Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET)

Department of Mechatronics Engineering (MTE)

Sessional on Mechatronic Systems (MTE 1102)

Sessional List

1. Familiarization with different types of sensor and switch

2. Study on solenoid valves
3. Study on pneumatic air cylinder and different types of motor
4. Study on a PLC setup
5. Study on a robotic structure and automation system
Lab 01: Familiarization with different types of sensor and switch

Objectives: At the end of the lab session, students will have the acquaintance on various types of sensor and
switch.

Sensor: “An element when subjected to some physical change experiences a related change or an element
which converts a specified measurand into a usable output by using a transduction principle”, “A device that
converts a signal from one form of energy to another form”. Some of the more widely used sensors and their
principles of operation are discussed.

Variable-Resistance Transducer

The variable-resistance transducer (Fig. 1) is a very common device which may be constructed in the form of a
moving contact on a slide-wire or a moving contact that moves through an angular displacement on a solid
conductor like a piece of graphite. The device may also be called a resistance potentiometer or rheostat and is
available commercially in many sizes, designs, and ranges. Costs can range from a few cents for a simple
potentiometer used as a volume control in a radio circuit to hundreds of dollars for a Precision device used for
accurate laboratory work. The variable-resistance transducer fundamentally is a device for converting either
linear or angular displacement into an electric signal; however, through mechanical methods it is possible to
convert force and pressure to a displacement so that the device may also be useful in force and pressure
measurements.

Fig 1: Schematic Diagram of Variable-Resistance Transducer

Inductive Sensor

Inductive sensor use currents induced by magnetic field to detect the nearby metal objects. The inductive sensor
uses a coil or inductor to generate a high frequency magnetic field as shown in Figure 2. If there is a metal
object near the changing magnetic field, current will flow in the object. This resulting current flow sets up a
new magnetic field that opposes the original magnetic field. The net effect is that it changes the inductance of
the coil in the inductive sensor. By measuring the inductance the sensor can determine when a metal have been
brought nearby. These sensors will detect any metals, when detecting multiple types of metal multiple sensors is
used. In addition to metals, graphite also can be sensed. It is important to note that these work by setting up a
high frequency field. If a target nears the field will induce eddy currents. These currents consume power
because of resistance, so energy is in the field is lost, and the signal amplitude decreases. The detector examines
filed magnitude to determine when is has decreased enough to switch.

Fig 2: Inductive Sensor

Capacitive Sensor

Capacitive sensor is based on capacitive coupling that can detect and measure anything that is conductive or has
a dielectric different from air. It can be used to detect and measure proximity, position and displacement, force,
humidity, fluid level, and acceleration. Capacitance describes how the space between two conductors affects an
electric field between them. If two metal plates are placed with a gap between them and a voltage is applied to
one of the plates, an electric field will exist between the plates. This electric field is the result of the difference
between electric charges that are stored on the surfaces of the plates. Consider the capacitive transducer shown
in Fig. 3. The capacitance (in picofarads) of this arrangement is given by

where, Ɛ= dielectric constant; A= overlapping area of plates, inch2 or cm2; d= distance between
two plates, inch or cm
 Fig. 3: Schematic of a capacitive transducer

When using a capacitive sensor, the sensing surface of the probe is the electrified plate and what you’re
measuring (the target) is applied at the other plate. This plate arrangement may be used to measure a change in
the distance d through a change in capacitance. A change in capacitance may also be registered through a
change in the overlapping area A resulting from a relative movement of the plates in a lateral direction or a
change in the dielectric constant of the material between the plates. The capacitance may be measured with
bridge circuits. The output impedance of a capacitor is given by

Where, Z=impedance Ω and f=frequency Hz

For measurement of liquid level or gas pressure, we need to measure the change in capacitance due to variation
of dielectric constant (Fig. 4). Two electrodes are arranged as shown, and the dielectric constant varies between
the electrodes according to the liquid level. Thus, the capacitance between the electrodes is a direct indication of
the liquid level. A charge amplifier may be used to increase the signal level before transmission to readout
circuits.

Fig. 4: Use of capacitive transducer for liquid level measurement

Photoelectric Sensor

A photoelectric transducer converts a light beam into a usable electric signal. Consider the circuit shown in Fig.
5. Light strikes the photo emissive cathode and releases electrons, which are attracted toward the anode, thereby
producing an electric current in the external circuit. The cathode and anode are enclosed in a glass or quartz
envelope, which is either evacuated or filled with an inert gas.

