CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO HIGH VOLTAGE

ENGINEERING

1.1 Introduction

The modern civilization depends heavily on the consumption of

electrical energy for industrial, commercial, agricultural, domestic and social
purposes. The economic development and social welfare of any modern
society, therefore, depends upon the availability of cheap and reliable supply
of electrical energy. Extensive networks of electrical power installations have
been built in industrialized countries and are being constructed in developing
countries at an ever-increasing rate. The major function of such power systems
is to generate, transport and distribute electrical energy over large
geographical areas in an economical manner, while ensuring a high degree of
reliability, and quality of supply.

The transmission of large amounts of electrical power over long

distances is best accomplished by using high voltage (HV), extra high voltage
(EHV) or ultra high voltage (UHV) power lines (see Table 1.1 for voltage
classification). Thus, high voltage equipment is the backbone of all modern
power systems. Besides generation, transmission and distribution of electrical
energy, high voltages are also extensively being used for many industrial,
scientific and engineering applications as well. Some of these are:

1. Electrostatic precipitators for the removal of dust from flue gases,

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2. Atomization of liquids for paint and pesticide spraying,

3. Ozone generation for water and sewage treatment,

4. X-ray generators, electron microscopes and particle accelerators,

5. High-power lasers and ion beams,

6. Plasma sources for semiconductor manufacturing,

7. Superconducting magnet coils,

8. Powder coating and xerography,

9. Power supplies in television sets, computer monitors and oscilloscopes

etc. and,

10. Sterilization of food.

These are only some of the industries and processes which use high-
voltage and it is obvious that the continued development of high-voltage
technology is of importance not only for the electrical power transmission but
also for many other modern industries. This chapter outlines some basic
definitions related to the field of high voltage technology. It further provides a
brief review of why high voltage transmission networks are essential for
delivering bulk power to the distant load centers including short description of
some important industrial applications of high voltage technology.
Subsequent chapters provide details on the discharge physics in gases, liquids,
solids and composite insulation that form the backbone of apparatus used in
the power networks. These include their detailed properties, applications,
failure modes, diagnostic techniques used for testing and evaluating different
materials and operating components including important components of power
system apparatus.

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1.2 Definition of High Voltage

As per International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) the voltages

exceeding 1000 V AC, or greater than 1200 V DC are defined as high
voltages. The most common AC high voltage classes and the range of specific
voltage in each class are summarized in Table 1.1.

Table (1.1) International standard rated operating (line to line) voltage levels.

Normal line voltage

Voltage class Europe (50 Hz) USA (60 Hz)
(V) (V)
Low Voltage (LV) 220/240 120 (single phase)
380/415 208
650 600
1000
(kV) (kV)
Medium Voltage (MV) - 2.4
5 4.6
11 12.47
22 23
33 34.5
66 69.0
High Voltage (HV) 110 115
132 145
220 230
Extra High Voltage (EHV) 275 287
380 345
400 500
750 765
800 --
Ultra High Voltage (UHV) 1000 – 1600

1.3 High Voltage Power Network

Electric power is expected to be the fastest growing source of energy

throughout the world over the coming decades. In some developing countries,
the demand for electricity is increasing almost at an exponential rate.

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To meet its ever increasing demand, large power stations are being built. It is
now quite common to find 1000 MW of power being generated in a single
power station. A 1000 MW thermal power station at Gazlan in Saudi Arabia
and 1200 MW power plant at Tarbela in Pakistan are typical examples. The
electric energy is transferred from these generating systems to distant load
centres via the transmission systems. The modern electrical power system is in
the form of a large interconnected network. The generating stations and
transmission and distribution systems are interconnected by means of 3 phase
AC system operating synchronously at the common single frequency of 50 Hz
or 60 Hz. The total electric power network covers a vast geographical area
and its most important part is the transmission system.

