Factors Influencing Architecture

• Geography

• Climate

• Socio-Cultural

• Construction Materials

• Construction Techniques

Geography
Greek Architecture:

• In the prehistoric period, distinct regional vernacular styles are discernible, in the east and north
Aegean, on the mainland and in the southern Aegean islands, especially Crete.

• The geography of the Aegean area stimulated navigation and thus triggered trade activities.

• An important civilization developed on the island of Crete and in turn spread to the mainland.

• During 14th century Greeks had migrated from the mainland towards Cyprus, Southern Italy and
Sicily.

• These communities contributed to the development of Classical Greek Architecture.

• Greek architecture, stimulated by Egypt and the Near East, was itself the stimulator of Roman
and later European architecture.
India:

• Cut off from Asia by the Himalayas, the flow of ideas and people into India came mainly from
the north-west

• The great riverine cultures of the Indus and the Ganges were geographically well sited to receive
such diverse cultural influxes.

• The fertile Indus plain, was capable of supporting several crops and Pakistan, Afghanistan and
Iran were sources of minerals, metals and animal products.

• The Himalayas provided a formidable barrier to external influences from the North

• The Indus was navigable over most of its length but the surrounding plains were liable to
flooding and this influenced the form and appearance of Harappan cities.

• It has been identified that the Harappan Civilization came to an end due to a catastrophic
flooding in the Indus river.

Climate
Greece:

• Winters are short, rainfall adequate – occurring in autumn, winter and spring

• Summers are hot and dry so that the resulting clear air and intense summer sunshine made it
possible to appreciate the fine details of Greek buildings, enhanced by carving and colour.

• The interiors of the buildings were designed to provide relief from the intense light and heat of
summer

• Temples received light only through their doors, while in other buildings windows were generally
small and normally opened into inner courtyards which were surrounded by roofed porticos.

• Public activity happened in the open air, even during winter months

• Shade from the summer sun and shelter from the winter rains were desirable but not essential

• The extended roof structure became the most widespread feature through the Classical Period.
 Socio-Cultural Factors
Egypt:

• Bands of hunter-gatherers

• First buildings appeared with settled communities of Natufian Culture - stretched from Southern
Turkey to the Nile Delta during 9000 BC

• Neolithic period that began in 6000BC in Anatolia (modern day Turkey) gave rise to large and
impressive towns. These towns comprised of a succession of the following cultures:

(i) Hassuna (6000-4500BC)

(ii) Samarran (5500 BC)

(iii) Halafian (5000 BC)

(iv) Eridu (5400 BC)

(v) Ubaid (4500-3500 BC)

• Nile Valley - 5th millenium - Distinct settled cultural groups appeared such as Faiyum, Mermida
(Lower Egypt) and Badarian, Amratian, Gerzean (Upper Egypt)

• All Dynasties were ruled under one king In 7500 BC, Mud-Brick architecture was carried out in
the Turkey-Nile region
 Building Materials
England:

• Varied geological formation of Britain was responsible for a wider variety of building materials

• Survival of remains from the Roman occupation provided ideas for variety in the methods of
using them

• Sometimes, the materials from Roman buildings were reused.

• The English Hardwood forests, particularly in the north-western and south eastern countries
provided roof-framing material for the more important buildings

• Most of the indigenous buildings stones were used (military and religious). These stones were
brought from Normandy through sea and river transport under the royal Patronage

• When Gothic succeeded Romanesque, brickwork was developed as a building material.

• When Gothic flourished, the importance for locally available materials increased.

• The exploitation of local materials (limestone and flint) was an economic necessity as moving
stone any distance was slow and expensive.

Construction Techniques
England (Gothic):

• During the Gothic period, construction of arches was a real challenge

• The pointed-arch was the technological building unit of Gothic construction

• Romanesque style of architecture saw the first Churches being built; there was sufficient supply
of columns for arcades. The only technical problem was to build wall strong enough and stable
enough.

• The only arches were the triumphal arch at the end of the nave, the main arcades, and the
frames for windows and doorways.

• These did not impinge upon one another, their size was a matter of elementary calculation.