Fig 5: Photoelectric sensor

The photoelectric sensitivity is defined by:

where, I= photoelectric current; S= sensitivity and Φ= illumination of cathode

The sensitivity is usually expressed in units of amperes per watt or amperes per lumen. Photoelectric-tube
response to different wavelengths of light is influenced by two factors: (1) the transmission characteristics of the
glass-tube envelope and (2) the photo emissive characteristics of the cathode material. Photo emissive materials
are available which will respond to light over a range of 0.2 to 0.8 μm. Most glasses transmit light in the upper
portion of this range, but many do not transmit below about 0.4 μm. Photoelectric tubes are quite useful for
measurement of light intensity. In expensive devices can be utilized for counting purposes through periodic
interruption of a light source.

Piezoelectric Sensor

Piezoelectric crystals are used as pressure transducers for dynamic measurements. A piezoelectric crystal is
placed between two plate electrodes (Fig 6). When a force is applied to the plates, a stress will be produced in
the crystal and a corresponding deformation. With certain crystals this deformation will produce a potential
difference at the surface of the crystal, and the effect is called the piezoelectric effect.

Fig 6: Piezoelectric Sensor

The induced charge on the crystal is proportional to the impressed force and is given by:

Q = dF Where, Q is in coulombs; F is in newtons; proportionality constant d is called the piezoelectric constant

The output voltage of the crystal is given by:

E = gtp Where t is the crystal thickness in meters, p is the impressed pressure in newtons per square meter and g
is the voltage sensitivity (g= (d/Ɛ)

Linear and Rotary Encoder

A digital displacement transducer can be used for both angular and linear measurements. In Fig. 7 an angular
measurement device is shown. As the wheel rotates, light from the source is alternately transmitted and stopped,
thereby submitting a digital signal to the photo detector. The signal is then amplified and sent to a counter. The
number of counts is proportional to angular displacement. The frequency of the signal is proportional to angular
velocity. Sensitivity of the device may be improved by increasing the number of cutouts. A linear transducer
which operates on a reflection principle is shown in Fig. 8.Small reflecting strips are installed on the motion
device. Light from the source is then alternately reflected and absorbed with linear motion, thereby presenting a
digital signal to the photo detector. Readout is the same as with the angular instrument. Calibration with a
known displacement standard must be performed.

Fig 7: Rotary encoder

Fig 8: Translational encoder

Proximity sensor is able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical contact. A proximity
sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and
looks for changes in the field or return signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity
sensor's target. Different proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive proximity
sensor or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor always
requires a metal target. Proximity sensors are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the
variation in distance between a shaft and its support bearing. This is common in large
steam turbines, compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings.
Push Button

A push button is a switch used to close or open an electric control circuit. They are primarily used for starting
and stopping of operation of machinery. They also provide manual override when the emergency arises. Push
button switches are actuated by pushing the actuator into the housing. This causes set of contacts to open or
close.

The contact of the push buttons, distinguished according to their functions,

 Normally open (NO) type

 Normally closed (NC) type
 Change over (CO) type

The cross section of various types of push buttons in the normal and actuated positions and their symbols are
given in the Figure 9. In the NO type, the contacts are open in the normal position, inhibiting the energy flow
through them. But in the actuated position, the contacts are closed, permitting the energy flow through them. In
the NC type, the contacts are closed in the normal position, permitting the energy flow through them. And, the
contacts are open in the actuated position, inhibiting the energy flow through them. A changeover contact is a
combination of NO and NC contacts.

Fig 9: Push Button

Limit Switch

Any switch that is actuated due to the position of a fluid power component (usually a piston rod or hydraulic
motor shaft or the position of load) is termed as limit switch. The actuation of a limit switch provides an
electrical signal that causes an appropriate system response. Limit switches perform the same function as push
button switches. Push buttons are manually actuated whereas limit switches are mechanically actuated. There
are two types classification of Limit switches depending upon method of actuations of contacts

 Lever actuated contacts

 Spring loaded contacts

In lever type limit switches, the contacts are operated slowly. In spring type limit switches, the contacts are
operated rapidly. Figure 10 shows a simplified cross sectional view of a limit switch and its symbol.

