Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Drastic improvement in mechanical properties and weldability of 316L T

stainless steel weld joints by using electromagnetic vibration during GTAW
process
⁎
Masoud Sabzia, , Saeid Mersagh Dezfulib
a
Young Researchers and Elite Club, Dezful Branch, Islamic Azad University, Dezful, Iran
b
Department of Materials Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, the influence of applying electromagnetic vibration during welding on the microstructural
316L stainless steel weld joint transformations, mechanical properties, and hot-cracking susceptibility in 316L stainless steel welding joints
GTAW process have been investigated. For this purpose, sheets of 6 mm thick were welded using Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding
Electromagnetic vibration (GTAW). During welding, electromagnetic vibrations with voltages of 0, 20 and 40 V were applied to the weld
Mechanical properties
pool in contact with welding. Afterwards, in order to investigate the microstructure of different zones in the weld
Hot-cracking susceptibility
joint, optical and scanning electron microscopes (SEM) were carried out. In order to investigate the mechanical
Fracture mode
properties of weld joints, tensile, Charpy impact, and Vickers microhardness tests were carried out. Then, to
study the fracture mode of joints after that tensile test, the fracture surfaces of the joints are investigated using
SEM. In order to investigate the hot-cracking susceptibility of the 316L stainless steel weld joints, the long-
itudinal Varestraint test was carried out. Microstructural observations showed that increasing the electro-
magnetic vibration during welding process decreases the number and length of columnar dendrites in the weld
metal and shifts the microstructure from columnar to fine equiaxed dendrites. Also, it was revealed that the
microstructure of weld metal included austenite grains with grain-boundary delta ferrite. Increasing electro-
magnetic vibration during welding process results in a reduction of delta ferrite in the weld metal; and, also
increases the extent of an unmixed zone. Mechanical tests reveal that increasing magnetic vibration during
welding process results in drastic increases in mechanical properties including yield strength, toughness, and the
hardness of welding joints. The results of longitudinal Varestraint tests show that increasing electromagnetic
vibration during welding process results in decreasing the hot-crack susceptibility in the 316L stainless steel
welding joints. Also, the analysis of fracture mode shows that increasing the electromagnetic vibration voltage
during GTAW process results in a more ductile fracture with deeper dimples in the 316L stainless steel weld
joints.

1. Introduction
Stainless steels are a group of steels which have a minimum chro-
mium amount of 10.5 wt%. The chromium which exists in such alloys
contributes to the formation of a passive oxide film on the metal surface
which protects the substrate metal against corrosion [1,2]. Stainless
steels are categorized into five groups according to the types of phases
they possess; ferritic, austenitic, dual phase, martensitic, and pre-
cipitation hardening. Austenitic stainless steels are the most extensive
group of stainless steels due to their excellent corrosion resistance,
suitable weldability, and formability; consequently, they are widely
used in petroleum, gas, petrochemistry and refinery, paper making,
biomaterial and other industries [1–3]. In spite of the above ad-
vantages, and due to the low values of hardness and strength, such
steels have limitations in some applications. In order to improve the
mechanical properties of these steels, actions such as creating solid
solutions or secondary phases, precipitation hardening, and grain re-
finement have been made [4–6]. Among such methods, grain refine-
ment is of great importance due to improving strength and flexibility at
the same time, and consequently, it has been the subject of a lot of
studies [5,6]. Because of the application of these alloys in manu-
facturing equipment for many industries, joints and welds of such
materials seem necessary. Important properties such as mechanical
properties (hardness, strength, flexibility, and impact resistance),

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mas.metallurg88@gmail.com, m.sabzi@iauahvaz.ac.ir (M. Sabzi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.05.002
Received 28 February 2018; Received in revised form 15 April 2018; Accepted 2 May 2018
1526-6125/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85

corrosion resistance, and also hot-cracking susceptibility of joint are full Table 1
functions of microstructure and solidification behaviour of weld metal Chemical compositions of BM and filler metal used in the present study (in wt
[7–9]. The solidification structure of Weld Metal (WM) in austenitic %).
stainless steels is dendritic with large amounts of elemental segregation, Fe P Si Cu Mo Ni Cr Mn C Element
the two of which are the causes of a significant decrease in mechanical
properties of weld metal in comparison with base metal [9,10]. Balance 0.001 0.32 – 2.1 10.4 17.92 1.2 0.03 SS 316L
Balance 0.029 0.46 0.74 0.74 21.2 26.1 1.74 0.11 ER310
In order to modify and improve the microstructure of WM, grain
refinement approach can be adopted. For this purpose, methods such as
Inoculation (adding nucleants to the WM), Stimulated Surface applying electromagnetic vibration during GTAW on the metallurgical
Nucleation (blowing cold inert gas to the free surface of WM), and transformations, mechanical properties, fracture mode and weldability
External Stimulation (stirring weld pool, arc fluctuations, and arc pulse) of 316L austenitic stainless steel welding joints, which have not pre-
are utilized for controlling the microstructure and refining WM grains viously been a subject of study.
[11–13].
Development of fine-grained microstructure by using the nucleants
2. Materials and experimental procedure
was already common in casting. In welding, this method did not have
such success as in casting. The reason was that first, the temperature is
In this study, sheets 6 mm thick from 316L austenitic stainless steel
much higher during welding, and second, the heterogeneous nuclei by
have been used as BM. 30 samples were prepared with the dimensions
themselves could have an adverse effect on mechanical properties and
of 100 × 50 mm for the purpose of welding. The chemical composition
weld alloy structure [13,14]. Added to this, cooling the surface of the
of the BM was checked using Spark Emission Spectrometer (made in
piece is very hard due to the welding conditions and requirements.
Germany) and has been presented in Table 1. AWS ER310 filler metal
Hence, physical methods of turbulence in weld pool are more suitable
with a diameter of 2.4 mm was used for welding Sheets. The chemical
due to the ease of the process and high effectiveness. Investigations
composition of filler utilized filler metal was checked using Spark
have revealed that applying electromagnetic vibration simultaneously
Emission Spectrometer (made in Germany) as in Table 1.
during welding, in addition to microstructural modifications [15,16],
In order to prepare the 316L stainless steel sheets for welding, first
results in controlling the mechanical properties [17–19], weldability
samples with dimensions of 100 × 50 × 6 mm were cut using the
control [20–22], release of trapped gases in the weld molten metal,
water-jet machine (made by DiBO company), then in order to achieve
redistribution of elements already solved in the melt, and improvement
the desired joint design, the sheet edges were chamfered in the long-
in the appearance of weld line [23,24].
itudinal direction by use of milling machine. Design of this joint was
In dissimilar joints, usually, an Unmixed Zone (UMZ) is formed in
used considering the thickness of the sheets prepared as single-V butt
the vicinity of the fusion boundary. This UMZ is formed due to the
joints (V type), with a joint angle of 70° and root opening and root base
temperature gradient between Base Metals (BM) and WM. The forma-
of 2 and 1 mm respectively. It should be noted that sample preparation
tion of such a UMZ results in the partial decrease in weld properties and
was done in a way that the weld line was perpendicular to the rolling
its corrosion resistance [25,26]. Investigations reveal that applying
direction of the sheets.
electromagnetic vibration can lead to changes in the extent of this zone
After preparation of the designed joints and in order to omit any
and improvement in the weld properties [26–28]. 304 stainless steel is
kind of oxide layer and surface contamination, the joint spot was de-
the most common and applied member of austenitic-stainless steel fa-
greased by acetone and then dried. Welding of the joint design was
mily. One of the common methods for welding such steels is Gas-
prepared by GTAW using Argon as protective gas and negative polarity
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) [28–30]. Researchers have worked on
by the use of AWS ER310 filler metal was performed in four passes. For
the physical and mechanical properties of different zones in 304
the purpose of welding, a tungsten electrode containing 2% Thorium
stainless steel welds [28,29,31]. The results show that in the micro-
with a diameter of 2.4 mm, and Argon gas with a purity of 99.99%, the
structures resulted from GTAW, austenite is the main phase and skeletal
flow rate of 20 L/min, and back protection with the flow rate of 16 L/
ferrite formed at the grain boundaries. Moreover, hardness increases
min for protecting weld pool were used. The welding parameters have
from BM towards WM [31]. Ramkumar et al. [32] have joined the 304
been reported in Table 2.
stainless steel to Monel 400 by using GTAW, and ER309L as filler metal.
In order to apply electromagnetic vibration during GTAW, the
Following studies revealed microsegregation of chromium and copper
electromagnetic vibration machine was designed and utilized. Fig. 1
along the weld interface which resulted in increasing hot-corrosion
shows the schematic of electromagnetic vibration machine. Different
rate.
electromagnetic vibration intensities during GTAW were applied by
Studies have been made with the aim of investigating the effect of
changing the coil voltage beneath the welding table. Applied voltages in
applying vibration on the 304 stainless sheets of steel. Che-Kuo et al.
the present study are 0, 20, and 40 V.
[33] have utilized mechanical vibration for the purpose of investigating
Given the high sensitivity of stainless steels, cutting and selection of
the effect of applying vibration on the 304 stainless steel during
samples needed for different analysis must have a small effect on the
welding. The results show that by applying vibration and due to the
mechanical and metallurgical properties of the samples. For this reason
increase in the constitutional undercooling, dendrite arms of delta
and for sampling from the weld joints micro-cutter machine (MC 25,
ferrite become short and small, the number of delta ferrite nuclei in-
made in Iran) along with water + soap, the cooling liquid flow was
creases, and also the residual stress decreases. In another study by Chun
used. In order to investigate the microstructure of different zones in the
Hsieh et al. [34] it was found out that by applying mechanical vibration
weld joints, specimens of 6 × 20 × 40 mm were cut from each welded
during welding of the 304 stainless steel, it is possible to increase the
joint which included weld metal, heat affected zone, and base metal. In
temperature gradient and consequently increase nucleation rate and
order to polish the samples, 60 to 1500 sandpapers were used by the
grain refinement.
Considering above, applying vibration during welding process has a
Table 2
great influence on the mechanical properties and hot-cracking sus-
GTAW process parameters used in the present study.
ceptibility. In spite of this fact, the effects of applying electromagnetic
vibration during welding on phase equilibrium in the microstructure, Number of Speed (mm/ Voltage (V) Current intensity Parameter
passes s) (A)
mechanical properties, and weldability of 316L austenitic stainless steel
GTAW joints have not yet been understood thoroughly. Consequently, it 4 3 20 100 Amount
has been decided to dedicate this research to studies on the effects of

