches throughout history.
The second part (Chapters 4-22.5) of Revelation contains the visions and
symbolisms. The symbols include the following: angels, whore of Babylon,
beast, lamb, lion, horse, horsemen, locusts, bottomless pit, star, fire, smoke,
dragon, woman, bowl, trumpets, and certain numbers (like 7,3, and 666). As
these symbols are largely unexplained in the book, scholars have different
interpretations of what they mean or are intended to mean. The book of
|^Activit^J
UNIT 83
that he cannot be divided into parts; He does not need a body to exist.); (2)
He is eternal (He is neither created nor destroyed; He has no beginning and
end); and (3) He is all-powerful (omninipotent), all-knowing (omniscient),
wholly good or benevolent, just, and caring. Unlike the monotheism of the
Jews and Muslims, the monotheism of Chrisitianity is qualified by the belief
that God has three persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God
the Holy Spirit. This belief that God has three such persons has been called
the belief in the Trinity (sometimes the Blessed or Holy Trinity). Christians
believe that there is no rational explanation for this; it is simply a mysterious
truth that is accepted as a matter of faith. One helpful way to understand
the Trinity though is to think of it as the three fundamental ways of referring
to the same God. There is just one God, but we can refer to God as the
Father (the Creator), the Son (the Savior or Messiah), and the Holy Spirit
(the power of God as experienced in human lives). The Trinity thus expresses
the personal nature of God, the three personal ways of how God is related
to humans—that He creates, saves, and empowers them.
UNIT I 85
Catholics) believe in purgatory, a temporary state in between heaven and
hell and in which people who died with minor (or venial) sins are put. They
further believe that the prayers of the living offered for the souls in purgatory
can positively affect the chances of these souls to eventually enter heaven.
A ngels
The Bible speaks of angels. Angels
are spiritual beings created by God to
serve him and help humans. Angels
have free will (this contrasts with the
Islamic view that angels do not have
free will), which means they can either
be good, (when they obey God) or bad
(when they disobey God). Bad angels,
those who have rebelled against God,
are called devils. The leader of bad angels is Satan or Lucifer. Christians
identify the serpent in Genesis, who tempted Eve to disobey God, as Satan.
Satan continues to tempt humans to disobey God, but he will eventually be
defeated during the second coming of Jesus.
On the other hand, good angels mentioned in the Bible include the angels
Gabriel and Michael. Gabriel, “the messenger” was the angel who appeared
to Mary to inform her that she would bear a son conceived by the Holy Spirit.
Michael “the archangel” (meaning, the chief angel), is the angel identified in
T he P rimacy of Love
Jesus emphasized that love should be the proper attitude towards God
and our neighbor, instead of focusing on following certain rules on how to
relate with God and our neighbor. This shows consistently in his teachings
concerning Sabbath, fasting, praying, and forgiveness, among others. When
the Pharisee asked Jesus who our neighbor is, Jesus narrated the parable of
the good Samaritan. One insight to be gathered from the parable is precisely
the difference between just following certain rules and acting out of love.
The (Jewish) priest and Levite, expected to be knowledgeable about Jewish
laws and rules, ignored the wounded person who has been robbed most
UNIT I 87
likely because they thought that helping the person was beyond their duties.
Though not specified in the story, one probable reason why they did not help
was because the wounded person might have been a Gentile— a non-Jew.
The Samaritan, though also a Jew, was not expected to be knowledgeable
about Jewish laws and rules. He helped the wounded person not because
he wanted to satisfy a rule obligating him to do so, but simply because he
felt compassion and love. To further emphasize the point, it would have been
sufficient for the Samaritan to help the wounded person by simply bandaging
the person’s wounds and pouring oil and wine on them, but he went out of
normal expectations when he brought the person to an inn, carrying him on
his donkey, then requested the innkeeper to take care of the person, and
promised the innkeeper that he would reimburse the expenses.
This same emphasis on the primacy of love in our actions was beautifully
illustrated by the apostle Paul in 1 Corinthians 13:1-7, saying: “If I speak in
the tongues of men or of angels, but do not have love, I am only a resounding
gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all
mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have faith that can move mountains, but
do not have love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and give over
my body to hardship that I may boast, but do not have love, I gain nothing.”
B aptism
B a p tis m is a ritu a l fo r m oral
purification (“washing impurities away”)
and serves as an initiation rite. A person
who undergoes it signifies his or her
commitment to repent from his or her
sins, lead a new life, and make himself
or herself ready to receive the Kingdom
of God. John the Baptist performed this
ritual for people to cleanse themselves of sins in preparation for the imminent
coming of the kingdom of heaven. At the same time, baptism is an initiation
rite as it signals one’s entry into the Christian community.
Different forms of Christianity differ on certain aspects of baptism both
in terms of how it should be done and what it does to a person. During the
early period of Christianity, baptism was done by immersing the body in
water, just like how John the Baptist did it in the river of Jordan. Some forms
of Christianity still do it in the same way, but some forms of Christianity just
L enten S eason
>
Lent refers to the 40 days of repentance and preparation for Easter—
the resurrection of Jesus from the dead. The 40 days signify the 40 days of
fasting and prayer that Jesus spent in the desert after his baptism by John
the Baptist and before his public life or Messianic ministry began. But instead
of fasting, Christians usually do abstinence or avoidance of pleasures like
the consumption of luxury foods such as meat products during this period.
Some Christians begin the season with Ash Wednesday, when priests put
ashes in the form of a cross on the foreheads of believers. The week before
Easter, which falls on a Sunday, is called the Holy Week. Some Christians
celebrate the Sunday before the Holy Week, called Palm Sunday, by waving
palm branches, recalling Jesus’s entry to Jerusalem. Holy Thursday recalls
Jesus’s last supper with his disciples, while Good Friday recalls His death
on the cross. Black Saturday is a day of quiet and prayer. Easter Sunday,
celebrated at dawn, recalls the resurrection of Jesus from the dead. Each
form of Christianity has its own way of celebrating Easter Sunday.
C hristmas
Christmas is the Christian celebration
of the birth of Jesus which takes place
on December 25 of every year. The four-
week preparation for Christmas, which
remembers the period prior to the birth
of Jesus, is called Advent. Several days
after Christmas, on January 6, Christians
celebrate the feast called the Epiphany or Three Kings, which mainly
commemorates the visit of the three wise men to baby Jesus.
O ther P ractices
Being the mother of Jesus, some Christians (the Catholics) practice
devotion to Mary. Part of this devotion is the annual celebration of her
birthday, called the feast of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which
falls on September 8. Mary is seen by these Christians as someone who can
intercede between the believers and Jesus. In addition to Mary, they also
venerate the saints, who they regard as the martyrs or heroes of the faith.
The veneration is done either individually, in which the particular birthdays of
individual saints are celebrated, or generally, in which all the saints, known
and unknown, are given honor. The general veneration, called All Saints’
Day or All Hallows’ Day, is done every November 1.
Discussion Question
Read Corinthians 13:1-13. Which passage strikes you the most and
why? Identify an experience of yours that demonstrates the meaning of
this passage.
lActivityl
1. Identify three parables of Jesus Christ that interest you most and
write a reflection paper on them.
2. Do an artwork that presents one of the following: the Apostle’s Creed,
the Lord’s Prayer, and the Beatitudes.
UNIT I 91
Bishop of Rome, called the Pope, became the central authority. When the
Roman Empire later on collapsed, the Christian church was able to maintain
much of its organizational structure. In the course of its development and
further expansion, certain doctrines and practices (pertaining both to religious
expressions and organizational management) have been established to which
some Christian groups have reacted in varying degrees. These reactions
have given rise to the different forms, sects, or denominations of Christianity,
which continue to increase in number up to this day.
Christian churches are generally divided into the Western and Eastern
Churches. The Western Churches are divided into three groups: the Catholic
(or Roman Catholic), Protestant, and nontraditional churches.The Protestant
churches include the Lutheran, Calvinist, Church of England (or Anglican),
and Sectarian churches. The Calvinist church gave rise to the Presbyterian
Church.The Sectarian churches include the Baptist, Methodist, Quaker, and
Pentecostal churches. Anglican churches refers to the church of England and
other churches. The Eastern churches, on the other hand, are divided into
two groups: the Eastern Orthodox churches and other Eastern churches.The
Eastern Orthodox churches include the Greek, Russian, Serbian, Romanian,
and Bulgarian Christian churches. The other Eastern churches include the
Armenian, Egyptian Coptic, Ethiopian Coptic, and Nestorian churches.The
following table shows these divisions in Christian churches.
Christian Churches
Eastern
Catholic Protestant Nontraditional Others
Anglican Orthodox
UNIT I 93
of the Holy Spirit. While both churches believe that the Son came from
the Father, they differ as to where the Holy Spirit came from. The Roman
Catholic Church believes that the Holy Spirit came from both the Father and
the Son, while the Eastern Orthodox Church believes that the Holy Spirit
came (or proceeded from) the Father only. In the original version of the
Nicene Creed, it was stated that the Holy Spirit came from the Father. The
Roman Catholic Church, however, later on decided to add the clause “and
the Son” (this clause is called the “Filioque clause”) to make it clear that
the Holy Spirit came from both the Father and Son. The Patriarchs of the
Eastern Orthodox churches strongly opposed the inclusion of the Filioque
clause and the manner by which it was done—that they were allegedly not
consulted (Kennedy 2011, 94-95).
Aside from a difference of belief concerning the source of the Holy
Spirit, other differences between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox
churches are the following. In celebrating the Eucharist, the Roman Catholic
Church use unleavened bread while the Eastern Orthodox Church use
leavened bread (for the Eastern Orthodox Church believed that the use
of unleavened bread is a Jewish practice during the feast of Passover). In
terms of governance, the Roman Catholic Church adheres to the Papal
Supremacy, in which the Pope, or the Bishop of Rome, is the supreme
authority among all Christians. In contrast, the Eastern Orthodox Church
adheres to the concept of Pentarchy, in which authority is shared among
the Patriarchs of Rome, C onstantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and
Jerusalem. While both Churches believe in the virgin birth of Jesus through
Mary, the Roman Catholic Church further believes in Mary’s immaculate
conception (that God spared her from original sin) and bodily assumption into
heaven which the Eastern Orthodox Church rejects (for the Eastern Orthodox
Church, Mary was chosen by God because of her purity and obedience).
The Eastern Orthodox Church also does not agree with the Roman Catholic
doctrine of the purgatory. And unlike the Roman Catholic priests, Eastern
Orthodox priests can marry; and they wear beards.
T he P rotestant C hurch
The Protestant Church developed from the movement of protest against
certain practices of the Catholic Church that was highly inspired by Martin
Luther’s publication of his Ninety-Five Theses, which he posted on the door
of the Castle Church of Wittenberg in 1517, demanding for reforms in the
Catholic Church (Molloy 2010, 383-86; Matthews 2010, 304-05). Luther
was particularly opposed to the sale and purchase of indulgences, which
UNIT I 9 5
or intended whether some people would be saved and go to heaven after
they die, or be damned and go to hell instead. Predestination follows from
God’s foreknowledge or knowledge of the future (as God is omniscient or
all-knowing, then He also knows the future); for if God already knows the
future, then He already knows who will and will not be saved.
PROTESTANT SECTARIANISM
At the heart of the Protestant movement is a principle, called the
Protestant Principle, which gives every individual the right to interpret the
Bible and critically examine Christian beliefs and practices.This principle has
resulted in the generation of many forms or sects of independent Protestant
churches (and their number is continuously growing). This division of the
Protestant Church into many independent churches resulting from the said
Protestant Principle is sometimes referred to as Protestant sectarianism
(Molloy 2010, 388-390). The differences among these churches range from
style of organization to style and focus of worship—from simple to ritualistic,
from structured to informal, from highly informative to emotional, and from
communal to highly individualistic. In what follows, let us briefly examine
some of these Protestant churches.
Methodists
Methodism began as a society within the Church of England led by John
Wesley (1703-1791) and his brother Charles (1707-1788), who were former
missionaries of the Church of England. They first wanted reforms within the
said church, but soon their followers grew in number and they established
their separate churches, which came to be called Methodist Churches.
( 'ne distinct feature of Methodist beliefs is their use of logic and reason in
understanding and interpreting matters of faith (understanding the Scripture
and God’s will and actions, among others). Methodist Churches emphasize
missionary work.
P entecostal C hurch
A distinctive feature of this movement is its belief in the baptism with
the Holy Spirit, which provides Christian spiritual gifts, including the ability
to speak in tongues and the power of healing. The movement derives its
name from the feast of Pentecost, during which the Holy Spirit descended
on the Apostles (as described in the Book of Acts of the Apostles of the
UNIT I 97
Bible), empowering them with the gift of tongue (the ability to speak many
languages) for the preaching of the gospel in various places. For this reason,
this movement is also described as Apostolic or Full Gospel.
Pentecostal Churches, however, are divided on the nature of the Holy
Trinity so they have Trinitarian and Non-Trinitarian branches. The United
Pentecostal Church International, for instance, rejects the standard idea of
the Trinity, that there are three Persons in one God. Rather it believes in the
Oneness of God, which upholds that God is a single Person who has three
manifestations: the Father (in the Old Testament), the Son (during Jesus
Christ’s ministry on earth), and the Holy Spirit (after Christ’s ascension).
T he A nglican C hurch
The Anglican Church originated in England
during the time of King Henry VIII (1491-1547).
In 1530s, King Henry VIII made himself the
Supreme Head of the Church of England and
challenged the authority of the Pope (Molloy
2010, 388; Matthews 2010, 306). King Henry
simply wanted the Pope to agree to his divorce
from his first wife, Catherine. It had nothing to
do with doctrines and practices. It was only
later that the changes that made the Anglican
King Henry VIII Church distinct from the Catholic Church were
introduced.
Anglicanism is generally regarded as a kind of middle way between
Catholicism and Protestantism. Its religious doctrines and practices are
a blend of those found in Catholicism and Protestantism. One important
contribution of this church was the publication of the King James Bible
in 1611, an English version of the Bible whose writing was sponsored by
King James I (the successor of Queen Elizabeth I). Later on, the Anglican
Church in England branched out into different forms of churches outside
of England. Majority of these churches are members of the international
group of Anglican churches called the Anglican Communion. The Anglican
Communion recognizes the Archbishop of Canterbury in England as its
leader, though not in the same way that the Pope is seen as the central
authority of the Catholic Church. For one, each of the Anglican churches is
free to decide on its own religious practices.
In addition to the Christian Bible, something common to all Anglican
churches is their use of the Book of Common Prayer, which is a collection
UNIT I 99
have other sacred texts, foremost of which is the Book of Mormon, written
by Joseph Smith, Jr. (1805-1844), the founder of the Mormon Church.
S ome C hallenges
In addition to the challenges arising from the diversity of views of many
Christian denominations, some of the issues that most Christian societies
face nowadays concern the following: (a) issues arising from the use of
modern technology in biomedicine, such as researches involving human
embryos (such as stem-cell research), the use of contraceptives, and
the practices of invitro fertilization, surrogacy, and organ transplantation
(especially in cases where the organs come from brain-dead patients and
severely damaged infants); (b) issues arising from the expanding scope of
the concept of human rights, which include the right of women to assume
leadership in churches (women as priests and pastors, for instance), the right
to same-sex marriage, the right to gender preference in one’s sexual lifestyle
(which includes homosexuality, bisexuality, sex change, and others), the
right to abortion, and the right to divorce; and (c) issues about church-state
relations, which basically come down to whether churches should meddle
with politics, which translates to endorsing candidates during elections,
and endorsing or condemning governmental policies or laws such as those
concerning death penalty and reproduction.
Discussion Questions
1. What do you think of the idea of predestination? Do you agree with it?
2. Read James 2:14-17, which talk about the relation between faith and
deeds. How do you understand these passages?
I^A ctivit^l
Review Questions
Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. The title of Jesus as the Christ is a recognition of his being the
a. Holy One b. Last Prophet c. Messiah
UNIT I 101
2. Jesus was baptized b y ___________
a. Joseph b. the High Priest c. John the Baptist
3. Jesus often preached using___________
a. parables
b. actual events as demonstrations
c. argumentation
4. The Roman emperor who converted to Christianity and made it the
state religion of the Roman Empire w a s___________
a. Marcus Aurelius
b. Constantine
c. Julius Ceasar
5. The former persecutor of Christians who later on became a great
defender and propagator of the Christian Faith w as-------------------
a. Peter c. Paul
b. John d. Ananias
6. We learn about the life of Jesus mainly from th e ___________
a. Gospels
b. Acts of the Apostles
c. Epistles
7. The ___________ are letters of the apostle Paul to the early
Christians.
a. Acts of the Apostles
b. Epistles
c. Revelation
8. T h e ___________ symbolically speaks about the Christian vision of
how in the end of time the good will eventually prevail over evil or
how the Kingdom of God will reign in the world.
a. Acts of the Apostles
b. Epistles
c. Revelation
9. Of the four books of the Gospels, the book o f ___________ is not
part of the Synoptic Gospels.
a. Matthew c. Luke
b. Mark d. John
10. The Epistles addressed to individual churches and dealt with
ministerial matters are called.
UNIT I 103
19. The leader of French Protestants who advanced the belief in
predestination w a s -----------------
a. Martin Luther c. John Knox
/ b. John Calvin
20. One central view shared by Baptists and Anabaptist is their rejection
o f__________
a. baptism c. adult baptism
b. infant baptism
21. One distinct feature of the_________ is their use of logic and reason
in understanding and interpreting matters of faith.
a. Methodist Church c. Pentecostal Church
b. Presbyterian Church
22. Their worship service involves devotional dance:
a. Quakers c. Methodists
b. Shakers
23. A distinctive feature of th e __________ is its belief in the baptism
with the Holy Spirit, which provides Christian spiritual gifts including
the ability to speak in tongues and the power of healing.
a. Methodist Church c. Pentecostal Church
b. Presbyterian Church
24. The__________originated in England during the time of King Henry
VIII, who challenged the authority of the Pope.
a. Anglican Church
b. Mormon Church
c. Church of Jehovah’s Witness
25. T h e __________does not believe in the Holy Trinity and the divinity
of Jesus, for they consider God as having only one person.
a. Anglican Church
b. Mormon Church
c. Church of Jehovah’s Witness
Explain:
1. The Christian message that a loving God sent His only begotten Son
in order to redeem humankind from eternal damnation.
2. How do the two great com m andm ents sum m arize the Ten
Commandments of Moses?
KWL Chart
Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about Christianity What 1want to know about Christianity
L
What 1have learned about Christianity
(Write at least the five most important ones.)
