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Moderné vzdelávanie pre vedomostnú spoločnosť/
Projekt je spolufinancovaný zo zdrojov EÚ
BUILDING PHYSICS
Stavebná fakulta
prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc.

Ing. Marek Zozulák
Building Physics – Module 1
Moderné vzdelávanie pre vedomostnú spoločnosť/

Projekt je spolufinancovaný zo zdrojov EÚ
BUILDING PHYSICS
Stavebná fakulta
prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc.

Ing. Marek Zozulák
2
Táto publikácia vznikla za finančnej podpory z Európskeho sociálneho fondu v rámci

Operačného programu VZDELÁVANIE.
Prioritná os 1 Reforma vzdelávania a odbornej prípravy

Opatrenie 1.2 Vysoké školy a výskum a vývoj ako motory rozvoja vedomostnej
spoločnosti.
Autor: prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc.

Ing. Marek Zozulák
ISBN 978-80-553-1261-3
Rukopis neprešiel/prešiel jazykovou úpravou.

Za odbornú a obsahovú stránku zodpovedajú autori.
3
Názov: Building physics, (CD)

Autori: prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc., Ing. Marek Zozulák
Druh publikácie: Skriptá
Vydala: Technická univerzita v Košiciach
Rok: 2012
Vydanie: prvé
Náklad: 50 kusov
Rozsah: 122 strán
Tlač: Univerzitná knižnica TUKE
Druh tlače:
ISBN: 978-80-553-1261-3
Rukopis neprešiel jazykovou úpravou. Za odbornú a obsahovú stránku zodpovedajú autori.
4
Content 5
Module 1 Content, mission, entry conditions for passing the module, bibliography 5
1. Introduction to Building Physics, steady state temperature, calculation of temperature,
evaluation of homogeneous, multilayer structures and structures with air cavities 8
1.1 Basic physical factors 11
1.1.1 Criterions for assesment 11
1.1.2 Physical units 12
1.1.3 Conversion of units – multiples and submultiples 15
1.1.4 Factors affecting the thermal properties of building materials 15
1.2 Development of the Department of Building Thermal Engineering 16
1.3 Basic models of heat transfer 17
1.3.1 Conduction 18
1.3.2 Convection 20
1.3.3 Radiation 21
1.3.4 Transition 24
1.4 Calculation and graphical determination of temperature rates in the construction 27
1.5 Inhomogeneous structures 29
1.6 Air cavities 31
1.6.1 Enclosed air cavities 31
1.6.2. Opened air cavities 32
Self-evaluation questions, Summary 35
2. The concept of building envelope in terms of thermal transient response, moisture
tolerance, thermal effusivity of the floor 36
2.1 Thermal transient response 36
2.1.1 Detailed analysis of thermal transient response 37
2.1.2 Schimdt´s differential method of heat conduction differential equation solution 39
2.1.3 Temperature damping 40
2.1.4 Phase shift of temperature damping amplitude 43
2.2 Moisture tolerance at the envelope level at night 44
2.2.1 Humidity sources 44
2.2.2 Air humidity 45
2.2.3 Vapour diffusion 47
2.2.4 Interstitial condensation 47
2.2.5 Consequences and requirements for the building fabric 53
2.2.6 Building fabric evaluation of moisture limiting 56
2.3 Floor constructions performance 58
2.3.1 Building Physics´ performance of the floor 59
2.3.2 Thermal effusivity performances of floor structures 60
2.3.3 Decrease in contact surface temperature of floor 62
2.3.4 Floor above grade 67
5
2.3.4.1 Thermal transmittance of the floor above grade 68

2.3.4.2 Thermal transmittance calculation of floor above grade 70
2.3.5 Floors above basement and crawlspaces 72
2.3.5.1 Thermal transmittance of floors above basement and crawlspaces 72
2.3.5.2 Equivalent and efficient thermal transmittance of floors above basement 74
3. Evaluation of structures in multi-dimensional heat transfer, thermal bridges and
thermal fields, transparent construction - windows and doors, air permeability of
joints and cavities 76
3.1 Thermal bridges 76
3.1.1 Effect of thermal bridges in buildings, heat loss 80
3.2 Multidimensional heat transfer – the temperature field 82
3.2.1 Examples of calculations of temperature fields 86
3.3 Transparent parts design 88
3.3.1 Division of transparent parts 88
3.3.2 Simple window 89
3.3.3 Double layered window 90
3.3.4 Double window 91
3.3.5 Multiple glazing 91
3.3.6 Window with shutters 92
3.3.7 Examples of calculation of temperature fields in the instalation of window 93
3.4 Air permeability 94
3.4.1 The air permeability of materials 95
3.4.1.1 Moving of air through the structures 96
3.4.1.2 Air permeability of joints and cavities 97
3.4.1.3 Effect of air exchange on the humidity indoors 99
4. Thermal comfort, thermal balance in summer and in winter, net energy demand and
gross energy demand 101
4.1 Thermal comfort 102
4.1.1 Factors affecting the thermal comfort 102
4.2 Gross energy demand for heating 103
4.2.1 Calculation methods 106
4.2.2 Total net energy demand for heating 107
4.2.3 Average thermal transmittance 109
4.2.4 Ventilation heat transfer coefficient, passive solar gains, gains from appliances and
apparatus 109
4.3 Thermal balance in winter 112
4.4 Thermal balance in summer 115
6
∆
Mission
Module 1 mission is to introduce students to the issue of building physics and building
thermal engineering. Building physics consists of several disciplines such as
construction, urban and spatial acoustics, daylighting and insolation of buildings,
aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, water-proofing technology, optics etc. In the first part,
which deals with the issues of building thermal engineering, are solved issues of
thermal protection of buildings. The mission is to pass and gain knowledge that affect
the design, evaluation and assessment of building structures for thermal protection, i.e.
design of building envelope (exterior, roofs, transparent parts - windows, doors; and
the floor above grade) with aim to create a suitable heat-air-moisture microclimate.
δ
Entry conditions for passing the module
Knowledge gained from 1st year:
B-501101 Civil engineering,
B-502102 Building materials,
B-502103 Building and environment,
B-502177 Architectural drawing.
Bibliography
1. Hagentoft, C. E. Introduction to Building Physics, Studentlitteratur AB, 2001.
2. HENS, H. Building Physics – Heat, Air and Moisture, 2007.
3. HENS, H. Applied Building Physics, Boundary Conditions, Building Performance and
Material Properties, 2010.
4. Pitts, D., Sissom L. E. Schaum's Outline of Heat Transfer, Mcgraw-Hill Professional,
2011.
5. Incropera, F., Dewitt, D. Introduction to Heat Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
6. BLOMBERG, T.: Heat conduction in two and three dimensions computer modeling
of building physics applications, 1996.
7
1. Introduction to Building Physics, steady state temperature, calculation of