75
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli
Fig. 1. A schematic of how electromagnetic vibration is applied to the welding joint using the electromagnetic vibration machine designed in the present study.
wet method. Afterwards, final polishing was carried out using Alumina
solution with the particle size of 0.2 μm. subsequently, 10% Oxalic acid
solution (10 g oxalic acids + 100 milliliters distilled water) was used
for etching the polished samples. Etching process was electrical
(voltage = 26 V, time = 30 s). In the end, an Optical Microscope (OM)
(Olympus, made in Japan) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
(TeScan- Mira III, made in the Czech Republic) were utilized in order to
investigate the microstructures of different zones of weld joints.
After welding process, to predict the effect of applying electro-
magnetic vibration during GTAW process on the weld metal micro-
structure, their dilution percentage was also calculated. The dilution
percentage was based on 100 g weld metal and used Eq. (1) [35,36] for
different weld metals:
XW = D XB + (1 − D) XF
Where 1, D is dilution degree, and XW, XB, and XF are chromium or
nickel percentage in the weld metal, base metal and filler metal re-
spectively. In order to define the percentage of ferrite in the weld metal
a feritscope (Inc Fischer Technology; FERITSCOPE FMP30, made in
Germany) was used. It should be noted that in order to minimize the
measurement errors for the amount of ferrite in the weld metal, eight
points from the final weld pass were tested using feritscope and their
average amount was reported as ferrite percentage of weld metal.
The samples needed for Charpy impact test were prepared using a
wire-cut machine with the dimensions of 55 × 5 × 5 mm according to
ASTM E23. Afterwards, the Charpy impact test was carried out using
SANTAM machine (SIT-200B) with a capacity of 400 J. Also, the sam-
ples needed for the tensile test were prepared as per ASME Sec IX.
Uniaxial tension test was performed at room temperature with a strain
rate of 10−2 s−1 using SANTAM machine (ASTM-400). Also, to study
the fracture mode of joints after that tensile test is complete, the frac-
ture surfaces of the joints are investigated using SEM. In order to
measure the microhardness of different zones and characterize the
hardness profile of 316L stainless steel weld joints, Vickers micro-
hardness was carried out at room temperature using an applied load of
100 g and loading time of 20 s.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85
To define the weldability and evaluate the hot-cracking suscept-
ibility of 316L stainless steel weld joints, a longitudinal Varestraint test
was performed. In order to carry out this test, firstly several sheets of
316L stainless steel with dimensions of 150 × 30 × 3.2 mm were
formed. Afterwards, a 2 mm deep groove was created in the middle of
each of these sheets using a milling machine. Next, the created grooves
were filled by a single welding pass using GTAW method along with an
electromagnetic vibration machine till a fillet weld of AWS ER310 filler
metal was formed on the surface of sheet grooves. Afterwards, the fillet
weld was omitted from the sheets surfaces by the use of machining. In
order to carry out a longitudinal Varestraint test, one side of weld joints
was tightly fixed and the other side was left free to be subject to force
application. Finally, after longitudinal Varestraint test and in order to
observe and measure the length of hot cracks that possibly formed at
(1)
the 316L stainless steel weld joints, scanning electron microscopy
(Phenom-ProX, made in the Netherlands) was used.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructural observations on different zones in weld joints
In this section, the microstructures of the weld metals area are
discussed which are highly influenced by dilution degree. Dilution is
defined as the amount or share of BM which is melted and placed in the
WM [37–42]. Dilution may have a crucial role in the solidification
microstructure of WM and also the mechanical properties of weld
joints. The value of equivalent chromium, equivalent nickel, and dilu-
tion degree (as per Eq. (1) is reported which has been created by dif-
ferent electromagnetic vibration voltages, As per Table 3, by increasing
the electromagnetic vibration (increasing the voltage in a magnetic-
field-induction coil) during GTAW, the dilution of weld metal de-
creases.
Applying electromagnetic vibration during GTAW process, not only
results in higher turbulence and movement in the weld-pool melt, but
also decreases the temperature of weld pool due to higher heat transfer
by convection and consequently melting of lower amounts of BM
76
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85

Table 3
Crw, Niw, and D values defined by Eq. (1) and Schaeffler diagram.
D (%) Niw (%) Crw (%) Voltage of electromagnetic vibration