ISLAM
Guide Question
TOPICS
Islam Qur’an
K ey C oncepts
Muslim I®- Sunna
Abraham »» Hadith
Ishmael » Shari’ah
D®5 Hagar Tawhid
BSP Muhammad Day of Judgment and Day
B®5 Mecca of Resurrection
US’ Yathrib/Medina ^ Five Pillars of Islam
(shahadah, salat, zakat,
BS= Khadijah
sawm, and hajj)
63s Abu Talib
US3 Jihad
ES= Night of Power
Sunni and Shia Islam
US’ Kabah
Sufism
B§= Night of Journey
Kg3 Rightly guided caliphs
BS= Hijra
0®* Caliphs and imams
Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions on page 131.
This can be done individually or as a class.
Because it began only in the seventh century BCE, Islam is considered the
youngest of the major religions. But with its followers, the Muslims, constituting
almost 25 percent of the world’s population, Islam is considered the second
largest religion (Deming 2015, 390). Though earlier Muslims were Arabs,
there are actually more non-Arab Muslims today than Arab ones. According
to the estimate of Deming (2015, 390), “the nation with the largest Muslim
population is Indonesia—where almost 13 percent of all Muslims live (over
200 million according the Pew Research Center). After Indonesia comes
Pakistan (175 million), India (160 million), and Bangladesh (145 million).
Egypt and Nigeria currently tie for the fifth spot (78 million each); and Iran
UNIT I 107
and Turkey tie for the sixth spot (73 million each). Of these eight countries
only three are in the Middle East (Egypt, Iran, and Turkey) and only one is
Arab (Egypt).”
MUHAMMAD
Islam began and developed in the region of Arabia, particularly in the
cities of Mecca and Yathrib (Yathrib was later on called Medina— meaning,
“the city of the Prophet”) in the early seventh century CE. Muslims believe
that the teachings of Islam all come from God or Allah through the revelations
Muhammad (also spelled as “Mohammad” or “Mohammed”) (570-632 CE)
had. Muhammad is considered in Islam as God’s chosen messenger. In this
light, Muslims believe that Islam, in terms of its teachings, was founded by
Allah (Peters 1994,3); but as a religious tradition, Islam is widely considered
to be founded by Muhammad.
Muhammad regarded himself, and likewise by the entire Muslim world,
as the last among a series of prophets or messengers of God. Muhammad
acknowledged the personalities in the Hebrew and Christian scriptures to
whom God revealed his messages, such as Abraham, Noah, Moses, John the
Baptist, and Jesus (Muhammad and his followers regarded Jesus as a mere
prophet and not as a God as the Christians believe), as all prophets of Islam.
Being the last of the prophets, Muhammad and his followers believed that the ,
messages and instructions revealed to him by God were the final ones. In
this regard, Muslims regard Muhammad as the “Seal of the Prophets,” which
indicates that there will be no further prophets after him, and consequently,
there will be no further revelations from God after those he had.
UNIT I 109
Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE. Being orphaned at an early
age, Muhammad first lived with his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and later
on, after his grandfather died, with his uncle Abu Talib. At the age of 25,
Muhammad married a widow named Khadijah, who was then 40 years old.
Muhammad met Khadijah when he worked as a caravan driver for Khadijah,
who took over the caravan company when her first husband died. Muhammad
and Khadijah led a successful married life which only ended when Khadijah
died after 25 years of marriage. They had six children, consisting of two sons
and four daughters. The two sons unfortunately died in infancy. Among the
daughters, only one, named Fatima, survived after Muhammad’s death.
Fatima had two sons from her marriage to Muhammad’s cousin Ali ibn
Abu Talib (the son of his uncle Abu Talib), who became the fourth Caliph
of Islam and first of the twelve imams (Muslim leaders) after Muhammad’s
death. Their two sons, Hassan and Hussein, would later on be recognized
as imams (or spiritual leaders).
Wanting to deepen his spiritual life, Muhammad frequently went to the
caves in the hills surrounding Mecca to meditate. At the age of 40, while
meditating in a cave at Mount Hira in about 610 CE, he received his first
message from God through a bright presence which Muhammad identified
as the angel Gabriel. This first interaction of Muhammad with God through
the angel Gabriel has been called the “Night of Power.” Muhammad at first
doubted himself about the experience, thinking that he might have just
hallucinated. But he was later on assured by the cousin of Khadijah, named
Waraqa Ibn Nawfal, who was a believer of one God and who later on became
a Christian, that what Muhammad went through was an experience of a
prophet that was in line with the experiences of the Jewish and Christian
prophets. Muhammad would later on continue to receive messages from
God until he died on June 8, 632. Muhammad would share his religious
experiences and the messages that he received with the members of his
family and close friends (which included his wife, cousin Ali, and close friend
Abu Bakr), who became the first Muslims.
One of the important messages Muhammad received from God was
that only the One God, Allah, should be worshipped. Thus the statues of
other gods should be destroyed. This particular revelation put Muhammad in
conflict with people in power in Mecca, in particular the people who profited
from the business involved in the pilgrimage movement in the region. Mecca
was then a center of religious pilgrimage. At the center of Mecca was a
square-shaped shrine called Kabah (Kaaba or Ka’aba, which literally means
“cube”), which contained a black meteorite which was worshipped for it was
UNIT I 111
of Islam as a religious tradition, however, was Muhammad. Muhammad,
regarded by Muslims as the last prophet or messenger of God, is believed
to have received from God his final messages and instructions. Such
messages and instructions were later on written down and became the
doctrines of Islam, which constitute its holy book, the Qur’an, and bases of
its religious practices. And with the military leadership of Muhammad and
his faithful followers, the Muslims were able to overcome various obstacles
in establishing Islam in Mecca and later on spread it further to the other
regions of Arabia and beyond.
UNIT I 113
THE SH A R IA H
From the religious doctrines of the Qur’an and the Hadith, Islamic scholars
formulated the Shari’ah, which literally means “pathway to be followed” or
f‘the path leading to the watering place”—for the path to this place is the
whole way of life in the desert. Shari’ah refers to the Islamic Law or the basic
Islamic legal system. Recognized by most Muslim groups, the Shari’ah is
a system of duties, responsibilities, or rules which Muslims must follow as
a matter of religion. It covers all aspects of life such as issues arising from
one’s personal dealings with other people; matters concerning marriage
contracts; trade regulations; how to govern the state; rules for prayer, charity,
fasting, sexual intercourse, hygiene, and diet among others; and punishments
for specific crimes like theft, drinking alcohol, adultery, and murder (these
punishments include beheading, stoning, and flogging). In varying degrees,
Shari’ah serves as the basis for making legal laws in many Muslim countries
which include Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Brunei, United Arab Emirates,
Yemen, Mauritania, Qatar, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.
In sum, the primary sacred text of Islam is the Qur’an. The secondary
ones are the Hadith and the book of Shari’ah. The Qur’an contains God’s
messages to Muhammad. As Muhammad is believed to be the last prophet
(and there will not be another one), these messages are believed to be the
final messages of God to humanity. The Hadith is a written record of the
words, actions, decisions, character, and practices of Muhammad, which
constitute a perfect model for a life lived according to the teachings of the
Qur’an. The Shari’ah refers to the Islamic legal law, which was based on the
Qur’an and Hadith and was formulated to serve as specific guidelines for
Muslims in carrying out their everyday affairs or activities.
sc us s i o n Q uestions
Identify a movie depicting Muslims. How were the Muslims depicted
in the movie? Do you think they were rightly depicted in this movie? Why?
lActivityl
O neness of G od (T awhid )
At the core of Islamic faith is Tawhid, referring to the belief in the
oneness of God. The Arabic word “Allah” for God already existed even before
Muhammad received his messages from God, but the Arabs then regarded
Allah as merely one among the gods that they worshipped. Acting on the
messages that he received from God, Muhammad taught and asserted that
only Allah is God and there are no other gods aside from Allah. Allah, in
fact, embodies everything that the other gods were thought to embody. That
means Allah, the only true God, has all the powers attributed to the other
gods, such as the powers to help humans deal with their problems, forgive,
and send rains, among others.The Qur’an particularly notes that God, being
one, cannot have a father and a son, indicating Islam’s nonacceptance of
the Christian doctrine of the Holy Trinity.
Aside from the word “Allah,” Muslims call God by other names (it is
said that Muslims have 99 names for God), each name indicating a specific
divine power. These names include the following: the Most Compassionate
(ar-Rahmn), the Merciful (ar-Rahm), the All-Peaceful, (as-Salm), the
Forgiver (al-Ghaffr), the Gentle, Knower of Subtleties (al-Latf), the Grateful
(ash-Shakr), the Responsive (al-Mujb), the Praiseworthy (al-Hamd), the
Cause of Death (al-Mumt), the Light (an-Nr), and the Patient One (as-
Sabi) (Urubshurow 2009, 199-200). The attributes of God as indicated in
these names suggest that the Allah of Muslims is a personal God, one who
cares about the affairs and welfare of humans.
T he A fterlife
Like the Jews and Christians, Muslims believe in an afterlife and in the Day
of Resurrection and Day of Judgment. A day will come when dead humans
will be resurrected and will be judged by God according to their deeds on
whether they deserve eternal happiness or suffering. In this connection,
Muslims also believe in heaven or paradise (Jannah), a place of eternal
happiness where good people (people who submit to God’s will) are put
by God; and hell (Jahannam), a place of suffering where evil people (those
who do not submit to God’s will) are put by God.
UNIT I 115
A ngels and J inn
Muslims also believe in angels and jinn (the singular is jinnie, djinnie, or
genie), who are spiritual beings created by God. The angels are believed to
have been created by God from light.They do not have free will, and so they
are not accountable for their actions and are neither good nor evil. They act
as messengers of God to the prophets, who in turn are God’s messengers
to the people. For instance, Muhammad received his messages from God
through the angel Gabriel. Angels also keep a record of the good and bad
actions of humans. It is believed that two angels are assigned to each human
being upon birth to record the good and bad actions of the human being and
report them back to God on the Day of Judgment.
On the other hand, jinn are believed to have been created by God from
smokeless and scorching fire. Unlike angels, jinn have free will and thus
are morally accountable for their actions and are either good or evil. For
this reason, like humans, jinn will also be judged on the Day of Judgment
and will be sent either to heaven/paradise or hell. When God ordered the
angels and jinn to bow down to Adam, the first human, a jinnie called Satan
refused to do so. As a result, God banished Satan from Paradise. Satan
and his followers continue to disobey God by tempting humans not to obey
God’s commands. An example is Satan’s temptation of Abraham to disobey
God’s command to offer his son as a sacrifice.
THE PROPHETS
As already noted, Muslims believe in prophets or messengers of God.
God speaks to the people through the prophets. Muslims recognize many
of the prophets recognized by the Jews and Christians though they appear
in the Qur’an in their Arabic names. These include Adam (Adem), the first
prophet, Abraham (Ibrahim), Ishmael (lsm‘l), Noah (Nu), Moses (Musa),
Elisha (Alyasa), David (Dawid), John the Baptist (Yahya), Jesus (Isa), and
Muhammad. Jesus, as earlier noted, is recognized as a prophet and not as
a god. Muhammad, as also previously mentioned, is regarded as the last of
the prophets (Peters 1994, 185-189).
UNIT I 117
(1) before dawn, (2) at midday/noon, (3) mid-afternoon, (4) sunset,
and (5) nighttime. They are intended to focus the mind on God,
express gratitude to God, and worship him. The prayers are recited
from memory in Arabic, and they consist of verses from the Qur’an
' and other prayer formulas. They are also accompanied by several
body postures: standing, bowing, prostrating, and sitting (exceptions
are given to those physically incapable of performing these postures).
Prayers are done facing the direction of Mecca (they were earlier done
facing the direction of Jerusalem until later revelations to Muhammad
changed the direction to Mecca).
A person called a muezzin usually announces the times for prayer
from the top of a tower called a minaret. Nowadays, calls to prayer
are recorded and are played over loudspeakers. A purification ritual,
particularly a ritual washing called wudu, is done before performing
the prayers. It consists of washing certain body parts with water
(or with sand if water is unavailable). Prayers may be done almost
everywhere, such as at homes, offices, universities, and fields, or at
mosques, except on Fridays, the day of public prayer, during which
prayers are done at mosques at midday in most Muslim countries
(the day of public prayer used to be Saturday following the Jewish
Sabbath until it was changed to Friday in accordance to a message
received by Muhammad from God). Public prayers are usually done
by men only at a mosque. Women ordinarily pray at home, but when
they are allowed to pray at a mosque, they are separated from the
men.
UNIT I 119
associated with Allah and his prophets, such as the Kabah (believed
to have been built by Abraham and Ishmael) which houses the
black meteorite (believed to have been sent by God through
Angel Gabriel), and the places where Hagar and Ishmael drew
* water while travelling across the desert, and where Abraham offered
Ishmael as a sacrifice to God (this contrasts to the Jewish and
Christian account in which it was Isaac who Abraham offered to God
as a sacrifice).
A Muslim male who has undertaken the journey to Mecca is
called a hajji(male pilgrim), while a Muslim female who has done the
same is called a hajjiyah (a female pilgrim). Being a hajji or a hajjiyah
confers prestige to a Muslim. It must be noted however that Muslims
distinguish between this annual required pilgrimage to Mecca, called
the “greater pilgrimage,” and the voluntary pilgrimage to Mecca which
can be done at other times of the year, called the “lesser pilgrimage.”
Pilgrims, both men and women, refrain from certain actions like sex
and violence. Men wear a special clothing called the robe of Abraham,
which consists of two pieces of white, seamless cloth. Though there
is no required clothing for women, they usually dress in white and
they do not veil their faces during the pilgrimage.
T he J ihad
Though not officially a pillar, the important Islamic principle called the
jihad—which literally means “struggle"— is sometimes referred to by some
Muslims as the sixth pillar. Nowadays, most non-Muslims understand jihad
as a military warfare or battle of Muslims against non-Muslims. Muhammad
and his followers did engage in military warfare against non-Muslims when
they went back to Mecca from Medina, so jihad does include the meaning
of physical struggle to defend Islam. But jihad is not limited to this. It also
means psychological, spiritual, and moral struggle to overcome the evils
^ A c tiv ity !
UNIT I 121
DENOMINATIONS AND CHALLENGES
Guide Questions
What are the denominations of Islam? What are some of its major
challenges?
Just like other world religions, Islam has many sects or denominations.
In this section, we shall look into the three major ones: Sunni Islam, Shia/
Shiite Islam, and Sufi Islam.
T he I ssue of S uccession
When Muhammad died, there was a disagreement over who should be
his rightful successor. Some felt that it should be someone elected by the
Islamic community and has the moral authority to be its leader (being a devout
Muslim), while some felt that it should be a direct descendant or someone
in the bloodline of Muhammad. Muhammad, however, did not have a living
son when he died (his two sons from his first wife both died in infancy and
apparently he did not have a son from his other wives as well). Though Abu
Bakr was the father-in-law of Muhammad, being the father of Muhammad’s
youngest wife Aisha, he was not an immediate family or a blood relative of
Muhammad. It was only Ali who was a blood relative of Muhammad. He was
the prophet’s first cousin, as he was the son of Muhammad’s uncle, Abu
Talib. Ali later on became Muhammad’s son-in-law for being the husband of
UNIT I 123
“Twelvers”) claims there are twelve; another group (the “Seveners”) claims
there are seven; and still another group (the “Fivers”) claims that there are
only five.
When Uthman, the third caliph, was murdered, Ali became the fourth
caliph. The governor of Syria, Muawiyah (from the Umayyad dynasty),
challenged the authority of Ali. Muawiyah, a cousin of Uthman, was
disappointed in the inability of Ali to bring the murderers of Uthman (later
on believed to be supporters of Ali) to justice. After wars between the forces
of Ali and Muawiyah were fought, Ali submitted to a peaceful process of
settling his dispute with Muawiyah. However during the said process, Ali
was assassinated. Ali’s son Hassan succeeded Ali as the next caliph, but his
reign was short. To avoid civil war and further bloodshed with the troops of
Muawiyah, Hassan gave up his leadership to Muawiyah. Hassan, however,
did this on the condition that Muawiyah would not appoint a successor and
let the Islamic world decide who the next caliph after Muawiyah’s reign would
end. It is said that Hassan and Muawiyah thus entered into a treaty in this
regard. Hassan later on died, believed to have been poisoned by the men
of Muawiya. Before Muawiyah’s death, he appointed his son Yazid to be his
successor, and so Yazid became the next caliph. Meanwhile, Ali’s other son
Hussein refused to recognize the authority of Yazid for it violated the alleged
treaty between Muawiyah and Hassan. Furthermore, Hussein decided to
assert his right to the caliphate, being the son of Ali. In one of the battles
between the forces of Hussein and Yazid, particularly in Karbala (modern
Iraq), Hussein was killed along with the members of his family.
As the forces that killed Hussein were identified with the Sunnis, the
killing of Hussein heightened the conflict and division between the Sunnis
and the Shiites. The death of Hussein is regarded by the Shiites as a heroic
act of martyrdom (fighting for his God-given right to the caliphate) and has
been regularly reenacted by the Shiites as part of their religious rituals.
Hussein’s martyrdom, in particular, is remembered annually during the month
of Muharram. The Shiites’ veneration of Hussein, along with his father Ali,
constitutes one major difference in the religious rituals of the Sunnis and
the Shiites.
T he S ufis
Sufism is the mystical version of Islam. It is called Tasawwuf (literally,
“to dress in wool”) in Arabic. The term “Sufism” comes from the Arabic word
suf, which means “wool,” the material that makes up the garments worn by
Sufi ascetics.
UNIT I 125
Sufis believe that God’s presence can be felt anywhere, in every aspect
of nature. In this regard, they allude to certain verses of the Qur’an like
“Whithersoever you turn, there is the Face of God” (Sura 2: 109) and God
is “closer than your neck vein” (Sura 50:8). Also a common practice among
Sufis is the visitation or pilgrimages to the tombs of Islamic saints, great
scholars, and righteous people to seek spiritual guidance and ask blessings
from their spirits.
Sufism contributed significantly to the development of Islamic literature,
especially in the area of poetry. Using their own languages and blending
Islamic themes with inherited popular stories or legends, the Sufi poets
contributed to the development of regional and national literature. The
great Sufi poets include Omar Khayyam, Rumi, Kabir, Hafiz, Attar, Rabia al
Basri, Yunus Emre, Bibi Hayati, and Bulleh Shah. Sufi poetry is known for
expressing divine love and describing the mystical union of the soul with
God using metaphors of secular love and union with the beloved. Following
are some samples of these charming poems (all taken from Poet Seers,
Sufi Poets. Online: <http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual-and-devotional-poets/
sufi-poets/>).
From Rumi:
I was dead, then alive.
Weeping, then laughing.
The power of love came into me,
and I became fierce like a lion,
then tender like the evening star.
From Hafiz:
I have enough of loss, enough of gain;
I have my Love, what more can I obtain?
