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The Impact of Emotional Intelligence on Employees' Attitudes

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 THE IMPACT OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
ON EMPLOYEES’ ATTITUDES
Osman Uslu, PhD, Assistant Professor
Department of Business
Sakarya Business School
Meryem Uslu, Master Student
Graduate School of Business
32
Sakarya University, Turkey
Abstract
Emotions can precisely affect antecedents of behaviors such as attitudes,
attributions and perceptions. Since an insensitive human being, an unmanned
organization or an unorganized society cannot be imagined, the role of emotions in
human life is quite evident. The emergence of the importance of emotions in human
life has led to the emergence of emotional intelligence concept. General emphasis of
studies in management, psychology and other disciplines is that emotional intelligence
is a very critical concept in work and social life, and it needs to be improved. The
previous research show that people who have high emotional intelligence are more
successful, have higher performance and compatible and responsible personality traits.
Although emotional intelligence and the attitudes of employees towards work and
organization have been examined in many studies, it is necessary to repeat such studies
in different samples and different cultures since they will contribute to scientific
accumulation. For this reason, by depending on the emphasis in literature, in this study
it is aimed to investigate the impact of emotional intelligence levels of employees on
their job satisfaction and intention to leave. A quantitative research was designed to
reach the study purpose. The required data were obtained via survey method by using
convenience sampling. The sample of the study is composed of 146 participants who
are active in working life. Findings revealed that emotional intelligence affected job
satisfaction moderately and positively, while it affected intention to leave negatively.
Findings also indicated that comparing to other dimensions, regulation of emotions
was found to be more effective on employee attitudes. So, it seems to be critical to
control nerves, be able to evaluate negativity and negative situations as ordinary and
prevent sudden emotional changes.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, intention to leave
JEL Codes: M10, M12, J63

Received: January 10, 2019 Uslu, O. and Uslu, M. (2019), “The Impact of Emotional
Revision: February 16, 2019 Intelligence on Employees’ Attitudes”, Journal of Applied
Accepted: February 18, 2019 Management and Investments, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 32-43.
Introduction
Emotions play an important role both in the work and social life of
individuals. They can precisely affect antecedents of behaviors such as attitudes,
attributions and perceptions. According to Cooper and Sawaf (1999), emotions are
the energy flows that affect the behavior and these flows spread around and affect
others. As seen, emotions can affect not only the individuals themselves, but also
other people. Since an insensitive human being, an unmanned organization or an
unorganized society cannot be imagined, the role of emotions in human life is
quite evident (Fredrickson, 2001).
The emergence of the importance of emotions in human life has led to the
emergence of emotional intelligence concept. Another factor that influencing the
emergence of emotional intelligence is the change in the perspective of the human
element. The evolution of management thought and the dynamics affecting this
evolution have naturally changed the human perspective. Human beings are now
considered to be very active, and human can think and add value to information.
Emotional intelligence, which is considered as a sub-branch of social intelligence 33
(Mayer and Salovey, 1993), first addressed by Thorndike, after that it has become
a topic that is frequently discussed and studied by researchers today. Especially in
recent years the increase of studies examining emotional intelligence issue
(Zeidner et al., 2004) can be considered as a proof of this situation. The general
emphasis of studies in management, psychology and other disciplines is that
emotional intelligence is a very critical concept in work and social life and it
needs to be improved. Moreover, in some studies, it is stated that emotional
intelligence is more important than mental intelligence (Aki, 2006; Brackett and
Mayer, 2003). According to these studies, just being mentally intelligent is not
enough for work and life success and only mentally intelligent people are
considered as machines. Similarly, Goleman in his studies argues that most of the
success in life is only due to emotional intelligence.
The studies show that people who have high level of emotional intelligence
are more successful and higher performance and have compatible and responsible
personality traits. When the issue is examined in terms of organizations, it is
suggested that not only the employees but also the leaders should have high level
of emotional intelligence (Antonakis et al., 2009). Because the leaders, as
representatives of the organizations, interact with external stakeholders such as
customers and suppliers as well as employees in the management of the
organization, while carrying out their duties of directing and influencing their
employees. It is stated that emotional intelligence should definitely be exist in
leaders, especially in the forms of authentic, emotional, spiritual, team and
collaborative leadership that have emerged recently. One of the common points of
all these studies is that they point to the need to identify the variables that affect
emotional intelligence and interact with emotional intelligence. Although
emotional intelligence and the attitudes of employees towards work and
organization have been examined in many studies, it is necessary to repeat such
studies in different samples and different cultures since they will contribute to
scientific accumulation. It is possible to mention about many positive and negative
attitudes that affect employees' performance levels directly or indirectly. For
instance, psychological empowerment, loyalty, trust, engagement, identification
(Robbins and Judge, 2013), citizenship, emotional labor, vengeful behaviors,
stress and negative sensuality are just some of them. However, job satisfaction
(Lopes et al., 2006) and intention to leave (Shukla and Srivastava, 2016) come
into prominence comparing to other attitudes because they directly affect
individual and organizational performance. These two variables are ultimately
indicative of whether employees are happy. Because the job satisfaction and
intention to leave are bipolar attitudes. In other words, job dissatisfaction and
intention to stay can be considered as important work related attitudes.
 Therefore, independent of organizational factors, job satisfaction and
intention to leave can be accepted as critical variables in determining the effects of
emotional intelligence on employees’ attitutes. In addition, in order to observe the
possible positive and negative effects of emotional intelligence, it is useful to
prefer positive and negative attitutes together. For this reason, by depending on
the emphasis in literature, it has been aimed to investigate the impact of emotional
intelligence levels of employees on their job satisfaction and intention to leave.
34 The possible findings and results of the current study are expected to contribute to
organizational behavior field.