21.46 24.63 26.44 0

19.33 18.30 24.64 20
13.26 18.94 25.20 40

[42,43]. Lower melting of metal results in decreases in the amount of

BM which enters the WM and consequently decreases in the dilution
degree. So, the results in Table 3 show that electromagnetic vibration
with a voltage of 20 V has small effects on decreasing the dilution
amounts; and, by increasing the applied vibration up to 40 V, dilution
amount decreases to a greater extent. This phenomenon occurs due to
higher turbulence and convection heat transfer as a result of higher
vibration. Decreasing the temperature of weld melt pool by increasing
electromagnetic vibration is consistent with other studies as well. Pre-
viously, Villafuerte and Kerr [43] reported that applying electro-
magnetic vibration during welding of stainless steels results in de-
creasing the temperature of WM pool.
In the investigated weld joints, the types of solidification micro-
structures in the WM, in accordance with casting solidification-struc-
tures, include fine side grains at the weld edges along the boundaries
between WM and BM as moving from sides to the centre of the weld.
The fine side grains at weld edges are formed due to the higher cooling
rates and contact with solid BM. Due to the fact that there is no pre-
heating process in GTAW, and because of high temperature gradient
between molten WM and 316L stainless steel BM, a high-temperature
gradient is produced in this zone and fine surface nuclei are to be
formed on the surface of 316L stainless steel BM which will convert to
fine side grains. Such grains do not have a preferred elongation and are
stretched at the margins of weld interface. Consequently, there are cell
and columnar dendrites that have grown towards the centre. The
growth direction of such grains is opposite and parallel to heat transfer
direction in the 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM. Finally, there is a
small region of central equiaxed grains in the weld centre in which
grains are larger in size compared to fine side grains, the latter of which
have high growth rates and low gradients during formation.
Fig. 2-a shows the OM images of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint
WM before applying the electromagnetic vibration. As the figure
shown, the microstructure of the 316 stainless steel GTAW joint WM is Fig. 2. Microstructural images of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM (when no
thoroughly austenitic with small amounts of delta ferrite at the grain electromagnetic vibration is applied): (a) OM, (b) SEM.
boundaries and between the dendritic arms (branches). Calculating an
equivalent nickel amount of 24.63% and equivalent chromium amount by SEM micrographs.
of 26.44% for the filler metal and using Schaeffler diagram with a di- After revealing solidification microstructure by metallographic
lution of 21.46% (Table 3) reveals that the solidification mode is aus- processes, the grain boundaries at 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM
tenitic-ferritic (AF) and ferrite number of WM equals 3%. As a result of are clear. In the microstructural images of the 316 stainless steel GTAW
the WM dilution by BM and the increase in the amount of ferrite-sta- joint WM, three kinds of grain boundaries are observed:
bilizing elements such as chromium and molybdenum in the WM, at the
end of solidification, such elements are accumulated at the solidifica- 1 Solidification Grain Boundaries (SGBs)
tion subgrain boundaries (SSGBs) and a small amount of delta ferrite is
created between dendritic arms due to a eutectic reaction. Formation of In Fig. 3-a, the solidification grain boundaries which have been
such amount of delta ferrite can result in the tendency of a shift in the created due to the crosses made between sub-grain packs or bundles are
mode of solidification from austenitic (A) to austenitic-ferritic (AF). observable in the 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM. Usually, SGBs
Results obtained by feritscope show a ferrite amount of 3.2% in the WM are the direct results of competitive growth which occurs along trailing
which is in good accordance with the results obtained by Schaeffler edge of weld pool [44,45]. As each of such sub-grain bundles has a
diagram. The presence of austenite-stabilizing elements such as nickel, growth direction and a different orientation, the crosses made between
carbon, and manganese in the chemical composition of ER310 filler them results in high misorientation angle boundaries. Such solidifica-
metal, results in the occurrence of a totally austenitic solidification. tion boundaries are usually called “high-angle grain boundaries”. In-
Increasing the dilution of weld metal up to 21.7% by using 316L vestigations show that weld solidification cracks in the stainless steels
stainless steel results in decreasing the amount of austenite-stabilizing always occurs along the SGBs [44,45].
elements namely carbon, nickel, manganese, and copper, in the WM. It
also increases the amount of ferrite in the WM up to 3.3%. In Fig. 2-b, 1 Solidification Subgrain Boundaries (SSGBs)
the austenitic matrix and the presence of delta ferrite phase in the
microstructure of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM are observable Solidification subgrains in the weld metal microstructure possess