The basic function of a transmission system is to transfer electrical

power from one location to another or from one network to another network.
A transmission system includes terminal substations, transmission lines and
intermediate substations, associated controls, protection and auxiliaries etc.
For longer lines and more power transfer, higher transmission voltages are
necessary. Up to 1970s, the choice was exclusively in favor of up to 220 kV
high voltage AC (HVAC). However, during 1990s several EHV lines
operating at 750 kV and above have been built in north America and Europe.
The extra high voltage grid covering western European countries operates at
400 kV and is also interconnected with eastern Europe. In Canada, 11,340
MW of power is transmitted over distances of 1100 km at 765 kV, while 1150
kV lines are in operation at Bonneville to transmit power of 10,000 MW over
a distance of 285 km. In a similar situation, 5000 MW are being transmitted
over a distance of 800 km in Russia also at 1150 kV. Fig. (1.1) shows the
international historical development of high voltage levels of AC power
networks.

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Fig. (1.1). Increasing trend of the highest 3-phase AC transmission voltage in
the world.

In recent years, high voltage direct current (HVDC) bipolar

transmission has also gained popularity and has become a technically and
commercially viable alternative to EHV/UHV AC transmission particularly
for, (i) long distance bulk power transmission; (ii) cable transmission
(particularly under water) and (iii) system interconnection. For these three
applications, HVDC transmission systems have a distinct superiority over
HVAC and are being increasingly preferred as they produce many economical
advantages when used in combination with AC transmission. Fig. (1.2)
summarizes the technical properties, economic advantages and methods of
transmission for HVDC [1]. These lines do not need intermediate substations
for compensation, whereas for HVAC lines intermediate substations are
required at an interval of around 300 km. Fig. (1.3) shows the historical
development of HVDC overhead lines as well as cable interconnecting links.

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The highest overhead DC transmission voltages are now operating in Brazil at
600 kV and in Russia at 750 kV. Table (1.2) shows the reference values of
transmission voltages and power handling capability of bipolar overhead
HVDC transmission.

Fig. (1.2). Technical properties, economic advantages and methods of

transmission for HVDC [1,2].

Table (1.2) Estimated optimum voltages and currents for HVDC

transmissions [3].

Bipolar power capability Line voltage Direct current

(MW) (kV) (A)
500 – 1000  400 600 – 1250
1000 – 2500  500 1000 – 2500
2500 – 4000  600 2100 – 3300
4000 – 6000  700 2150 – 4300
6000 – 9000  800 2800 – 5600

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Fig. (1.3). Trends of increasing HVDC overhead transmission lines and cable
interconnections in the world.

HVDC systems are not without disadvantages. Unlike, HVAC, it is

difficult to tap off power at points along a line. Therefore, HVDC lines
usually run direct from generating source to converting stations or load
centers. Furthermore, although the line costs are lower (two wires instead of
three for an AC system), the station costs for HVDC are higher than for
HVAC transmission because the conversion equipment is complicated and
expensive. As a result there is a critical distance above which DC transmission
is more economical than AC. Advances in the power ratings of thyristors and
the development of DC switchgear have reduced this distance to between 500
km and 800 km [2]. Fig. (1.4) illustrates the cost effectiveness of both
systems as a function of transmission distance. HVDC becomes favorable
above 800 km, when cost of DC line and terminal equipment is less than that
of equivalent HVAC line and substations.

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Fig. (1.4). Economic comparison of long distance high power HVAC and
HVDC transmission system.

1.4 Power Handling Capacity and Losses of Long Transmission Line

The most important requirement of an HVAC transmission line is the

power transferability based on transient stability limits. Power transferability
of AC transmission system is given by the equation:

VS VR
Pt  sin  (1.1)
XL

where

VS = sending end voltage kVrms, line to neutral.

VR = receiving end voltage kVrms, line to neutral.

XL = series inductive reactance, ohm, per phase

 = power angle, angle between VS and VR

Pt = power transfer, MW, per phase.