Background of Study
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence appears as a clearly undefined concept. -Vairous
disciplines and researchers have discussed the issue from different perspectives.
Emotional intelligence, which is expressed briefly as the use of emotions wisely
(Weisinger, 1998), is defined as the ability of a person to observe his/her own and
others' feelings and emotions, to distinguish between them and to use the information
he / she obtained in their thoughts and actions (Salovey et al., 2002). Bar-On, who
developed the first emotional intelligence scale, explained emotional intelligence as a
whole of emotional, personal and social skills as well as being successful in dealing
with environmental pressures. Weisinger (1998) mentions four elements of emotional
intelligence. These can be briefly stated as the ability to comprehend emotions, reach
and produce emotions, understand emotions and feelings, and regulate emotions
(Ardıç et al., 2016). Likewise, Çetinkaya and Alparslan (2001) describe determing
abilities of emotional intelligence as self-knowledge, self-directedness, motivation,
empathy, social competence, and communication skills. Wong and Law (2002)
explained emotional intelligence as four basic abilities. In the current study, in terms
of emotional intelligence abilities, Wong and Law (2002)’s classification were taken
into account. It is possible to express these abilities as follows:
 Appraisal and expression of emotion in the self;
 Appraisal and recognition of emotion in others;
 Regulation of emotion in the self;
 Use of emotion to facilitiate performance.
In the light of literature, it is possible to summarize the elements that constitute
the emotional intelligence structure as being aware of the emotions of oneself and
others, and the ability to use and manage emotions. The self-aware individual is one
who is aware of his/her limits, is at peace with him/herself and has generally high
self-efficacy. In addition, these individuals are self-motivating and non-negative
types. Being aware of the emotions of others and being able to make empathy are
among the most frequently emphasized issues in today's business life. In this sense,
the importance of emotional intelligence is revealed. Salovey et al. (2002) considered
emotional abilities as crucial in terms of social and emotional adaptation. An
individual who knows him/herself, aware of his/her feelings and thoughts, and knows
the aspects that need to be developed, can manage his/her own thoughts and behaviors
and establishes constructive relationships among people (Çetinkaya and Alparslan,
2011). Emotional intelligence can affect not only inter-individual relationships, but
also the attitudes of employees within the organization. According to Arslan et al.
(2013), emotional intelligence affects many variables in organizational environment
such as performance, loyalty, commitment and leadership. Since emotional
intelligence is related to the management of emotions (Özen Kutanis et al., 2014), it is
expected that an individual with high emotional intelligence will perform high
performance by freeing him/herself from the negative feelings and in contrast
increasing his/her positive feelings (Wong and Law, 2002). In general, it is seen that
emotional intelligence increases the innovative behaviors (Hu and He, 2018), quality 35
of work life and emotionally intelligent individuals and employees have positive and
productive attitudes. Accordingly, emotional intelligence is a critical skill in both
business and social life.