77
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli
Fig. 3. OM images of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM (when no electro-
magnetic vibration is applied: (a) SGB, (b) SSGB, (c) MGB.
the finest microstructures that can be detected by optical microscopy.
Such sub-grains are observable as cells and/or dendrites in Fig. 3-b. The
boundary which divides the adjacent subgrains is known as solidifica-
tion sub-grain boundary [46,47]. The solidification subgrain
78
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85
boundaries are detected by comparison with main grain boundaries;
this is because the chemical compositions of the two are different. All
along SSGBs, a small degree of misorientation is observed in the crys-
tallographic orientation and from a crystallographic point of view, such
grains are known as low-angle grain boundaries [47–49]. This low
angular misorientation in the crystallographic orientation is due to the
fact that the growth of sub-grains during solidification occurs along
preferred crystallographic directions (< 100 > direction in FCC me-
tals). Because of such, the density of dislocations along SSGBs is gen-
erally low due to the non-existence of structural mismatch for the po-
sitioning of mobile dislocations [49–51].
1 Migrated Grain Boundaries (MGBs)
Fig. 3-c shows that grain boundary migration has occurred in the
microstructure of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM to some extent.
The activation force needed for grain migration in the microstructure of
316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM is the reduction in the energy of
the boundary [52–54]. The migrated grain boundaries have been
formed with a high degree of difference with the initial grain bound-
aries in the microstructure of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM and
result in a decrease in the energy of the system. Alloy element segre-
gation along migrated grain boundaries can assist other segregations
that occur in the microstructure of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM.
In Fig. 4, the effect of applying electromagnetic vibrations with
different intensities with 20 V and 40 V on 316L stainless steel GTAW
joint WM during GTAW process is presented. It can be observed that
whether using electromagnetic vibration during GTAW or not, all the
specimens show a thoroughly austenitic matrix with small amounts of
delta ferrite between the dendritic arms in the microstructure of 316L
stainless steel GTAW joint WM.
Comparison between the microstructural images of 316L stainless
steel GTAW joint WM in Fig. 4 reveals that applying electromagnetic
vibration during GTAW process results in grain refinement and also, to
some extent, results in the reduction of delta ferrite and more uniform
distribution in the WM. To define the amount of ferrite and ferrite
number in the 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM, feritscope and
Schaeffler diagram were utilized. The results obtained by feritscope
have been reported in Table 4. It can be observed that electromagnetic
vibration results in the reduction of delta ferrite from 3.53 down to 1.48
% in the WM. The presence of heterogeneous nucleation sites and their
stability at weld pool condition may result in reducing the new nu-
cleation sites which can independently grow and result in grain re-
finement in the WM in the 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM. Ap-
plying electromagnetic vibration to the molten WM as solidifying
during GTAW process, on one hand, can result in the breakage of the tip
of columnar dendrites which are growing from fusion boundary to-
wards the weld centre. On the other hand, it results in better movement
of the melt, its enhanced diffusion between the dendrites, and also
higher convection heat transfer and lower temperature of the weld
molten metal pool. As a consequence of the decrease in the temperature
of weld molten metal pool, a decrease in the solidification time occurs.
Hence, applying electromagnetic vibration during GTAW results in:
higher increase in the number of broken dendrite tips and partially-
melted grains, higher stability of heterogeneous nucleation sites in the
weld molten metal, higher opportunity for the formation of new grains,
grain refinement in the WM, and finally, higher degree of formation of
equiaxed grains [55–57]. Using Image J software, the sizes of weld
metal dendrites were measured. The results of these measurements are
presented in Table 4. It can be seen that by applying electromagnetic
vibration during GTAW process, the mean dendrite size of 316L stain-
less steel GTAW joint WM decreases from 504.81 μm to 40.67 μm.
As explained at the beginning of this section, the solidification mode
of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM is austenitic-ferritic. As a result,
decreasing the temperature of the molten pool, results in a cooling
acceleration in the molten weld-metal pool. This is due to increasing the
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli
Fig. 4. OM microstructural images taken from 316L stainless steel GTAW joint
WM: (a) without applying electromagnetic vibration, (b) by applying an elec-
tromagnetic vibration with a voltage of 20 V, (c) by applying an electro-
magnetic vibration with a voltage of 40 V.
convection heat transfer and high solidification rate. Above factors
decrease the opportunities for transformation from austenite to ferrite.
Hence, applying electromagnetic vibration during GTAW process
79
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85
Table 4
Ferrite amount (F), ferrite number (FN), and dendritic size (D) of 316L stainless
steel GTAW joint WM at different vibration voltages.
F (wt.) FN (%) D (μm) Voltage of electromagnetic vibration
3.53 ± 0.14 3 504.81 ± 0.36 0
2.76 ± 0.11 3 219.72 ± 0.52 20
1.48 ± 0.06 2 40.67 ± 0.73 40
results in the formation of lower amounts of delta ferrite in the final
microstructure of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM. Overall, higher
intensities of electromagnetic vibration (by a voltage of 40 V), result in
a higher decrease in the temperature of the molten weld-metal pool,
which in turn results in increasing the cooling rate of the molten weld-
metal pool and decreasing the amount of delta ferrite in the 316L
stainless steel GTAW joint WM.
In Fig. 5-a, images of the interface between 316L stainless steel BM
and WM before applying electromagnetic vibration have been pre-
sented. As can be seen, the interface between 316L stainless steel BM
and WM shows a very good continuity and no crack or discontinuity is
observable. It can be observed from Fig. 5-a that the solidification of
316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM in the areas close to fusion
boundary includes dendrites that are stretched towards the WM centre.
It can also be considered that in the interface between 316L stainless
steel BM and WM a UMZ is formed. The UMZ is a boundary layer of BM
close to fusion line which is melted during welding and solidified after
the last pass of weld process without considerable mixing with filler
metal [58–60]. The UMZ solidification first starts from the partially
melted zone and then continues along the fusion line. Usually, the UMZ
possesses the same chemical composition as the BM. Hence, the molten
BM is still and does not get mixed with filler metal.
As seen in Fig. 5-a and -b that the width of the UMZ is not the same
in all parts of the interface and is a function of the positioning of the
interface in the weld joint. Due to the convection current which occurs
mostly in lower and higher parts of the weld pool, the width of UMZ in
such parts is narrower. The formation of UMZ occurs mostly in the
dissimilar stainless steel joints and due to the difference between the
melting points of base metal and filler metal and absence of turbulence
and insufficient mixing in the small zone at the side of weld pool
[60–62]. The presence of UMZ can result in decreasing corrosion re-
sistance, an occurrence of pitting, and increasing hot-cracking sus-
ceptibility in the dissimilar stainless steel joints [63–65].
Fig. 5-b and -c show that applying electromagnetic vibration during
GTAW process results in very high turbulences in the WM which con-
sequently breaks the large columnar dendrites and creates higher
amounts of fine equiaxial grains in the vicinity of the fusion boundary
of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM. Also, it can be observed from
Fig. 5-b and -c that applying electromagnetic vibration results in an
intense decrease or even omission of UMZ in the interface. The reason
for such increase or omission of the UMZ in the interface can be justi-
fied as follows: due to the electromagnetic vibration, movement tur-
bulence and mixing of metal in fusion pool increases. As a result, in
such a situation better melt movement and diffusion occurs between the
dendrites. In fact, by increasing the voltage of electromagnetic vibra-
tion, mixing between the UMZ melt and the main melt of WM occurs to
a greater extent and as a consequent of this phenomenon, the UMZ
unifies with the WM and omits.
3.2. Investigations on mechanical properties of weld joints
In Fig. 6, the results of mechanical property tests (tensile, impact,
and microhardness tests) of 316L stainless steel GTAW joints which
have been obtained with different intensities of electromagnetic vi-
bration have been presented. Comparison between the microhardness
values obtained in different vibrations from FZ (fusion zone), UMZ and
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli
Fig. 5. OM images taken from the UMZ of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint: (a)
without applying electromagnetic vibration, (b) by applying an electromagnetic
vibration with a voltage of 20 V, (c) by applying an electromagnetic vibration
with a voltage of 40 V.
80
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85
BM of 316L stainless steel GTAW joints, show that the largest amount of
hardness is related to the WM of weld joint with a 40 V electromagnetic
vibration, and the smallest amount of hardness is related to the WM of
weld joint without applying electromagnetic vibration. The reason for
such increase in hardness is the presence of dendritic structure with
finer equiaxed grains in the WM of 40 V electromagnetic vibration
compared with the WM without applying electromagnetic vibration.
The effect of dendrite size on the hardness of 316L stainless steel GTAW
joint WM can be proved by the use of the Hall-Petch equation. Hall-
Petch equation is as followed [66,67]:
K
σ0 = σi +
D (2)
In Eq. (2), σ0 is the yield stress, σi is the friction stress against dis-
location movement, K is a constant which defines the degree of dis-
location accumulation behind grain boundaries, and D is the average
diameter of grains. As per Eq. (2), yield stress and hardness value have
opposite relation with grain size in 316L stainless steel GTAW joint
WM. As a result, a decrease in the dendrite size is the main reason for
the increase in the hardness value of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint
WM. This can be clearly observed in Fig. 6-a.
In Fig. 6-a, it can be observed that the UMZ has lower hardness
compared to the BM. The reason is the growth of austenite grains in the
UMZ. Considering the low growth of grains in the UMZ due to applying
electromagnetic vibration during GTAW, the degree of decrease in
hardness is low in this zone and subsequently, the UMZ is not con-
sidered as a week zone in the weld joint. On the other hand, it can be
observed that the hardness of central zones in the WM is higher than the
side zones and the zones close to fusion line. The reason is the presence
of grains with smaller sizes in the central zones along with central
equiaxed grains close to the fusion line. Of course, the hardness of
central and side zones do not differ that much and cannot have a sig-
nificant effect on reducing the mechanical properties of the weld joint.
In Fig. 6-b, the engineering stress-strain curves for 316L stainless
steel GTAW joints have been presented. As seen in the figure, with in-
creasing the density of electromagnetic vibration during GTAW process,
yield strength, tensile strength, and toughness of 316L stainless steel
joints intensely increase. The reason is related to the mobility of dis-
locations in the 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM. In Fig. 4, it can be
observed that increasing the intensity of electromagnetic vibration
during GTAW process results in the intense reduction in dendrite sizes
in 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM. On the other hand, the grains
boundaries have high energy due to the disorders that exist in them. So,
mobile dislocations must possess high amounts of energy in order to
cross the grain boundaries. This is why the mobile dislocations are
accumulated behind the grain boundaries when reaching them and stop
moving. This results in increasing the dislocation density behind the
grain boundaries and finally increasing the strength and hardness [68].
This phenomenon can also be proved by Hall-Petch equation (Eq. (2)).
The results of a tensile test are also similar to studies made by Astaf’ev
et al. [68]. These authors have reported that by decreasing the grain
sizes of austenite in the microstructure of Hadfield steel, mechanical
properties including hardness, tensile strength, and yield strength in-
tensely increase as well.
In Fig. 6-c the results of Charpy impact test for 316L stainless steel
GTAW joints have been presented. From this figure, it can be observed
that by increasing the intensity of electromagnetic vibration during
GTAW process, impact resistance and fracture energy of 316L stainless
steel GTAW joints intensely increases. The results of Charpy impact test
show an increase in the impact energy with amounts from 106J for
weld joints without applying electromagnetic vibration to 189J for
weld joints applying 40 V electromagnetic vibration. The results pre-
sented in Fig. 6-c show that the weld joint with 40 V electromagnetic
vibration has absorbed the largest amount of energy during fracture,
the reason is the finer sizes of dendrites in the microstructure of the WM
in this joint. By increasing the intensity of applied vibration during
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli
Fig. 6. Results of: (a) Micro-hardness test, (b) Tensile test, (c) Charpy impact test.
GTAW, the equiaxed grains in the centre of WM get finer and the dis-
tance between dendritic arms reduces. This fact results in a huge in-
crease in the toughness and absorbed energy during fracture of the weld
joint with 40 V electromagnetic vibration.
As previously mentioned, increasing the density of applied vibration
during GTAW process results in decreasing the dendrite sizes and in-
creasing the number of grain boundaries. As the grain boundaries are
one of the high-energy sites in the microstructure, they act as strong
81
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85
barriers against crack propagation. Cracks must possess high amounts
of energy when crossing the grain boundaries. When the number of
grain boundaries increases, the crossing of cracks over them is achieved
when the crack has enough energy to cross them [69–71]. Also, by
grain refinement in WM, the size of initial crack decreases, and fracture
time faces delays, and finally these factors result in huge increase in the
toughness of weld joint. Overall, the results of all tests, tensile, Charpy
impact, and microhardness have good accordance with each other.
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85