Fig 10: Cross sectional view of a limit switch

Pressure Switch

Pressure switches are used to sense a change in pressure, and opens or closes an electrical switch when a
predetermined pressure is reached. The switch may be designed to make contact either on pressure rise or on
pressure fall. Pressure switches are widely used in industry to automatically supervise and control systems that
use pressurized fluids. A pressure switch for sensing fluid pressure contains a capsule, bellows, Bourdon tube,
diaphragm or piston element that deforms or displaces proportionally to the applied pressure. The resulting
motion is applied, either directly or through amplifying levers, to a set of switch for make/break contact. Since
pressure may be changing slowly and contacts should operate quickly, some kind of mechanism is used to
ensure quick operation of the contacts. Cross sectional view of pressure switch is shown in fig 11.
 Fig 11: Cross sectional view of a pressure switch

Reed Switch

Reed switch (Fig 12) is an electrical switch operated by an applied magnetic field. A permanent magnet is used
as stimulator. The reed switches comprise two ferromagnetic reeds placed with a gap in between and
hermetically sealed in a glass tube. The glass tube is filled with inert gas to prevent the activation of the
contacts. The surfaces of the reed contacts are plated with rhodium or iridium. Whole unit is encapsulated in
epoxy resin to prevent mechanical damage to the switch. They are also provided with LED indicator to show its
switching status. When the magnet is away the switch is open, but when the magnet is brought near the switch
is closed. Whole unit is encapsulated in epoxy resin to prevent mechanical damage to the switch. They are also
provided with LED indicator to show its switching status. When the magnet is away the switch is open, but
when the magnet is brought near the switch is closed. The reed switch is operated by the magnetic field of an
energized coil or a permanent magnet which induces north (N) and south (S) poles on the reeds. The reed
contacts are closed by this magnetic attractive force. When the magnetic field is removed, the reed elasticity
causes the contacts to open the circuit. The transfer type reed switch is normally ON, due to mechanical bias of
the common (COM) lead, which is between the normally closed (N.C) reed contact and the normally open
(N.O) reed contacts. When an external magnetic field is induced, the N.C blade is not affected because it is non-
magnetic but the COM lead is attracted by the N.O lead and moves. When the magnetic field is removed, COM
lead again moves to the N.C lead by mechanical.

Fig 12: Construction feature of Reed switch

 Basic Introduction with Pneumatics & Hydraulics

Pneumatics is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air.

Examples of Pneumatic systems (Not limited to):

 Air brakes on buses and trucks

 Air brakes on trains
 Air compressors
 Air engines for pneumatically powered vehicles
 Cable jetting, a way to install cables in ducts
 Dental drill
 Compressed-air engine and compressed-air vehicles
 Gas-operated reloading
 Holman Projector, a pneumatic anti-aircraft weapon
 High Voltage AC control systems
 Pipe organ
 Pneumatic actuator
 Pneumatic air guns
 Pneumatic bladder
 Pneumatic cylinder
 Pneumatic motor
 Pneumatic tire
 Pressure regulator
 Pressure sensor
 Pressure switch
 Vacuum pump

Hydraulics is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the
mechanical properties and use of liquids like oil.

Examples of Hydraulic systems (Not limited to):

 Car brakes
 Airplane
 Elevator (Water pump)
 Shock absorber
 Hydraulic Ram(Irrigation and Hydroelectric power station)
 Crane

Advantage of Pneumatic systems:

 Simplicity of design and control—Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders and other
components, and operate via simple on-off control.
 Reliability—Pneumatic systems generally have long operating lives and requires little maintenance.
Because gas is compressible, equipment is less subject to shock damage. Gas absorbs excessive force,
whereas fluid in hydraulics directly transfers force. Compressed gas can be stored, so machines still run
for a while if electrical power is lost.
  Safety—There is a very low chance of fire compared to hydraulic oil. New machines are usually
overload safe to a certain limit.
Advantage of Hydraulic systems:

 Liquid does not absorb any of the supplied energy.

 Capable of moving much higher loads and providing much higher forces due to the incompressibility.
 The hydraulic working fluid is basically incompressible, leading to a minimum of spring action.
When hydraulic fluid flow is stopped, the slightest motion of the load releases the pressure on the load;
there is no need to "bleed off" pressurized air to release the pressure on the load.
 Highly responsive compared to pneumatics.
 Supply more power than pneumatics.
 Can also do many purposes at one time: lubrication, cooling and power transmission.
Lab 02: Study on Pneumatic air cylinder and Different types of motor

Objectives: At the end of the lab session, students will have the knowledge of single and double acting
pneumatic air cylinder and various graphical symbols used and to draw pneumatic circuit for various purposes.
Elementary introduction with DC and servo motor will also be studied.