Employee Attitudes
Even if not all attitudes turn into behaviors, the impact and potential of attitudes
on the thoughts and behaviors of individuals should be considered. An individual who
is happy in his/her work and who has positive cognitive, emotional and behavioral
attitudes towards work may exhibit productive behaviors (Oswald et al., 2015). In
contrast, unhappy employees who have negative attitudes towards work may exhibit
counterproductive work behaviors (Clark, 2010). In this respect, it is significant for
organizations to be aware of employees working attitudes (Bose, 2018) and, if
necessary, to influence and change their attitudes. Among many attitudes, job
satisfaction and intention to leave are prominent because they directly affect individual
and organizational performance. Moreover, the individuals' attitudes towards work can
affect not only the performance but also the emotions outside the organization such as
work-family conflict and life satisfaction. As a result, employees who are satisfied with
their job and who develop positive attitudes towards their work can reflect these
emotions to their lives.

Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction, which is defined as “having a positive attitude towards the job”,
shows the pleasure level of the individual. The desired organizational outputs such as
high performance, low turnover rate and low conflict environment depend on the
satisfaction of the employee in the work environment and from the job. There are many
factors affecting job satisfaction. These factors can be examined in two separate
categories as individual and environmental factors. While individual factors include
age, gender, intelligence, personality etc., factors such as wage, management policy
and work-family conflict can be evaluated within the context of environmental or
external factors (Özsoy, 2015). In the literature, it is seen that the majority of the
studies mainly deal with the relationships between environmental factors and job
satisfaction. But at this point, it can be stated that factors such as personality,
intelligence and emotional intelligence should be also examined. In this respect,
Robbins and Judge (2013) emphasize that job satisfaction is not only about working
conditions, but that personality has an important place in affecting job satisfaction.
Robbins and Judge (2013) stated that individuals with positive self-assessments were
more satisfied with their work than those with negative self-assessments. According to
authors, job satisfaction closely associated with job performance, organizational
citizenship behavior, customer satisfaction, employee turnover, absenteeism and
 deviant behaviors in the workplace (Özsoy et al., 2014). While high level of job
satisfaction increases organizational performance, organizational citizenship behavior
and customer satisfaction, on the other hand job dissatisfaction causes negative results
in terms of performance, stress, emotional problems, mental health, and absenteeism
(Rahman and Şen, 1987). Therefore, it is worth noting that organizations consider and
evaluate all variables that affect job satisfaction.

36 Intention to Leave
Another critical attitude of the employee towards work is the intention to quit
which is also affected by job satisfaction. The intention to leave the job may be
expressed as “the attitude of the individual towards work as not being more in the
organization in the coming years”. There may be many reasons why the employee
intents to leave. These include low wages, inadequate working hours and conditions,
an unwanted style of manager, mobbing, negative organizational culture and
organizational climate. These are environmental or organizatinalfactors. On the other
hand, independent factors such as value conflicts, dissatisfaction, health problems and
familialfactors may affect intention to leave attitudes. However, it can be stated that
job dissatisfaction generally has a great effect on the intention to leave. Robbins and
Judge (2013) describe “exit situation” as a possible expression of job dissatisfaction. In
addition, job dissatisfaction affects absenteeism and employee turnover rate positively.
A study conducted on bank employees found that empowerment, organizational
justice, perceived alternative employment opportunities and occupational stress were
determinants of the intention to leave (Yi, 2012). Clearly, the majority of these factors
are non-individual factors. On the other hand, it can be argued that the personality traits
also affect the attitude towards leaving the job. Treglown et al. (2018) found that dark
personality traits were effective on intention to leave. When the studies are examined
in general, it is seen that the intention to leave the job is negatively related to variables
such as job satisfaction, trust, commitment, justice perception, citizenship behavior,
equality perception, organizational identification, and job engagement. On the
contrary, in these studies intention to leave is positively related to variables such as
organizational stress, conflict, mobbing, dissatisfaction and insufficient career
opportunities. Of course there are many other variables that are not mentioned here.
The intention to leave the job comes to the fore due to the organization's future social
image and potential additional costs.