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 In practice, angle  is held around 30 to maintain transient stability.
Therefore, power transfer of a single circuit, 3-phase AC line per phase is
approximately equal to:

VS VR VV
Pt  sin 30 o  0.5 S R (1.2)
XL XL

Hence the power transferability of a long HVAC line is limited

approximately to half of its steady state stability limit. However, by
introducing a parallel circuit, the series reactance of the double circuit is
reduced to (XL/2) resulting in doubling of power transferability. So eqn. (1.2)
is modified to Pt = VS VR / XL. Therefore, for long transmission paths, it
becomes necessary to have at least two, three phase parallel lines from
transient stability point of view and for increasing the power transferability.
Moreover, in a 3-phase AC line, a fault on any one phase demands tripping of
all the three phases. Therefore, for continuity in power flow, a parallel three
phase AC line is also essential. In case of HVDC line, two poles are available
with return earth. Hence parallel line is not required for a bipolar HVDC line.

The compensation requirements of the EHV lines depend on the line's

loading which is generally expressed in terms of surge impedance loading SIL.

SIL is a resistive load at the receiving end, equivalent to ZS = L / C , where L

= series inductance (Henry/km/phase), and C = shunt capacitance per phase
(Farads/km/phase). It is expressed in per unit (p.u.) values. When the line
carries the natural load (i.e. when the magnitude of the voltage is the same
everywhere along the line) it is equal to 1.0 pu. When the line carries load
above 1.0 pu, the voltage at the middle of the line is higher. Typical values of
surge impedance loading of overhead transmission lines based on the natural
load are given in Table (1.3).

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Table (1.3) Typical values of surge impedance load of AC lines.

Rated Voltage (kV) 132 220 400 765 1100

SIL (in MW) 40 125 500 1700 5000

In case of HVDC lines, the SIL concept is not applicable. The line load
in this case is decided by thermal rating of the converters and the other line
equipment.

It is clear that to transfer more power, higher transmission voltage is

necessary, since the limit of power transfer is proportional to the square of the
rated line voltage.

1.5 Line Losses

When a current I flows through a conductor of resistance 'R', it causes

loss in the conductor which is equal to I2R. For 3-phase transmission, the

power transferred Pt = 3 V I cos . Therefore the power loss (PL) is given as:

2
 Pt 
PL = 3   R
 3 V cos  
 

If Pt is in MW and V in kV, then

Pt R
PL = 2 2
(in MW, 3/unit length) (1.3)
V cos 

From this we can infer that for the same power to be delivered, the line
losses reduce as the line voltage is increased. Moreover, due to the reduction
in current, the cross-section of conductor and hence its volume is also reduced,
thereby the conductor and transmission line support cost is also reduced
significantly.

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 In general, the power handling capability of the line is estimated based
on eqn. (1.1) in which resistance has been neglected. At unity power factor,
the power can be equated as:

V 2 sin 
 3VI
XL

V sin 
Therefore, I (1.4)
3  XL

where V = line voltage,  = line length and XL = positive sequence reactance

in ohms/km/phase.

The total power loss (PL) in 3-phases will be:

2
PL = 3 I2R = V2R sin2 . /  X L (1.5)

and the percentage power loss will be:

% PL = 100 sin  (R/XL) (1.6)

This expression is independent of the length of the line. Ideally, the

line operates at  = 30, therefore the power loss is expressed as = 50R/XL. In
general, the power loss of the HVAC lines is estimated based on this relation
and the total power handling capacity is also related to it. Its significance and
the factors that control the choice of the operating voltage are further
illustrated in solved example (1.2).

From the preceding discussion it becomes clear that EHV lines ( 275
kV) are extremely necessary if large blocks of power have to be transmitted
over longer distances. For every transmission project, the economic studies
are carried out and cost of power transmission (in per kWhr) is estimated for a
given power transfer to a specific distance. Different curves, as shown in Fig.

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(1.5), are drawn. From these curves, the best possible available choice can be
identified. This figure clearly illustrates that for a given power, the higher line
voltages become more economical with the increase in line length.

Fig. (1.5). Choice of operating voltage for transmission lines.

1.6 Uses of High Voltage in Industry and Research

It was illustrated earlier in section (1.1) that high voltage technology is

an advanced discipline of science, which plays a significant role not only in
the transmission and distribution of electric power, but also in multitude of
industrial and scientific applications. This section presents in brevity, some
pertinent examples of such applications, while several others are encompassed
in different sections of this book.