3.3. Investigations on weldability of the weld joint

In order to investigate the effect of applying electromagnetic vi-

bration during GTAW process on the hot-cracking susceptibility of 316L
stainless steel GTAW joints, the longitudinal Varestraint test was car-
ried out. The occurrence of hot cracks in WM is one of the common
problems in welding of austenitic stainless steels specially 316L stain-
less steels and specifically stainless alloys which are solidified as A or
AF [72,73]. After the weld process finishes and as the WM is solidifying
in the brittle temperature range (BTR), because of the shrinkage that
occurs due to the solidification of WM and also the shrinkage of BM
during cooling, tensile stress is inserted on the WM. If the resistance of
WM against the inserted tensile stress is lower than the activation en-
ergy for nucleation of cracks, hot cracks occur in the WM. On the other
hand, as the solidification range increases, the hot-cracking susceptible
zone in the WM gets extensive as well. Also, the austenitic stainless
steels which show AF solidification mode after the welding process
finishes, have higher resistance against hot cracks compared to other
solidification modes. The main reason for such good resistance is the
presence of a two-phase mixture of ferrite and austenite along solidi-
fication grain boundaries (SGBs) when solidification finishes. The two-
phase mixture of ferrite and austenite resist against wetting by molten
films and the complex boundaries or barriers are formed along the
zones in which the cracks have more growth. Consequently, when a hot
crack nucleates in the weld metal its growth along the complex barriers
gets hard and difficult. The presence of impurity elements such as
phosphorus and sulfurous, even in low concentrations, encourage hot
cracking in the austenitic stainless steel WMs. Impurities have higher
solubility in the delta ferrite compared to austenite phase [74,75].
Hence, the presence of higher amounts of delta ferrite in the micro-
structure of WM increases the hot-cracking susceptibility in it. Pre-
viously, it was reported in microstructural images of Fig. 4 and ferit-
scope results of Table 4 that increasing the electromagnetic vibration
applied during GTAW process, results in decreasing the amount of delta
ferrite in WM. So, by increasing the voltage of electromagnetic vibra-
tion during GTAW process, the concentration of impurities in the aus-
tenite grain boundaries and consequently their detrimental effects on
hot cracking of 316L stainless steel GTAW joint WM decreases.
Also as it is evident from Fig. 4 that increasing the voltage of
electromagnetic vibration during GTAW process results in reductions in
dendrite size in the microstructure of WM. On the other hand, the
equiaxed dendritic microstructure containing high amounts of melt
between the grains deforms much easier than the columnar dendritic
structure. The equiaxed-grained microstructure has a lower suscept-
ibility to hot cracking due to higher flexibility against shrinkage strains,
higher possibility of more effective melt feeding and reparation of the
initial cracks in the WM. Moreover, the fine grains decrease the possi-
bility of impurity and detrimental elements accumulations at the grain
boundaries to a high extent due to the higher grain surface. Hence,
increasing the voltage of electromagnetic vibration during GTAW pro-
cess results in improvements in the weldability and increases the hot-
cracking resistance in the 316L stainless steel GTAW joints by reducing
the dendrite sizes in the WM microstructure. This fact has been clearly
depicted in Fig. 7. It can be observed from this figure that the maximum
length of hot cracks forming in the weld joint is about 13.7 mm without
applying electromagnetic vibration, and 2.1 mm for the weld joint
made by 40 V electromagnetic vibration.

3.4. Investigations on fracture mode of the weld joint
In Fig. 8, SEM images from fracture surfaces of 316L stainless steel
GTAW joints after uniaxial tensile test have been presented. It can be
observed from Fig. 8 that the fracture surfaces of all three 316L stainless
steel GTAW joints have the characteristics of ductile fracture (dimples).
The fractography of ductile fracture surfaces in Fig. 8 shows that such
surfaces have characteristic aspects of their own microscopically
Fig. 7. SEM images of hot cracks in 316L stainless steel GTAW joint: (a) without
applying electromagnetic vibration, (b) by applying an electromagnetic vibra-
tion with a voltage of 20 V, (c) by applying an electromagnetic vibration with a
voltage of 40 V.
(presence of primary and secondary dimples). Several metals and alloys
with FCC lattice (such as 316L austenitic stainless steel) undergo a
completely ductile fracture at room temperature. Ductile fracture in