temperature, evaluation of homogeneous, multilayer structures and structures with
air cavities
∆
Mission
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to the problems of building
physics describing its basic parts, which are the building thermal technology,
daytime running lights and building acoustics. The entire section is devoted to the
construction of heating technology. The mission is to describe the evolution of
structures and the internal environment of the construction of thermal equipment
and basic chapter give way to spread the heat in homogeneous and
inhomogeneous, multilayer packaging structures possible in structures with air
cavities (open and closed).
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should know:
- Describe the basic physical factors to explain the basic physical units of
shares and multiples,
- Basic methods of heat transfer, heat flow density,
- Explain the basic criteria for evaluation of structures in terms of steady-state
temperature (UTS),
- Assess building structures homogeneous, heterogeneous, multi-layer,
- To assess the structure using open and closed air spaces.
ζ
Introduction
Buildings are inextricably linked with the natural environment must therefore be
designed to meet the criteria imposed on them. Last but not least is the thermal
protection of buildings. The building is to create a suitable internal environment,
among others Hygrothermal microclimate. This environment is made up of not only
building structures as well as technology environment (hardware installations of
buildings - heat, heating, cooling, ventilation, air conditioning, etc.).
This part of the physics building will be devoted to the description of processes in
nature (heat and moisture flow, the movement of matter (air) - on the basis of
temperature, humidity, pressure and their changes.
The first chapter is devoted only to idealized steady thermal state, i.e. such a state
when the temperature change with time.
8
List of symbols and abbreviations
A
Key to symbols and abbreviations
b
symbol value unit
∆ θsi The safety margin K

θae The ambient temperature °C
θai indoor air temperature °C
θag soil temperature and soil °C
θe external computing temperature in winter °C
θi internal computing temperature °C
θg
calculation of soil temperature adjacent to the
°C
building structures
θm,e average annual ambient temperature °C
amplitude of temperature fluctuations on the soil o
(θ ni)0 C
surface
θp average temperature at the depth of soil °C
θse outer surface temperature °C

θsi inner surface temperature °C
θsi,N the lowest inside surface temperature °C
θsi,80
critical surface temperature on the formation of
°C
mold
λ thermal conductivity W/(m.K)
λn thermal conductivity of unfrozen soils W/(m.K)
λz thermal conductivity of frozen soils W/(m.K)
ν propagation speed of thermal waves m/s
νa air velocity m/s
ρ
3
density kg/m
ρs
3
density of dry soil kg/m
χ point thermal transmittance W/K
Ψ linear thermal transmittance W/(m.K)
Ψg
linear thermal transmittance of contact walls and
W/(m.K)
floors
Ψg,e
linear thermal transmittance for marginal thermal
W/(m.K)
insulation floor
wm mass of soil moisture %
φ relative humidity %
basic heat loss heat transfer
Qo W
(STN 06 0210)
9
µ diffusion resistance factor 1

2
a coefficient of thermal diffusivity m /s
2
A cooled part of the building structure m
1/2 2
b Thermal effusivity W.s /(m .K)
b width m
1/2 2
bN normalized value of the thermal effusivity (floor) W.s /(m .K)
B´ characteristic dimension of the floor m
c specific heat capacity J/(kg.K)

3
co volume specific heat capacity J/(m .K)
d thick layers of flooring m
width or depth of the insulation at the edge (or
D m
foundation below ground level)
Hg Heat transfer coefficient of the groundfloor W/K
hZ depth of foundation building m
L Thermal conductivity (thermal transmittance) W/K
thermal transmittance (linear thermal
L2D W/(m.K)
conductivity) of two-dimensional calculation
Λ
(surface) thermal transmittance (surface) thermal 2
W/(m .K)
conductivity
number of harmonics in the measured curve of
n -
periodic temperature fluctuations
P perimeter floor m
2
R thermal resistance (construction) m .K/W
normalized value of thermal resistance 2
RN m .K/W
(construction)
2
Rse thermal resistance on the outside of construction m .K/W
2
Rsi thermal resistance on the inside of construction m .K/W
2
Rsg thermal resistance on the outside (ground) m .K/W
s (w) thickness of the peripheral (outer) walls m
t time (time) s
t´ period of temperature fluctuations h, deň, rok
2
U Thermal transmittance W/(m .K)
thermal transmittance of the floor without 2
U0 W/(m .K)
boundary insulation (base value)
2
UN normalized value of thermal transmittance W/(m .K)
X depth m
x, y, z spatial coordinates of the points examined m
10
1.1 Basic physical factors
Temperature, light and sound are among the physical factors of the environment in buildings where a long
and active again. Therefore, a temperature has significant impact on working and resting, ultimately the
health of users of building. Nowadays people spend most of their time indoors.
According to WHO (World Health Organization), it is up to 90%. The design and construction of buildings is
to create an environment whose parameters should be for humans:
- More favorable than the state of the natural environment outdoors.
- Construction and building protects us:
from extremes of temperature,,
moisture,
excessive noise.
In contrast, allows:
access to daylight into the interior,
and where necessary - sunlight into the interior,
building solution can also affect desirable listening to audio signals and
productions.
Physical factors are not only for users of the building but the building itself, its construction and the
equipment. In this regard, individual departments of construction physics differ significantly:
The sound is perceived by hearing of living organisms including humans, while the influence on the
construction in this case is virtually eliminated
Daylight perceive visually living organisms including humans, in this respect is also considered
daylight. In particular, direct solar radiation can sometimes affect the function and durability of structures
and objects are located in the interior due to temperature and chemical changes induced by the action of
ultraviolet and infrared components of sunlight
Temperature affects the hygrothermal state of the environment and in our latitudes (climates) is
associated with energy demand for heating (cooling). Therefore, thermal engineering design of the building
significantly affects fuel economy of the building, because the temperature is very closely related to the
transition structures of water vapor (water vapor diffusion), condensation of water vapor, resulting in effects
on engeneering solution, the function of structures and their life.
Knowing the importance of physical factors leading to create the gradually need for legislation to control the
state of environment in buildings. Selected physical quantities are: sanitary regulations, technical
standards as set out criteria for assessing buildings and their external environment and their ability to
ensure the protection status or influence.
1.1.1 Criterions for assessment
As criteria are also concepts that have the following characteristics:
11
value is closely related to exposure evaluation of physical factors on the construction and building
users. Sound and light are evaluated solely in terms of their effect on humans.
• The criteria therefore reflect the degree of influence of acoustic and visual comfort and
health of people using the building.
• They can’t therefore describe only the actual physical phenomena (sound, light), but not
necessarily respond to the physiological and psychological circumstances of human perception of these
phenomena. Account of the sensitivity of sensory organs (hearing and vision).
The design of the building is reasonably available and reasonably accurate method of predicting values
of demanding criteria calculation, which takes into account all relevant factors affecting the value of the
criteria.
To put the building into a permanent use for the current control is suitably challenging and reasonably
accurate method of control values, criteria for measuring the realized buildings.
Criteria for the limit values to be fair to all participants of construction investment, ie particularly
compatible with the relevant provisions of the Civil Code. Using criteria to effectively contribute to the health
and quality of life for building users and users of premises and their surroundings. In developing the criteria
and the establishment of limit values is necessary to exclude all other interests than the efforts to ensure an
optimal environment in buildings.
Comply with all requirements imposed on the criteria is not easy.
Each of the criteria are appropriate limits. These can be basically threefold nature:
the lowest (minimum) required value (napr. č.d.o. D %)
the highest (maximum) acceptable – (napr. the equivalent sound pressure level LAeq (dB))
acceptable range (interval value) - a standard reverberation time T (s)
The limit value is a criterion that at any given time in the company and the territory is considered
borderline between satisfactory and unsatisfactory condition. The choice is always a compromise. Basic
criteria imposed on the building structures. According to the Act. no. 50/1976 those are:
- mechanical resistance and stability of the structure,
- fire safety of buildings,
- hygiene and health and the environment,
- security building with its use,
- protection against noise and vibration,
- energy efficiency and heat buildings.
1.1.2 Physical units
Basic physical SI units are meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, candela and supplementary
units radian, steradian.
Derived units are those which are:
12
A. in the title only basic units