1.6.1 Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)

These are commonly used in industry to remove dust particles floating

in air or in industrial flue gases. Electrostatic precipitation is in principle the
charging of floating particles under the effect of high electric field. The ions
are produced in the precipitator due to the strong corona discharge, and when

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the gas entrained with these floating particulates passes through this region,
the ions attach to the dust particles and they get charged and are immediately
propelled toward the opposite earthed collecting electrodes. Fig. (1.6)
illustrates the principle on which an electrostatic precipitator works. The
strong non-uniform field is obtained by impressing high voltage on the wire
electrode enclosed in a grounded cylinder. In some applications several sharp
wires are used, whereas the collecting electrode is in the form of a large duct.
The collection efficiency of these precipitators depends upon the dimensions
and geometry of gas duct used, gas temperature, velocity, size and resistivity
of dust particles, beside the intensity of high voltage corona discharge. With a
good design, this efficiency can reach to almost 99% [4].

Fig. (1.6). Two-stages cylindrical electrostatic precipitator [4].

1.6.2 Spraying of pesticides

Spraying of liquids such as pesticides is generally carried out by using

pressurized mechanical atomizing nozzle. However, the efficiency of this

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system is low, since large portion of spray is lost due to wind drift. A nozzle
based on the principle of electrostatic charging has been developed to
overcome this problem. Fig. (1.7) illustrates the basic principle of this
electrostatic pesticide spray. When a fine jet of liquid passes through the thin
capillary of the atomizing nozzle which is connected to high voltage, the
emerging jet of liquid particles is directed toward the plants or tree that are at
ground potential. Due to the intense field at the tip of the nozzle the emitting
droplets of pesticide are broken down to smaller and almost equal sizes. This,
in effect, increases the coulomb force acting on the tiny droplets of spray and
makes it higher than gravitational and inertial forces. This electrically charged
fine mist of pesticide has high attraction towards the leaves of the plants and
ensures superior coverage on both sides of the leaves. If some plant leaves
have pointed tips, the efficiency of the spray is further enhanced.

Fig. (1.7). Electrostatic pesticide spray gun.

1.6.3 Electrostatic painting

Based on the principle of electrostatic pesticide spray illustrated above

in previous section, electrostatic painting of metallic objects is also carried out

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in industry. In this case the liquid paint is atomized electrostatically as it
leaves the nozzle and directed toward the object to be painted, which is
connected to the ground. In a similar fashion the dry powdered paint can also
be applied based on the principle of electrostatic precipitators.

The particles of the powdered paint are charged with the bombardment
of corona ions moving under the action of surrounding electric field between
the sharp nozzle and grounded object. Fig. (1.8) shows the basic principle of
particle coating, where the fine particles are attracted toward the object and
accumulate on its both surfaces. This type of painting is commonly used in
automobile industry and transformer industry etc.

Fig. (1.8). Electrostatic powder painting.

1.6.4 Production of ozone gas

Ozone is being used increasingly as an alternative to chlorination of

drinking water, in the treatment of industrial waste, in bleaching processes of
textiles and paper pulp, in chemical synthesis of vitamins and perfumes, and in
the processing of semiconductor devices. It has little detrimental effect on the
environment because the natural decay product of ozone is oxygen, and in the

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presence of organic substances, carbon dioxide also may be created. It has the
added advantage of less energy consumption than other alternatives, such as
the chlorination process. Ozone is known as a potent bactericide and viricide.

The ozone molecule is unstable and decays into oxygen. Therefore, it

must be generated where it is required to be used and it cannot be shipped or
stored in a gaseous form. The traditional way of producing ozone is by means
of dielectric barrier discharge, also known as silent discharge, for in this case
the dry air or oxygen is passed through a narrow coaxial discharge cell. One
side of this cell is the high voltage electrode in contact with a glass rod or
plate, while the surrounding cylindrical electrode is connected to the ground.
Under the application of high frequency high voltage, ozone is produced in the
incoming gas by micro-discharges taking place due to the strong electric field
in the cell. Instead of silent discharge, surface discharge, corona or a hybrid of
corona and surface discharge are also used. Due to micro-discharges, heat is
also generated so the cylinder has to be cooled down.