• Gothic arches broke the simplicity and monotony of the semi-circular arch that just played a
minor role in the whole building

• The entire structures were conceived as frameworks of arches that were organised into coherent
systems which reduced the structural functions of walls to a minimum.
• The sizes and shapes of these arches had to be compatible unlike Romanesque arches, requiring
a far greater flexibility in the relation between the height and span.
 Introduction to Art
What is Art?
The expression or application of human creative skill and imagination,

typically in a visual form such as painting or sculpture, producing works

to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power.

Elements of Art
Elements:

• Texture

• Color

• Line

• Value

• Form

• Shape

• Space

Principles:

• Unity

• Focal Point (or emphasis)

• Repetition (or Rhythm)

• Variety

• Proportion

• Balance

• Movement
 • Contrast

Medieval Art: The Age of Faith

• 400 AD to 1400 AD

• Rome Falls and the Church gains power

Introduction
• The Middle Ages included the millennium from the 5 th to the 15th century, roughly from the fall
of Rome until the renaissance.

• During its initial period, called the Dark Ages, after the death of the byzantine Emperor Justinian
in 565 until the reign of Charlemagne in 800, barbarians destroyed what had taken 3,000 years
to build.

• Yet the Dark Ages were only part of the Middle Ages story, there were many bright spots in art
and architecture, from the splendor of the byzantine court in Constantinople to the majesty of
Gothic Cathedrals.

• 3 Major shifts occurred that had far-reaching effects on Western civilization:

• Cultural leadership moved north from the Mediterranean to France, Germany, and the
British Isles.

• Christianity triumphed over paganism and barbarism.

• Emphasis shifted from the here-and-now to the hereafter, and with it from the body as
beautiful to the body as corrupt.

• Since the Christian focus was on salvation for a glorious afterlife, interest in realistically
representing objects of the world disappeared.

• Nudes were forbidden, and even images of clothed bodies showed ignorance of anatomy.

• The Greco-Roman ideals of harmonious proportions and balance between the body and mind
ceased to exist. Instead, medieval artisans were interested exclusively in the soul, especially in
instructing new believers in church dogma.

• Art became the servant of the church. Theologians believed church members would come to
appreciate divine beauty through material beauty, and lavish mosaics, paintings, and sculpture
were the result.
Art - distinguishing characteristics
• Flat, lack of environmental clues due to Oriental influence as well as determination to
avoid any resemblance to earlier pagan work.

• Symbolic not realistic, figures meant not to remind one of earth but to elevate persons
thoughts from the earthly realm to the spiritual .

• Collaborative efforts on Cathedrals, mosaics, etc.

Three periods of the MEDIEVAL ART

• Byzantine Art

• Romanesque

• Gothic

Byzantine Art

Constantinople was close to Asia as well as to Greece, and because of this

proximity, Greek, Roman, and Asian art and culture all influenced Byzantine
artists.

Byzantine art featured very rich colors and heavily outlined figures that
appeared flat and stiff.
• Some of the world’s greatest art, in the form of mosaics, was created during
the 5th and 6th centuries in Turkish Byzantium and its Italian capital,
Ravenna.

• Mosaics were intended to publicize the now official Christian creed, so their
subject was generally religion with Christ shown as teacher and all powerful
ruler.

• Sumptuous grandeur, with halos spotlighting sacred figures and shimmering

gold backgrounds, characterized these works.

• Human figures were flat, stiff, and symmetrically placed, seeming to float as
if hung from pegs.

• Artisans had no interest in suggesting perspective or volume.

• Tall, slim human figures with almond-shaped faces, huge eyes, and solemn
expressions gazed straight ahead, without the least hint of movement.
 Roman Mosaics Byzantine Mosaics

• Used opaque marble cubes • Used reflective glass cubes

• Pieces had smooth flat finish • Surfaces left uneven so work

sparkled

• Colors limited due to use of • Glowing glass in wide range

natural stones of colors

• Typically found on floor of • Found on walls and ceilings-

private homes especially church dome and
apse

• Subjects were secular, like • Subjects were sacred, like

battles, games, etc Christ as shepherd

• Used minute pieces for • Large cubes in stylized

realistic detail designs

• Background represented • Background was abstract,

landscape sky-blue, then gold

Roman Byzantine
Hagia Sophia

Commissioned by Emperor Justinian and designed by 2 mathematicians,

Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, the Hagia Sophia is a completely
innovative structure, recognized as the climax of Byzantine architectural style.