82
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli
Fig. 8. SEM images from fracture surfaces of 316L stainless steel GTAW joints
after the uniaxial tensile test: (a) without applying electromagnetic vibration,
(b) by applying an electromagnetic vibration with a voltage of 20 V, (c) by
applying an electromagnetic vibration with a voltage of 40 V.
316L stainless steel weld joints is usually gradual and appear after a
high amount of plastic deformation and for a higher tension from ten-
sile strength of weld joints. Among the characteristics of ductile fracture
in 316L stainless steel GTAW joints under the effect of tension is the
appearance of very small pores in the necking section and they're
joining together till the rupture of final fracture has occurred. As a
matter of fact, in the tensile test for 316L stainless steel GTAW joints,
the mechanism of ductile fracture is activated in three stages:
(1) Pore nucleation stage (at the start of necking)
(2) Pores growth stage (stable or unstable)
(3) Pores joining stage (at strains higher that tensile strength)
After the pores join together, final fracture of welding joint occurs
which results in the formation of dimples on the fracture surface of
316L stainless steel GTAW joints. Such a kind of fracture which is
83
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85
famous as Cup & Cone fracture in mechanical engineering is the most
important fracture mechanism in 316L stainless steel GTAW joints
[70,72].
Also, it must be noted that the type of manufacturing process,
thermal and thermodynamic conditions of the process, types of primary
materials, and the formed microstructures have severe effects on the
properties of materials [76–78]. As clearly observed from the fracto-
graphy of fracture surfaces in Fig. 8, increasing the voltage of electro-
magnetic vibration during GTAW process results in a more ductile
fracture with deeper dimples in the 316L stainless steel welding joints.
This happens due to two reasons:
1 As observed from microstructural images and ferritometery results,
increasing the electromagnetic vibration voltage during GTAW
process results in reducing the amount of delta ferrite in the aus-
tenite grain boundaries of weld metal in the 316L stainless steel
weld joints. In other words, by increasing the electromagnetic vi-
bration voltage during GTAW process, in the weld metal of 316L
stainless steel weld joint the amount of ferrite decreases and aus-
tenite increases. On the other hand, as the amount of austenite phase
increases, the mechanism of ductile fracture speeds up and becomes
activated to a higher degree.
2 As can be seen from the microstructural images and stress-strain
plots, increasing the electromagnetic vibration voltage during
GTAW process results in reducing the austenite grain size and in-
creasing the plastic deformability in the 316L stainless steel weld
joints. As the austenite grain size decreases and the fracture strain
increases, the possibility of ductile fracture in the weld joint in-
creases as well.
Overall, the observations on the fracture mode in Fig. 8 are in
complete accordance with the results of tensile and impact tests.
4. Conclusion
In this article, the effect of applying electromagnetic vibration
during welding on the microstructural transformations, mechanical
properties, fracture mode and hot-cracking susceptibility of 316L
stainless steel joints have been investigated. With this purpose, sheets of
6 mm thick were welded using GTAW process. At the same time with
welding, the electromagnetic vibration of 0 V, 20 V, and 40 V were
applied to the weld pool in the weld joint. Afterwards, the prepared
joints were evaluated using OM, SEM, tensile tests, Charpy impact test,
Vickers microhardness test, and longitudinal Varestraint test. The re-
sults are as follows:
a) The microstructure of 316L stainless steel weld joint WM includes
an austenite matrix with interdendritic ferrite between the dendritic
branches. The microscopic observations proved that solidification of
316L stainless steel weld joint WM is columnar dendritic and
equiaxed having austenitic-ferritic (AF) mode; in which, applying
electromagnetic vibration during GTAW process results in higher
amounts of breakage of gross columnar dendrites and higher for-
mation of fine equiaxed dendrites. Moreover, the microstructural
images showed that increasing the voltage of electromagnetic vi-
bration during GTAW process results in the reduction of delta ferrite
at the austenite grain boundaries in 316L stainless steel weld joint
WM. One of the other microstructural transformations which oc-
curred in 316L stainless steel weld joint was that increasing the
voltage of electromagnetic vibration during GTAW process resulted
in the omission of UMZ.
b) The results of uniaxial tensile tests revealed that increasing the
voltage of electromagnetic vibration during GTAW process results in
intense increases in strength and toughness in 316L stainless steel
weld joint.
c) Comparison between hardness values in different vibrations at FZ,
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli
UMZ, and BM for 316L stainless steel GTAW joints revealed that
highest hardness values are related to weld joint WMs with 40 V
electromagnetic vibration and lowest hardness values relate to weld
joint WMs with 0 V electromagnetic vibration. Moreover, the
hardness profile obtained by microhardness test showed that the
UMZ has a lower hardness value compared to 316L stainless steel
BM. The reason is the growth of austenitic grains in the UMZ.
d) Investigating the results of Charpy impact test showed that in-
creasing the voltage of electromagnetic vibration during GTAW
process results in an intense increase in the fracture energy of 316L
stainless steel weld joint.
e) The results of the longitudinal Varestraint test revealed that in-
creasing the electromagnetic vibration during welding process re-
sults in an intense decrease in hot-cracking susceptibility in 316L
stainless steel weld joints. The SEM observations on hot cracks
formed in the 316L stainless steel weld joints showed that the
maximum length of hot cracks in the weld joint using 0 V electro-
magnetic vibration is about 13.72 mm, and in the weld joint using
40 V electromagnetic vibration is about 2.14 mm.
f) The fractography of fracture surfaces after uniaxial tensile test show
that with or without applying electromagnetic vibration, 316L
stainless steel GTAW joints have a fracture mode of %100 ductile.
Also, the analysis of fracture mode in the 316L stainless steel GTAW
joints shows that increasing the electromagnetic vibration voltage
during GTAW process results in a more ductile fracture with deeper
dimples in the 316L stainless steel weld joints.
References
[1] Ming H, Ming H, Zh. Zhang, Wang J, Han EH, Wang P, Zh. Sun. Microstructure of a
safe-end dissimilar metal weld joint (SA508-52-316L) prepared by narrow-gap
GTAW. Mater Charact 2017;123:233–43.
[2] Lin CM. Relationships between microstructures and properties of buffer layer with
inconel 52M clad on AISI 316L stainless steel by GTAW processing. Surf Coat
Technol 2013;228:234–41.
[3] Wrońska A, Dudek A. Characteristics of surface layer of sintered stainless steels after
remelting using GTAW method. Arch Civil Mech Eng 2014;14(3):425–32.
[4] Zuma BN, van der Merwe JW. Effect of Ru addition on the mechanical properties