More recently, positive pulsed streamer, non-thermal discharge

techniques have been introduced [5]. Fig. (1.9) shows the reactor and
associated instrumentation of this method. The central part of the reactor
(ozonizer) is a spiral wired circuit wound over glass or PVC tube, while the
outer cylinder is earthed. High voltage pulsed power is applied to the axial
inner spiral electrode. The main merits of using very short duration ( 150 ns)
high voltage pulses are that the temperature of the ions and of the neutral gas
does not increase above the ambient. Moreover, homogeneous discharges at
atmospheric pressure are created which produce the radical O that is necessary
for the production of ozone. Further, a breakdown leading to arc in the
reactors does not form.

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Fig. (1.9). High voltage power pulse ozone reactor and associated
instrumentation [6].

1.6.5 Removal of industrial flue gases

Recently, there is worldwide concern over reduction of gas pollutants

produced from a wide range of industrial sources. Out of these, nitrogen and
sulphur oxides, are of primary concern as they lead to acid rain, which has a
negative impact on vegetation, fresh water resources and reservoirs. High
voltage pulsed power is increasingly being used also for the removal of these
pollutants from flue gases.

There are primarily two methods for generating nonthermal plasmas in

atmospheric gas; namely, electron beam irradiation and electrical discharges.
Both techniques being technologically promising are undergoing intensive
development worldwide to reduce the energy requirements to remove the
pollutants. More recently, short duration (<100ns) fast rising (<10ns) high
voltage pulses method of pulsed power has been introduced [6]. The
application of these pulses to a pair of electrodes in atmosphere air containing
the pollutants creates high energy electrons which then produce radicals N and
O by dissociation, and in the presence of moisture the NO and NO2 are

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converted to HNO3, while SO2 is converted to H2SO4. Ammonia is then added
to these products which neutralizes these acids to solid aerosol salts. These
aerosols are removed by passing them through electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
discussed in section (1.6.1).

Fig. (1.10) illustrates a recently introduced plant for removal of flue gas
from iron ore sintering plant [7]. The incoming gases are fed into a corona
reactor in which spirally wound thin wires are connected to a high voltage
magnetic pulse compression (MPC) generator [5,7]. This is in essence a
circuit in which + HVDC is converted to short duration fast rising high voltage
pulses. Due to micro-discharges, the gases lead into acidic form which are
then passed through the ESP where the salts are collected and exhaust air free
of pollutants is purged out.

Fig. (1.10). Typical schematic diagram of plant for the removal of NO x,SO2,
and solid particles using injected ammonia and propylene [7].

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1.6.6 Production of abrasive papers/sheets

Abrasive papers are extensively used in industry. High voltage plays a

significant role in the production of these papers or sheets. Fig. (1.11) shows a
typical set-up of their manufacture. Abrasive particles of glass, silicon
carbide, diamond etc and of different specific grit sizes are poured on to a
continuous belt conveyer. As they pass through the strong electrostatic field
maintained between two parallel electrodes under the application of high
voltage of varying magnitude (usually > 30 kV), they line up along the field
lines with their sharp edges pointed toward the electrodes. They attain
coulombic force and lift up to the opposite electrodes, where they are glued on
to the moving adhesive coated sheet. Any particle which strikes an area
already covered by particles, falls back and is recovered for reprocessing [4].

Fig. (1.11). Principle of electrostatic manufacturing of sandpaper [4].

1.6.7 Electron microscope

This is very versatile tool that has proven to be a backbone for the
microstructure analysis of engineering materials. Either in 'transmission' or
'scanning electron' modes, they provide micro-structure details or surface
morphology of materials at magnification levels that exceed well over
300,000X. In addition, elemental analysis of impurities are also provided.