S ome C hallenges
What are some of the challenges facing Islam in the world today? The
Jews are still troubled by the Israeli-Arab wars. The Muslims, on the other
hand, are still troubled by their internal wars, particularly between the
Sunnis and the Shiites, and between mainstream Islam and Sufism. Islam
has also been associated with some terrorist acts, whether rightly or
wrongly. Another challenge concerns how women are treated in Islam.
While outsiders may see that Muslim women are not enjoying the rights that
they deserve or are entitled to, insiders generally see that the Islamic laws
and practices pertaining to women are precisely intended to protect women
from being corrupted by the undesirable ways of the world, especially those
of the West (see Matthews 2010 346-51 for additional discussion on
the challenges of Islam in the modern world).
SCUSSION iESTIONS
Which do you think has the better view on how Muhammad’s successor
should be chosen, the Sunnis or the Shiites? Why?
I^ A c tivity l
UNIT I 127
II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept
map.
Islam
Review Questions
Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
UNIT I 129
12. The Muslims’ prayer done on a daily basis is referred to in Arabic
a s -----------------
a. salat c. zakat
b. shahadah d. jihad
13. T h e _________ means struggle and it is sometimes referred to as
the sixth pillar of Islam.
a. salat c. jihad
b. zakat d. sawm
14. Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and AN are known in the Muslim world as
th e __________
a. four venerable imams c. four most loyal Muslims
b. rightly guided caliphs
15. T h e _________ believe that a caliph should be elected by the
community.
a. Sunnis c. Sufis
b. Shiites
16. T h e _________ believe that only a descendant or blood relative of
Muhammad could be his successor.
a. Sunnis c. Sufis
b. Shiites
17. _________ refers to mystical Islam.
a. Sunni Islam c. Sufism
b. Shia Islam
18. His death isregarded by the Shiites as a heroic act of martyrdom
a. Hassan c. AN
b. Hussein
19. The Shiites call their religious leaders__________
a. caliphs c. Prophets
b. imams
20. The Muslim belief in the oneness of God is called.
a. Sawm
b. Jannah
c. Tawhid
K W
What 1know about Islam What 1want to know about Islam
L
What 1have learned about Islam
(Write at least the five most important ones.)
St
UNIT I 131
It HJ
R eligions^ O riginating m I n d ia .
Ch in a ,
*« # - * * * * <* #
amt J apan
•*. 4, # * * * *■ # J * 4 # * * #
Overarching Questions
Content Performance
LEA R N IN G OUTCOME
UNIT II 133
LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES
At this point, answer only the left column (Before Studying Unit II).
Answer the right column (After Studying Unit II) after you have studied all
the lessons in the unit.
UNIT II 135
13. Confucianism appeals to the “Mandate of
Heaven” in explaining the origin of things
and in judging what ought to happen or
be done in the world.
14. Confucianism conceives of an ideal
person, described as a noble person
or a gentleman, who is educated,
virtuous, appreciative of the arts, and
knowledgeable of rituals and ceremonies.
15. The authoritative books of Confucianism
were used as the bases for civil service
examinations in China for a long period
of time.
16. Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu are the two
important Taoist thinkers/philosophers.
17. Taoism teaches that the ultimate principle
of reality, called the Tao, cannot be
spoken.
18. Taoism teaches the principle of acting
without actions (wu-wei) as a way to go
with the natural flow of nature.
19. Taoism believes that nature leads to
the harmony of opposite forces (yin and
yang).
20. Taoism engages in alchemy to achieve
immortality.
21. The practices of Tai Chi and Feng Shui
have Taoist bases.
22. Shinto originated in Japan.
23. Shinto believes in spirits, called kami,
inhabiting nature.
24. Japanese emperors were regarded as
gods in Shinto.
25. Places of worship in Shinto are called
shrines.
H induism
i - i;
and
i
B uddhism
Overarching Question
What are the main features of Hinduism and Buddhism in terms of their
origin, sacred texts, doctrines, practices, denominations, and challenges?
Founder(s).
Sacred Texts
The Absolute
Morality
UNIT II 137
Practices
Denominations
Challenges^
LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES
Learning Competency
HINDUISM
Guide Question
TOPICS
UNIT II 139
EXPEC TED LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES
|^Activityl
Fill in the K W L Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be
done individually or as a class.
CULTIVATING
Knowledge and Skills
UNIT II 141
in the Vedas. The Vedas, in this regard, might have been written by the
Aryans only or by both the Aryans and Dravidians. In any case, the origins of
Hinduism, in this consideration, cannot be traced exclusively to the religious
beliefs and practices of the Aryans (Matthews 2010, 65-66 and History of
Hinduism fn Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004). The fact is that it is generally
not known who really wrote the Vedas. For this reason, unlike other world
religions, the specific founders of Hinduism are unknown.
Like most world religions, Hinduism does not refer to a particular set of
religious beliefs shared by all Hindus. Hinduism refers to a family of religions
that are native to India, are based on the Vedic traditions, and share certain
doctrines in varying degrees. (We shall examine these doctrines in the next
section.) The Hindus in fact did not originally use the word Hinduism to refer
to their own religious views. The word was previously an “outsider’s term,”
used as a convenient term by non-Hindu scholars studying the religious
views of Hindus. Early Hindus, especially their scholars, referred to their
own religious beliefs as Sanatana Dharma (meaning, “eternal law”). While
this was the case, most Hindus, however, later on adopted the outsider’s
term “Hinduism” to refer to their own religious beliefs (see Jacobs 2010, 6).
T he F our V edas
The term Vedas, which means “wisdom” or “knowledge,” refers to the
writings about the attainment of wisdom or knowledge of the true nature
of reality, which is regarded as a necessary condition for overcoming the
suffering in this world. The Vedas consists of four basic sacred texts— Rig
Veda, Yayur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda.
The Rig Veda (written around 1500 BCE), the “wisdom of the verses” or
“hymn knowledge,” is considered the most important and the oldest of the
Vedas. It is a collection of chants and rituals used to honor various gods
and goddesses who are called the Vedic deities. Some of these gods and
goddesses are: Indra (the chief of the gods; the god of storms and monsoons),
Agni (the god of sacrificial fire), Vac (the goddess of communication), Soma
(the god of intoxication manifested in plants), Surya (the sun god), Varuna
(the god of the sky; the guardian of the cosmic order), Mitra (the god of faith
keeping and loyalty), and Rita (the god of order and principles) (Matthews
2010, 69-71).
The later Vedas (written around 1000 BCE) are generally elaborations of
the verses and rituals of the Rig Veda. The Yayur Veda, the “wisdom of the
sacrificial formulas” or “ceremonial knowledge,” is a collection of materials
recited during sacrificial ceremonies and ritual activities. The Sama Veda,
the “wisdom of the chants” or “chant knowledge,” is a collection of musical
expressions of the verses from the Rig Veda. The Atharva Veda, the “wisdom
of the Atharvan priests,” is a collection of practical prayers and magical
prayers for specific purposes, like spells for a long life, curses, love charms,
prayers for prosperity, and others.
UNIT II 143
the mantras, as well as instructions on how to properly perform the rituals
associated with these mantras. The Aranyakas (aranya means “forest”
so Aranyakas means “Books of the Forests” or “Forest Books”) contain
discussions about practices developed by the hermits or ascetics living in
forests. These practices were intended to serve as substitutes for conventional
ceremonies and rituals which cannot be done (or are not practical to
perform) in the forests. The Aranyakas facilitated the transition from the
standard rituals and ceremonies found in the Samhitas and Brahmanas to
the philosophical and spiritual interpretation of these rituals and ceremonies
found in the Upanishads. Finally, the Upanishads (also called the Vedanta)
are the concluding sections of the Vedas. They are the philosophical parts
of the Vedas as they deeply discuss the major Hindu doctrines such as
those concerning Brahman, Atman, moksha, maya, karma, and samsara
(we shall explain these concepts in the next section). The discussions in
the Upanishads are mostly in the form of a dialogue between a master (or
an enlightened guru) and a disciple. It is believed that traditionally there are
108 ancient and original Upanishads, but some scholars believe that some
have been added later on. Jacobs (2010,12) represents the structure of the
Vedas in terms of its four parts as follows:
Samhitas
Brahmanas
Aranyakas
Upanishads
“It is possible to fill in all of the empty cells with names of particular
compositions; however for our purposes, it is not necessary,” clarifies Jacobs
( 2010 , 120).
UNIT II 145
The Mahabharata. For its deep reflection on the concept of dharma, some
Hindus regard the Mahabharata as the “fifth Veda.” The term Mahabharata
literally means “the great story of the Bharatas.” Bharatas is the name of the
clan or dynasty of the main characters in the story (as Bharatas was their
early ancestor). The word “Bharatas,” however, is also generally used to
refer to the Indian race, and so Mahabharata is sometimes also understood
as “the great story of India.”
The Mahabharata, believed to have been composed between 300 BCE
and 300 CE by the Hindu sage Vyasa, is regarded as one of the longest
epic poem in world literature. It is approximately eight times as long as
Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, and three times as long as the Bible. The story
is mainly about a great war between two groups of paternal first cousins (or
more particularly, between the sons of two brothers, Pandu and Dhritarasta)
over who should have control over their kingdom. Within the main story,
however, are so many substories. Pandu’s five sons (Yudhisthira, Bhima,
Arjuna, and the twins Nakula and Sahadeva) are collectively called the
Pandavas. On the other hand, Dhritarasta’s 100 sons are collectively called
the Kauravas.The Pandavas, who are actually sons of gods (as the two wives
of Pandu were fathered not by him, but by certain gods), are the heroes,
while the Kauravas are their enemies and the villains in the story. Though
the Pandavas eventually win the war against the Kauravas and Yudhisthira
(one of the Pandava brothers) becomes the king, Yudhisthira, however, is
deeply troubled by the killings brought about by the war, especially since
these killings involve his relatives.
The Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita
(which literally means the “Song of the Lord”
or the “Song of the Divine One”) consists of
700 verses and is part of the Mahabharata
(Book 6).The Gita, as it is conveniently called,
is considered to be the most important part
of the Mahabharata from a religious and
philosophical perspective, for it is in this
part where the religious and philosophical
concepts of Hinduism are mainly tackled.
The Bhagavad Gita is basically a dialogue between the Pandava prince
Arjuna and his guide and charioteer Krishna (who is actually an incarnation
of the Hindu supreme god Vishnu) before the start of the Kurukshetra War,
the final battle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. This dialogue is
brought about by Arjuna’s doubts about whether or not to go on with the war.
Arjuna is deeply affected by this moral dilemma: while he recognizes that
1. Recall the moral dilemma of Arjuna in the Gita. If you were the one
consulted by Arjuna, what would be your advice and how would you
justify your advice?
2. Recall the story of the Ramayana. Suppose that you were Rama and
that Sita was not able to prove that she remained pure after being held
captive by Ravana. What would be your reaction? Will your love for her
change? Will you still make her your queen?
lActivityl
UNIT II 147
let us examine some of these descriptions in three pairs: that Brahman is
one and undivided, unchanging and eternal, and spiritual and necessary.
First, Brahman is one in that there is no other reality other than Brahman,
and it is undivided in that it has no parts. Second, Brahman is unchanging
in that it is not Subject to space and time, and it is eternal in that it has no
beginning and end. Third, Brahman is spiritual in that it is non-material and
is therefore not subject to physical laws, and it is necessary in that it is not
possible for it not to have existed.
If Brahman is the essence of everything, then the essence of human
individuals must also be Brahman. The essence of a human individual is
traditionally called his/her soul or self, which accounts for the unchanging
and spiritual features of his/her identity. Hindus call this essence of human
individuals Atman. Atman is thus Brahman conceived in the context of
human individuals.The reality is that Atman is not distinct and separate from
Brahman. Atman is Brahman. The concept of Atman arises only when we
are talking about Brahman in the context of human individuals. However,
humans are usually inclined to think of themselves as having a separate and
distinct essence (soul or self) from Brahman, primarily because of egoism
or the strong desire to be in control of their actions and thoughts. It is this
thought of separation from the essence and ground of all things that is the
main source of human sufferings. Consequently, it is what must be overcome
to put an end to human suffering. The ultimate Hindu goal is the unity of
Atman with Brahman (Molloy 2010, 84-85).
UNIT II 149
is the opposite of how we experience and know the world, how the world
presents itself to us is an illusion. An illusion is a misleading image, when
something appears not in its true nature, as, for instance, when a straight
stick appears bent when inside a glass of water, or as when one sees a
pool of water in a desert when there is really none (a mirage). In the same
way, as the world appears to us not in its real nature, not as Brahman, the
world (as we experience it) is an illusion; and we are under the influence, or
spell, of maya.This illusion includes experiencing our self as the body and
as something separate from everything else. Moksha, on the other hand,
is the liberation or release from the state or influence of maya. We achieve
moksha when we experience the world as Brahman, or as one, undivided,
unchanging, and spiritual reality. What is it like to achieve moksha? If living
in the state of maya is suffering, then moksha is freedom from suffering. And
so moksha, for the Hindus, is the ultimate human goal. It is what we should
ultimately all strive for (Molloy 2010, 86-88).
UNIT II 151
Klostermaier 2007,13 and Jacobs 2010,61 -62). The Dalits work as manual
laborers, doing the dirtiest work possible for an Indian, such as cleaning
the streets, latrines, and sewers. They normally could not fully participate in
Indian social life. For instance, they are prohibited from living within a village
and entering a temple or school. People of other castes usually see them as
unclean, both spiritually and physically, and thus avoid any contact with them.
Ashram. The Hindus identify four stages or ashrams of life, each of which
has its specific duties. Though nowadays only a few Hindus strictly follow all
these four ashrams, they remain the ideal stages for the Hindus to go through
in their lives. The first is the Brachmanchari Ashram or the student stage of
life (from birth to around 21 years of age). At this stage, one is expected to
be pure (that is, celibate), live a simple life, serve a guru or spiritual teacher,
study the Vedas, and build good character traits. The second is the Grahasta
Ashram or the household stage of life (approximately from 21 to 42 years
of age). At this stage, one is expected to build a family, provide for one’s
family, protect and nourish family members, raise children with spiritual
values, and give to charity. The third is the Vanaprashta Ashram or the retired
stage of life (approximately from 42 to 63 years of age). At this stage, one is
expected to devote more time to spiritual matters which include going on a
pilgrimage, observing moral strictness, and undergoing penance. The fourth
is the Sannyasa Ashram or the renounced stage of life (approximately from
63 to 84 plus years of age). At this stage, one is expected to be detached
and retreat from worldly goals and focus on deepening one’s spirituality by
focusing one’s mind on God.
Purushartha. Hinduism identifies four basic human aims or purposes
of life, which are collectively called Purushartha. The first is dharma, which
refers to virtuous living or living according to duties, rights, and laws. The
term “dharma” is also used to refer to moral duties themselves. One’s dharma
or moral duties are determined by one’s caste and stage of life. They must
be performed selflessly, that is, without attachment to their consequences.
The second is artha, which refers to economic security or the active pursuit
of wealth and career to achieve financial security or material success. The
third is kama, which refers to enjoyment or the active pursuit of pleasure,
which can be physical, emotional (love and affection), or sexual. The fourth
is moksha, which refers to the liberation of the self from maya (illusion) or
freedom from samsara (the cycle of birth, life, and death). In cases of conflict
among these basic human aims, they are prioritized in the following way,
the first being the most valuable: first, moksha; second, dharma; third, artha;
and fourth, kama. This means moksha should be prioritized over dharma;
moksha or dharma should be prioritized over artha; and moksha, dharma,
T he F our Y ogas
The Sanskrit word yoga literally means
“union.” In the context in which it was
introduced, in the Bhagavad Gita, the term
particularly means “union with the divine” or
“union with Brahman.” Furthermore, since
the various types of yoga speak of different
paths to achieve the said union, the term
“yoga” has come to be understood also as
“path.”
There are four main types of yoga. The
first is Karma Yoga, also called Dharma Yoga,
or the Path of Action. This is the path taken
by those (especially the Vaishyas) who intend to achieve moksha or unity
with Brahman by performing actions that are in accordance to their dharma
or moral duties, or more simply, by fulfilling their roles in life to the best of
their abilities. An important aspect of this yoga is the fulfilment of one’s
duties or dharma dispassionately or without focusing on the outcome. The
second is Bhakti Yoga or the Path of Devotion. This is the path most Hindus
take (especially the Shudras and Dalits). It is taken by those who intend to
achieve moksha or unity with Brahman through dedicated worship of a god
or gods by various means such as saying prayers, offering sacrifices and
flowers, dancing, and singing hymns. The third is Jnana Yoga or the Path of
Knowledge. This is the path taken by those (especially the Brahmins) who
intend to achieve moksha or unity with Brahman by deeply exploring the
nature of reality through a serious study of the sacred texts. Practitioners of
this yoga focus less on worship and more on philosophical study, the ultimate
objective of which is to achieve an understanding of the connectedness
of Atman with Brahman. The fourth and last is Raja Yoga or the Path of
Meditation.This is the path taken by those (especially the hermits) who intend
to achieve unity with Brahman by managing one’s mind or thoughts through
various meditative techniques. This is related to Jnana Yoga, which intends
UNIT II 153
to achieve knowledge of Brahman and the unity of Atman and Brahman
through studies and philosophical thinking. Raja Yoga also intends to achieve
this but through sudden realization resulting from meditation. They have the
same goal but different means.
The first three yogas are discussed in the Bhagavad Gita, while the fourth
(the Raja Yoga) is discussed in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (one of smriti
Hindu sacred texts). Each of these four kinds of yoga caters to a disposition
of a person—whether he/she is a person of action, devotion, knowledge,
or meditation. Hinduism allows a person to choose which path or yoga he/
she prefers to take to achieve moksha for these four yogas, when practiced
well, will lead people the same destination.
There are other types of yoga, which are mostly subtypes of these four
main kinds. A popular branch of Raja Yoga, for instance, is Hatha Yoga (whose
origin is traced to Patanjali). Hatha Yoga focuses on physical postures (the
asanas), and it has become popular as a form of physical exercise. Nowadays,
when one says “yoga,” one is usually referring to Hatha Yoga (see Molloy
2010, 92-95; Matthews 2010, 80-83).
UNIT II 155
dip at the Sangam, the place where three rivers—the Ganges, the Yamuna,
and the mythical Saraswati—come together at the edge of this North Indian
city. The Kumbh Mela is held once in every twelve years.
Discussion Questions
Do you agree with the moral principle of karma? Can you identify
events in your life that seem to demonstrate this principle?