Pneumatic circuit component symbol

 Symbols for ports

Pneumatic cylinder is mechanical devices which use the power of compressed gas to produce a force in a
reciprocating linear motion.

In a single-acting cylinder compressed air is used to push a piston out, and a spring to push it in again. When
compressed air is supplied to the cylinder, the piston rod extends (called the outstroke). When the air supply is
switched off, the internal spring returns the piston rod to its retracted position (the instroke).
In a typical application for a single acting air cylinder, it is either the load itself, or an internal spring, that
returns or extends the air cylinder rod.

For example, a cylinder in a vertical - rod up - configuration will use compressed air to extend the rod
vertically. When the operation is complete, the valve shifts, and rather than using compressed air to retract the
rod, the weight of the load on the rod is sufficient to retract the rod without use of compressed air. In this case,
the single acting air cylinder operates without an internal spring as the load provides the force to retract the air
cylinder.

In another example, a small stroke and bore single acting air cylinder is used to eject parts from a conveyor belt.
Compressed air is used to drive the rod out to impact and, with sufficient force, eject the part. The spring inside
the air cylinder is compressed as the rod extends under the force of the compressed air acting on the piston.
Then, when the valve shifts, the air is exhausted from the back end, and now the spring has enough force to
drive the piston back and retract the cylinder rod.

Double-acting cylinders (DAC) use the force of compressed air to move in both extends and retract strokes; a
double action. They have two ports to allow air in, one for outstroke and one for instroke.

In this first graphic, a double-acting air cylinder has compressed air entering the cylinder port at the rod-end of
the cylinder. The piston and rod combination are shaded in purple, and the compressed air is shown in blue.
Compressed air has pressurized the inside of the cylinder barrel, and in so doing, has driven the cylinder piston
to the rear. The rod, which is attached to the piston, is retracted, and whatever tooling that might be attached to
the rod end has been retracted as well. The air that was in the rear of the cylinder has exited from the rear-cap
cylinder port, through the exhaust port in the air valve, and out to atmosphere. The air that was in the rear of the
cylinder has exited from the rear-cap cylinder port, through the exhaust port in the air valve, and out to
atmosphere.

The second graphic shows that the opposite has occurred. Air has entered the rear cylinder cap port, driven the
piston to the rod end, and the rod has extended, taking whatever rod end tooling to full rod extension.
The following diagram shows the parts of a tie-rod type double acting air cylinder. The main seals used are:

1. Piston seals to prevent leakage from one side to the other.

2. Rod seal to prevent leakage from the rod end.
3. Static seals to prevent leakage from joints between the barrel and end caps.
4. Wiper seal to stop dirt being drawn inside with the rod.

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Electric motors are
the interface of electronic boards to almost every mechatronic and mechanical product including robots, drones,
home appliances, etc. The main principle behind working a DC motor is the electromagnetic law according to
which a current carrying conductor placed in magnetic field experiences a force, and the direction of the force is
given by Fleming’s left-hand rule and whose magnitude is given by F=BIL newton.

Parts of a DC motor

Every DC motor has 6 parts: Axle, Rotor, Commutator, Field magnets, and Brushes. The basic component of a
DC motor is a current carrying armature which is connected to the supply end through the commutator segment
and brushes. The armature is placed between two permanent magnets which produce a magnetic field. The
applied direct current converts the electrical energy into the mechanical energy because of the interaction of two
magnetic fields. One field is produced by the permanent magnet and the other is produced by the electric
current flowing through the armature winding. Because of the interaction of these two fields, the armature
experiences a force which tends to rotate the rotor. This is how a DC motor Works.

For small kW rated application like the one you see, Permanent magnet DC motor is used. In permanent Magnet
DC Motors, the magnetic field is produced by the permanent magnet. It consists of an armature winding and
stator but does not contain the field winding. In this kind of DC motor, the field flux is produced by a radially
magnetized permanent magnet which is placed on the inner periphery of the stator core. Magnets are mounted
on the inner periphery of the stator which is in a cylindrical shape. These magnets are arranged in such a way
that N-pole and S-pole of these magnets are arranged alternatively which is faced towards the armature.