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The heart of the electron microscope is the electron gun which emits electrons
under the action of (high voltage) field emission which are accelerated down
the observation column by potential energy typically of 1–40 keV. The lenses
focus this electron beam to the specimen holding stage which is maintained
under high vacuum (~10-3 Pa). Fig. (1.12) shows the principal diagram of
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and its essential components. X-ray
photons are generated when high energy electron from the incident beam
ejects an outer shell electron from the atom. The discrete energy released by
this electron transition creates a characteristic X-ray photon. Every element
has a specific structure and therefore, produces a unique set of X-rays. The
analysis of the wavelengths of these X-rays leads to the determination of
elements present in the specimen under test. In transmission electron
microscopes the electron gun has to produce energy in the range of 1-400
keV, since the sample structure has to be penetrated deep to determine any
flaws, micro-cracks etc.

Fig. (1.12). Principal set up of scanning electron microscope.

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1.6.8 Sterilization of food

Conventionally, heat treatment methods, such as pasteurization of

liquid food, are used to inactivate spoilage microbes that grow under
conditions normally encountered during storage, in order to extend the shelf
life. These methods are energy intensive, and can adversely affect nutritional
values and flavor of the preserved food. Interest in nonthermal sterilization
processes has therefore, arisen to overcome these disadvantages [8]. Several
electrical approaches have been used in the past to disrupt the growth of
micro-organisms. The application of AC or DC current at low voltage to
liquids filled with living organisms, can kill the micro-organisms through
electrolysis or ohmic heating. High-field, high-current arc discharges also
cause a lethal effect on living organisms due to intense shock waves generated
by the arc discharge. However, these methods cause contamination of the
treated medium from chemical byproducts of electrolysis or disintegration of
particulates, which makes them unsuitable for use in the food industry [8,9].

These drawbacks have been eliminated by using short-duration high-

voltage electric pulses to sterilize liquid food. Fig. (1.13) shows schematic of
a microbial cell. High-field electric pulses produce micropores in cell
membranes. This phenomenon is called electro-poration and finds applications
in cell biology, genetic engineering and bio-technology. The field effect
causes total rupture of the cell membrane. Sterilization of food can take effect
when cells of the micro-organisms suspended in liquid food are damaged.
Vegetative bacteria and yeasts can be easily killed without adverse effects on
the nutrients of the food. Similarly liquid dairy products, fruit juices and fluid
eggs are also sterilized. Pulsed electric field can also inactivate microbial
spores, aquatic nuisance species, and can control enzyme activity [9].

Pulsed corona, in the presence of bubbles, has been found to be a

potential source for the removal of hazardous organic volatile substances that

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are commonly found in drinking water. Drinking water can be contaminated
with hydrocarbons through industrial waste and also as a consequence of
disinfecting water with chlorine. Pulse voltage corona plays a significant role
in water treatment plants in purification of water [10].

The forgoing examples of high voltage applications are just a few

examples of its tremendous potential uses in almost all branches of science
and engineering.

Fig. (1.13). (a) Schematic of a microbial cell suspended in aqueous fluid

under electric field, E. (b) Scanning electron micrograph of a
bacterial cell [9].

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1.7 Solved Examples

Example # 1.1

If an overhead line has a surge impedance of 400 , what will be the

surge impedance loading of this line if the transmission voltage is selected as
132 kV, 220 kV, 380 kV and 750 kV. Assume that the line carries natural
load.

Solution

Surge impedance loading under natural load is = V2/Z. Therefore, for

the above cases, it is tabulated below.

Rated Voltage (kV) 132 220 380 750

SIL (MW) 43.56 121 361 1406.3

It is clear that with the increase in line voltage, the power handling
capacity of the line increases many folds.

Example # 1.2

Average parameters of some EHV and UHV lines are tabulated below.
Calculate the power handling capacity of each line, if it has to deliver this
power to load centers located at 400 km, 600 km, 800 km, and 1000 km away.
Also estimate the percent power loss. Assume the lines operate under stability
limit of  = 30. Discuss the impact of these results, comparing different
alternatives to transmit power to these load centers.