^ A c tiv it^ l
Guide Question
UNIT II 157
accept the authority of the Vedas and include the following philosophical
schools: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vendata
(Matthews 2010, 83-84). On the other hand, the unorthodox schools do
not accept the authority of the Vedas and include the following philosophical
schools: Buddhism, Jainism, and Carvaka. While both orthodox and
unorthodox schools are Indian philosophical schools (for they both emerged
and developed in India), it is only the orthodox schools that are commonly
regarded as Hindu philosophical schools, as they are based on the authority
of the Vedas. Hindu philosophical schools in this connection are also referred
to as the Vedic philosophical schools. In what follows, we shall limit our
examination of the philosophical schools to the orthodox schools.
The Nyaya school was founded by the sage Gautama (not to be confused
with the Gautama of Buddhism). The school focuses on logical reasoning
(or argumentation) and epistemological investigations (investigations on the
nature and sources of knowledge) as the means to acquire knowledge. One
of its conclusions is that there are four means to acquire knowledge, namely,
perception, inference, analogy, and verbal testimony of reliable persons.
The Vaisheshika (or Vaisesika) school was founded by the ascetic
Kanada.The school is mainly concerned with issues concerning metaphysics
or the nature of reality (or existence). Using the method of the Nyaya school,
it advances an atomistic view of reality in which everything that exists can
be shown as a combination of indestructible simples.
The Sankhya school is said to have been founded by the sage Kapila
though there is no known existing work of his. One of the main claims of
this school is that the universe is the result of the interaction between two
different kinds of reality: Prakriti (or Prakrti), referring to matter, nature, or
the material principle of the universe; and Purusha (or Purusa), referring to
consciousness, spirit, or the conscious principle of the universe. Purusha,
though distinct from Prakriti, is bound to be connected to Prakriti. This
means that Purusha is naturally under the bondage or control of Prakriti.
Consequently, the ultimate goal of Purusha is to liberate itself from
Prakriti.
The Yoga school refers to the kind of yoga, called Raja Yoga, developed
by Patanjali in his work Yoga Sutra. Recall that there are four yogas, and
the Raja Yoga is one. (The other three yogas—the Karma Yoga, Bhakti
Yoga, and Jnana Yoga—were introduced in the Bhagavad Gita.) This school
advances the path of meditation, along with other practices such as ahimsa
(nonviolence), to control the mind and eventually liberate itself from worldly
concerns. The Yoga school is closely influenced by the Sankhya school of
liberating consciousness from the bondage of matter. The difference is that
S ome C hallenges
The challenges that Hinduism faces include the harm (social inequality,
discrimination, oppression, disrespect of human rights, and others) brought
about by the caste system on those belonging to the lowest caste, the
Shudras, and especially those considered without a caste, the Dalits (or the
Untouchables). Recall that these people are traditionally considered “once-
borns” which bar them from participating in religious activities. In addition, they
are traditionally not allowed to study in universities or get a formal education.
In short, they do not have any opportunity to improve the state of life that
they are born into. The Indian government has, however, been doing some
positive steps to address these problems, so some of the members of these
castes can already get a formal education, participate in religious activities,
UNIT II 159
avail of legal assistance, and get reserved slots for employment in some
institutions. The problem is that some traditional Hindus, especially those
in the villages, still resist the changes and this results in serious conflicts
including murders, riots, and even suicides.
The situation of women is another major issue, as it is in most world
religions. Despite the fact that Hinduism worships goddesses and venerates
female gurus, women remain marginalized in traditional Vedic culture.
For instance, women, even those belonging to the first three castes, are
traditionally considered “once-borns.” This means that only males in those
castes are eligible to study the Vedas and perform Vedic rituals. Women
are traditionally expected to merely focus on serving their husbands and
raising their children. Learning to write and read are seen as something that
would just distract them from doing their roles as wives and mothers. The
Indian government, however, has also been doing positive steps to remedy
the situation of Hindu women. There are already Hindu women who study
the Vedas and participate in Vedic rituals. Some, however, feel that much
still needs to be done, for in the villages nothing much has changed in the
situation of women.
In the area of politics, the conflict between Hindus and Muslims
continues despite the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, in which
Muslims in Pakistan were given state autonomy. Wars between the two
groups continue to be fought along the border between India and Pakistan,
particularly in Kashmir. Once in a while, conflicts between the two groups
occur within India.
Another challenge of Hinduism, as it is again with most world religions,
is how to deal with the changing world, specifically the rapid development
of technology (in the areas of medicine and communication, among others),
and the introduction of new values, new ways of doing things (the fast pace
of doing things, for instance), and new attitudes, like that of consumerism.
People are preoccupied with so many things, losing time for religious
and spiritual things. How Hinduism can adapt to these changes without
compromising the integrity of its key teachings is a big challenge.
Discussion Questions
What are your thoughts about the Hindu caste system? What do you
think are its advantages (if any) and disadvantages both to society and
individuals?
I. Watch the movie Gandhi (this can be a class activity) and write a reflection
paper on it. Focus on how the doctrines and practices of Hinduism, as
well as its challenges, are shown in the movie.
II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept
map.
Migration YayurVeda Brahman Yogas
Mahabharata Karma Hindu-Muslim Conflict Kumbh Mela
Invasion Shaivism Samkhya Trimurti
Hinduism
UNIT II 161
Review Questions
UNIT II 163
20. The varna or caste of priests and teachers is __________
a. Brahmins c. Vaishyas
b. Kshatriyas d. Shudras
21. The varna or caste of laborers and service providers is __________
a. Brahmins c. Kshatriuas
b. Vaishyas d. Shudras
22. The following refers to the retired stage of life wherein one is expected
to devote more time to spiritual matters.
a. Brachmanchari Ashram
b. Grahasta Ashram
c. Vanaprashta Ashram
d. Sannyasa Ashram
23. _________ is a basic human aim referring to the enjoyment or active
pursuit of pleasures.
a. dharma c. kama
b. artha d. moksha
24. _________ is a basic human aim referring to the liberation of the
self from maya or illusion or freedom from samsara.
a. dharma c. kama
b. artha d. moksha
25. _________ is the path of devotion taken by those who intend to
achieve unity with Brahman through dedicated worship of a god or
gods by various means such as saying prayers, offering sacrifices
and flowers, dancing, and singing hymns.
a. Karma Yoga c. JnanaYoga
b. BhaktiYoga d. Raja Yoga
26. _________ is the path of meditation taken by those who intend to
achieve unity with Brahman by managing their mind or thoughts
through various meditative techniques.
a. Karma Yoga c. JnanaYoga
b. BhaktiYoga d. Raja Yoga
27. The Hindu principle o f_________ teaches the attitude of nonviolence
towards all life forms.
a. Upanayana b. Ahimsa c. Namaste
UNIT 165
KWL Chart
Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about Hinduism What 1want to know about Hinduism
L
What 1have learned about Hinduism
(Write at least the five most important ones.)
Guide Question
TOPICS
UNIT II 167
EXPECTED LEARNING COMPETENCIES
I^A ctivit^l
Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions on page 200.
This can be done individually or as a class.
UNIT II 169
history of Buddhism, there are in fact several who have attained enlightenment
or Buddhahood.
But when one speaks of “the Buddha” (in contrast to “a Buddha”),
one refers to the historical Buddha who is recognized as the founder of
Buddhism as a world religion. There may have been Buddhas previous to
this historical Buddha but it was through him that the teachings of Buddhism
were expressed, handed down to later generations, and later on written.This
historical Buddha refers to Gautama Buddha, whose preenlightenment name
was Siddhartha Gautama. Siddhartha Gautama achieved enlightenment
when he was 35 years old. From then on, he has been called Gautama
Buddha. Because Gautama belonged to the Shakya clan, some of his
followers, especially the Chinese, also call him “Shakyamuni,” which means
“the sage of Shakyas.”
T he L ife of G autama
Gautama, according to the estimate of scholars, was born around 563
BCE in northern India at Lumbini Grove, about a hundred miles from Benares.
He was a Kshatriya prince. His mother was Queen Maya Devi Tharu and
his father was King Suddhodana Tharu, who was the leader of the Shakya
clan in the state of Kosala on the northern border of Ancient India. There are
many different stories about how Siddhartha was conceived in the womb of
Queen Maya and how, as a child, he showed signs that he was destined for
greatness. One common account has it that one night Queen Maya dreamed
that a beautiful white elephant with six white tusks and which bore a white
lotus flower in his trunk touched the right side of the queen and then entered
her womb. When the queen woke up from the dream, she found herself
already pregnant with Gautama. Following customs, the queen went to her
father’s kingdom in order to give birth to her son there, but on the way, she
gave birth to Gautama in a garden beneath a sal tree. It is said that while
giving birth to Gautama, Queen Maya held a branch of the tree which bent
on its own to assist her. It is also said that right after Gautama was born, he
took seven steps and loudly declared that this birth of his would be his last
(indicating that he had been reborn several times and that he would already
achieve in this current lifetime the enlightenment that he was seeking for in
several lifetimes). The queen died seven days after giving birth to Gautama.
The queen’s sister, Maha Pajapati, then took care of baby Gautama.
It is also said that a Brahmin hermit (by the name of Asita) visited the
baby Gautama and predicted that Gautama would one day be a great leader
without specifying what kind of leader—whether as a king (as a political
UNIT II 171
practiced by the ascetics. Still unable to find his answers and blaming himself
for not trying enough, he lived the ascetic life to the extreme, meditating for
days and depriving himself of any material comfort. One day, while bathing
in a river, he collapsed and almost died from drowning. Fortunately, he was
saved by a village girl named Sujata who gave him some food and drink.
When Gautama recovered, he realized that he would not find his answers in
that kind of life (the ascetic life) and thus he resolved to leave it and search
for another path.
If both the extreme of self-indulgence, which
he experienced during his life as a prince, and
the extreme of self-m ortification, which he
experienced during his life as an ascetic, do not
work, Gautama thought of seeking a middle path
between these two extremes. Gautama went
on to meditate about this middle path. While
meditating under a Bodhi tree, Gautama was
tested by Mara, the lord of illusion. Three times
Mara tried to prevent Gautama from achieving
his enlightenment by presenting him visions
designed to distract Gautama and destroy the
rhythm of his meditation. Such visions—first,
the beautiful daughters of Mara, then an attack of Mara’s army, and then
Gautama’s own self—were designed to appeal to Gautama’s desire, fear,
and love of self or ego, which were aimed to distract his meditation. But
Gautama was unmoved by all these visions; he maintained his focus. He
knew these visions were illusions. And so, after meditating for 49 days under
the Bodhi tree, Gautama, at the age of 35, finally attained enlightenment.
He found his answers at last. From that time, Siddhartha Gautama became
the Buddha, the “awakened one” or “the enlightened one.” He had complete
realization of the cause of suffering and the necessary steps to overcome
it, which came in the form of the Four Noble Truths (we shall explain these
truths in the next section).
Gautama at first hesitated to teach the contents of his realization, called
the dharma by Buddhists, to other people because he feared that he might
not be able to do it well. But according to a common account, he later on
reconsidered when he was persuaded by the deity Brahma Sahampati
to teach and spread the dharma. Gautama then went to the Deer Park
near Varanasi (Benares) and delivered his first sermon. His first audience
and disciples consisted of former ascetics like him, who were his former
companions in seeking for enlightenment in the forest. Together they formed
Discussion Questions
1. Recall the first three of the Four Passing Sights that Gautama had
when he went out of the palaces to meet his people—the sights of old
age, sickness, and death. From your own point of view, in what way
will these sights, or better yet, human realities, make a person reflect
on the real purpose of life?
2. What for you are the advantages and disadvantages of living a very
comfortable life? What about living a pauper’s life? Are there significant
commonalities and differences between these two lives?
lA ctivit^l
Watch the movie Little Buddha (this can be done as a class). Write a
reflection paper on the life of Gautama Buddha.
UNIT II 175
DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES
Guide Question
UNIT II 177
The no-self teaching applies to all things, not just to humans. Things have
no essences or enduring selves (or natures) that explain their respective
identities (which in turn differentiate them from one another). They are
simply collections of various elements overlapping and connected in certain
ways, and these collections are what explain their identities. [Following the
popular analogy of the philosopher of language Ludwig Wittgenstein, what
makes something a piece of rope is not a single fiber that runs throughout
the whole rope from one end to another, but the multitude of overlapping
fibers that are connected in certain ways (see the Philosophical Investigations,
1953).] In sum, all things are empty of essences or enduring selves. The
Buddhist concept of emptiness (Sunyata in Sanskrit; Sunnata in Pali), referring
to the view that things do not have essences (or intrinsic natures), has been
elaborated by the Buddhist philosopher and founder of the Madhyamaka
school of Mahayana Buddhism, Nagarjuna (c. 150-c. 250 CE)
Suffering. The word suffering is just a convenient translation of dukkha,
a word that corresponds to what a number of English terms convey like
unsatisfactoriness, disquietude, pain, dissatisfaction, and stress. Suffering
is a universal characteristic of all things in so far as all things, being
impermanent and empty of essence, can be conditions for suffering. The
experience of suffering, however, is a trait only of sentient or conscious
beings, which include humans and animals. The impermanence of things
does not cause suffering; what causes suffering in a sentient being, say a
human, is the attitude he/she adopts towards impermanence, which in turn
is brought about by his/her ignorance. If one is ignorant of the impermanence
of things, one may easily get attached to these things in the sense that he/
she may desire or crave for these things to last. He/she eventually suffers for
things do not really last. It is therefore the attitude of craving in the context
of the reality of impermanence from where suffering arises (Santina 1984,
29-41).
UNIT II 179
T he F our N oble T ruths
The three marks of existence concern fundamental truths about existence
in general. The four noble truths, on the other hand, are fundamental truths
about one of the_three marks of existence, namely, suffering. Furthermore,
suffering as a mark of existence, is generally an experience of any sentient
or conscious being. The four noble truths, on the other hand, focus on
suffering as experienced by humans. Accordingly, the four noble truths deal
with human suffering in terms of ( 1 ) its reality or existence, (2 ) its cause
or origin, (3) its end or termination, and (4) the path or way that leads to
its end or termination. Specifically, the four noble truths are as follows: (1),
suffering exists; (2), suffering is caused by craving or desire; (3), to put an
end to suffering is to put an end to craving; and (4), the way to put an end to
suffering is by following the eightfold path (Molloy 2010,134-136; Matthews
2010, 111-114; Santina 1984,29-50)
1. Suffering exists. The first noble truth is that suffering exists.
Eliminating suffering in one’s life begins with recognizing its reality.
Suffering can be physical, emotional, and mental. Physical suffering
includes the physical pain brought about by old age, sickness, and
death (the first three of the Four Passing Sights of the Buddha).
Emotional suffering includes those brought about by failure and
separation from and loss of loved ones. Mental suffering includes
those brought about by ignorance, worry, and misunderstanding.
2. Suffering arises from craving/desire. Desires create emptiness
within oneself, in that in desiring for something, one creates a lack
that one needs to fill up. Thus the more your desires are, the greater
is the lack that you need to fill up in your life. Furthermore, desires
create further desires. Fulfilling a desire will just lead one to more
and greater desires, and it goes on and on. In the end, we are never
satisfied; we are always in the state of dissatisfaction. Craving may
also come in the form of being attached to desirable things. When
we get attached to an enjoyable experience or to a person whom
we love, we want the experience and the relationship to last. This
craving is bound to fail for experiences and relationships, as well as
ourselves and our loved ones, are not permanent.
3. Eliminating craving eliminates suffering. If craving is the cause
of suffering, then the termination of suffering requires termination
of craving. One, however, cannot just stop making desires by no
longer making desires. It would be impossible to live without having
any desire. To totally refrain from making desires is to put an end to
All the steps above are interdependent and are divided into three groups
of training: ( 1 ) the way of morality or good conduct (consisting of right speech,
right action, and right work); (2 ) the way of mental development (consisting
of right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration); and (3) the way of
wisdom (consisting of right understanding and right intention).
UNIT II 181
DEPENDENT ARISING
The Buddhist belief in the principle or law called Dependent Arising
or Dependent Origination (Pratitya-samutpada in Sanskrit; Panicca-
samuppada,Paticda-samuppada, and Patichcha-samuppada in Pali) is
understood on two levels: the general and specific levels. On the general level,
it mainly states that everything is causally interconnected or that everything
affects everything else. Another way of putting this is that all things in the
world are interdependent, such that nothing happens, exists, and ceases to
exist independently of certain conditions. The Buddha explains this in this
way: “When this is, that is. This arising, that arises. When this is not, that is
not.This ceasing, that ceases.’This principle strongly affirms that everything
is subject to the law of cause and effect. Whatever happens or occurs is an
effect of certain causes, which in turn are effects of certain other causes,
and so on. There is no first cause or a cause that is not an effect of other
causes. Nothing exists that is not causally related to some other things. This
principle explains why there can never be anything permanent in the world.
For something to be permanent, its existence should not be dependent on
anything.
On the specific level, the law of dependent origination is intended to
explain the phenomenon of rebirth (or samsara) and suffering. We noted that
samsara is governed by the moral law of karma—a good action will produce
good consequences, while a bad action will produce bad consequences.The
law of karma is part of the law of dependent arising. It explains why good and
bad consequences arise from certain types of actions.The law of dependent
arising also explains how rebirth and suffering are possible even if there is
no eternal soul or enduring self. The law explains it in terms of the causal
interplay among the so-called Twelve Links, which consist of the following: (1)
ignorance; (2) volitional (or mental) formations; (3) consciousness; (4) mind/
body (or name and form); (5) senses and sense objects (or the six senses);
(6 ) the contact between sense organs, sense objects, and consciousness;
(7) feelings; (8 ) craving; (9) attachment (or clinging); (10) coming to be
(or becoming); (11) birth; and (12) old age and death (see Santina 1984,
107-116; and Piyadassi 1991, 137-169 for an in-depth discussion of this
Buddhist teaching).
UNIT II 183
Puja Day or Fourfold Assembly Day), which is celebrated on the full moon
day of the third lunar month (March) to commemorate the visit of the Buddha
to the Verunan Monastery in the city of Rajagaha, where he was welcomed
and honored by 1,250 arhats; (c) Dhamma Day, which is celebrated on the
full moon day of thg eighth lunar month (July) to commemorate the Buddha’s
first sermon at the Sarnath Deer Park (where “the wheel of the Dharma was
turned”); (d) Kathina Ceremony (Robe Offering Ceremony), where the laity
offer new robes and other necessities to monks and nuns; (e) Festival of
Floating Bowls (Loy Krathong), which takes place in all parts of Thailand
on the full moon night of the twelfth lunar month, where people float bowls
made of leaves and flowers, incense sticks, and candles on the water to
commemorate the holy footprint of the Buddha on the beach of the Namada
River in India; and (f) the Buddhist New Year, which is celebrated on different
days by Buddhists in different countries.
Discussion Questions
1. Recall the second point in the Four Noble Truths—that the cause of
suffering is craving or desire. How true is this point? Can you identify
an experience of yours that demonstrates this truth?