A servomotor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for precise control of angular or linear position,
velocity and acceleration. They find wide applications in radar tracking & guidance systems, process
controllers, computer and machine tools. A servo system mainly consists of three basic components - a
controlled device, an output sensor, a feedback system. This is an automatic closed loop control system. Here
instead of controlling a device by applying variable input signal, the device is controlled by a feedback signal
generated by comparing output signal and reference input signal. Brushless DC motor is used for most of the
servo systems.

Block Diagram of Servo motor

Working principle of DC servo motor for position control

Mechanical position of the motor shaft can be sensed by using a potentiometer, which is coupled with the motor
shaft through gears. The current position of the shaft is converted into electrical signal by the potentiometer, and
then compared with the command input signal. Command input is given according to the required position of
the shaft. If the feedback signal differs from the given input, an error signal is generated. This error signal is
then amplified and applied as the input to the motor, which causes the motor to rotate. And when the shaft
reaches to the required position, error signal becomes zero, and hence the motor stays standstill holding the
position. The command input is given in the form of electrical pulses. As the actual input applied to the motor is
the difference between feedback signal (current position) and applied signal (required position), speed of the
motor is proportional to the difference between the current position and the required position. The amount of
power required by the motor is proportional to the distance it needs to travel.
Lab 03: Familiarization with solenoid valves and relays

Objectives: At the end of the lab session, students will have the acquaintance on various types of solenoid
valves and electromagnetic relays.

A solenoid valve is an electromechanical device in which the solenoid uses an electric current to generate a
magnetic field and thereby operate a mechanism which regulates the opening of fluid flow in a valve. Solenoid
valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are to shut off, release, dose,
distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high
reliability, long service life, low control power and compact design.

To the mode of actuation, a distinction is made between direct-operated valves and indirect-operated
(internally/externally piloted) valves. A further distinguishing feature is the number of port connections or the
number of flow paths ("ways"). Here, only 2-way direct and internally piloted solenoid valves will be
illustrated.

Parts of a solenoid valve and their working

1) Valve body: This is the body of the valve to which the solenoid valve is connected. The valve is usually
connected in the process flow pipeline to control the flow of certain fluid like liquid or air.
2) Inlet port of the valve: This is the port through which the fluid enters inside the automatic valve and from
here it can enter into the final process.
3) Outlet port: The fluid that is allowed to pass through the automatic valve leaves the valve through the
outlet port. The solenoid valve controls the flow of the fluid from inlet port to the outlet port. The outlet port
is eventually connected to the process where the fluid is required.
4) Coil/Solenoid: This is body of the solenoid coil. The body of the solenoid coil is cylindrical in shape, and it
is hollow from inside. The body is covered with steel covering and it has metallic finish. Inside the solenoid
valve there is solenoid coil.
5) Coil windings: The solenoid consists of several turns of the enameled wire wound around the ferromagnetic
material like steel or iron. The coil forms the shape of the hollow cylinder. Externally this coil is covered
with the steel covering and inside the hollow part there is a plunger or the piston, whose motion inside the
hollow space is controlled by the spring.
6) Lead wires: These are external connections of the solenoid valve that are connected to the electrical supply.
The current is supplied to the solenoid valve from these wires. When the solenoid valve is energized, the
current flows through these wires to the solenoid valve and when the solenoid valve is de-energized the flow
of current stops.
7) Plunger or piston: This is the solid round metallic part cylindrical in shape and placed in the hollow portion
the solenoid valve. When the electrical current is passed through the solenoid valve, the magnetic field is
generated inside the hollow space. Due to this the plunger tends to move vertically in the hollow space.
When the electrical current is stopped to the solenoid valve, the magnetic field is stopped and the plunger is
remains the existing place due to the force of the spring
8) Spring: The plunger moves inside the hollow space due to the action of the magnetic field against the action
of the spring. The magnetic field generated inside the solenoid valve tends to move the plunger, but the
spring tends to stop the motion of the plunger in which ever the position it is. This action of the spring
against the magnetic field helps keeping the plunger in the position where the flow of current to the solenoid
valve is stopped. Thus the spring actually forces the plunger to carry out the control of the fluid. It allows
the movement of the plunger only to the extent when the electric current is flowing through the solenoid
valve.
9) Orifice: The orifice is an important part of the valve though which the fluid is flowing. It is the connection
between the inlet and the outlet port. The flow of fluid from the inlet port to the outlet port takes place from
this port. In case of the solenoid valves, the opening of the orifice is controlled by the plunger.