-1
• meter per second (speed) : m.s
-2
• meter per second squared (acceleration) : m.s
3 -1
• cubic meter per mole (MW) : m .mol
B. single name
• coulomb (electric charge ) : C / s.A
-2 -1 4 2
• farad (capacity ) : F / m .kg .s .A
-1
• hertz (frequency ) : Hz / s
2 -2
• joule (energy work) : J / m .kg.s
-2
• lux ( light ) : lx / m .cd.sr
-2
• newton ( force ) : N / m.kg.s
• ohm (electrical resistance) : Ω / m .kg.s .A

2 -3 -2
-1 -2
• pascal (pressure) : Pa / m .kg.s
-2 -1 3 2
• siemens (electrical conductivity) : S / m .kg .s .A
2 -3 -1
• volt (voltage) : V / m .kg.s .A
2 -3
• watt ( power) : W / m .kg.s
C. by unit
outside the SI, but the so-called. legal entity permitted by standard hours., min., h, l, t, and so on.
• time : minute ( min) 1 min = 60 s
hour ( h ) 1 h = 3 600 s
day (d) 1 d = 86 400 s
2
• surface area: hectare (ha) 1 ha = 10 000 m
3 -3 3
• volume : liter ( l) 1 l = 1 dm = 10 m
3
• weight : tonne (t) 1 t = 10 kg
• temperature : Celsius degree (°c) T = t + 273,15 K
T .. thermodynamic temperature
t .. Celsius temperature (θ,υ)
13
water boiling
temperature
room temperature
water freezing
temperature
Fig. 1. View the different scales of temperature - a comparison
The comparison
0° C melting point of ice, or 23°F
100°C boiling point of water, or 212°F
0 °C or 273 K
0 K or – 273 °C
VACUUM
SEA LEVEL AIR PRESSURE
MERCURY
AIR
PRESSURE
MERCURY
Fig. 2 The pressures and their comparison
Combination of units
6
• work : kilowatt-hour (kWh) 1 kWh = 3,6.10 J
14
-1 -1
• speed: kilometer per hour 1 km.hod = 0,27 m.s
-1 3 -3
• density: 1 kilogram per liter 1 kg.l = 10 kg.m
Ab
Glossary the text 1.1
Definitions
kelvin – a unit of thermodynamic temperature, is 273.16 - the part of the thermodynamic

temperature of the triple point of water.
candela – the intensity of black body in a direction perpendicular to the surface, whose
2
size is 1 / 600 000 m , at a temperature of freezing platinum under a pressure of 101 328
pascals.
radian - plane angle is sandwiched by two radial ray that Vytina arc of a circle has the
same length as its radius.
steradian – the cone angle, with a peak in the center of the sphere Vytina surface of a
sphere with a surface equal to the square of the radius.
The limit value is a criterion that at any given time in the company and the territory is
considered borderline between satisfactory and unsatisfactory condition. The choice is
always a compromise.
1.1.3 Conversion of units – multiples and submultiples
The tables provides an overview of the multiples and submultiples of units used, the meaning and
calculation of measures of length, volume and rate of conversion to m3, mass expression and conversion
2
of 1 kg, pressure units and conversion of Pa, as well as land units and their conversion to m .
1.1.4 Factors affecting the thermal properties of building materials
Thermal conductivity „λ“ is an essential feature of thermal matter.
The „λ“ depend mainly on the structure and building materials. It can still be influenced by:
1. density – that is to say the content of the pores in the mass of the substance
for air λ ≅ 0,028 W/(m.K) in pore size cca 0,1 mm
λ ≅ 0,071 W/(m.K) in pore size cca 2,0 mm
15
2. moisture agents for water λ ≅ 0,58 W/(m.K)
for ice λ ≅ 2,3 W/(m.K)
3. temperature of the substance with increasing temperature increases the value of λ

[W/(m.K)]
o
for temperatures ranging from 0 to 100 C approximately true
λθ = λθ=0 . (1 + 0,0025 . θ)
4. direction of heat flow in layered substances in the direction perpendicular to the value „λ“
less than in a direction parallel
5. effect of chemical composition of the substance inorganic substances, in general, lead to

better heat as organic. Inorganic substances acidic in nature (granite, quartz, ...) have higher
values "λ" as alkaline substances (limestone, sandstone, ...)
Thermal conductivity "λ" as you can see there is a constant value, is influenced by many factors. Therefore,
it must be defined according to certain rules - according to EN ISO 10456th To ensure the thermal
properties of building structures and thermal protection of buildings in the construction equipping of thermal
insulation. Certified products have the certificate of conformity with the thermal conductivity "λ" expressed
the declared value, but to characterize the products built in the state of the specific boundary conditions is
necessary to establish the design - the calculated value of the coefficient of thermal conductivity "λ".
declared value of thermal variables - expected values of thermal properties of building material or product
(product certification)
♦ estimated from measured data at reference conditions of temperature and humidity
♦ for the fixed part and a confidence level
♦ appropriate reasonable expected service life under normal conditions
The certificate of conformity according to the declared value must be alleged in one of two sets of conditions
o o
with reference temperature + 10 C (I) or + 23 C (II) and the moisture content corresponding to the steady-
state moisture sorption (conditioning at least 6 hours before the test) relative humidity of 50%. Declared
o
values are given mostly at+ 23 C v II. grup.
a. design-calculated value of thermal values - values of thermal properties of building material

or product for specific internal and external conditions that are considered typical of the behavior of the
material or product when it is incorporated into the building block (in the design of structures in the
circumstances).
1.2 Development of the Department of Building Thermal Engineering
Building Thermal Engineering Department is dealing with thermal protection of structures and buildings.
Science dealing with the heat-technical issues of building structures. It deals with the general spread of
heat, mass transfer of moisture, the accumulation of heat, moisture conditions and prievzdušnosťou.
16
Objective – to ensure proper heat and humidity inside the climate-comfort.