3 football fields long, Hagia Sophia merged the vast scale of Roman buildings with
an Eastern mystical atmosphere. A Byzantine contribution to engineering:

• Pendentives (4 arches forming a square) supported a dome. This structural

revolution accounted for the lofty, unobstructed interior with its soaring
dome.

• 40 arched windows encircle the base of the dome, creating the illusion that
it rests on a halo of light.
 The Romanesque Period
1050-1200
• With the Roman Catholic faith firmly established, a wave of church
construction began throughout feudal Europe.

• Builders borrowed elements from Roman architecture, such as rounded

arches and columns.

• Due to wooden roofs being prone to fire medieval artisans began to roof
churches with stone vaulting, barrel or groin vaults resting on piers could
span large opening with few internal supports or obstructions.

• Interiors were dark and somber because due to the weight of the heavy
stone roofs not many windows could be added.

• The exteriors were plain except for sculptural relief around the main portal.
Most church-goers were illiterate, so sculpture taught doctrine by telling
stories in stone.
ILLUMINIATED MANUSCRIPTS
• With hordes of pillagers looting and razing cities of the former Roman empire,
monasteries were all that stood between Western Europe and total chaos. Here monks
and nuns copied manuscripts, keeping alive both the art of illustration in particular and
Western civilization in general.

• The papyrus scroll used from Egypt to Rome was replaced by the vellum (calfskin) or
parchment (lambskin) codes, made of separate pages bound at one side. Manuscripts
were considered sacred objects containing the work of god. They were decorated
lavishly, so their outward beauty would reflect their sublime contents. Covers were
made of gold studded with precious and semiprecious gems.

• Until printing was developed in the 15th century, these manuscripts were the only form
of books in existence, preserving not only religious teachings but also Classical literature.

• Painters mainly worked on elaborate decorations for Bibles and Prayer books

• Elongated figures and elegant insignificant details are rendered with so much care that
they become the dominant feature.

Page from illuminater Gospel, early 15th century

Ethiopia, Lake Tana region
Wood, vellum, pigment; H. 16 1/2 in. (41.9 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1998 (1998.66)

Leaf from a Beatus Manuscript:

Christ in Majesty with Angels and the Angel of
God Directs Saint John to Write the Book of Revelation, ca. 1180
Spanish; Made in Burgos, Castile-León
Tempera, gold, and ink on parchment,
metal leaf; 17 1/2 x 11 13/16 in. (44.4 x 30 cm)
Purchase, The Cloisters Collection,
Rogers and Harris Brisbane Dick Funds,
and Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1991 (1991.232.3)

Gothic Art / Height and Light

1200-1500
• he Gothic Cathedral Medieval architecture’s greatest triumph

• The solid, heavy Romanesque structures were replaced with structures of

lightness and grace

• In Europe in the twelfth century, many people moved into towns. Stone carvers and carpenters
organized into guilds (unions), where apprentices were taught by masters.

• A wealthy merchant class, with religious faith led to the building of huge cathedrals.

• Developments in architecture
 – the pointed arch and the flying buttress, along with the use of the vault allowed them to
make taller buildings whose walls were perforated with stain glass windows that
changed the light to a rich, glowing color and educated the illiterate with Biblical Stories
being reveled in glass.

Stain glass windows

Stain glass windows replaced

frescos
to instruct illiterate
masses

Arches
Arches (formed by narrow stone ribs extended from tall pillars)
Ribbed vault (ceiling supported by pointed arches)
Giotto
Late Gothic Period 1266 or 7-1337

Giotto was an artist that formed a bridge between the Medieval times and the
Renaissance. He moved toward realism in his depiction of figures and used
naturalistic backgrounds (his skies were blue). He led the way to a new manner of
painting that transformed the flat surface into what appears to be an open space
filled with people, see The Kiss of Judas.
Art of the Middle Ages Review:

Throughout the middle Ages, in a succession of 3 styles, art was concerned with
religion. The main forms of art and architecture associated with each style were:

Byzantine Romanesque Gothic

Art Mosaics, icons Frescoes, stylized Stained glass, more
sculpture natural sculpture
Architecture Central-dome Barrel-vaulted Pointed-arch cathedral
church church
Example Hagia Sophia St. Sernin Chartres
Date 532-37 Begun 1080 1194-1260
Place Constantinople, Toulouse, France Chartres, France
Turkey

Romanesque vs. Gothic

Romanesque Gothic
Emphasis Horizontal Vertical
Elevation Modest height soaring
Layout Multiple units Unified, unbroken space
Main trait Rounded arch Pointed arch
Support system Piers, walls Exterior buttresses
Engineering Barrel and groin Ribbed groin vaults
vaults
Ambiance Dark, solemn Airy, bright
Exterior simple, severe Richly decorated with
sculpture
 Culture
• Culture is the entire way of life for a group of people (including both
material and symbolic elements).
• It is a lens through which one views the world and is passed from one
generation to the next.
• It is what makes us human.
• Culture refers to the total lifestyle of a people, including all of their ideas,
values, knowledge, behaviors, and material objects that they share
• Culture shapes and guides people’s perception of reality
• Culture refers to the universal human capacity to classify, and communicate
their experiences symbolically.

What makes up culture?

Sociologists see culture as consisting of two different categories:
– material culture - any physical object to which we give social
meaning
– symbolic culture - the ideas associated with a cultural group

Material World
• Material Culture
– The physical or tangible (see, touch) that members of a society make, use, and
share
– Includes all those things that humans make or adapt from the raw stuff of nature:
houses, cuisine, jewelry, art, etc.
• Non-Material Culture or Symbolic
– The abstract or intangible human creations of society that influences people’s
behavior - Language, beliefs, values, rules of behavior, family patterns, political
systems
– is a group's way of thinking (including its beliefs, values) and doing (its common
pattern of behavior, including language and other forms of interaction)

Material Culture:
Symbolic Culture:

Culture determines…
• Food we eat
• Clothing
 • Music
• Games we play
• How to express emotions
• What is good or bad
• What is high or low culture (if any)

Characteristics of Culture
• Culture is a universal feature of human social life
• Culture is cumulative
• Culture is learned
• Culture is shared

Society vs. Culture

• Society refers to a group of people who are relatively self-sufficient and who
share a common territory and culture
 • Members of the society preserve and transmit it from one generation to the
next (through literature, art, video recording and other means of
expression)
• Culture refers to that people’s traditions, customs, and behaviors. It includes
ideas, values, and artifacts
• Sharing a similar culture helps to define the society to which we belong

Ethnic Group or Culture Group

• The cultural heritage, or aspects of culture, that a group shares and
attempts to hand down from one generation to the next through learning.

Cultural Universals
• Customs and practices that occur across all societies

Elements of Culture
• Language
• Shelter
• Clothing
• Economy
• Religion
• Education
• Values
• Climate
• Government/Laws
 • Recreation/Entertainment

12 Aspects of Culture or Ethnicity

1. History - time period and conditions under which a group migrated or immigrated.
2. Social Status Factors – education, occupation, income
3. Social Group Interaction Patterns: Intra-group (within group relations) and Inter-group
(between-group relations)
4. Value Orientation – standards by which members of a culture judge their personal
actions and those of others.
5. Language and Communication - Verbal and Nonverbal
6. Family Life Processes – gender roles, family dynamics
7. Healing Beliefs and Practices – attitudes and beliefs about health.
8. Religion – spiritual beliefs and practices
9. Art and Expressive Forms – art, music, stories, dance, etc.
10. Diet/Foods – preferred food eaten by groups.
11. Recreation – activities, sports for leisure, etc.
12. Clothing – types, styles, and extent of body coverings.

Components of Culture

• One of the most important functions of symbolic culture is it allows us to

communicate through signs, gestures, and language.
• Signs (or symbols), such as a traffic signal or product logo, are used to
meaningfully represent something else. Gestures are the signs that we
make with our body, such as hand gestures and facial expressions; it is
important that these gestures also carry meaning.

Non-Verbal Gestures
• Finally language, a system of communication using vocal sounds, gestures,
and written symbols, is probably the most significant component of culture
because it allows us to communicate.

• Language is so important that many have argued that it shapes not only our
communication but our perceptions of how we see things as well.