and microstructure of 316L austenitic stainless steel weld metal. Procedia Manuf
2017;7:2–7.
[5] Ghosh N, Kumar Pal P, Nandi G. Parametric optimization of MIG welding on 316L
austenitic stainless steel by grey-based Taguchi method. Procedia Technol
2016;25:1038–48.
[6] Shashi Kumar S, Murugan N, Ramachandran KK. Microstructure and mechanical
properties of friction stir welded AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel joints. J Mater
Process Technol 2018;254:79–90.
[7] Jahanzeb N, Shin JH, Singh J, Heo YU, Sh. Choi H. Effect of microstructure on the
hardness heterogeneity of dissimilar metal joints between 316L stainless steel and
SS400 steel. Mater Sci Eng: A 2017;700:338–50.
[8] Verma J, Vasantrao Taiwade R. Dissimilar welding behavior of 22% Cr series
stainless steel with 316L and its corrosion resistance in modified aggressive en-
vironment. J Manuf Process 2016;24(Part 1):1–10.
[9] Almeida DF, Martins RF, Cardoso JB. Numerical simulation of residual stresses in-
duced by TIG butt-welding of thin plates made of AISI 316L stainless steel. Procedia
Struct Integr 2017;5:633–9.
[10] Shankar V, GillS TPS, Mannan L, Sundaresan S. Solidification cracking in austenitic
stainless steel welds. Sadhana 2003;28(3–4):359–82.
[11] Ghosh N, Kumar Pal PP, Nandi G. GMAW dissimilar welding of AISI 409 ferritic
stainless steel to AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel by using AISI 308 filler wire.
Eng Sci Technol 2017;20(4):1334–41.
[12] Devendranath Ramkumar K, Patel SD, Praveen SS, Choudhury DJ, Prabaharan P,
Arivazhagan N, et al. Influence of filler metals and welding techniques on the
structure?property relationships of Iinconel 718 and AISI 316L dissimilar weld-
ments. Mater Des 2014;62:175–88.
[13] Tabatabaeipour SM, Honarvar F. A comparative evaluation of ultrasonic testing of
AISI 316L welds made by shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding
processes. J Mater Process Technol 2010;210(8):1043–50.
[14] Ravi S, Parameswaran P, Ganeshkumar J, Sakthy S, Laha K. Failure analysis of 316L
austenitic stainless steel bellows used under dynamic sodium in a creep testing
chamber. Eng Fail Anal 2016;59:366–76.
[15] Kianersi D, Mostafaei A, Amadeh AA. Resistance spot welding joints of AISI 316L
austenitic stainless steel sheets: phase transformations, mechanical properties and
microstructure characterizations. Mater Des 2014;61:251–63.
[16] Elmesalamy AS, Abdolvand H, Walsh JN, Francis JA, Suder W, Williams S, et al.
Measurement and modelling of the residual stresses in autogenous and narrow gap
laser welded AISI grade 316L stainless steel plates. Int J Press Vessels Pip
2016;147:64–78.
84
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85
[17] Ming H, Zhu R, Zh. Zhang, Wang J, Han EH, Wang J, et al. Microstructure, local
mechanical properties and stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of an SA508-
52M-316LN safe-end dissimilar metal weld joint by GTAW. Mater Sci Eng: A
2016;669:279–90.
[18] Albert SK, Das CR, Sam Sh, Mastanaiah P, Patel M, Bhaduri AK, et al. Mechanical
properties of similar and dissimilar weldments of RAFMS and AISI 316L (N) SS
prepared by electron beam welding process. Fusion Eng Des
2014;89(7–8):1605–10.
[19] Jiang W, Zhang Y, Woo W. Using heat sink technology to decrease residual stress in
316L stainless steel welding joint: finite element simulation. Int J Press Vessels Pip
2012;92:56–62.
[20] Sánchez-Tovar R, Montañés MT, García-Antón J. Effect of the micro-plasma arc
welding technique on the microstructure and pitting corrosion of AISI 316L stain-
less steels in heavy LiBr brines. Corros Sci 2011;53(8):2598–610.
[21] Shankar V, Gill TPS, Mannan SL, Sundaresan S. Effect of nitrogen addition on mi-
crostructure and fusion zone cracking in type 316L stainless steel weld metals.
Mater Sci Eng: A 2003;343(1–2):170–81.
[22] Ganesh P, Moitra A, Tiwari P, Sathyanarayanan S, Kumar H, Rai SK, et al. Fracture
behavior of laser-clad joint of Sstellite 21 on AISI 316L stainless steel. Mater Sci
Eng: A 2010;527(16–17):3748–56.
[23] Sánchez-Tovar R, Montañés MT, García-Antón J. Effect of different micro-plasma
arc welding (MPAW) processes on the corrosion of AISI 316L SS tubes in LiBr and
H3PO4 solutions under flowing conditions. Corros Sci 2010;52(4):1508–19.
[24] Mishra MP, Borgstedt HU, Mathew MD, Mannan SL, Rodriguez P. A comparative
study of creep rupture behaviour of modified 316L(N) base metal and 316L(N)16-8-
2 weldment in air and liquid sodium environments. Int J Press Vessels Pip
1997;72(2):111–8.
[25] Malinowski-Brodnicka M, Den Ouden G, Vink W. Effect of electromagnetic stirring
on GTA welds in austenitic stainless steel. Weld J 1990;2(2):52–9.
[26] Baeslack W, Lippold J, Savage W. Unmixed zone formation in austenitic stainless
steel weldments. Weld J 1979;58(6):168–81.
[27] Castro CAC, Urashima DC, Silva EP, Silva PML. Advantages of vibration in the
GMAW process for improving the quality and mechanical properties. Int J Mech
Mechatron Eng 2015;9(6):1107–11.
[28] Kalpana J, Srinivasa Rao P, Govinda Rao P. Effect of vibratory welding process on
hardness of dissimilar welded joints. Eng Solid Mech 2017;5(2):133–8.
[29] Garcia C, de Tiedra MP, Blanco Y, Martin O, Martin F. Intergranular corrosion of
welded joints of austenitic stainless steels studied by using an electrochemical
minicell. Corros Sci 2008;50(8):2390–7.
[30] Hao X, Dong H, Sh. Li, Xu X, Li P. Lap joining of TC4 titanium alloy to 304 stainless
steel with fillet weld by GTAW using copper-based filler wire. J Mater Process
Technol 2018;257:88–100.
[31] Mithilesh P, Varun D, Reddy ARG, DevendranathRamkumar K, Arivazhagan N,
Narayanan S. Investigations on Dissimilar Wdissimilar weldments of Inconel 625
and AISI 304. Procedia Eng 2014;75:66–70.
[32] Ramkumar KD, Arivazhagan N, Narayanan S. Effect of filler materials on the per-
formance of gas tungsten arc welded AISI 304 and Monel 400. Mater Des
2012;40(45):139–56.
[33] Kuo CW, Lin CM, Lai GH, Chen YC, Chang YT, Wu W. Characterization and me-
chanism of 304 stainless steel vibration welding. Mater Trans 2007;48(9):2319–23.
[34] Hsieh CC, Wang PS, Wang JS, Wu W. Evolution of microstructure and residual stress
under various vibration modes in 304 stainless steel welds. Sci World J
2014;2014(23):89–96.
[35] Kashani H, Sadeghi Laridjani M, Amadeh A, Khodagholi M, Ahmadzadeh S. The
influence of volumetric dilution on the strain induced γ→ε martensitic transfor-
mation in GTAW processed Co–Cr–Mo alloy. Mater Sci Eng: A 2008;78(1–2):38–42.
[36] Balasubramanian V, Lakshminarayanan AK, Varahamoorthy R, Babu S. Application
of response surface methodolody to prediction of dilution in plasma transferred arc
hardfacing of stainless steel on carbon steel. J Iron Steel Res Int 2009;16(1):44–53.
[37] kumar H, Singh NK. Performance of activated TIG welding in 304 austenitic
stainless steel welds. Mater Today: Proc 2017;4(9):9914–8.
[38] Shojaati M, Beidokhti B. Characterization of AISI 304/AISI 409 stainless steel joints
using different filler materials. Constr Build Mater 2017;147:608–15.
[39] Brooks EK, Brooks RP, Ehrensberger MT. Effects of simulated inflammation on the
corrosion of 316L stainless steel. Mater Sci Eng C 2017;71:200–5.
[40] Liu H, Xu D, Yang K, Liu H, Frank Cheng Y. Corrosion of antibacterial Cu-bearing
316L stainless steels in the presence of sulfate reducing bacteria. Corros Sci