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 System (kV) 400 750 1000 1200

Average Height (m) 15 18 21 21

Phase Spacing (m) 12 15 18 21

Conductor diameter 2*32 mm 4*30 mm 6*46 mm 8*46 mm

Bundle Spacing (m) 0.4572 0.4572 -- --

Bundle Dia. (m) -- -- 1.2 1.2

R (ohm/km) 0.031 0.0136 0.0036 0.0027

XL (ohm/km) 0.327 0.272 0.231 0.231

XL/R 10.55 20 64.2 85.6

Solution

Percentage power loss is given as = 50 R/XL, Whereas power to be

transmitted Pt = 0.5 V2/(L XL) (in MW). The results are tabulated below:

Percentage Power Loss

400 kV 750 kV 1000 kV 1200 kV

50 50 50 50
= 4.76% = 2.5% = 0.78% = 0.584%
10.55 20 64.2 85.6

Power Transmitted (MW)

Line Length (km) 400 kV 750 kV 1000 kV 1200 kV

400 670 2860 6000 8625

600 450 1900 4000 5750

800 335 1430 3000 4310

1000 270 1140 2400 3450

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 A close look at these results leads to the following important and useful
conclusions that give preliminary understanding of the trends relating to the
power handling capacity, line losses of the high voltage transmission lines,
and the number of circuits required.

(i) One, 750 kV line can normally carry as much power as four, 400 kV
circuits for equal distance of transmission.

(ii) One, 1200 kV circuit can carry the power of three, 750 kV circuits and
twelve, 400 kV circuits for the same transmission distance, and so
forth.

(iii) The power-handling capacity of a line at a given voltage level decreases

with line length and is inversely proportional to the line length. If we
look at equation (1.3), we find that the same holds good for current to
be carried.

(iv) If the conductor size is based on current rating, then with the increase in
line length, smaller sizes of conductor will be necessary provided the
voltage levels are raised. This will increase the danger of high voltage
effects caused by smaller diameter of conductor giving rise to corona
on the conductors and intensifying levels of radio interference, audible
noise as well as corona loss. (For details, see chapter 6).

(v) However, the percentage power loss in transmission remains

independent of line length since it depends on the ratio of conductor
resistance to the positive-sequence reactance per unit length, and the
phase difference,  between VS and VR.

(vi) From the values of % power loss, it is evident that it decreases as the
system voltage is increased. This goes very strongly in favour of using
higher voltages if energy is to be conserved.

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(vii) In comparison to the % power loss at 400 kV, we observe that if the
same power is transmitted at 750 kV, the line loss is reduced to
(2.5/4.76) = 0.525. At 1000 kV, it is 0.78/4.76 = 0.165, and at 1200
kV, it is further reduced to 0.124.

It therefore, becomes apparent from this example that the choice of

transmission voltage depends upon: (a) the total power transmitted; (b) the
distance of transmission; (c) the % power loss allowed, and (d) the number of
circuits permissible from the point of view of land acquisition for the line
corridor.

Example # 1.3

A power of 2000 MW is to be transmitted from a thermal power station

located at A over 800 km to location B. Using 400 kV and 750 kV
alternatives, suggest the number of circuits required with 50% series capacitor
compensation. Also calculate the total power loss and loss per km. Use the
average line parameters given in example # 1.2.

Solution

With 50% of line reactance compensated, the total reactance will be

half of the positive-sequence reactance of the 800 km line.

 0.327 
Therefore Pt = 0.5 * 4002/800 *   = 670 MW/circuit at 400 kV
 2 

 0.272 
and Pt = 0.5 * 7502/800 *   = 2860 MW/circuit at 750 kV
 2 

2000
Number of circuits required =
Pt

The results are presented in tabular forms as follows:

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 Parameters 400 kV 750 kV

No. of circuits required 3 1

Current per circuit (kA) 667/ 3 *400 = 0.963 1.54

Resistance for 800 km 0.03*800 = 24.8 0.0136*800 = 10.88

length ()

Loss per circuit (MW) 3*24.8*(0.9632) = 69 3*10.88*(1.542) = 77.4

Total power loss (MW) 3*69 = 207 77.4

Loss/km (kW) 86.25 kW/km 97 kW/km

Questions and Problems

1.1 Define high voltage. List different classes of high voltage and for each
class specify the voltage levels that are currently operative in your
country.