2. From your point of view, how can human suffering be eliminated? Or
can it really be eliminated? Explain your answer.
lA ctivit^l
Write a short paper comparing and contrasting the views of Hinduism and
Buddhism on the nature of human suffering and how it can be eliminated.
Guide Questions
What are the denominations of Buddhism? What are some of its major
challenges?
UNIT II 185
Mahayana concept. For Theravadins (the followers of Theravada Buddhism),
a bodhisattva is anyone who is on his/her way to enlightenment (he/she has
not yet attained enlightenment but he/she is on his/her way to attain it). For
this reason, in the previous lives of the Buddha, Theravadins consider him
to be a bodhisattva. To avoid confusion, we shall use the word “bodhisattva”
to refer to the Mahayana concept of it.
Both the arhat and the bodhisattva (in the Mahayana sense) have already
achieved enlightenment and are thus worthy to enter the state of nirvana.
The arhat automatically proceeds to the state of nirvana, and because of
this, the arhat is also understood as one who has attained nirvana. As earlier
noted, the arhat, however, differs from a Buddha in that a Buddha attains
enlightenment by means of his/her efforts alone, while an arhat attains
enlightenment with the help and under the guidance of a Buddha. The
bodhisattava, on the other hand, is one who has attained enlightenment also
with the help and under the guidance of Buddha, but, unlike the arhat, the
bodhisattva postpones his/her entry to the state of nirvana out of compassion
in order to help others attain enlightenment. A bodhisattva’s state of mind is
called bodhichitta, referring to the desire to achieve enlightenment in order
to help others also attain enlightenment.
UNIT II 187
Buddha that experiences the joy of having achieved enlightenment, known
the Truth, or entered the state of nirvana. It is the joy of being released from
the cycle of rebirth and suffering.
These three bodies of the Buddha, said to be the three appearances
of the Buddha, however, are also believed to be personalized or embodied
by certain Buddhas. As such, there are the Nirmanakaya Buddhas who
embody the manifestation body. Gautama Buddha is an example of this kind
of Buddha. There are also the Dharmakaya Buddhas who embody the truth
body. An example of this kind of Buddha is Dharmakaya Samantabhadra,
who is believed by some (in Tibetan Buddhism) as the Primordial Buddha
(being the embodiment of timeless awareness of the Truth). Finally, there are
the Sambhogakaya Buddhas who embody the bliss body. These Buddhas
are celestial, cosmic, or heavenly beings, for while they have physical forms
or figures, they are not subject to space and time. These celestial Buddhas
are usually objects of devotion, for they are the Buddhas in “Pure Lands”—
referring to heavenly places characterized by the bliss of enlightenment
and nirvana. Amitabha Buddha is an example of a Sambhogakaya Buddha.
Examples
Names of Buddhas
The 3 Bodies What the 3 Bodies of Buddhas
Personalizing
of a Buddha Represent Personalizing
the 3 Bodies
the 3 Bodies
V ajrayana B uddhism
The Vajrayana School is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, but because of
its unique components, some consider it the third major Buddhist tradition.
Also called the Thunderbolt Vehicle or Diamond Vehicle, this school is
mainly characterized by its view that one can quickly achieve enlightenment
and become a bodhisattva in one’s present life by following some esoteric
(mysterious) practices. Its beliefs and practices are described as esoteric
or mysterious for they are not openly taught. Instead, they are taught by a
teacher exclusively to his/her students. Vajrayana Buddhism is also called
Tantric Buddhism as it follows the teachings of the Tantras, which advance
the view that the body and all its energies, including those manifested in
sexual union, could be used to attain enlightenment. In this connection,
sexual imageries are sometimes used to describe the union of wisdom and
compassion. This view opposes the belief that enlightenment could only be
achieved by denying the body of sensual pleasures.
T ibetan B uddhism
Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Vajrayana Buddhism. When Vajrayana
Buddhism entered Tibet, it, blended with the indigenous religious practices
of Tibetans, which included nature worship and shamanism. The resulting
Tibetan Vajrayana includes the practices of meditation and yoga, and
the use of mantras, mandalas (sometimes sands are used to tediously
create mandalas but once done, they will be destroyed to emphasize the
impermanence of things), and prayer wheels (the belief is that turning a
cylinder containing papers bearing sacred phrases will create good karma).
The spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism is generally called a lama (aTibetan
translation of the Indian word guru). A dominant form of Tibetan Buddhism,
called Gelug-pa (also called the Yellow Hat sect), calls its superior head
the “Dalai Lama” (literally means “ocean superior one”). The lamas are
believed to be reincarnations of previous lamas, who in turn are believed
to be emanations of certain bodhisattavas. When a Dalai Lama dies, the
search for his successor is a search for his reincarnation.
UNIT II 189
Madhyamika and Y ogacara S chools
Madhyariuka is Sanskrit for “Middle Way.” The Madhyamika School
developed from the works of Nagarjuna. Nagarjuna, who lived around
150 CE, is known to have extended the notion of no-self to ail things. Recall
that the no-self doctrine states that there is no unchanging, eternal, or
enduring substance that is responsible for one’s sense of self or personal
identity. Nagarjuna is said to have advanced the concept of emptiness
(sunyata), which states that all things, including persons, do not have
essences— referring to abstract, unchanging substances inherent in things.
The Yogacara School, on the other hand, is associated with Asanga,
who lived around 400 CE. The Yogacara School went beyond the view of the
Madhyamika in claiming that it is not just that things are without essences,
but the things that serve as the objects of consciousness do not really exist,
being just creations (or constructs) of consciousness. It further claims that
even the I, the subject of consciousness, does not also exist. In the end,
there is just a stream of consciousness. For this reason, this school is also
called the “Mind-Only” School of Buddhism (Matthews 2010, 119-21).
C han B uddhism
Chan Buddhism was established in China by Bodhidharma when he
brought Buddhism to China in 520 CE. The Chan School of Buddhism,
sometimes called the Meditation School for Bodhidharma, emphasized
that meditation is more important than scriptures in knowing the Truth and
reaching enlightenment. It is said that Bodhidharma was inspired by Kashyapa
who smiled when the Buddha, in one of his sermons, just kept silent and
held a flower. Kashyapa’s smile indicated that he understood the Buddha’s
sermon which for him was about the “True Dharma” (the true teaching behind
the teachings, which is beyond words). It is said that Chan Buddhism was
greatly influenced by Taoism, the indigenous Chinese religion traditionally
believed to have been founded by LaoTzu.
Z en B uddhism
When Chan Buddhism was brought to Japan, it became known as Zen
Buddhism. The Zen type of meditation is called zazen, meaning “sitting or
seated meditation.” Enlightenment in Zen is called satori, understood as a
return to the original condition of the human mind before it was contaminated
by various concerns in life. Zazen is practiced through either of the following
T endai B uddhism
The Tendai Buddhism in Japan began in China as the Tiantai sect. It was
named after the mountain, Mount Tiantai, where the Chinese monastery in
%
UNIT II 191
Sect, whose center is located on Mount Hiei, north of Kyoto. One significant
feature of Tendai Buddhism is its arrangement of the various and often
conflicting Buddhist texts in a meaningful way, as different stages leading to
full enlightenment. The Tendai monks are known for their practice of Kaihogyo,
a kind of meditation !hat requires the extremely difficult challenge of circling
Mount Hei on foot for many days in a row (that takes place over seven years).
It is believed that those who will be able to complete the challenge will attain
enlightenment. In reference to this practice, Western scholars describe Tendai
monks as “marathon monks.”
N ichiren B uddhism
Nichiren Buddhism has the distinction of being the kind of Buddhism
that began in Japan. Its founder, Nichiren (1222-1282), was a former
Tendai monk. One distinctive feature of the Nichiren sect is its view that the
Lotus Sutra contains all the essential religious teachings of Buddhism. Its
devout followers use a chant or mantra to profess their faith in the teachings
of the Lotus Sutra. The chant goes as follows: “ Namu Myoho Renge
Kyo,” translated as “Praise to the mystic law of the Lotus Sutra.” Nichiren
Buddhists believe that repetitiously saying this mantra will enable them
to connect with the divine power of the universe.
S ome C hallenges
Buddhism is becoming popular in the Western world. Part of its attraction
is that some of its teachings seem to be consistent with some modern values
and can be used to deal with the pressures of modern life.The Buddhist idea
that one can attain enlightenment with one’s individual efforts seems to be in
accord with modern-day individualism. The Buddhist practice of meditation
can be used to deal with everyday stress. The Buddhist ideal of nonviolence
is also attractive to some people. There are, however, some modern values
that directly oppose some Buddhist teachings, foremost of which is the value
of consumerism, which contradicts the Buddhist teaching of detachment from
one’s desires and self. The danger, thus, is that people may just take from
Buddhism aspects or elements of it that are useful to them and just ignore
the rest. This may contribute to a popularized understanding of Buddhism
which ignores its true meaning and goals.
One challenge facing Buddhism concerns women. Women, in principle,
can be ordained as nuns in Buddhism. But the reality is that not all Buddhist
^ ^ A c t iv it ^ l
II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept
map.
Nirvana Tripitaka Sangha
Gautama Buddha Mahayana Nichiren
Meditation and chanting Tibet impermanence
Dependent Arising Vajrayana no-self
UNIT II 193
Buddhism
Review Questions
UNIT II 195
12. The cause of suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths, is
a. karma c. samsara
b. dependent arising
14. Right action, right speech, and right work of the eightfold path belong
to the following group.
a. way of mental development c. way of wisdom
b. way of morality
15. The basic code of ethics for lay followers of Buddhism is called the
a. Trimurti c. Tripitaka
b. Trikaya
19. The ideal Buddhist of Mahayana Buddhism is called__________
a. an arhat c. a bodhichitta
b. a bodhisattva
20. Gautama Buddha is considered as an example of a __________
a. Nirmanakaya Buddha c. Sambhogakaya Buddha
b. Dharmakaya Buddha
21. Celestial Buddhas, like Amitabha Buddha, a re __________
a. Nirmanakaya Buddhas c. Sambhogakaya Buddhas
b. Dharmakaya Buddhas
KWL Chart
Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson
UNIT II 197
K W
What 1know about Buddhism What 1want to know about Buddhism
L
What I have learned about Buddhism
(Write at least the five most important ones.)
EX PECTED L EA R N I N G OUTCOME
Founder(s)
Sacred Texts
UNIT II 199
The Absolute
The Human
Condition
Morality
Liberation and
Ultimate Happiness
Practices
Denominations
Challenges
L EA RNI NG COMPETENCIES
Learning Competency
Lesson 9. Taoism **■ Trace the origins of Taoism and identify its
sacred texts.
cr Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Taoism.
«■ Distinguish the different denominations of
Taoism and discuss some of its challenges.
UNIT II 201
l
i
Ess
j
QNj
S;
S9?ife BBSS: S # ' i*p- SSp & t#
CONFUCIANISM
Guide Question
TOPICS
|^A ctivityJ
Fill in the K W L Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be
done individually or as a class.
CULTIVATING
Knowledge and Skills
How did Confucianism originate? And what are its sacred texts?
UNIT II 203
Doctrines (Molloy 2010, 215) or the Three Teachings (Deming 2015, 119),
suggesting their harmonious co-existence throughout Chinese history. It is
said that it is typical among Chinese, though some may consider themselves
as belonging to one of these religions, to engage in some of the practices of
these three religions at the same time. Of these three religions, Confucianism
and Taoism originated in China, for Buddhism was only brought to China.
These three religions flourished in China almost within the same period,
and they influenced each other’s development. We have already examined
Buddhism in a previous chapter and some of the forms it has taken when it
was brought to other countries, especially China and Japan. In this chapter
and the next, we shall then focus on Confucianism and Taoism.
C onfucianism
In 2007, it was estimated that there were 6,447,200 followers of
Confucianism in the whole world; and majority of them (6,376,000) lived in Asia
(Matthews 2010, 172). The term “Confucianism” was originally used by the
Jesuits of the sixteenth century to refer to a Chinese cultural tradition named
the Ru Tradition, which generally meant “the tradition of the scholars.” The
Jesuits, accordingly, wanted to transform the tradition into a school of thought,
or an “ism.” Referring to the said tradition as “Ju,” Rule (1986, 2, 195) writes:
Confucius
C on fuciu s is the recognized fo u n d er of
Confucianism.Though there are some disagreements
about the details in his life, there is no doubt that
Confucius was a historical figure. Also, there was
nothing extra-human or supernatural, or mythical,
about the events in his life. He was born in the
normal human way, and he lived and died in the
normal human way. Confucius is believed to have
lived from 551 to 479 BCE. His original Chinese Confucius
name was “Kong Qiu” (or “K’ung Ch’iu); but he later on became known by
the title “Kong Fuzi” (or “Kung Fu Tzu”), which meant “Master Kong.” The
name “Confucius” was actually a Romanized/Latinized version of his name,
created and spread by sixteenth century Jesuit missionaries (Molloy 2010,
235; Littlejohn 2011, xviii).The following were the highlights of Confucius’ life
as gathered from the accounts by different scholars* which vary in
emphasis and level of detail (see, for instance, the accounts of Molloy 2010,
235-236; Matthews 2010,182-183; Urubshurow 2009, 458-463; Yao 2000,
21-26).
UNIT II 2 0 5
Confucius was born in the state of Lu, or Shantung province— (presently
Qufu, south of Beijing). His father, named Shulianghe, was a tall soldier who
later on worked as a minor official in Lu (as head of a certain county in Lu).
His father died when he was just three years old. This later on forced the
young Confucius to engage in various forms of physical labor to help his
family and finance his studies. But despite the difficult circumstances in his
life, Confucius was still able to study and master the skills being studied by
educated boys of aristocratic families, namely, ceremonies, music, archery,
carriage driving, calligraphy, and calculation (or mathematics). It is said that
Confucius pursued these things for he simply loved doing them. He also
studied works that later on were called Confucian classics. While being
poor, Confucius grew up as a gentleman. When his mother died when he
was seventeen years old, he mourned for twenty-seven months, refraining
from work, sexual relations, eating refined food, wearing fine clothes, playing
music and others. He later on got married and had a son and a daughter.
He first worked as a keeper of the granary accounts of the Chi family.
This experience opened his eyes to social injustices. Later on he became
a successful teacher. But he still longed to play an influential part in the
government, for he believed that he could institute social changes once in
a government post. At the age of 51, he became the head of a county in
Lu, just like his father. After a few years, he became the Minister of Industry,
Minister of Public Security, and acting Prime Minister of Lu. His political career,
however, was cut short when he offended one of Lu’s powerful noblemen.
At the age of fifty-five, he left Lu and went into exile in 497 BCE. Along with
his disciples, he travelled to several states to search for other positions while
approaching princes and dukes to promote his social teachings. He was
often rejected and once he was even imprisoned and their lives (his and
his students) were endangered. In 484 BCE, Confucius and his disciples
returned to Lu, when the Duke of Ai of Lu invited Confucius to act as his
adviser. He spent his last years as a scholar editing the classics. He died in
479 BCE at the age of seventy-two or seventy-three.
T he S acred T exts
The sacred and authoritative texts of Confucianism consists of two
collections of books named the Five Classics and the Four Books. The Five
Classics (Wujing, Wu-ching) consist of the following:
1. Book of History {or Book of Documents) {Shujing, Shu Ching): a
collection of historical materials (speeches and reports) on the deeds
of emperors, and pieces used in ritual dance performance at the Zhou
It must be noted that another book, called the Book of Music, used to
be regarded as the sixth classic. But this book no longer exists. Some think
that parts of this book may have been incorporated in the Book of Rites.
Some (Yao 2000, 57) think that it might have been included in the books
burned during the Burning of the Books, a period, during the Qin Dynasty in
221 BCE, when Confucian teachings were seen as a threat to the then
existing political power (the ban on Confucian books was lifted when the Qin
Dynasty was later on overthrown by the Han Dynasty in 191 BCE.).
What is the significance of these classics to Confucianism? Confucians
generally believe that these classics contain the heavenly principles or the
Way of Heaven (Yao 2000, 50). In particular, Yao (2000, 50-51) identifies
four primary roles these classics played in the transmission of the Confucian
tradition: “Firstly, they were the key textbooks for students ... Secondly, the
classics were considered to be the source of the Confucian way of life . . .
Thirdly, the classics were the root from which numerous Confucian branches
developed . . . Fourthly, the Confucian classics were appreciated primarily
for their political functions and applications.”
UNIT II 207
These classics were called “Confucian Classics” not only because of their
relation to the teachings of Confucius, but also because it was traditionally
believed that Confucius played a significant role in their formation. In particular,
it was traditionally believed that Confucius was the one responsible for the
form in which each’ of these books presently appears. The writings were
already there but they were disorganized. Confucius edited and rearranged
them so that he could take them as textbooks for his students (Yao 2000,
53; see also Matthews 2010,188). Some contemporary scholars, however,
have raised some questions about this belief (Yao 2000, 53-54).
These Confucian texts, for a long period of time, became the “core
curriculum” of Chinese education and for the civil service examinations in
China—China is the first country in the world to require such examinations
for eligibility for governmental employment. Previously the Five Classics were
sc us si o n Q uestions
I^Activityl
G uide Q u e s t i o n
UNIT II 209
Mandate of H eaven
The belief in the Tao, which generally means Way or Path, as the ultimate
principle governing the universe and which must be realized by every human
being in his/her actions is shared by both Confucians and Taoists. They,
however, have different attitudes towards the nature of the Tao, or ways of
dealing with it, and different views on how the Tao is to be realized or cultivated
by humans in their lives. Taoists believe that the Tao is beyond concepts
and words and thus no amount of education will enable us to know its
real nature. The Tao that can be talked about does not refer to the real,
eternal Tao, as the Tao Te Ching (the main Taoist text) states. What we can
do is simply go with its flow, as manifested in the way nature moves. We
shall explore this Taoist attitude towards the Tao in the next chapter.
Confucians, in contrast, think of the Tao as contained in the Way of Heaven
(“Heaven” is Tian, the Will of Heaven or Mandate of Heaven is Tien ming),
which can be known or learned through proper education (by studying the
Confucian books).
The emperors of the past, for instance, who ruled by serving the interests
of their people had the Mandate of Heaven. And so studying how these
emperors ruled (in the Book of History) is one way to know the Way of
Heaven. The ideal of Confucians is thus to know the Way of Heaven through
education and to conduct their lives accordingly. “Thus they devote their life
to learning, education and the transmission of ancient culture because of
their belief in the Mandate of Heaven which can be known through learning,
divination and observation . . . ” states Yao (2000, 147). For “[t]he Way of
Heaven signifies morality, and to follow the Way of Heaven is to lead a virtuous
life” (Yao 2000, 148). Confucians, in sum, do not speak of a God or gods to
ground or justify their beliefs and practices. They instead speak of the Way
or the Mandate of Heaven.