Roads – appropriate choice of materials and subsequent proposal bulkheads and structural details. These
are affordable and provide thermal-defined parameters to ensure the thermal comfort of indoor environment.
I. stage of development
to 1950 - Heavy, Material - classic brick exterior walls with a weight m > 500 kg/m2
evaluation of steady-state temperature
II. stage of development
since 1950 - External walls - panels of silicate-based direction with a weight between 100 to
500 kg/m2
evaluation of thermal transient state
III. stage of development
since 1960 - Assembled and light prefabrication - exterior walls with a weight m < 100 kg/m2
Evaluation of thermal stability of buildings (winter - cooling, summer - overheating)
IV. stage of development
Since 1980 - The trend of energy saving - thermal insulation of buildings
assessment of savings for heating buildings
V. stage of development
Since 2005 - Low energy buildings
reduction of total energy (heat demand for heating, hot water, lighting, etc.).
Fig. 3 The development of science of the Building Thermal Engineering Department and other
constructions
1.3 Basic models of heat transfer

Necessary condition for heat transfer is that there must be a temperature difference
∆θ = θ1 – θ2 ≠ 0
Heat is spread in any environment is always from higher temperature to lower temperature.
a Conduction – conduction
b Convection – convection
c Radiation – radiation
d Transition – transmissions
17
1.3.1 Conduction
Heat is spread mainly in solids, in liquids and gases only under certain conditions. It's the gradual transfer of
kinetic energy oscillations of one molecule (around the equilibrium position) when striking the second
molecule. This energy is gradually transferred from the direction of higher energy state (high temperature) to
lower.
Fig. 4 Dissemination of heat conduction - heat flow change
q – heat flow
Φ
q= 2
[W/m ]
A
A – area through which heat transfers
at θ1 > θ2
dθ
q≈ = grad θ
dx
18
Fourier law:
Fig. 5 Temperature gradient - change in heat flux and temperature change
∂θ ∂ 2θ
= a. 2
∂t ∂x
dθ
q = − λ. = − λ .grad θ 2
[ W/m ]
dx
θ1 − θ 2 θ −θ2
Q= λ. . A.t = 1 . A.t
d R
Thermal resistance
d 2
R= [ m .K/W ]
λ
λ - coefficient of thermal conductivity
represents the amount of heat in the "J", which moves in direction "1 sec" through the material (s) thickness
"1 m" from warmer places to colder temperature difference
∆θ = θ1 – θ2 = 1 K [ W/(m .K)]
a – thermal diffusivity
λ 2
a=
c.ρ
[m /s ]
19
Fig. 6 Definition and determination of coefficient of thermal conductivity
1.3.2 Convection
The heat spreads only in fluids, so that the particles of substances move - move while transmitting heat.
Local heating or cooling of air causes the movement of particles
⇒ natural (free) convection. The natural air movement is bounded by the speed of movement.
To increase the velocity used mechanical devices (fans, pumps, ...)
⇒ forced (artificial) airflow.
the vertical position hk = 1,98.4 ∆θ
the horizontal position of the bottom hk = 2,5.4 ∆θ

for a forced flow (according to Jurgens) hk = 4,36 + 3,55 . v
FIg. 7 Effect of air velocity on heat transfer coefficient for flow
20
Newton's law: heat transfer
q = hk . (θs – θa)
2
[ W/m ]
Q = hk . (θs – θa) . A . t [J]

2
hk – heat transfer coefficient for flow [ W/m .K]
in determining the "hk" is used based on the

similarity theory of similarity numbers
α k .l
= c.(Gr . Pr )
n
Nuselt´s number Nu =
λ
β .g .l 3 .∆θ
Gr =
ϑ
Grashof´s number
heat flux
ϑ
Prandtl´s number Pr =
a
β=
1
273
Fig. 8 Defining heat transfer
1.3.3 Radiation
Heat radiation is dependent on the thermal state of body and character of its surface.
Radiation heat transfer - the transfer of electromagnetic waves with a length of about 760-3000 nm. Radiant
bodies ability at a given temperature is limited by the maximum value. At the same temperature or the same
substance (bodies) do not have the ability radiant.
Ideal - the absolute (black) body ⇒ maximum radiant ability

-8 2 4
Coefficient of black body radiation Cč = 5,67 . 10 [W/(m .K ) ]
The total radiant energy and its decomposition Φ = Φα + Φρ + Φτ
Φ α Φ ρ Φτ
+ + = α+ρ+τ=1
Φ Φ Φ
α - absorption of radiation
ρ - ray reflectivity
τ - throughput radiation
21
Fig. 9. The total radiant energy and its decomposition
The density of radiant energy flow - describes the radiation of absolutely black bodies
⇒ qč = Cč .T
4 2
Stefan - Boltzmann law [W/m ]
In fact, they occur in nature only "gray" - real bodies that are unable to absorb all radiant energy incident
wave.
The ratio between the radiant flux density gray body "qs" radiant flux intensity and black body "qč" is the
emissivity, it is defined as a dimensionless number:
qs
emissivity ε=
qč
Kirchhof law ⇒ for real – gray bodies

qs = ε . qč = ε. Cč .T = C .T
4 4 2
[W/m ]
Coefficient of gray body radiation
C = ε. Cč = ε. Cč ≈ 0 ÷ 5,67 . 10
-8 2 4
[W/(m .K ) ]
Mutual radiation from objects.
Every body that has power ⇒ its surface radiates this energy into the environment. On the surface of
another body there is a decomposition of the re-radiating energy and the mutual influence of the radiation
energy of the body. The mutual radiation consists of multiple repetition of absorbing and passing on the
surfaces of bodies involved. It is expressed ⇒ coefficient of mutual radiation „Cvs“
22
Fig. 10 Heat transfer by radiation to A / Parallel walls, B / put arbitrary surfaces - surface surrounded by a
surface A1 A2 Φ1-2 = Cvs . A1 . (T14 - T24 ) . ϕ 1,2
parallel to the wall

1 1
Cvs = = = Cč . E
1 1 1 1 1
+ − + −1
C1 C 2 Cč ε1 ε 2
surfaces for arbitrarily asked about true relationship Nusseltov

C1 .C2
Cvs =
Cč
The surface „A1“ surrounded by flat „A2“ obr. B/
1
A  1 1 
Cvs =
+ 1 . − 
C1 A2  C 2 C č 
1
if A1 / A2 very small
⇒ Cvs = C1
in practice is often used
⇒ heat transfer coefficient for radiation „hr“
Process to determine the value of „hr“
23
Φ1,2 = hr . A1 . (T1 – T2 ) = Cvs . A1 . (T1 - T2 ) . ϕ 1,2

4 4
where the mean temperature „Tm“

⇒ hr = Cvs . Tm . ϕ 1,2
3
Tm = 0,5 . (T1 – T2 )
Ab
Glossary of Text 1.3
Definitions
λ - coefficient of thermal conductivity
represents the amount of heat in the „J“, which moves in direction „1 sek“ hrough the
material (s) thickness „1 m“ from warmer places to colder temperature difference
∆θ = θ1 – θ2 = 1 K [ W/(m .K)]
Density (specific) heat capacity„c“ - shows how much heat in the „J“ s to be added
to the unit amount of substance in „kg“ („m3“), was heated to about o 1 K.
Q = c . m. (θ2 – θ1 ) [J]
Q
c=
m.∆t
3
physical dimension [J/(kg.K)] alebo [J/(m .K)]
as the highest value of “c” is water c = 4186,8 J/(kg.K)

for air c = 1010 J/(kg.K)
for concrete c = 1020 J/(kg.K)
1.3.4 Transition
If the temperature at various points of the body - structure constant over time, then such a state is said
⇒ Steady state temperature ⇒ θ = f (x)
If both sides of the circuit design ambient temperature (air) varies
∆θ = θ1 - θ2 ≠ 0 ⇒ tructure passes through the heat flow direction from higher to lower temperatures. The
density of heat flux "q" passing through the structure is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between air „∆θa“ and further depends on the thermal properties of partition structures
- This process is called ⇒ heat transfer design
24
θi = const.
θe = const.
θi > θe
q ∼ θi - θe
q = U . (θi - θe)
q = qi = qv = qe
THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF

ENERGY
Ro = Rsi + ∑Rj + Rse

2
[m .K/W]
Fig.11 Heat transfer design
Temperature gradient indicates that the temperature drop is from a higher temperature „θi“ already on the
internal surface „θsi“, inside structure „θx“, on the outer surface „θse“ to the outside temperature „θe“. This
resistance of structure to the transfer of heat flow is called Thermal resistance ⇒ Thermal resistance of
structures in terms of transition of heat – which is made of:
1. heat transfer by convection of surface film of structures
2. heat transfer by conduction inside the structures
Outer surface Inner surface
Fig. 12 Convection heat transfer in internal and external surface structures
25
Thermal resistance thermal resistance

on the outer surface on the inner surface
1 1 1 1
Rse = = 2
[m .K/W] Rsi = = 2
[m .K/W]
qe he qi hi
Fig.13 The heat transfer within the construction management - conduction
heat flow direction
θ si − θ se ∆θ ∆θ
qv = λ .
2
= = [W/m ]
d d R
λ
surface thermal conductivity
λ
Λv = L =
1 2
= [W/m K]
R d
thermal resistance of structures
∑λ ∑R
d k dj k
2
R= = = [m .K/W]
λ
j
j =1 j j =1
How much heat passed through the crossing structure, given the characteristics of the interior to the
exterior?
Applicable law of conservation of energy ⇒ q = qsi = qv = qse
1
qi = hi . (θi –θsi ) ⇒ . qsi = Rsi . qi = (θi –θsi )
hi
26
θ si − θ se θ si − θ se
. qv = R . qv = (θsi – θse )
d
qv = = ⇒
d R λ
λ
1
qe = he . (θse – θe ) ⇒ . qse = Rse . qe = (θse – θe )
he
Fig. 14 Heat Transfer design - passage - management - transfer
heat flow rate we add together
1 d 1
q.( + + ) = q . ( Rsi + Rj + Rse )
hi λ he
⇒ q . Ro = (θi – θe )= q/U
θi − θe
q= = U . (θi – θe)
Ro
1 q
⇒
2
θi − θe
U= = [ W/(m .K) ]
Ro
thermal transmittance of the structure – „U“
It expresses the amount of heat in the „J“, which passes per time unit in the “s“ from a warmer environment
over a given area in „m “ to a cooler environment in terms of temperature difference ∆θ = 1 K. - [ W / m .K ].
2 2
1.4 Calculation and graphical determination of temperature rates in the

construction
The equality of heat flow densities in the construction we give computation of temperatures at steady state
temperature.
27
Determination of temperature in the course of construction

q = qsi = qv = qse
θ si − θ se
q = U . (θi – θe) = hi . (θi –θsi ) = = he . (θse –θe )
d
λ
U . (θi – θe) = hi . (θi –θsi ) ⇒ hi . θsi = hi . θi - U . (θi –θsi )
θsi = θi - U . (θi –θsi ) / hi = θi - U . (θi –θsi ) . Rsi
θ si − θ x θ si − θ x
q = U . (θi – θe) = =
dx Rx
λ
θx = θsi - U . (θi – θe) . Rx
together to determine the temperature at any point of construction „θx“ from the source computing in
temperature between the interior and exterior „θi – θe“
θx = θi - U . (θi – θe) . (Rsi + ∑Rx )
Fig. 15 Graphical determination of temperatures during the construction
28
Ab
Glossary of text 1.4
Definitions
thermal transmittance of the structure – „U“
It expresses the amount of heat in the „J“, which passes per unit time in
2
the “s“ from a warm environment over a given area in a design unit „m “ to a cooler
environment for a temperature difference ∆θ = 1 K. - [ W / m .K ]
2
1.5 Inhomogeneous structures

2
Thermal resistance in m .K/W inhomogeneous structures is determined from the solution of two-
dimensional temperature field. Thermal resistance is possible to determine the approximate procedure for
transforming one-dimensional solution to the following procedure:
Proper selection of the structure is divided into sections parallel to the direction of heat flow (single-layer,
multi-layer), assuming that the sections do not affect each other. Representation of individual sections is
expressed by the areal proportion of the total area of selection fa + fb + fc = 1
Further characteristic design selection is divided into layers perpendicular to the direction of heat flow
(homogeneous, heterogeneous)
layers
sections
Fig. 16 Schematic design of homogenous
Calculation of thermal resistance determination continues
• Upper limit of resistance to heat transfer „R/T“
The upper limit of resistance to heat transfer is determined by assuming one-dimensional heat flow
perpendicular to the surface sections of the building structure
29
1 fa fb fc
= + +
RT/ RTa RTb RTc
where d5 = d6 = d2 + d3
resistances to heat transfer in various sections in the direction of heat
d1 d6 d4
λ1a λ6 a λ4 a
RTa = Rsi + R1a + R6a + R4a+ Rse = Rsi + + + + Rse
d1 d2 d3 d4
λ1b λ2b λ3b λ4b
RTb = Rsi + R1b + R2b + R3b + R4b+ Rse = Rsi + + + + + Rse
d1 d5 d4
λ1c λ5c λ4c
RTc = Rsi + R1c + R5c + R4c+ Rse = Rsi + + + + Rse
• Lower threshold of resistance to heat transfer „R T“

//
The lower limit of resistance to heat transfer is determined by assuming that all parallel planes (layers) of
the building structure surfaces are isothermal
In the diagram is 1. a 4. layer is homogeneous throughout the section with layers behind
2. a 3. is non-homogeneous layer with adjacent layers
thermal resistance of homogeneous layers
d1 d4 2
λ1 λ4
R1 = R4 = [m .K/W]
thermal resistance of non-homogeneous layers
it is advisable to first determine for each inhomogeneous layer in the whole area of the equivalent thermal
//
conductivity „λ “
d2
λ 2 = λ6a . fa + λ2b . fb + λ5c . fc
λ//2
//
R2 =
λ 3 = λ6a . fa + λ3b . fb + λ5c . fc

// d3
R3 =
λ3//
//
R T = Rsi + R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + Rse
2
Resistance to heat transfer „RT“ v m .K/W building structure of thermally homogeneous and inhomogeneous
layers parallel to the surface is determined as the arithmetic average of the calculated upper and lower
threshold of resistance to heat transfer
Resistance to heat transfer The thermal transmittance
RT/ + RT// 1
RT = [m2.K/W] 30 U= [W/ (m2.K)]
2 RT
This approximate procedure for determining the structure of resistance to heat transfer is
appropriate if the criteria are respected for the accuracy of the calculated heat transfer design. The
relative error „e“ of this process is determined by calculating.
RT/ + RT//
e= .100 < 20 %
2 . RT
1.6 Air cavities
The air has very little value „λ“ ⇒ good and cheap thermal insulation material
Air as a liquid substance with specific properties, allowing all modes of heat transfer under certain boundary
conditions
1.6.1 Enclosed air cavities
Here they combine all three modes of heat transfer ie conduction, convection (transfer) and radiation.
q= qv + qk + qr
height of air layer (cavity)
Fig. 17 Heat transfer in a closed air cavity
31
where
heat flow of heat conduction
λ
qv = .(θ1 – θ2 )
d vv
heat transfer in flow
qk = hk . (θ1 – θ2 ) = 0,5 . hk . θvv
θvv - mean air temperature in the cavity
θvv = 0,5 . (θ1 – θ2 )
heat transfer „hk“ depends on the width of the air cavity „d“. In narrow cavities may occur that hk = 0. When
increasing the width of the cavity increases air flow and increases the „hk“. For more accurate expression
„hk“ methodology is used similarity numbers
n
Nu = C . (Gr . Pr)
heat flow by radiation
qs = hs . (θ1 – θ2 )
add up all the ingredients of heat transfer in an air cavity
 λvv hk  λ + 0,5.d vv .hk + hs .d vv