2018;132:46–55.
[41] Wang W, Cao X, Lu Y, Ding X, Shoji T. TEM study on oxide mechanism of the
dissimilar welds between 316 stainless steels/Inconel 182 in high temperature and
high pressure water. Mater Charact 2017;131:339–47.
[42] Casalino G, Guglielmi P, Lorusso VD, Mortello M, Peyre P, Sorgente D. Laser offset
welding of AZ31B magnesium alloy to 316 stainless steel. J Mater Process Technol
2017;242:49–59.
[43] Villafuerte J, Kerr H. Electromagnetic stirring and grain-refinement in stainless-
steel GTA welds. Weld J 1990;69(1):1–13.
[44] Moslemi N, Redzuan N, Ahmad N, Nan Hor T. Effect of current on characteristic for
316 stainless steel welded joint including microstructure and mechanical proper-
ties. Proc CIRP 2015;26:560–4.
[45] Vashishtha H, et al. Effect of welding processes on microstructural and mechanical
properties of dissimilar weldments between conventional austenitic and high ni-
trogen austenitic stainless steels. J Manuf Process 2017;25:49–59.
[46] Wisutmethangoon S, Kellya TF, Flinna JE, Camusa PP, Larsonb DJ, Millerb MK.
APFIM and TEM investigations of precipitation in rapidly solidified 316 stainless
steel. Mater Sci Eng: A 1998;250(1):43–8.
[47] Kelly TF, Larson DJ, Miller MK, Flinn JE. Three dimensional atom probe
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli
investigation of vanadium nitride precipitates and the role of oxygen and boron in
rapidly solidified 316 stainless steel. Mater Sci Eng: A 1999;270(1):19–26.
[48] Xu H, Xu MJ, Yu C, Lu H, Wei X, Chen JM, et al. Effect of the microstructure in
unmixed zone on corrosion behavior of 439 tube/308L tube-sheet welding joint. J
Mater Process Technol 2017;240:162–7.
[49] Suutala N, Takalo T, Moisio T. The relationship between solidification and micro-
structure in austenitic and austenitic-ferritic stainless steel welds. Metall Mater
Trans A 1979;10(4):512–4.
[50] Takalo T, Suutala N, Moisio T. Austenitic solidification mode in austenitic stainless
steel welds. Metall Mater Trans A 1979;10(8):1173–81.
[51] David S, Goodwin G, Braski D. Solidification behavior of austenitic stainless steel
filler metals. Weld J 1979;58(11):330–6.
[52] Suutala N, Takalo T, Moisio T. Ferritic-austenitic solidification mode in austenitic
stainless steel welds. Metall Trans A 1980;11(5):717–25.
[53] Hinojos A, et al. Joining of Inconel 718 and 316 stainless steel using electron beam
melting additive manufacturing technology. Mater Des 2016;94:17–27.
[54] Jang CH, Lee J, Sung Kim J, Eun Jin T. Mechanical property variation within
Inconel 82/182 dissimilar metal weld between low alloy steel and 316 stainless
steel. Int J Press Vessels Pip 2008;85(9):635–46.
[55] Vitek J, David S. The sigma phase transformation in austenitic stainless steels. Weld
J 1986;65(4):106–11.
[56] Anand Rao V, Deivanathan Dr R. Experimental investigation for welding aspects of
stainless steel 310 for the process of TIG welding. Procedia Eng 2014;97:902–8.
[57] Villanueva DE, Junior F, Plaut R, Padilha A. Comparative study on sigma phase
precipitation of three types of stainless steels: austenitic, superferritic and duplex.
Mater Sci Technol 2006;22(9):1098–104.
[58] Ramkumar T, Selvakumar M, Narayanasamy P, Ayisha Begam A, Mathavan P, Arun
Raj A. Studies on the structural property, mechanical relationships and corrosion
behaviour of Inconel 718 and SS 316L dissimilar joints by TIG welding without
using activated flux. J Manuf Process 2017;30:290–8.
[59] Cui Y, Xu CL, Han Q. Effect of ultrasonic vibration on unmixed zone formation. Scr
Mater 2006;55(11):975–8.
[60] Shimada M, Kokawa H, Wang Z, Sato Y, Karibe I. Optimization of grain boundary
character distribution for intergranular corrosion resistant 304 stainless steel by
twin-induced grain boundary engineering. Acta Mater 2002;50(9):2331–41.
[61] Amorim Soares B, et al. Characterization of the dissimilar welding – austenitic
stainless steel with filler metal of the nickel alloy. International Nuclear Atlantic
Conference. Brazil: Santos, SP; 2007. p. 1–6.
[62] Moteshakker A, Danaee I. Microstructure and corrosion resistance of dissimilar
weld-joints between duplex stainless steel 2205 and austenitic stainless steel 316L. J
Mater Sci Technol 2016;32:282–90.
[63] Shah Hosseini H, Shamanian M, Kermanpur A. Microstructural and weldability
85
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 33 (2018) 74–85
analysis of Inconel617/AISI 310 stainless steel dissimilar welds. Int J. Press Vessels
Pip 2016;144:18–24.
[64] Chandrakanth B, Abinesh Kumar SV, Ashwin Kumar S, Sathish R. Optimization and
non-destructive test analysis of SS316L weldments using GTAW. Mater Res
2014;17(1):190–5.
[65] Sayiram G, Arivazhagan N. Microstructural characterization of dissimilar welds
between incoloy 800H and 321 austenitic stainless steel. Mater Charact
2015;102:180–8.
[66] Liu T, Li Y, Ren Y. Effect of Pr inoculation and crystal size on the hall-petch re-
lationship for Al-30 wt%Mg2Si composites. Mater Lett 2018;214:6–9.
[67] Immanuel RJ, Panigrahi SK, Racineux G, Marya S. Investigation on crashworthiness
of ultrafine grained A356 sheets and validation of hall-petch relationship at high
strain-rate deformation. Mater Sci Eng: A 2017;701:226–36.
[68] Astaf’ev AA. Effect of grain size on the properties of manganese austenite steel
110G13L. Met Sci Heat Treat 1997;39(5):198–201.
[69] Mousavi Anijdan SH, Sabzi M. The evolution of microstructure of an high Ni HSLA
X100 forged steel slab by thermomechanical controlled processing. TMS Annual
Meeting & Exhibition. 2018. p. 145–56.
[70] Sabzi M, Obeydavi A, Mousavi Anijdan SH. The effect of joint shape geometry on
the microstructural evolution, fracture toughness, and corrosion behavior of the
welded joints of a Hadfield steel. J Mech Adv Mater Struct 2018:1–11.
[71] Mousavi Anijdan SH, Sabzi M, Roghani Zadeh M, Farzam M. The effect of elec-
troless bath parameters and heat treatment on the properties of Ni-P and Ni-P-Cu
composite coatings. Mater Res 2018:1–9.
[72] Safari AR, Forouzan MR, Shamanian M. Hot cracking in stainless steel 310s, nu-
merical study and experimental verification. Comp Mater Sci 2012;63:182–90.
[73] Zhang X. Cracking initiation mechanism of 316LN stainless steel in the process of
the hot deformation. Mater Sci Eng: A 2013;559:301–6.
[74] Nishimoto K, Mori H. Hot cracking susceptibility in laser weld metal of high ni-
trogen stainless steels. Sci Technol Adv Mater 2004;5:231–40.
[75] Radhakrishnan VM. Hot cracking in austenitic stainless steel weld metals. Sci
Technol Weld Join 2013;5(1):40–4.
[76] Sabzi M, Mousavi Anijdan SH, Roghani Zadeh M, Farzam M. The effect of heat
treatment on corrosion behaviour of Ni–P–3 gr/lit Cu nano-composite coating. Can
Metall Quart 2018:1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00084433.2018.1444367.
[77] Mersagh Dezfuli S, Sabzi M. A study on the effect of presence of CeO2 and benzo-
triazole on activation of self-healing mechanism in ZrO2 ceramic-based coating. Int
J Appl Ceram Technol 2018;00:1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijac.12901.
[78] Sabzi M, Mousavi Anijdan SH, Asadian M. The effect of substrate temperature on
microstructural evolution and hardenability of tungsten carbide coating in hot fi-
lament chemical vapor deposition. Int J Appl Ceram Technol 2018;00:1–8. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijac.12905.