T he B asic R elationships
Confucius is known to have identified five basic types of human
relationships. A typical list of these relationships consists of the following:
(1) father-son; (2) elder brother-younger brother; (3) husband-wife; (4)
elder friend-younger friend; and (5) ruler-subject. There are, however, some
variations in the list of some scholars. For instance, instead of the “elder
brother-younger brother,” some have the “elder sibling-younger sibling”
relationship (Littlejohn 2011, 26). And instead of the “father-son,” some
have the “parent-child” relationship (Deming 2015,150; Littlejohn 2011,26).
These variations indicate the desire to make the relationships more inclusive,
to accommodate other equally important relationships into the list, while
maintaining their number to just five. The main point, I think, is not that there
are only five basic relationships; but that there are basic relationships (which
can be more than five) in which each party in the relationship has duties or
responsibilities towards the other party. As these basic relationships have
UNIT II 211
this essential feature (they are defined by reciprocal responsibilities), the
other relationships that will emerge from them will therefore likewise have
the same essential feature.
Thus, a parent has responsibilities towards his/her child, and a child has
responsibilities towards his/her parent; a ruler has responsibilities towards
his/her subject; and a subject has responsibilities towards his/her ruler; and
so on. The relationships that will grow out of these basic relationships will be
the same: the doctor-patient relationship, the teacher-student relationship,
and employer-employee relationship, for instance, will also be defined by
reciprocal responsibilities (each party in a relationship has responsibilities
towards the other party). The other important point is that it is only when
the reciprocal responsibilities of a relationship are done that there will be
harmony in that relationship. And if we think of society as consisting of various
human relationships, then society will only achieve harmony if each of the
relationships that constitute it is in harmony. This last point leads us to the
principle of the rectification of names.
R ectification of N ames
The idea that everyone should know and do the appropriate duties or
responsibilities of every role that he/she assumes in society is referred to
as the principle or theory of the rectification of names. The roles that we
play are defined by certain names or designations, like the names “father,”
“son,” “elder,” and “ruler.” Rectification of these names means, in this context,
clarification of the duties or responsibilities required of each person who is
assigned or who assumes these names. In short, if you are called a “father”
then know and do what a father must do; if you are called a “ruler” then know
and do what a ruler must do, and so on. Social disharmony arises if we do
not know and do the responsibilities implied by our designations or names.
More generally, social irregularity arises when there is a “discrepancy between
names and reality, between language and action, and between rights and
duties” (Yao 2000,35). As Confucius writes: “If names be not correct (zheng),
language could not be fluently used. If language be not fluently used, affairs
could not be carried on to success... ritual/propriety (li) and music could not
be flourishing . . . the punishments could not be properly made .. . then the
people would not know how to behave” (quoted in Yao 2000, 35). If people
will not perform their duties in their capacities, for instance, as rulers, fathers,
husbands, wives, and sons, then they will abuse their titles and violate the
names or designations that define their duties (Yao 2000, 35).
UNIT II 213
5. Wen or culture: generally doing things that cultivate one’s sense and
appreciation of culture, which includes acquiring artistic skills (in the
areas of music, painting, dance, and others) and art appreciation (like
watching concerts, visiting art museums, attending art exhibits, and
others).
Some scholars (see Yao 2000,34), on the other hand, have the following
list: humaneness (ren), righteousness (y/), ritual/propriety (//), wisdom (zhi)
and faithfulness (xin). Still, some (Littlejohn 2011,31) add another one to the
list, namely, haoxue or “self-cultivation,” generally referring to the virtue of
doing things that enhances one’s own character and talents, and that refines
one’s humanity. It includes giving one’s utmost or best in one’s endeavors,
and requires the willingness to learn from others. Again, just like in the case
of the basic relationships, we take the position that the important thing here
is that these virtues are the ones that a noble person must possess, and not
that there must only be five of these virtues. And so, we prefer to call them the
“Confucian virtues,” instead of the “five cardinal virtues,” and accommodate
all the virtues identified by the various scholars in this regard.
Discussion Questions
■a- Do you agree with the idea behind the principle of the rectification of
names? Explain your answer.
"s- How would you compare and contrast the Confucian principle of the
rectification of names with the Hindu concept of dharma?
Will it make a difference if we will understand the Confucian concept
of Heaven as a kind of God? Explain your answer.
^ A c tiv it^ l
T he R ival S chools
Two interrelated questions became the points of disagreements
between Confucianism and its rival schools. The first question concerns
UNIT II 215
human nature, whether humans are inherently good or bad. The second
question concerns the role and desirability of government in promoting
social harmony. These two questions are interrelated for the answer to
the first defines the answer to the question. If, for instance, humans are
naturally good, government intervention to human natural actions would
either be unnecessary or should be done on a minimal degree. But if
humans are naturally evil, then this intervention is absolutely necessary
and should be strictly done.
T he Mohist S chool
The Mohist school originated in the teachings of M ozi(M o Di, Mo Tzu,
Master Mo; 4797-381 ? BCE). Key elements of these teachings (based on
the discussions of Fraser 2000, Yao 2000, Matthews 2010, Molloy 2010,
and Urubshurow 2009) are as follows. Laws are necessary for without them
people are naturally predatory (will naturally take advantage of others).
Society needs to adopt two principles to establish social harmony and
justice. The first is the utilitarian principle which states that right or good
actions and policies are those that promote the overall welfare of society
(or one that provides the greatest benefit to most members of society).
The second is the principle of the universality of love, which states that
everybody ought to love everybody else equally and impartially. These
two principles allegedly conflict with some of the Confucian ideals. For
instance, practices, rites, and ceremonies that do not promote overall
welfare of society should be abolished. Another, virtues that conflict with
the universality of love, like filial piety which gives preference to members
of one’s family, should be discouraged.
T he L egalist S chool
Legalism or the Legalist School (Fajia, Fa-Chia) developed from the
ideas of Shang Yang, Li Si, and Han Feizi. Though he studied under the
Confucian philosopher Xunzi and was influenced by Xunzi’s view of human
nature as fundamentally evil, Han Feizi (Han Fei-tzu, c. 280-233 BCE)
later on abandoned his Confucian training and became the greatest of the
Legalist philosophers. Among his political ideas, Han Feizi advocated the
view that political duties take priority over other duties. “A soldier, it was
said ran from battle because he thought that, if he was killed, he could no
longer serve his father. Han Feizu commented: ‘A filial son to his father can
be traitorous subject to his ruler’” (Han Feizu, Encyclopaedia Britannica
T aoism
Taoism developed from the teachings contained in the books Tao Te
Ching, traditionally believed to be written by Lao Tzu, and Chuang Tzu,
a book named after the philosopher Chuang Tzu who wrote a big part of
this book. Taoists believe that the Tao, the Way, though unknowable being
beyond words and concepts, should not be hindered as it flows or moves
within nature and human nature. Hindering the natural flow of the Tao will
lead to natural disasters and social disharmonies. On this perspective,
social harmony is to be achieved not through education and political control.
When the Qin Dynasty, which adopted the Legalist School, failed, the
early emperors of the succeeding Han Dynasty adopted the “naturalistic
and liberal” Taoist ideology which advanced little or no governmental
interference in economic affairs (laissez-faire). While this resulted in
economic recovery and increase in state resources, the ideology “could
not satisfy the needs of a strong and growing empire, and failed to provide
any coherent administrative policies” (Yao 2000, 82).
T he C onfucian S chools
*
The school that Confucius established has been called Ruism or the
Ru school. It will be recalled that Confucianism was identified with the
then existing Ru tradition, though Confucius, who was a ru master himself,
UNIT II 217
introduced significant changes to the tradition. After Confucius, several
Confucian schools have emerged, each with certain unique features while
maintaining the Confucian ideals. In what follows, we shall examine the
three prominent ones: the schools of Mencius, Xunzi (Hsun Tzu), and the
Neo-Confucians. •
S chool of Mencius
Mencius (371-289 BCE), as earlier noted, is considered the second
great Confucian after Confucius. In this connection, he is sometimes
referred to as the “second sage.” Mencius studied under Zisi, a grandson
of Confucius. Mencius’ writings, which form the fourth book of the Four
Books, were intended to elaborate on and glorify the teachings of
Confucius. Mencius’ teachings revolve around his view that human nature
is fundamentally good. This inherent goodness of humans, however, can
be corrupted; so it needs to be protected and cultivated by means of
education. Without proper education from good teachers, children, who are
by nature good, can turn into criminals. Like Confucius, Mencius extends his
teachings to the affairs of the state. Though not popular among the rulers
during his time, Mencius teaches that a good ruler is one who is morally
upright, for it is only then that a ruler will have the Mandate of Heaven.
Heaven is the source of all goodness and has instilled goodness in the
hearts and minds of humans. And so, it is only when humans cultivate
the goodness in them that their actions acquire the Mandate of Heaven.
Consequently, a humane government avoids war and governs not by
power or by means of harsh punishments but by the moral character of
the ruler who serves as the role model for his subjects. (See Yao 2000,
71-76; Molloy 2010, 245-246; Matthews 2010, 189-190 “ Mencius,”
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013.)
N eo-C onfucianism
The movement of Neo-Confucianism was started by Han Yu, but two
of the influential neo-Confucianists were Zhu Xi (Chu His, 1130-1200)
and Wang Yangming. Neo-Confucianism basically arose from the need
for Confucianism to assert its identity from two rival religions in China
during that time, namely Taoism and Buddhism. This event was a critical
stage in the development of Confucianism for it was during this time that
Confucianism acquired a religious status. In distinguishing itself from the
two religions, it has established itself as a distinct religion. Thus, statues
of Confucius and temples holding elaborate ceremonies, with sacrifice,
music, and dance, were set up. A hierarchy of authorities was also set up.
Soon, Confucianism, along with Taoism and Buddhism, formed China’s
Three Teachings or Doctrines. Molloy (2010, 249) notes that: “Pictures and
statues of the three founders— Laozi, Confucius, and the Buddha— began
to appear, with the three figures side by side in friendly poses.This practice
continues today.” (See Molloy 2010, 248-251; Urubshurow 2009, 469)
School o f Han Yu (768-824). Confucianism was declining when
Buddhism came to China and Taoism was becoming influential. Neo-
Confucianism was a movement whose goal was to revive the then
declining Confucianism. The one who led the movement was Han Yu
when he opposed the Buddhist influence on a Tang emperor (Matthews
2010, 189). He is said to have reminded his Taoist emperor “that Buddha
was a barbarian, and urged him not to honor the foreigner’s religion”
(Urubshurow 2009, 469).
School o f Zhu Xi (Chu His, 1130-1200 CE). In the course of redefining
the identify of Confucianism in light of the influences it had from Taoism
and Buddhism, Zhu Xi compiled, edited, and commented on writings
he deemed important for Confucianism. The result was the Four Books,
UNIT II 219
consisting of the Analects, Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, and
Mencius, which became the basis for the civil service examinations
(replacing the Five Classics). But while Zhu Xi wanted to rid Confucianism
of Buddhist influences (he, for instance, rejected the Mahayana doctrine
of emptiness)* he generally welcomed the Taoist influences, especially
the idea of the natural order of things (Molloy 2010, 249-250).
S chool o f Wang Yangming (1 4 7 2 -1 5 2 9 ). Among others, two
contributions of Wang Yangming were the emphasis on the mind and
the simplification of the rituals. Wang Yangming believed that it was by
means of reflection on one’s own mind, through meditation, rather than
a rational study of the things outside the mind that truth and virtue would
be known. His school was then called the School of the Mind. In this
connection, he taught that the way to deal with the troubles in the world
was by means of intuitive knowledge of the self, together with practical
action. Also, he argued that a simpler form of rituals and ceremonies in
temples, minimizing, for instance, the statues of Confucius, was more in
line with the teachings of Confucius. Wang Yangming is regarded as “the
fourth great Confucian after Confucius, Mencius, and Zhu Xi.” (Molloy
2010, 250; Urubshurow 2009, 471).
S ome C hallenges
In his discussion of “Confucianism and the Modern World,” Molloy
(2010,255-258) identifies some major challenges of Confucianism. First,
the educational curriculum of Confucianism which was adopted by the
government collapsed during the downfall of the Qing (Chi’ing) Dynasty in
1911. One reason was the challenge posed by modern education which
was more scientific and technology-based. When modern technology
coming from Europe was introduced in China, traditional Confucianism
appeared inadequate.
Second, the New Culture movement in China in 1916, led by those who
were able to study in Western universities, criticized Confucianism on many
aspects of it.The movement was heavily influenced by pragmatism—which
generally views truth in terms of its usefulness or practical consequences.
Among others, the movement criticized Confucianism for allegedly
“enslaving women to their fathers and husbands, of subjugating sons to
tyrannical fathers, and of keeping alive a culture and literature that only
looked to the past” (Molloy 2010, 255).
Third, Confucianism was greatly weakened when the Communists took
over mainland China in 1949.The communists were critical of Confucianism
I^A ctivit^l
UNIT II 221
Confucianism
Review Questions
UNIT II 223
generally understood as referring to doing things appropriate in a
given situation:
a. Ren c. Shu
b. Li d. Xiao
11. The following virtue generally means doing things that show respect,
love, and devotion to the members of one’s family:
a. Ren c. Shu
b. Li d. Xiao
12. The following virtue is usually translated as benevolence or
humaneness for generally referring to doing things that benefit other
people:
a. Ren c. Shu
b. Li d. Xiao
13. The following school advocates the utilitarian principle and the
principle of the universality of love:
a. Mohist School c. Taoist School
b. LegalistSchool
14. The following is regarded as the greatest philosopher of the Legalist
School:
a. Mozi c. ShangYang
b. Han Feizi
15. The following is considered the second great Confucian after
Confucius:
a. Mencius c. WangYangming
b. Xunzi
16. The following Confucian philosopher is known for his view that human
nature is fundamentally evil
a. Mencius c. Han Yu
b. Xunzi
17. The following Confucian philosopher is known for his view that human
nature is fundamentally good:
a. Mencius c. Han Yu
b. Xunzi
18. Among the contributions of the following was the publication of the
Four Books, which he complied, edited and commented on:
a. Mencius c. Zhu Xi
b. Xunzi
KWL Chart
Direction: Fill in the K"and Wcolumns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about Confucianism What 1want to know about
Confucianism
L
What 1have learned about Confucianism
(Write at least the five most important ones.)
•
TAOISM
Guide Question
TOPICS
I^ A c tiv ity l
Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be
done individually or as a class.
CULTIVATING
Knowledge and Skills
Guide Questions
UNIT II 227
L ao T zu
There is a standing discussion
among scholars over the real status
of Lao Tzu as the author of the Tao Te
Ching: whether there really was such
a person who wrote such a text (Chan
2014). There is, for instance, the view
that the Tao Te Ching was not written
by one person alone but a group of
individuals; and that the name “Lao
Lao Tzu Statue in Yuanxuan Taoist Tzu” was used merely as a collective
Temple in Guangzhou, China
name to represent this group. Those
who hold this view believe that either there really was no individual named
“Lao Tzu” (that “Lao Tzu is a purely legendary figure”— Urubshurow 2009,
457) or there was such an individual but this individual was just one among
the writers of the Tao Te Ching—allegedly the one who wrote the first half
of the said text. For our purposes, however, we shall assume the standard
view that Lao Tzu was a historical figure who once lived in China around
640 BCE; and he wrote the whole of the Tao Te Ching.
Little is known about the life of LaoTzu.There are only some stories about
certain aspects of his life. One aspect of these stories concerns how Lao
Tzu got his name, which literally means “old man,” “old child,” or “old master.”
When Lao Tzu was born, it is said that he already had white hair (and white
beard too—adds some accounts); and thus had a general appearance of
being an old man already while still being a child. This appearance of Lao
Tzu is explained by a legend (Urubshurow 2009,218) which states that Lao
Tzu, after being conceived by a shooting star (this ties up to another legend
that states that he was a product of virginal conception—see Molloy 2010,
218), was in the womb of his mother for 62 years before he was born. In
any case, it is believed that it was because of this appearance that he was
given the name “LaoTzu” understood in the sense of being an “old man” or
an “old child.”
On the other hand, the name “Lao Tzu,” in the world of learning, also
means “old master” or “old scholar.” In this regard, the name “Lao Tzu” is
an honorary title given to a highly venerated senior teacher. In light of the
strong influence of Taoism on the development of Chan and Zen Buddhism,
it is supposed that the title “Lao Tzu” must mean something similar to the
title “Roshi” in Zen Buddhism, which refers to a highly respected senior Zen
master (Rosenthal, n.d.). In any case, on this side of the story, Lao Tzu got
his name for being a highly respected old scholar.
The ancients you admire have been in the ground a long time. Their
bones have turned to dust. Only their words remain. Those among them
who were wise rode in carriages when times were good and slipped
quietly away when times were bad. I have heard that the clever merchant
hides his wealth so his store looks empty and that the superior man acts
dumb so he can avoid calling attention to himself. I advise you to get rid
of your excessive pride and ambition. They won’t do you any good. This
is all I have to say to you (see Introduction to Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching,
translated by Red Pine, 2006).
Confucius is said to have been very impressed with Lao Tzu’s advice
that he later on told his disciples, “Today when I met Lao-tzu, it was like
meeting a dragon” (Ibid.).
Still another aspect of these stories concerns how Lao Tzu got to write
the Tao Te Ching. According to the story, one day Lao Tzu got tired of his
job as the state librarian and decided to retire from it. He resolved to travel
to the far west of China—some say also because he was disillusioned with
society or the politics in China (Urubshurow 2009,457). Carried by an ox, he
was about to cross the western border when the gatekeeper named Yin Hsi
UNIT II 229
(also referred to as Kwan Yin) stopped him. It is said that Yin Hsi recognized
Lao Tzu as the old scholar and prompted him to write down his teachings,
otherwise he would not let Lao Tzu pass the border. Lao Tzu obliged and
wrote down his teachings for two consecutive days; and the result was the
book Tao Te Ching. After passing the border and leaving China, nothing is
known about what happened to Lao Tzu. Some hypothesized that he might
have gone to other countries like India to preach and later on returned to
China. Some say he did not teach but lived a life of peace and contentment
until he died at the age of 87. Still, some (those inclined to think of Lao Tzu
as a kind of god— as the human incarnation of the Tao) describe him as
ascending into heaven in the form of a magnificent dragon (Mollloy 2010,220).
Ta o Te Ch in g and Ch u an g Tzu
The Tao Te Ching (sometimes called the Laozi) is the most important text
of Taoism. Tao basically means “way,” but the whole title has been translated
in various ways: sometimes as “The Way and Its Power,” sometimes as “The
Classic of the Way’s Virtues,” sometimes as “True Classic of the Way and
the Power.” Basically, the book talks about the “Tao” in terms of its reality
and fundamentality, how it can be known, whether it can be expressed in
words, and its different manifestations in various areas of life. It is relatively
a short book of around 5,000 Chinese characters, consisting of eighty one
short chapters, which are arranged in two sections. The first section is called
“Tao Ching,” comprising of chapters 1 to 37; the second is called “Te Ching,”
comprising of Chapters 38-81. The statements are usually poetic in form
and are often short.