 + + hs .(θ1 − θ 2 ) = vv .(θ1 − θ 2 )
 vv 
qvv =
d 2 d vv
equivalent value of the coefficient of thermal conductivity of air cavity „λekv“
λekv = λvv + 0,5 . dvv .hk .+ dvv .hs
d vv
⇒
λekv
2
thermal resistance of air cavity Rvv = [m .K/W]
1.6.2 Opened air cavities
Open air cavity can be considered as
horizintal
vertical
Vertical open air layer
32
Fig. 18 Heat transfer in the open air cavity
The vertical air layer - thermal balance in these cavities
Air movement and subsequent heat exchange

between the surface and the air flow causes a pressure difference due to air
- Different density
caused by temperature
∆pt =h . (ρ2 -.ρ1) . g
- wind pressure (air velocity)
∆pv =A . 0,5 . v . ρm
2
- total pressure difference
∆p = ∆pv + ∆pθ
air density ρm = 353,15 / (273,15 + θae )
The horizontal air layer

Heat balance of air flow in a horizontal layer of air
Q3 = Q1 – Q2
33
lenght of air cavity
Fig. 19 Heat transfer in a horizontal open-air cavity
Of temperature in a horizontal open air roof cladding layer is determined mainly at determining the possible
condensation.
 U +Ue 
A0 + [θ o .(U i + U e ) − A0 ]. exp − i .x 
θx =
 Gm .c 
Ui +Ue
where A0 = Ui . θi . + Ue . θe
Note: For general purposes of calculating the thermal resistance of double-roof with a sufficient margin to
considering only the thermal resistance of the lower mantle roof structure. Orientation for current
2
computational methods are thermal resistance of air layer with Rev = 0,08 m .K/W.
At present, according to the applicable EN air layer defined as follows:
a. Stuffy air layer
If the air layer is sealed against the surroundings, or with small holes with the arrangement so that there is
no airflow in the air layer and cross-sectional area „Aot“. They are used tabulated values of „Rg“.
2
– Aot < 500 mm for each “bm” dĺžky he length of the vertical air layer, or
2 2
– Aot < 500 mm for each “m ” horizontal air layer
b. Poorly ventilated air layer
If the air exchange with the outside environment through openings made with cross-sectional „Aot“
2 2
– 500 mm < Aot < 1500 mm for each “bm” the length of the vertical air layer, or
2 2 2
– 500 mm < Aot < 1500 mm for each “m ” horizontal air layer
c. Heavily ventilated air layer
34
If the air exchange with the outside environment through openings made with cross-sectional area „Aot“
2
– 1500 mm < Aot for each “bm” the length of the vertical air layer, or
2 2
– 1500 mm < Aot for each “m ” horizontal air layer
In that event, the note referred to the balance of horizontal layers of air.
Self-evaluation questions
? 1. Describe the basic physical factors that create the internal environment of
buildings. What are the limits to the assessment of building structures and indoor
environment in terms of construction of heating technology.
2. What are the basic methods of heat transfer. How do you calculate the density
of heat flow in various ways to spread the heat.
3. Describe the basic criteria for the assessment of structures in terms of steady-
state temperature and define them.
4. How would you rate homogeneous and inhomogeneous multilayer structures

at UTS
5. What is the difference in the assessment of structures containing closed and

open air spaces?
Σ
Summary
Buildings are inextricably linked with the natural environment must therefore be
designed to create suitable building has indoor environment including thermal-
moisture microclimate. The Chapter is devoted to the assessment, calculation of
criteria that are placed on buildings in terms of thermal insulation of buildings.
The first is to explain the basic physical units, their multiples, calculation,
comparison. The entire chapter is devoted to thermal steady state, ie such a
case, when the temperature in indoor environments or in exterior change. Task is
to assess the packaging structures, ie claddings, roofs and according to the
homogeneous one mA multi-layer, also using air cavities, but also the evaluation
of structures that are heterogeneous and can be assessed when considering
jednorzmerného heat distribution in a fragment of such structures.
35
2. The concept of building envelope in terms of thermal transient response,

moisture tolerance, thermal effusivity of the floor
∆
Role
The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize students with the concept and design of
Building Structures in terms of transient thermal state, i.e. state when the temperature
varies with time. Since expression of this state is quite difficult and mathematically
impossible, evaluate design in terms of so-called quasi - stationary temperature state,
i.e., temperature varies only in the external environment. Within the calculation and
evaluation remains virtually constant. This is a review of packaging structures that are
exposed to the external environment, i.e. perimeter, roof deck and the ground floor. In
terms of transient conditions are also evaluated packing structures when exposed to
moisture conditions and evaluates the annual balance of condensed and evaporated
moisture to water vapor diffusion.
Objectives
- Evaluate building design in terms of transient thermal state
- Humidity regime, i.e., condensed and evaporated moisture by diffusion of water vapor in
the annual session
- Rate floor design in terms of trapping heat in the building
- Rate floor design in terms of thermal techniques for field
ζ
Introduction
In this chapter we will address the design and creation of construction building envelope
structures. Gradually, we will explain what it is unstable temperature condition, what are
the evaluation criteria, such as packaging design are evaluated in terms of heat storage,
heat absorption, the floor in terms of trapping heat, resulting in the evaluation of the
thermal inertia of building structures and their impact on internal environment of buildings.
2.1 Thermal transient response
In real environment, the ambient temperature varies depending on time θ = f {x,y,z,t}
We talk about ⇒ Thermal transient response.
Practically it can demonstrate to the specific example of heating the body over time. The body moved to a
warmer environment will gradually begin to heat.
36
Temperature - Ɵ
θs - surface temperature
θm - core temperature – inside the body
Time - t
Fig.1 The gradual heating body
2.1.1 Detailed analysis of thermal transient response
For homogeneous and isotropic radiators heat transfer at the time describes the Fourier partial differential
equation of heat conduction
∂θ  ∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ 
=  2 + 2 + 2 
∂t  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
a .
λ 2
ρ .c
with a= – thermal diffusivity [m /s]
For detailed analysis of thermal transient response need to find the dependence of temperature and heat
transfer in the amount of time at any place "x" housing - structures.
Assume that the heat spreads only in one direction (in flat structures perpendicular to the surface). This is
possible if we assume a sufficiently large area of the structure compared to its thickness. This is the most
common case in practice. In Figure 2 /:
in section plane 1: temperature gradient “σ1”
dθ
σ1 = −
dx
in time “dt” conduction heat flow rate
−λ .
dθ
dQ1 = . A. dt [J]
dx
in section plane 2: temperature gradient “σ2”
37
 dθ 
d θ + . dx 
σ2 = −
 dx 
dx
in time “dt” conduction heat flow rate
 dθ 
d θ + . dx 
dQ2 = − λ .
 dx  . A. dt [J]
dx
In section 1.
Fig.2 Temperature gradients in sections: 1 a 2
The heat flow passing through the first planes and 2 are not the same. Therefore in the layer of "dx" remains
a certain proportion of heat coming from the difference of heat flows.
  dθ 
 dθ d θ + . dx  
dQ = dQ1 - dQ2 = λ . (σ1 - σ2 ) A. dt = - λ  −  dx   . A . dt
 dx 
 
dx
 
 dθ dθ d 2θ  d 2θ
dQ = - λ .  dx − dx − 2 dx  .A . dt = λ .
 