1.2 Why are high voltages used for long distance power transmission?
Also give five main uses of high voltage.

1.3 For a transmitted power and constant losses on a transmission line by

how much should the conductor cross-section be reduced if the voltage
is raised by a factor ?

1.4 What is surge impedance loading and what is its importance on the
operation of HVAC and HVDC transmission networks?

1.5 For the transmission of a constant amount of power with a given power
loss over a fixed distance, in general, the amount of copper conductor
required is inversely proportional to the square of the voltage
employed. If V is the voltage to neutral of a transmission system, I the

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 current per phase and cos  is its power factor, show that the volume of
copper, A, in each line is proportional to

1
V 2 cos2 

where  is the line length and A is the cross-sectional area of the

conductors.

1.6 What are the merits and demerits of HVAC and HVDC modes of
transmission?

1.7 What will be the surge impedance loading of a transmission line if its
surge impedance is 350  and it has to operate at 220 kV, 400 kV, 750
kV, and 1150 kV. If this line is made double circuit, what will be its
effect on surge impedance loading?

1.8 1000 MW power is to be transmitted over 800 km distance using a

three phase AC transmission line. The voltages being considered are
380 kV and 500 kV. Assume that the same conductor size is used for
both voltage levels and the conductor has R = 0.03 /km/phase. What
are the power losses at each voltage? What are the values of surge
impedance loading of these lines if the surge impedance value is 200 
for each voltage level?

1.9 Using equations (1.1) and (1.4), draw on a graph the variation of P and
I as the distance of transmission  is varied from 400 to 800 km for:
(a) 380 kV line, and (b) 750 kV line. Use average values for R and XL
given in the Table of example (1.2). Take Pt = 0.5 V2/XL.

1.10 In country (A), for transmitting a power of 10,000 MW over 285 km, a
voltage of 1150 kV was selected. In country (B) for transmitting a
power of 5000 MW over 800 km, the same voltage level was selected.

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 Give your comments on the possible reasons for such a choice. What
voltage level is most suitable? Discuss the % line losses by comparing
it with other suitable voltage classes that could have been found
suitable.

References

[1] T.G. Gallagher, A.J. Pearmain, "High Voltage: Measurement, Testing

and Design", John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK, 1983.

[2] D. Povh, "HVDC Transmission", Siemens Power Engineering, Vol. 3,

pp. 11-18, 1981.

[3] E. Kuffel and W.S. Zaengl, "High Voltage Engineering Fundamentals",

Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1984.

[4] A.D. Moore, "Electrostatics and Its Applications", Wiley-Interscience

Publication, New York, USA, 1973.

[5] W.J.M. Samaranayake et al. "Pulsed Streamer Discharge Characteris-

tics of Ozone Production in Dry Air", IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and
Electrical Insulation, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 254-260, April 2000.

[6] R. Hackam and H. Akiyama, "Application of Pulsed Power for

Removal of Nitrogen Oxides from Polluted Air", IEEE Electrical
Insulation Magazine, Vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 8-13, Sept./Oct. 2001.

[7] Y. Mok and I.S. Nam, "Positive Pulsed Corona Discharge Process for
Removal of SO2 and NOx from Iron-Ore Sintering Flue Gas", IEEE
Trans. Plasma Science, Vol. 27, pp. 1188-1196, 1999.

[8] S. Palaniappan, S.K. Sastry and E.R. Richter, "Effect of Electricity on

Micro-organisms: A Review", Journal of Food Processing and
Preservation, Vol. 14, pp. 393-414, 1990.

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[9] S.H. Jayaram, "Sterilization of Liquid Foods by Pulsed Electric Fields",
IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 17-25,
Nov./Dec. 2000.

[10] A. Al-Arainy, S. Jayaram and J.D. Cross, "Pulsed Corona for Removing
Volatile Impurities from Drinking Water", Proc. of 12th Int. Conf. on
Cond. and Breakdown in Diel. Liquids (12-ICDL 96), Rome, Italy, pp.
427-431, July 1996.

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