Next in importance to the Tao Te Ching is the book that has been called
Chuang Tzu after the name of its recognized lead writer, the Chinese
philosopher Chuang Tzu (“Zhuang Zhou,” “Zhoungzi,” or “Master Zhuang”)
who lived during the fourth century BCE (c. 369 to 286 BCE). Just like Lao
Tzu, little is known about the life of Chuang Tzu. Sima Qian’s historical records
state that Chuang Tzu was a minor official from the town of Meng (in Modern
Anhui) in the state of Song. Chuang Tzu was described as a scholar with a
comprehensive scope of learning but who preferred the views of Lao Tzu.
Chuang Tzu, accordingly, wrote the book Chuang Tzu to elaborate on the
teachings of Lao Tzu—to make them more intelligible to common people.
If there are doubts on whether the whole Tao Te Ching was written by
Lao Tzu, it seems generally established that the book Chuang Tzu was not
entirely written by the philosopher Chuang Tzu. The latter book is generally
accepted as a collection of philosophical texts written during the fourth,
UNIT II 231
abovementioned Taoist texts, form the so-called Taoist Canon (also called
the Daozang or Tao Tsang). The other sacred texts of Taoism, which are
enormous in number, deal with a wide range of topics that include, among
others, guidebooks on meditation, breathing exercises, and sexual yoga;
stories of wonderworkers and of ecstatic excursions made to the stars; recipes
of longevity and magical powers; manuals of alchemy; and descriptions of
rituals (Molloy 2010, 228).
scussion/A ctivity
Think of your personal belongings. Group them into two: those that
you can do without (you can go on with your normal life even without
these things) and those that you cannot do without (you cannot go on
with your normal life without these things). Reflect on your classification.
What are the bases of your classification? Focus on the things you
considered you cannot do without. If you were to simplify your life (or
further simplify it), will the list of things under this group change? Elaborate
on your answer.
Guide Question
UNIT II 233
what we always come to know is not reality but an illusion. We know that
there is the Tao, but whenever we try to grasp it what we have always turns
out not to be the Tao.
In sum, the Tao is the origin of all things. Being so, it is the highest
kind of reality. And being the highest kind of reality, it cannot be described,
talked about, or conceptualized; for to do so would mean that there is still
something higher than it. An unavoidable question here is whether the Tao
is God. If we understand God as a person who cares about human beings,
and who punishes or rewards them according to whether they obey certain
rules, the Tao is not God (Molloy 2010, 221).Taoists, however, as we shall
later on discuss, believe in many kinds of deities (gods and goddesses).
(Some scholars think that the Tao is closer, if not equivalent, to the Hindu
concept of the Brahman.)
Te and W u -w e i
What humans can only do is either go with the flow of nature or resist it.
Whatever humans do in relation to the Tao, however, will have consequences.
Generally, interfering with the Tao, or the natural course of things, will result
in conflict, chaos, and damages; while going with its natural flow, or living
in harmony with the Tao, will result in peace, order, and preservation. This
brings us to the Taoist concepts of Te and Wu-wei.
UNIT II 235
Te refers to the power to bring the Tao into realization. It means “virtue,”
both in the sense of “moral character” and the “power to act.” Thus the Tao
Te Ching (Chapter 21) states: “The appearance of great virtue follows only
the Tao.” Virtue, in this sense, does not refer to the virtue of following a moral
code but to the virtue of acting without effort or without following prescribed
rules. This kind of action is called Wu-wei, which literally means “no action.”
Chapter 63 tells us to “Act without action. Manage without meddling. Taste
without tasting.” Wu-wei particularly means detached actions, that is, doing
things with openness to their consequences and not being attached to them.
The following chapter (Chapter 2, translation by Mitchell 1995) from the Tao
Te Ching describes wu-wei as follows:
Therefore the Master
acts without doing anything
and teaches without saying anything.
Things arise and she lets them come;
things disappear and she lets them go.
She has but doesn’t possess,
acts but doesn’t expect.
When her work is done, she forgets it.
That is why it lasts forever.
Wu-wei also means living in harmony with the flow of nature, never resisting
it. In this connection, wu-wei is described as effortless or spontaneous action.
For if we are just going with the flow of nature, our actions are effortless, just
like how, for instance, plants and animals live, they just follow the natural
course of things to survive. This is also shown when one (say an athlete,
a tailor, or a carpenter) has become so skilful in what one is doing. Such
a skill has become second nature to the person that he does it effortlessly.
Detachment and living in harmony with the natural course of things are
demonstrated by the following story of Chuang Tzu about the Taoist attitude
toward death: that we should accept it as part of the natural course of things
like the passing of the seasons. Molloy (2010, 224) narrates this story as
follows:
Upon hearing of the death of Zhuangzi’s wife, a friend, Huizi (Hui
Tzu), goes to offer sympathy. Although he expects to find Zhuangzi
crying and in ritual mourning, Huizi finds Zhuangzi instead singing and
drumming on a bowl. Huizi is shocked—and says so. Responding in a
thoughtful way, Zhuangzi says that at first his wife’s death saddened
him terribly, but then he reflected on the whole cycle of her existence.
Before his wife was a human being, she was without shape or life, and
Wu-wei, acting in harmony with nature, does not only mean acting out
of respect for things outside of one’s self, it also means acting out of respect
for one’s own nature. This is explained by the following passages from Guo
Xian (quoted in Fung 1975, 101, which in turn is quoted in Urubshurow
2009, 486-87):
With conscious effort some people try to be great artists, but
they can never succeed. Yet without knowing how, the great artists
spontaneously become artists. With conscious effort some people try
to be sages, but they can never succeed. Yet without knowing how, the
sages spontaneously become sages. Not only that the sages and artists
are difficult to be imitated, we cannot even be fools, or dogs, by simply
wishing and trying to be.
UNIT II 2 3 7
you return to the source of being.
Patient with both friends and enemies,
you accord with the way things are.
Compassjonate toward yourself,
you reconcile all beings in the world.
Chuang Tzu has the following story to demonstrate the Taoist preference
for a simple life (quoted in Matthews 2010, 177):
Once Chuang Tzu was fishing the P’u River when the King of Ch’u
sent two of his ministers to announce that he wished to entrust to Chuang
Tzu the care of his entire domain.
Chuang Tzu held his fishing pole and, without turning his head, said:
“I have heard that Ch’u possesses a sacred tortoise which has been
dead for three thousand years and which the king keeps wrapped up in
a box and stored in his ancestral temple. Is this tortoise better off dead
and with its bones venerated, or would it be better off alive with its tail
TAOIST DEITIES
As earlier noted, Taoism has philosophical and religious kinds.
Philosophical Taoism limits its studies of Taoism to its philosophical ideas.
The basic doctrines of Taoism that we have discussed above (the concepts
of Tao, Yin and Yang, Te, Wu-wei, and the Three Jewels) constitute the main
philosophical ideas of Taoism. Religious Taoism, on the other hand, treats
the same doctrines as religious or sacred. In addition, Religious Taoism,
UNIT II 239
influenced by Chinese folk religions, also believes in many deities (gods and
goddesses). Taoism, in this regard, is a polytheistic religion. It is said that there
are thousands of Taoist deities. Some are spirits of nature occupying rivers,
streams, and mountajns. Some represent different powers of the universe.
Some are holy men who are believed to have achieved immortality (they
include emperors). And some are ancestral spirits who are usually regarded
as protective household gods (Molloy 2010, 228-229).
The three gods that constitute the Three Pure Ones are as follows. The
first is called the “Jade Pure One” ( Yuanshi Tianzun) or the “Primeval Lord
of the Heaven.” He is believed to be residing in the Heaven of Jade Purity.
He is described as eternal, limitless, without form, the source of everything,
and the administrator of Heaven. He is the highest Taoist deity. The second
is called the “Supreme Pure One” or “Lord of the Numinous Treasure”
(Lingbao Tianzun). He is associated with the principle of yin and yang, and is
considered the source of Taoist knowledge and scripture (the Tao Te Ching).
The third is called the “Grand Pure One” or “Lord of the Way and its Virtue”
(Daode Tianzun). He is believed to have been manifested or incarnated in
the form of LaoTzu. He is depicted as having pure white beard, symbolizing
his being an eminent, aged ruler.
T he E ight I mmortals
Another popular set of Taoist deities are the so-called Eight Immortals.
The Taoist Canon contains several biographical texts telling stories of various
immortals, ranging from historical figures that were deified (that is, put into
the status of a deity), such as noble emperors, Lao Tzu, and Chuang Tzu,
O ther D eities
Other Taoist deities include the following: the Jade Emperor (who rules
heaven and earth and who judges people’s actions at the end of every year;
like the imperial bureaucracy on earth, he has officials—also gods—who look
after the spiritual and material welfare of humans and report to him at the
end of every year), the Divinities in Pilgrimage, Queen Mother of the West,
Four Heavenly Emperors, Three Divine Officials, and Thunder Patriarch.
Taoism also has several female deities, such as Mother Li (the mother of
Lord Lao); Mazu, the patroness of fishermen; and Doumou, the Mother of
the Big Dipper.
T aoist Meditation
Like the Hindus and the Buddhists, the Taoists also use different methods
of meditation. One popular method is described as embryonic breathing for
UNIT II 241
it is like becoming an infant who breathes through the umbilical cord in its
mother’s womb. This technique basically requires the practitioner to hold
his/her breath for extended periods with the goal of harmoniously relating
with the divinities or sacred elements of one’s body. It is believed that if one
does not practice meditation, the divinities that inhabit one’s body will leave,
causing one to get sick. Meditation, in this sense, promotes both spiritual and
physical health. Another is called the inner alchemical meditation, which aims
to calm and empty the mind and circulate chi (referring to life energy). This
can be done sitting cross legged, sitting in a chair, lying down, or walking. It
can be done using mantras (like repeating the word “om”), focusing on an
object, or simply focusing on one’s breath.
T ai C hi
Tai Chi (or T a i Chi Ch’uan) is a popular
Chinese form of exercise and martial art that is
closely associated with Taoism (Molioy 2010,224).
It aims to harmonize the principle of the yin and
yang into a sequence of slow, rhythmic, and flowing
movements, with carefully prescribed stances and
positions. The goal is to stimulate and harmonize
chi— referring to life energy—for health, vitality and
self-defense. Tai Chi has many branches which
promote different styles. In practice, no two masters
teach exactly the same style of Tai Chi.
F eng S hui
Fung Shui is generally a system of harmonizing everyone with the
surrounding environment. Fung Shui, in its popular sense, refers to the
practice of choosing or configuring a structure or site in order for this structure
or site to be in harmony with the spiritual forces that inhabit it. It has its roots
in Taoism for emphasizing the interconnectedness of everything around us
and the harmonious flow of chi. Deming (2015, 136-37) explains:
One important application of qi theory is called fengshui, which
literally means “wind and water.” This is the art of arranging objects and
space—office furniture, houses, graves—with an awareness of the flow
and movement of qi through a certain area .. . The feng shui master
will give advice on how best to design a building and its landscape, or
T aoist A lchemy
Alchemy generally refers to “the transmutation of one substance, or a
combination of substances, into another substance, especially one that is
more valuable, powerful, or imbued with paranormal properties. Historically,
this often meant turning ordinary metal into gold, but it also referred to
creating potions that could cure diseases, prevent aging and death, or confer
supernatural powers” (Herman 2013, Chap. 15, 6-7). Alchemy has been
practised in various ways in different countries in different historical periods.
Alchemy was already practised in China even before the birth of Taoism, but
later on became closely identified with Taoism, as a Taoist practice intended
to achieve immortality and to establish spiritual harmony in the universe
through the cultivation of one’s physical body (Urubshurow 2009, 451).
Taoist alchemy is practiced in two ways. One is called external alchemy
( wai-tan or waidan), which involves the mixture of different physical
substances outside the human body (such as minerals and herbs) and
swallowing the “elixirs”—the combined substances. The other is called
internal alchemy (nei-tan or neidan), which involves harmoniously cultivating
key energies inside the human body. The original practice of Taoist alchemy
was the external one; but because this led to serious injuries, sickness, and
even deaths (due to poisoning) (the practice of external alchemy today is
limited to those considered safe and that promotes health), the internal kind
became the alternative way to practice alchemy—which also happens to be
more in tune with Taoism as the way of harmonizing one’s self with the Tao.
Q uigong
In the practice of internal alchemy—also called the practice of quigong—
one taps into the three key energies in the human body; namely: (a) vital
essence (ching or jing), the energy in the lower field (or the abdomen)
which is concretely identified with reproductive fluids; (b) ch’i (chi or qi),
the generic energy in the middle field (or the chest) which is concretely
identified with air, breath, and emotional states; and (c) spirit (shen), the
energy in the upper field (or the head or the brain) which is concretely
identified with mind, personhood, and access to spiritual beings. These three
elements correspond, respectively, to the following three forms of energy:
(a) reproductive energy, (b) life-force energy, and (c) spiritual energy. The
UNIT II 243
Taoist idea of achieving immortality, through internal alchemy, is said to have
been laid down by ChuangTzu in his story wherein the Yellow Emperor met
Master Kuang Ch’eng Tzu on Mount K’ung-tung thus (quoted in Urubshurow
2009, 485):
See nothing; hear nothing; let your soul be wrapped in quiet, and
your body will begin to take proper form. Let there be absolute repose
and absolute purity; do not weary your body nor disturb your vitality—
and you will live forever. . .
Discussion Questions
I^A ctivit^l
Read the following story. (Some members of the class may be asked to
dramatize the story.) How is Taoism demonstrated in the story? In what way
does the Taoist farmer embody the Taoist virtues?
UNIT II 245
DENOMINATIONS AND CHALLENGES
Guide Question
The first institutional Taoism, and thus we can say the first Taoist sect,
was called the Way of the Celestial Masters {T ’ien-shih Tao—also called
“Way of Orthodox Unity” and “Five Pecks of Rice Sect”), which was founded
by Chang Tao-ling around the second century. While Taoism was founded by
Lao Tzu, it was Chang Tao-ling who transformed Taoism into an institutional
religion, as an organized religious movement. This movement regarded
Lao Tzu, whom they referred to as “Lord Lao,” either as identical to the
Tao or as a divine manifestation of the Tao. It is said that Chang Tao-ling,
while living in a mountain, once had a vision of Lord Lao, descending from
the sky riding thousands of carriages and golden chariots, accompanied
by countless dragons and tigers. In this revelation, Lord Lao conferred
on Chang the title “Celestial Master,” told him of the coming of a new age
and to prepare for it (by making people repent for their sins and become
morally pure), gave him sacred scriptures that would serve as the guide
for preparing for the coming of the new age, and gave him healing powers
(powers to heal the sick and exorcise evil spirits).
Soon the movement required certain beliefs and practices, and
bureaucratic structures such as those concerning the ordination of priests,
confession of sins, and the division of the community into districts. One of
the practices was the recitation of the Tao Te Ching, which they believed
would produce powers to see spirits, cure illnesses, and prolong life.Those
who significantly contributed to the growth of the movement included
Chang Chieh (whose own movement, called Way o f Great Peace, spread
Taoism in northern China) and Chang Lu (who worked for the movement
to have political power).
UNIT II 247
M ovem ents Succeeding the Way of C elestial Masters
Later on, there were other revelations that formed other Taoist sects,
which introduced other features to Taoism. The three most important sects
were the following: (a) the Great Purity or Great Clarity (T’ai-chi’ing), whose
revelations,' among others, introduced the practice of alchemy; (b) the
Highest Purity or Highest Clarity (Shang-ch’ing), whose revelations, among
others, developed elaborate theories about different realms for spirits
of the dead, the deities that occupy those realms, and the otherworldly
processes for movement from one realm to another; and (c) the Numinous
Treasure or Spiritually Efficacious Treasure (Ling-pao), whose revelations,
among others, discouraged physical practices like alchemy, gymnastics,
and meditation, but emphasized observance of moral codes, the use of
talismans, and communal rituals. (See Herman 2013, Chapter 6 )
C hallenges of Taoism
UNIT II 249
alchemy in which the elixirs are arrived at through the cultivation and
harmony of the basic energies of the body. External alchemy is still being
practiced but mostly to produce medicines (generally referred to as
“Chinese medicines”).
Another possible challenge concerns the recovery of Taoism in China
after it was almost abolished during the early years of the communist
takeover in the country. But with support from the current Chinese
government and outside, Taoism is experiencing a resurgence in China,
temples are being rebuilt (especially those located in the mountains), and
a large statue of Lao Tzu was erected in 1999 in southeastern China.
A possible worry is if there would be a change in the leadership in the
Chinese government. Another challenge concerns the popularization of
Taoism in the West, just like in the case of Buddhism, which deviates from
the original conception of Taoism as practised in China.
Gender issues are generally not a challenge to Taoism. There are
goddesses in Taoist deities. The characteristics traditionally associated
with women are encouraged in Taoist philosophy, like softness, flexibility,
passivity, and modesty. The Taoist principle of yin and yang promotes
harmony between opposing forces: in terms of gender, yin is associated
with femininity and yang with masculinity. There are also Taoist nuns and
women priests and teachers.
I^A ctivit^l
II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept
map.
Wu-wei TaoTeChing Tai Chi 8 Immortals
Lao Tzu Celestial Complete external alchemy
Orthodox Chuang Tzu Dragon Boat Festival
Review Q uestions
UNIT II 251
3. The following is considered the third greatest thinker in the history
of Taoism, next to Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu:
a. LiehTzu c. Yin Hsi
b. Sima Qian
#
4. In the book Chuang Tzu, the part considered by scholars as written
by the philosopher Chuang Tzu, are the:
a. Inner Chapters c. Mixed Chapters
b. Outer Chapters
5. The following refers to the nameless origin of all things:
a. Tao c. Te
b. Wu-wei
6 . The Taoist concept of harmony among opposites is contained in the
principle of:
a. yin c. yin and yang
b. yang
7. Wu-wei means:
a. effortless action c. intentional action
b. planned action
8 . The Three Jewels of Taoism are compassion, humility, and:
a. generosity c. moderation or simplicity
b. decisiveness
9. Among the Three Pure Ones, he is believed to be the highest Taoist
deity:
a. Jade Pure One c. Grand Pure One
b. Supreme Pure One
10. As a deity, Lao Tzu is believed to be the incarnation of the:
a. Jade Pure One c. Grand Pure One
b. Supreme Pure One
11. The Taoist female deity believed to be the mother of Lord Lao is:
a. Mother Li c. Doumou
b. Mazu
12. The most popular of deities consisting of immortals (or humans who
achieved immortality) are the so-called:
a. Six Immortals c. Eight Immortals
b. Seven Immortals
UNIT II 253
a. democrats c. technocrats
b. communists
KW L C hart
w
Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about Taoism What 1want to know about Taoism
1
•1
.