. A . dx . dt
dx dx 2
A.dx represents the product of a particular substance – density of material "ρ" and specific heat capacity "c"
in which the accumulated heat "dQ" difference of heat flows between the first planes and 2 As a result, the
time interval "dt" changed the temperature of the layer "x“.
38
dθ d 2θ dθ λ d 2θ
dQ = A . dx . ρ . c . . dt = λ . . A . dx . dt ⇒
ρ .c
= .
dt dx 2 dt dx 2
∂θ λ ∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ Fourier differential equation

= . = a.
for δt ρ .c ∂x 2 ∂ x2 one-dimensional heat
λ
a – thermal effusivity ⇒ a =
2
ρ .c
with [m /s]
2.1.2 Schmidt´s differential method of heat conduction differential equation

solution
The practical tasks of modeling unsteady thermal state, using computer technology is used ⇒ Differential
method.
The simplest case is the solution of heat conduction in one-dimensional array with differential changes
∆θ ∆2θ
=a. 2
∆t ∆x
+ From right side
- From left side
Fig.3 Temperature gradients in sections: 1 a 2
The left side of the differential equation – time change in temperature is first according to the time derivative
expressed in a differential form – according to the scheme
39
∆θ θ x ,t +1 − θ x ,t
=
∆t ∆t
The right side – a local change in temperature has two first derivatives (in the middle layer "x")
 ∆θ  θ x ,t − θ x −1,t  ∆θ  θ x +1,t − θ x ,t
left ⇒   = right ⇒   =
 ∆x  − ∆x  ∆x  + ∆x
second derivative in a differential form
∆2θ  ∆θ   ∆θ   θ x + 1,t − 2 . θ x ,t + θ x − 1,t

= .   −   =
1
∆x 2
∆x  ∆x  +  ∆x  −  ∆x 2
substitute into the differential equation
θ x ,t +1 − θ x ,t θ x + 1,t − 2 . θ x ,t + θ x − 1,t
= a.
∆t ∆x 2
adjustment equation for the unknown temperature at the "x" for “θ x,t+1” the elementary time increment “∆t”
2 . a . ∆t θ + θ x−1,t 
.  x+1,t − θ x ,t 
∆x 2
θ x,t+1 - θx,t
 
=
2
δ constant δ/
2 . a . ∆t
δ = δ .
/
∆x 2
2 . a . ∆t
⇒
∆x 2
if =1
Once we receive final treatment relationship, which expresses the calculation or determination of
temperature at x but at the time t-1
θ x+1,t − θ x−1,t
θ x,t+1 =
2
2.1.3 Temperature damping
40
Dissemination of periodic temperature fluctuations
The outer temperature of the real environment is constantly changing, but every day we have a maximum
and a minimum ⇒ harmonic periodic action
External time variation of temperature causes the temperature fluctuations on the inner surface of the outer
partition structures ⇒ harmonic temperature changes in one-day period
How does the (fluctuating) temperature on the inner surface in relation to external temperature change
depends on the thermal storage properties of built-in materials
Bordering curves
Fig.4 Definition temperature damping
Temperature damping “ν“
ν - indicates how many times the temperature amplitude at the inner surface of the structure “Ais“ lower than
the amplitude of ambient temperature (outside air) “Ae“.
Temperature damping “ν“
building construction is characterized in terms of thermal stability in the transient state. Thermal stability ≡
ability to maintain its temperature structural state at a time, then some time to external temperature changes
occurring in the inner surface of the decrease (increase) the surface temperature.
This design features is ⇒ thermal inertia
Temperature damping calculation is determined by complex numbers
For single layer building fabric
41
 
h  s   h  s  2.π
Θ =  −i +  . sinh  . d  + 1 + i  cosh  . d  . λj . cj . ρ j . i
s
 s he  λ   he  λ 
with sj =
 
t0
calculation result is a complex shape ⇒ Θ=a+b.i
the complex shape of the absolute value of the temperature depression "Θ" is translated into real form using
the module ⇒ ν = mod Θ = a2 + b2
approximate calculation of the thermal decay of multilayer structure according to Šklover
 D  si + hi s 2 + U 1 s + U n −1 he + U n
ν = 0,7 . exp .
 2  s1 + U 1 s 2 + U 2 sn + U n
. ..... n .
he
with D – thermal inertia
per layer Dj = Rj . sj
per layers:
D = ∑Dj = R1 . sj +R2 . s2 + R3 . s3 +. . . .
2.π
⇒
2
heat absorption of layer sj = . b j = 0,00853 . bj [W/(m .K)]
to
- one day period to = 24 hod = 86 400 s
- thermal effusivity of layer bj = λj . cj . ρj

2
heat absorption of outside surface of j layer „Uj“ of structure, [W/(m .K)]
R j . s 2j + U j −1
Uj = s j for Dj = Rj . sj ≥ 1 Uj = for Dj = Rj . sj < 1
1 + R j . U j −1
U j −1
Per closed air cavity Uj =
1 + Rvv . U j −1
Lightweight envelope parts, windows and other fabrics have a negligible heat absorption (thermal inertia)
1
⇒ temperature damping ν = Ro /Rsi =
U . Rsi
42
A B
Fig.5 Example of determination of temperature damping
Example of determination of temperature damping, if thermal insulation is:
A/ from inner side of building envelope,
B/ from outer side of building envelope.
The example clearly demonstrates a higher value of temperature depression and hence greater storage
capability envelope, which has thermal insulation located on the outer surface of the structure.
2.1.4 Phase shift of temperature damping amplitude
The structures that have the ability to store heat (thermal inertia) at the time the outside temperature change
in slow responding to these changes and their speech is time-shifted with respect to change of temperature
on the inner surface of the structure.
⇒ Phase shift of temperature damping amplitude „ψ“
Calculation of phase shift of temperature damping amplitude „ψ“ may consider the following
of complex shape ⇒ Θ = a + b.i
“ψ“ gives
b
ψ = arctg + k .π [rad]
a
43
Some approximate value of the phase shift of temperature damping amplitude
ψ = tAsi - tAe = 2,7 . D [hours]
For structures with negligible heat absorption (thermal inertia) - foil materials, sheet glass, etc.
ψ=0
Temperature - Ɵ (K)
Time - t (hours)
Fig.6 Scheme of phase shift of temperature damping amplitude
2.2 Moisture tolerance at the envelope level at night
Building materials, with few exceptions, always contains moisture. Moisture may be present in all the states
of water. Humidity greatly affects the thermal properties of building materials, especially thermal conductivity
"λ" and specific heat capacity "c". Distribution of moisture in building structures is usually uneven and
depends mainly on water vapor pressure, temperature, structure of a substance or composition structures.
2.2.1 Humidity sources
In seeking the causes of moisture is necessary to find out how the moisture got into the design and how
long it works. Moisture can manifest in several forms. Therefore, the source of moisture can be divided into
groups:
1. Built-in moisture ⇒ so. technological moisture, which in structure gets wet process (bricking,
concreting, plastering, etc.).
Possibility of removing ⇒ prefabrication, lean assembly
44
2. Rising damp ⇒ enters the structure from the ground by capillary action through the
capillary structure of substances.
Possibility of removing ⇒ waterproofing below grade and above grade