Hypotheses
Employee attitudes towards work and organization can be affected by many
individual and organizational factors. Emotional intelligence can be considered as a
strong individual predictor with the potential to affect job satisfaction and intention to
leave. In general, it is expected that employees who have high level of emotional
intelligence also have high level of job satisfaction. Because, compared to employees
who have low level of emotional intelligence, emotionally intelligent employees can
overcome stress (Bahl, 2016) and decrease stress factors (Çekmecioğlu et al., 2012).
Lopes et al. (2006) found a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
job satisfaction. In the literature, significant positive relationships between emotional
intelligence and job satisfaction in many studies were found in different samples such
astrainers, nurses and football coaches (Kafetsios and Zampetakis, 2008; Lee, 2017;
Moradi et al., 2012; Tagoe and Quarshie, 2017). In addition, in these studies, it was
observed that the sub-dimensions of emotional intelligence also found to be positive
predictors job satisfaction. In the light of literature and the findings of the studies, the
first hypothesis was developed for the interaction between emotional intelligence (sub-
dimensions) and job satisfaction.
H1: Emotional intelligence level of employees positively affects their job
satisfaction levels.
H1a: Employees' appraisal of their own emotions positively affects their job 37
satisfaction levels.
H1b: Employees' appraisal of others’ emotions positively affects their job
satisfaction levels.
H1c: Employees’ regulation of their emotions positively affects their job
satisfaction levels.
H1d: Employees’ use of their emotions positively affects their job satisfaction
levels.
Emotional intelligence can affect employees' intention to leave as well as work
satisfaction. In many studies, negative relationships have been found between
emotional intelligence and intention to leave (Kartono and Hilmiana, 2018; Choerudin,
2016; Ünsar and Dinçer, 2014). Furthermore, in a Meta-analysis (Shukla and
Srivastava, 2016), it was emphasized that there were strong negative relationships
between the two variables based on the studies conducted on various samples. In the
light of this information, the second hypothesis of the study was developed as follows.
H2: Emotional intelligence level of employees negatively affects their intention
to leave levels.
H2a: Employees' appraisal of their own emotions negatively affects their
intention to leave levels.
H2b: Employees' appraisal of others’ emotions negatively affects their intention
to leave levels.
H2c: Employees’ regulation of their emotions negatively affects their intention to
leave levels.
H2d: Employees’ use of their emotions negatively affects their intention to leave
levels.

Method
Design and Sample
A quantitative research was designed to test hypotheses. The required data for
the research were obtained via survey method by using convenience sampling. The
sample of the study is composed of 146 participants who are active in their working
life. Therefore, it can be said thattrainers, policemen, civil servants and university staff
in the private and public sector constitute the sample.

Survey Instrument
The questionnaire form used in this study consists of three parts. In the first part,
Emotional Intelligence Scale developed by Wong and Law (2002) is included. The
scale consists of 16 items and 4 sub-dimensions as self-emotional appraisal (4 items),
others’s emotional appraisal (4 items), regulation of emotions (4 items) and use of
emotions (4 items). The second part of the questionnaire form consists of items which
 measure employee attitudes. Job satisfaction and intention to leave scales were used to
measure employee attitudes. The job satisfaction scale was developed by Brayfield and
Rothe (1951) and consists of five items with a single dimension. The intention to leave
the job scale was developed by Cammann et al. (1979) and similarly consists of a
single dimension. In order to eliminate sloopy questionnaires, reverse-coded items are
added between the items. All scales were prepared in a 5-point Likert-type scale
ranging from (1) “Strongly Disagree”- to (5) “Strongly Agree”. The last part of the
38 questionnaire consists of questions determine the demographic characteristics of the
participants including age, gender, marital status, and income.