L
What 1have learned about Taoism
(Write at least the five most important ones.)
Guide Question
TOPICS
UNIT II 255
■a? Explain Shinto ethical values based on harmony and purification,
os- Explain how the Japanese emperors derived their divine status.
■s- Identify some practices associated with Shinto, especially the
purification rituals.
■s- Identify and distinguish the major forms of Shinto: Shrine Shinto, State
Shinto, Sect Shinto, Folk Shinto, and Shinto-based New Religions
lA c t iv it ^ l
Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be
done individually or as a class.
CULTIVATING
i £ Knowledge and Shills
ORIGINSAND SACREDTEXTS
Guide Questions
M.
U r 99
S hinto
»Shinto (or Shintoism) is a religion indigenous
y / to Japan. The term “Shinto” was derived from the
Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese term shen
\ dao, which means “the way of the gods,” and which in
* Jj Japanese is pronounced as “shin-to.” The term shen
I P j* f dao or shin-to, as the name of a particular religion,
came about out of the need to distinguish it from
foreign religions that have established themselves
in Japan, referring to the religions brought to Japan
by the Koreans and Chinese in the sixth century, namely, Buddhism and
Confucianism. Prior to the coming of these foreign religions to Japan, the
Japanese did not feel the need to name their indigenous religion for the
simple reason that everybody was into it or engaged in its practices.
UNIT II 257
The mutual accommodation between these two religions resulted in
most Japanese practicing both Shinto and Buddhism at the same time.
Consequently, it is said that Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines contained
elements of one another, from rituals to architectural designs. Those who
regarded themselves as Buddhists were also engaging in Shinto practices;
while those who regarded themselves as Shintoists were also engaging in
Buddhist practices. And there were those who did not feel the need to regard
themselves as either Buddhists or Shintoists; they just engaged in the practices
of both religions. This went on smoothly until the late nineteenth century
when the Meiji government assumed power in Japan. The Meiji government
started a movement, called the Meiji Restoration, of restoring the national
roots of Japan. And central to this movement was the use of Shinto, being
the religion indigenous to the Japanese, as a way to instil nationalism (or
patriotism) among the Japanese. This required that Shinto be made pure by
separating from it elements that were foreign to it— referring to Buddhist (and
Confucianism) influences on its beliefs and practices. And for the government
to have greater control over the people, it began to assert and propagate
the Shinto teaching about the divine status of emperors—that they were
descendants of a principal kami, the sun goddess Amaterasu (Molloy 2010,
264-69).
T he K ojiki m N ihongi
When Shinto had to define its identity to distinguish itself from the foreign
religions, along with giving it a distinct name was the writing down of the
creation story or mythology which served as the basis of its rituals and
practices.This story, which was previously preserved orally over generations,
was mainly about the origins of the kami, the islands of Japan, and the divine
status of emperors. Thus, upon the initiation of the government, this story
was recorded; and the result was the Kojiki (Chronicle of Ancient Events,
or Record of Ancient Matters), compiled in 712 CE; and the Nihongi
(Chronicle/History of Japan), which came out in the eighth century CE
(see Molloy 2010, 271). In addition to the creation story, these texts also
contain some accounts of the historical events that occurred after 400 CE
(Urubshurow 2009, 502). Both were written in a Chinese style of writing
making them difficult to read (Picken 1994,54); but it is said that the Nihongi
is relatively easier to read being more influenced by Chinese thought and
literary conventions (Williams 2004, 46).
T he S acred S tory
Let us now examine the Shinto creation story. Our account of the story
is based on the narrations of some scholars (Molloy 2010, 266; Matthews
2010,197-98; Williams 2004, 47-50; Picken 1994, 61-63; and Urubshurow
2009, 521-24). Though the general story is the same in these narrations,
they, however, differ in some details. As much as possible, our account tries
to combine these details in a complementary way (filling in the gaps of one
narration by the details of the other narrations). To begin with, though the
Kojiki and Nihongi more or less have the same account of the events involving
the principal kami, they differ in their account of the origin of the cosmos or
the universe (Urubshurow 2009, 521). For the Kojiki, the universe emerged
from a plant with seven branches growing out of steaming mud and water.
Two kami, who were brother and sister, were held by each branch; thus
UNIT II 259
forming seven pairs in total. These seven pairs of kami were then scattered
throughout the universe; and after some time, a brother-sister pair of kami
was born: the brother was called “Izanagi” (Izanagi-no-mikoto, which meant
“He-who-invites”); the sister was called “Izanami” (tzanami-no-mikoto, which
meant “She-who-invites”). On the other hand, for the Nihongi, the universe
emerged from an egg-like mass that divided into two portions: a male portion
(yang) and a female portion (yin).
The early generations of kami were all residing in the High Plain of
Heaven, and were thus sometimes referred to as the Sky-Kami. It is said
that the Sky-Kami gave the couple Izanagi and Izanami the task of creating
the islands of Japan. To do this, the couple were given a heavenly jewelled
spear by means of which they were to stir the ocean while standing upon a
floating (rainbow-shaped) bridge of heaven. The brine (the salted water of
the ocean) that dripped down from the end of the spear piled up and formed
an island. Soon the islands of Japan were produced. Izanagi and Izanami
then proceeded to the task of producing further kami. At first, they failed
to perform the right ritual for this task: for at a certain point in the ritual the
woman (Izanami) spoke first when it should be the male (Izanagi) who should
have spoken first. The consequence of this mistake was that the kami that
were produced displeased them (one kami, for instance, was deformed).
But after taking the advice of the Sky-Kami, they were able to do the ritual
the right way the second time around. The creation of further kami then went
well until a great disaster occurred. In giving birth to the fire kami, Izanami was
burned, got seriously sick, and eventually died. Izanagi, so saddened by this
incident, cried. As he cried, his tears gave birth to a kami (described as the
“Crying-Weeping-Female kami”). Izanagi then buried Izanami on Mount Hiba
near Izumo. Consumed by his anger towards the fire-child that killed Izanami,
Izanagi drew his sword and killed his fire-child. The blood of the fire-child gave
birth to eight kami. When his anger and grief receded, Izanagi missed Izanami
so much that he resolved to look for her in the underworld (the place of the dead
called Yomi-no-kum). Once in the underworld, he was not allowed to see Izanami
but he found a way to do so. He then saw Izanami, who looked so ugly because
of the burn and decay, and the maggots crawling all over her body. Izanagi was
shocked and dismayed, and decided to return to the living world alone.
Finding himself dirty after his contact with the underworld, Izanagi washed
himself with water in a small river. Further kami were born as he threw off
his garments and washed his body. When he washed certain parts of his
face, three kami were born. The sun goddess, Amaterasu (Amaterasu-o-
mi-kami, which meant “shining in heaven”), was born as he washed his left
eye; the moon god, Tsukiyomo ( Tsuki-yomi-no-mikoto, which meant “moon
Discussion Questions
1. Look at the Japanese flag. What do you think is the symbolism of
the sun in the Japanese flag? How do you think is the design of the
Japanese flag influenced by the Shinto creation story?
2. What do you think is the symbolism of each of the three objects
constituting the Shinto Imperial Regalia, namely, a mirror, a jewel, and
a sword?
UNIT II I 261
DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES
Guide Question
K ami
The kami, as noted, generally refer to sacred, spiritual beings, which are
also thought of as gods and goddesses. The word “kami” is used in both
singular and plural; we can thus say “this particular kami” or “this group of
kami.” It literally means “high,” “above” and “lifted up” (Urubshurow 2009,
502), but it is often translated as “god” or “gods.” Furthermore, while the word
is naturally understood as referring to the entities with divine character, the
deities, it is also used to refer to the divine character itself, the essence of
all divine beings (Picken 1994, xxii; Williams 2004, 32).
While being mindful of these two senses of the word “kami,” we shall,
in our discussion, assume the standard understanding of the word “kami”
as referring to divine entities. We have already identified some of the major
kami (those who play significant roles in the creation story of Japan), such
as Izanagi, Izanami, Amaterasu, Tsukiyoma, and Susanowo. Shinto believes
in many more kami. Anything that evokes striking emotions and attitudes
in humans such as awe, fear, and the feeling of reverence is believed to
be inhabited by some kami. The kami are the forces or powers in things
responsible for evoking such emotions and attitudes. Typical examples of
these things are places of natural beauty, like a mountain, a waterfall, and
a lake, and natural power, like the blow of the wind, the heat of the sun,
earthquakes, and volcanoes spewing lava. In relation to the last, kami are
also the energies that make things in nature move. And thus there are,
among others, fire, ocean, mountain, trees, rivers, and waterfalls kami. The
kami also include the spirits of some ancestors and animals thought to have
mysterious skills and intelligence like the fox and the snake. One unique
feature of the kami is that though they are spiritual beings they do not reside
in a world distant from the humans. Their presence can be readily felt as
they are powers in the world of humans. The kami, in short, are everywhere
in the human world. They are treated as persons, as co-inhabitants of this
world, and are given names (Molloy 2010, 271).
UNIT II 263
b. Kami derived from historical personalities
c. Kami traceable to political origins
d. Kami associated with commerce and prosperity
UNIT II 265
incorporate Buddhist beliefs about death such as reincarnation (Matthews
2010, 206).
»
S ome P ractices and R ituals
Worship
Purification Rituals
UNIT II 267
Shubatsu. This is a form of purification using salt. Salt is sprinkled by
Shinto priests on the objects, humans, or places to be purified.
Harai. This form of purification uses a harai-gushi, a wand consisting of
a stick and streams of paper attached to the stick. A Shinto priest waves a
harai-gushi over the person, place, or object to be purified.
Imi. This is a form of purification that one does to oneself by refraining
from saying inappropriate words and avoiding doing inappropriate actions.
For instance, the word “cut” (kiru) is taboo in a wedding ceremony. On the
other hand, attending a party or a celebration is inappropriate when a loved
one has just died.
D isc us si on Q u e s t i o n s
Guide Questions
What are the different forms of Shinto? And what are its major
challenges?
S tate S hinto
As already noted above, State Shinto (Kokka Shinto) was the form
of Shinto that was made the national religion of Japan in 1882 when the
Japanese government (the Meiji government) was instilling patriotism
among its citizens and establishing powerful control over them by
presenting the emperor as a divine being, with a status of a kami, being
a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu. Previous to the Meiji
government, Buddhism was the state religion of Japan (under the Tokugawa
government where Japan was under the military rule of the shogun). When
the Meiji government took over, they started the process of nationalizing
Japan known as the “Meiji Restoration” (Williams 2004, 120). One key
element in this nationalizing process was the institution of Shinto as the
state religion of Japan. Shinto was separated from Buddhism to return to
its pure form, and to serve as Japan’s “unifying national ideology” (Pickens
1994, xxxi). Under State Shinto, the shrines were put under the control of
the government (shrines were declared national institutions), the rituals to
UNIT II 269
be performed were listed, and a system of ranking priests was formalized
(the system of hereditary priesthood was abolished). Shinto priests were
treated as governmental officials (see Picken 1994, 36). State Shinto,
however, was abolished after the defeat of Japan in the Second World
War in 1945, when the Japanese surrendered to the Allies. The Allies
demanded the separation of Shinto and the government. After this event,
State Shinto became known as “ Imperial Household Shinto” (Williams
2005, 119), which still performs the “special Shinto practices at the three
shrines within the grounds of the imperial palace” (Williams 2005,17,119).
S ect S hinto
Under State Shinto, several Shinto shrines (most of which were run
by different Shinto organizations) were put under government control.
There were, however, Shinto shrines or forms of Shinto that were not put
under government control and were considered not part of State Shinto,
but which nevertheless were recognized by the government. These forms
of Shinto which were not considered to be part of State Shinto were
collectively called by the government Sect Shinto or Sectarian Shinto. As
Molloy (2010, 270) states: “All other nongovernmental Shinto shrines and
organizations were treated as independent, self-supporting institutions
and together were called Sect Shinto.” Sectarian Shinto thus were forms
of Shinto that “did not receive state support” (Matthews 2010, 200). As
State Shinto is mainly a political form of Shinto, Sect Shinto, in contrast, is
seen as a purely religious form of Shinto. In this connection, Sect Shinto is
often also called “Religious Shinto” (Williams 2005, 20). This means that
Sect Shinto has features that cannot be reconciled with or accommodated
by the political objectives of State Shinto. During the Meiji government
(around 1868), there were 13 forms or organizations of Shinto that were
classified under Sect Shinto or Kyoha Shinto (Picken 1994, 37).
S hrine S hinto
Generally, Shrine Shinto refers to all forms of Shinto in which the
shrines, regarded as the homes of the kami, are the centers of Shinto
religious activities. During the time when Shinto was flourishing in Japan
and building its places of worship, there were also many Buddhist temples
that were established.To distinguish Shinto places of worship from Buddhist
places of worship called temples, the Shinto places of worship were called
shrines. As there are many kinds of kami and forms of Shinto, there are
F olk S hinto
Folk Shinto and Sect Shinto are forms of Shinto that were not put
under government control; the difference is that while Sect Shinto was
recognized by the government, Folk Shinto was not. Another difference
between Sect Shinto and Folk Shinto is that while Sect Shinto is organized,
systematized, and institutionalized, Folk Shinto is not. For unlike in Folk
Shinto, in Sect Shinto one “could identify a founder and a formal set of
teachings, and may even have produced sacred writings” (Picken 2004,
212). For instance, rituals in Folk Shinto can be performed in the absence
of Shinto priests. Furthermore, Folk Shinto is called such because it
blended with folk culture and local beliefs, which have influences from
Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. On some accounts, Folk Shinto is
equated with Shamanic Shinto (see Williams (2004,20-21). The shamans
(and shamanesses) were people who could communicate with the spirits
(the kami); they “became possessed, and gave guidance in oracles about
all of life’s concerns—crops, health, war, pestilence, and death” (Williams
2004, 115).
UNIT II 271
S hinto - based N ew R eligions
Sect Shinto traditionally only included 13 Shinto sects when they
were recognized and distinguished from State Shinto. But after World
War II, new religious forms, called New Religions, emerged. Some of
these new religions were Buddhist-based while some were Shinto-based.
The Shinto-based New Religions developed from some of the original
13 sects of Sect Shinto. The Shinto-based New Religions were then
included in Sect Shinto (Williams 2005, 123). Based on the account of
Matthews (2010, 201-202), Shinto sects are generally divided by Japan’s
Agency of Cultural Affairs into three groups, based on their history and
unique practices. These are: traditional sects, mountain worship sects, and
sects based on revelation. Let us examine two prominent sects based on
revelation: Tenrikyo (“heavenly reason teaching”) and Omoto-kyo (“great
origin teaching”)— or simply Omoto (Matthews 2010, 201-02; Molloy
2010, 282-283). As these two Shinto forms are generally classified under
Sect Shinto, they are also sometimes classified under Shinto-based New
Religions.
Tenrikyo, founded by Nakayama Miki (1798-1887), is a spiritual healing
group. It teaches that physical health is a consequence of mental or
spiritual health. In this connection, it practices healing by faith. Its sacred
texts consist of the poetry composed by Nakayama Miki that speaks of
her revelations. It is said that Nakayama Miki received her revelations
accidentally. She sought the help of a shaman (to talk to the kami) to
help her deal with her problems—among others, it is said that her eldest
son was unable to work because of suffering extreme pain in his leg. In
one session, she assisted the shaman; and what happened was that she
went into a trance for several days. When she came out of the trance, she
reported that she received a message from a kami, Tenri-o-no-mikoto (“lord
of divine wisdom”), that she was to spread the “Teaching of the Heavenly
Reason” that whoever lives according to the Heavenly Reason will have
health and long life.Tenrikyo has established a strong institutional structure
that enables it to spread outside Japan.
Omoto was founded by Deguchi Nao (1836-1918). One striking
teaching of Omoto is that all art is religious. It sees the creative process
leading to an artwork as an essential manifestation of religion. In this
connection, it runs a school near Kyoto teaching traditional Japanese art
to non-Japanese. Another is its promotion of world peace through the
study and adoption of a universal language (a language all nationalities
can understand)—the language of Esperanto—and through sponsored
S ome C hallenges
Shinto has managed to survive despite the challenges that it has
faced. Some of these challenges are as follows. First, its growth has been
threatened by thfe growth of Buddhism in Japan and its association with
military build-up of Japan during World War II. Many have thought that
Shinto would not survive after the Second World War; but it did and it
continues to flourish. In 2007, it was estimated that there were 2,797,700
in the world; 2,729, 000 in Asia; and 61,200 in North America (Matthews
2010,171). Second, part of the appeal of Shinto is the importance it gives
to nature. Shinto, in this regard, is presenting itself as a religion of ecology.
One challenge in this area is how to reconcile the seeming conflict between
this ecological ideal of Shinto and the pervasive Japanese commercial and
business goals that resulted in the decimation of the forests of Japan and
other countries (Williams 2004, 140). Third, Shinto still generally lacks a
strong institutional structure to enable it to spread outside of Japan or to
do missionary work. This is, however, compensated by the fact that the
Japanese bring their religious practices with them wherever they settle in
(see Molloy 2010, 283-284).
And fourth, because of Shinto’s association with the Japanese
government during World War II, how to deal with questions concerning
the divine status of the Japanese emperor remains as a challenge to
Shinto. Williams (2004, 136) articulates such questions as follows: “First,
what does it mean for modern Japan, no longer culturally or militarily
imperial, to have a divine emperor? Second, can Shinto and Japan take
responsibility for mistakes made and atrocities committed in the name
of a divine emperor? . . . Third, can the symbol of the divine emperor
guide the Japanese people toward acceptance of the responsibilities and
possibilities of being human?”
D i sc us si on Q u e s t i o n s
1. Are you for the total separation of religion and state? Should
religion completely stay away from political concerns or
activities? Explain your answer.
UNIT II 273
I^Activityl
II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept
map.
Misogi Buddhism Nihongi Purification Kojiki
Emperors animists World War II State Sect
Review Questions
UNIT II 275
13. It was during the reign of this government that Shinto was made into
a national religion:
a. Tokugawa b, Edo c. Meiji
14. This form of Shinto was controlled by the government:
a. State Shinto c. Sect Shinto
b. Shrine Shinto d. Folk Shinto
15. This form of Shinto is also regarded as purely religious:
a. State Shinto c. Sect Shinto
b. Shrine Shinto d. Folk Shinto
KW L Chart
Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about Shinto What 1want to know about Shinto
L
What 1have learned about Shinto
(Write at least the five most important ones.)
UNIT II 277