Operation of direct-acting 2-way solenoid valves

Initially the sensor senses the process towards the outlet side of the solenoid valve. When it senses that certain
quantity of the flow of the fluid is required, it allows the current to pass through the solenoid valve. Due to this
the valve gets energized and the magnetic field is generated which triggers the movement of the plunger against
the action of the spring. Due to this the plunger moves in upwards direction, which allows the opening of the
orifice. At this instant the flow of the fluid is allowed from the inlet port to the outlet port. If the current passing
through the solenoid valve is constant, the position of the plunger and hence opening of the orifice remains
constant. If the sensor senses that more flow of the fluid is required, it allows the increase in current passing
through the solenoid valve, which creates more magnetic field and more upwards motion of the plunger. This
leads to further opening of the orifice and more flow of the fluid from the inlet port to the outlet. If the required
flow of fluid is less, the sensor allows passage of the lesser current to the solenoid valve. When the sensor
senses that the fluid is no more required in the process, it stops the flow of the current to the solenoid valve
completely. Due to this the solenoid valve gets de-energized and the plunger reaches the bottom most position
and closes the orifice completely thus stopping the flow of fluid from the inlet port to the outlet port. In this way
the solenoid coil operates the valve. When the flow of certain quantity of fluid is required it opens the valve to
required extent and when the flow is not required it shuts the valve entirely.

Operation of internally piloted 2-way solenoid valves

With direct-acting valves, the static pressure forces increase with increasing orifice diameter which means that
the magnetic forces required to overcome the pressure forces, become correspondingly larger. Internally piloted
solenoid valves are therefore employed for switching higher pressures in conjunction with larger orifice sizes;
in this case, the differential fluid pressure performs the main work in opening and closing the valve.
The diagram above shows the design of a basic valve, controlling the flow of water in this example. At the top
figure is the valve in its closed state. The water under pressure enters at A. B is an elastic diaphragm and above
it is a weak spring pushing it down. The diaphragm has a pinhole through its center which allows a very small
amount of water to flow through it. This water fills the cavity C on the other side of the diaphragm so that
pressure is equal on both sides of the diaphragm; however the compressed spring supplies a net downward
force. The spring is weak and is only able to close the inlet because water pressure is equalized on both sides of
the diaphragm.

Once the diaphragm closes the valve, the pressure on the outlet side of its bottom is reduced, and the greater
pressure above holds it even more firmly closed. Thus, the spring is irrelevant to holding the valve closed.

The above all works because the small drain passage D was blocked by a pin which is the armature of the
solenoid E and which is pushed down by a spring. If current is passed through the solenoid, the pin is
withdrawn via magnetic force, and the water in chamber C drains out the passage D faster than the pinhole can
refill it. The pressure in chamber C drops and the incoming pressure lifts the diaphragm, thus opening the main
valve. Water now flows directly from A to F.

When the solenoid is again deactivated and the passage D is closed again, the spring needs very little force to
push the diaphragm down again and the main valve closes. In practice there is often no separate spring; the
elastomer diaphragm is molded so that it functions as its own spring, preferring to be in the closed shape.

From this explanation it can be seen that this type of valve relies on a differential of pressure between input and
output as the pressure at the input must always be greater than the pressure at the output for it to work. Should
the pressure at the output, for any reason, rise above that of the input then the valve would open regardless of
the state of the solenoid and pilot valve.
A relay is an electro magnetically actuated switch. Relays are the primary protection as well as switching
devices in most of the control processes or equipment. All the relays respond to one or more electrical quantities
like voltage or current such that they open or close the contacts or circuits. Electromagnetic attraction relay
operate by virtue of an armature being attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a
solenoid.

(ii) Solenoid type relay consists of a solenoid and movable iron plunger as shown below.

Under normal operating condition, the current through relay coil is such that it holds the plunger by gravity or
spring. However, when the current through relay coil is larger than its pickup value, it causes the plunger to be
attracted to solenoid. This upward movement of plunger closes trip circuit and switches the process to off state.