Findings
First of all, validity and reliability analysis were performed. For the structural
validity, factor analysis was performed and cumulative total variance scores were
obtained as “72.720%” for emotional intelligence, “79.394%” for job satisfaction and
“92.888%” for intention to leave scales. It was seen that all dimensions of emotional
intelligence were distributed as in the original scale. On the other hand, according to
reliability analysis, Cronbach’s Alpha values were obtained as “0.906” for emotional
intelligence, “0.775” for job satisfaction and “0.962” for intention to leave scales. All
these findings indicate that the measurement tool is quite reliable and valid.
Demographic features of participants and their average scores of emotional
intelligence, job satisfaction and intention to leave are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Frequency Distribution and Percentages of Participants’ Demographic

Features and Their Mean Scores of Emotional Intelligence,
Job Satisfaction and Intention to Leave
Emotional Intention to
Job Satisfaction*
Demographic Feature N % Intelligence* Leave*
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
Gender t= -.56: P=0.572 t= -2.11: P=0.038 t= 0.36: P=0.720
Female 105 71.9 3.79 (0.64) 3.63 (0.86) 2.36 (1.41)
Male 41 28.1 3.73 (0.62) 3.29 (0.85) 2.45 (1.37)
Marital Status t= -.64: P=0.521 t= -0.04: P=0.965 t= -0.98: P=0.325
Married 77 52.7 3.74 (0.58) 3.53 (0.89) 2.27 (1.37)
Single 69 47.3 3.81 (0.69) 3.54 (0.84) 2.50 (1.42)
Age t= -0.41: P=0.683 t= -0.68: P=0.496 t=0.09: P=0.929
18-30 91 62.3 3.76 (0.63) 3.49 (0.90) 2.39 (1.41)
31 or above 54 37.7 3.80 (0.65) 3.59 (0.82) 2.37 (1.39)
Education Level F=0.14: P=0.966 F=0.22: P=0.926 F=0.68: P=0.607
Basic Education 10 6.8 3.71 (0.36) 3.48 (1.09) 2.33 (1.16)
High School 26 17.8 3.76 (0.42) 3.49 (0.88) 2.28 (1.28)
Associate Degree 27 18.5 3.83 (0.86) 3.61 (0.88) 2.77 (1.73)
Bachelor 71 48.6 3.76 (0.65) 3.50 (0.87) 2.32 (1.36)
Graduate 12 8.2 3.78 (0.60) 3.70 (0.65) 2.11 (1.24)
Monthly Income (TL) F=1.70: P=0.186 F=1.41: P=0.247 F=0.66: P=0.518
2000 or below 36 24.7 3.62 (0.13) 3.33 (0.75) 2.58 (1.36)
2001-4000 70 47.9 3.78 (0.07) 3.56 (0.93) 2.42 (1.36)
4001 or above 40 27.4 3.90 (0.09) 3.67 (0.85) 2.20 (1.53)
Sector t= .98: P=0.328 t= 2.30: P=0.023 t= - 4.02: P=0.000
Public 56 38.4 3.84 (0.62) 3.74 (0.80) 1.86 (1.01)
Private 90 61.6 3.74 (0.64) 3.41 (0.88) 2.70 (1.51)

According toresults, it is seen that most of participants are females (71.9%), most
of them are married (52.7%), between the 18-30 age interval (62.3%), have bachelor’s
degree education level (48.6%), have a 2001-4000 TL (with the current Exchange rate
4000 TL equals to 760 dollars) monthly income and are working in private sector. To
test differences between groups, independent t-tests and one-way Anova analysis were
applied. Females were found to be more satisfied from their work comparing to males
(t: -2.11, P: 0.038). Similarly, public sector employees found to be more satisfied from
their work comparing to private sector employees (t:2.30: P:0.023). Except these two
findings, no statistically differences were observed between demographic groups in
terms of emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, and intention to leave. 39
In order to see the impact of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction, and
intention to leave, and to test hypotheses regression analysis were conducted. The
results of regression analysis are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. The Effects of Emotional Intelligence on Job Satisfaction

and Intention to Leave
Dependent Variables
Independent
Job Satisfaction Intention to Leave
Variables
β t R2 β t R2
Emotional Intelligence .43*** 5.77 18 - .25** - 3.13 .05
Self emotional appraisal .24** 3.06 .05 - .09 - 1.15 .01
Others’ emotional appraisal .28*** 3.60 .07 - .18* - 2.21 .03
Regulation of emotions .47*** 6.35 .21 - .30*** - 3.85 .09
Using emotions .33*** 4.23 .10 - .19* - 2.40 .03
Note: n=146. *p< .05, **p< .01, ***p< .001; R 2: Adjusted R2.

According to findings, as it was expected, emotional intelligence has positive

moderate impact on job satisfaction (β: .43; p< .001) and has a negative low impact on
intention to leave (β: -.25; p< .01). Moreover, it is seen that all sub dimensions of
emotional intelligence have positive effects on job satisfaction. On the other hand,
except self emotional appraisal, other dimensions of emotional intelligence have
negative effects on intention to leave. But even the effect of self emotional appraisal on
intention to leave was negative, the interaction between these two variables found
insignificant (β: -.09; p> .05). All these findings show that first hypothesis has been
supported with its all sub-hypotheses. On the other hand, second hypothesis has been
partially supported due to insignificant interaction between self emotional appraisal
and intention to leave. Thus, H1, H1a, H1b, H1c, H1d, H2b, H2c, H2d have been all
supported. As H2a has been rejected, H2 has been partially supported.

Discussion and Conclusion

In the current study, the impact of emotional intelligence on the attitudes of
employees was questioned. Accordingly, two hypotheses have been developed to test
the effects of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction and intention to leave. Research
findings reveal that emotional intelligence affects job satisfaction moderately and
positively. Thus, emotional intelligence is a factor that allows employees to be happy
with their work. Employees who are aware of their own and others' emotions, who can
manage and use their emotions are more satisfied with their work. This finding is
consistent with the findings of studies investigating the relationship between emotional
intelligence and job satisfaction in the literature (Kafetsios and Zampetakis, 2008; Lee,
2017; Moradi et al., 2012; Tagoe and Quarshie, 2017). This result may have occurred
 because people who are emotionally intelligent are less affected by the negative
conditions of the work and work environment.
It is natural for the employees to be more satisfied with the work than those who
cannot enlarge events, empathize with others, and ignore factors that create work
dissatisfaction. Because the emotionally intelligent employees are prone to be less
affected by the negativity of the factors such as conflict, chaos, task ambiguity, and
stress, and they accept these factors as ordinary. Therefore, positive interaction
40 between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction can be explained in this way. When
evaluated in terms of dimensions, it is observed that managing emotions affects job
satisfaction at the highest level compared to other dimensions. In fact, this finding
reveals that it is very critical to control nerves, to be able to evaluate negativity as
ordinary and to prevent sudden emotional changes. According to another finding,
emotional intelligence has a negative and low effect on intention to leave. That is why
the employees who are aware of their emotions and can effectively manage their
intention to leave the job. Already the intention to leave work and job satisfaction
attitudes are closely related to each other. An individual who is satisfied with his/her
work will not want to leave his/her job. Since emotional intelligence affects job
satisfaction positively, it is natural that it affects negatively the intention to leave. This
finding is consistent with the findings of the studies in the literature (Choerudin, 2016;
Kartono and Hilmiana, 2018; Shukla and Srivastava, 2016; Ünsar and Dinçer, 2014).
Emotionally mature employees are those who believe that negative conditions
will disappear, and a positive climate will emerge in the future. Compared to others,
employees who can ignore managerial mistakes and to be able to get rid of the negative
conditions such as stress and uncertainty in a short time are more satisfied with their
work and not wanto to leave the job. This can be explained with emotional intelligence.
In the current study, even though the effect of emotional intelligence on the intention to
leave is not highly strong, it is seen that it still influences intention to leave. When all
the findings were examined, it was concluded that emotional intelligence influences the
working attitudes of the employees. Although emotional intelligence is frequently
discussed in academic terms, it can be stated that it does not get the necessary attention
in practical business life. From this point of view, it is important for the enterprises to
move towards the employees with high emotional intelligence. In this context, it may
be useful to develop several internal or external trainings that will increase the
development of emotional intelligence for the existing employees. However, in
addition to interest, skill, mental intelligence tests, including emotional intelligence
tests during recruitment will benefit organizations. Because an emotionally intelligent
employee means a happy employee and hereby a happy employee means high
performance and a compatible employee. In this sense, emotional intelligence should
be considered as a factor that can contribute to the efficiency and performance
indicators of organizations in the long term.
In this study, basic employee attitudes such as job satisfaction and intention to
quit have been investigated. Emotions have a great role in business life. For this
reason, in the future studies, emotional intelligence should be also examined together
with the variables such as psychological well-being, psychological capital and
psychological contract.
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