3. Meteorological moisture ⇒ penetrates into the structure by direct contact with the surface structures in
meteorological precipitation (rain, snow).
Possibility of removing ⇒ low-absorptive, hydrophobic finishing

4. Sorption moisture ⇒ moisture in the air is getting into structures by sorption. Each substance
somewhat hygroscopic.
Possibility of removing ⇒ appropriate finishing

5. Condensation ⇒ mostly the only source of moisture – inappropriate hygrothermal designs.
Possibility of removing ⇒ suitable design to the correct selection of materials, which is incorporated
into the construction
6. Operating humidity ⇒ penetrates into the construction of plants producing high-moisture
(washing, cooking, swimming, etc.)
Possibility of removing ⇒ suitable water- and vapour barrier finishing
2.2.2 Air humidity
Atmospheric air is always a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The total pressure and air mixture is the
sum according to Dalton law of partial - the partial pressures of the components (O2, N2, CO2, H2O vapour,
etc.), from our perspective is needed analysis for assessing the mixture of dry air and water vapour
pb = pa + pd [Pa]
amount of absolute humidity "v“ in the air (water vapour) in unit volume "V"
3
v=m/V [kg/m ]
or with a relative humidity “ϕa“ or partial - partial pressure (actual) vapor "pd", or partial pressure of saturated
water vapor “psat“
-5 p sat .ϕ a -3
pd 3
273 + θ a 273 + θ a
v = 2,16642 . 10 . = 2,16642 . 10 . [ kg/m ]
air can saturate only after a certain threshold that depends on temperature. After crossing the border there
is the condensation of vapour. This follows from the equation of gas:
p . V = (pa + pd ) . V = k . T [Pa]
maximum amount of vapour that air can take at a given temperature

is called ⇒ the partial vapour saturation pressure, „psat“ in Pa
45
temperature at which the vapour saturated air

⇒ the dew point temperature „θdp“ [ C ]
o
is called
if the temperature of the assessment "θ" will θ < θdp ⇒ condensation occurs
relative humidity "ϕa” [%] expresses at a given temperature level of saturation by vapour
pd
ϕa = .100 [%]
p sat
partial vapour saturation pressure “psat“ in Pa can be given by:
 23,589991.θ + 1513,86688 
psat = exp   for θ ≥ 0
 236 + θ
[Pa]
 28,9205 .θ + 1751,21042 
psat = exp   θ ≤ 0
 273 + θ
for [Pa]
and relative humidity outdoors “ϕe“ approximately by:
93.θ ae − 3153,5
ϕe = – 21 C ≤ θ ≤ + 25 C
o o
θ ae − 39,17
for
dew point temperature “θdp“ is calculated:
ϕ .p 
1513,86688 − 236. ln a sat 
 100 
θdp = θ ≥ 0
ϕ .p 
o
ln a sat  − 23,589991

for [ C]
 100 
ϕ .p 
1751,21042 − 273. ln a sat 
θdp =  100  θ ≤ 0
 ϕ .p 
o
for [ C]
ln a sat  − 28,9205
 100 
2.2.3 Vapour diffusion
46
The different air temperatures in the environment and the same relative humidity "ϕ” ⇒ are partial vapour
pressure "pd" different (gas equation of state), even though the moisture content in a given space is
constant. Therefore, there is a displacement of molecules of vapour from sites with higher pressure to
places of lower pressure ⇒ vapour diffusion.
If the indoor air temperature will change ⇒ also the “pd” will change
therefore pd = f { θ }
⇒ diffusion of vapour carried by the same physical laws as heat flow rate and diffusion flow rate “qd”
∆p d
qd = −δ . 2
[ kg / (m .s) ]
dx
δ - diffusion coefficient of vapour [s]
represents the amount of vapour in "kg", which passes by diffusion in the thickness of the fabric of the unit
"m" per unit of time in "s" in per unit difference of partial vapour pressure in 'Pa'
δ = [(kg.m/(m .s.Pa)] ⇒ [kg/(m.s.N/m )] ⇒ [ kg/(m.s.kg.m/(s .m )) ]

2 2 2 2
δ ⇒ [s]
µ - vapour resistance factor [-]
expresses the relative ability of a material vapour transmittance. Indicate how many times the diffusion
resistance of the substance (layer structure) is larger than equal layer of air at the same temperature.
⇒ for air µ = 1
µ = 1 / (N. δ) pre θstr = 10 C

9 o
N = 5,31215 . 10 [1/s]
transfer ⇒ µ . δ = 0,18824 . 10
-9
sd – equivalent diffusion thickness [m]
the air layer thickness, which is the same as the diffusion resistance of the material (foil, cardboard)
sd =µ . d
2.2.4 Interstitial condensation
Transient of water vapour
Diffusion of water vapour carried from the higher partial pressure to a lower value through a structure that
separates areas with different partial pressures. The partial vapour pressure "pd" is dependent on
temperature "θa” and the water vapour air saturation - "ϕa”, and therefore the direction of "qd" is the same
way with "q" as opposed to air filtration.
47
Fig.7 Scheme for determination of diffusion fluxes in the construction
Partial vapour pressure
pdi − pde
pdx = pdi - . Rdx [Pa]
Rd
Diffusion resistance
∑ = ∑ dj . µj . N
d k d j
Rd = = [m/s]
δ j =1 δ j
Surface condensation
The surface condensation in residential rooms is not allowed.
⇒ basic hygienic demand
occur of condensation is determined ⇒ θs < θdp
a. sweep condensation the entire surface of structure
θs < θdp
b. local – spotted condensation
only in some places (corners, thermal bridges, heterogeneity, etc.).
θs,krit < θdp < θs
c. fluctuating condensation - e.g. fluctuating outside air temperature „θe“
48
θs,min < θdp < θs
d. the evaluation of building structures on the surface condensation is not possible to

determine the upper limit ϕai,max, even when there will be no condensation of water vapor in the
space defined humidity.
p sat , si { θ si }
ϕai,max ≤
p sat ,ai { θ ai }
.100
Interstitial condensation
It is determined from the mathematical - a graphical procedure, when compared with each other for places
in all courses of construction “pdx” and “psat,x”
Mathematics – graphical approach:

1. Calculation of temperatures inside of building fabric „θx“
2. From temperatures “θx” calculate “psat,x”
3. By relative humidity “ϕai”, “ϕae” calculate “pdi” a “pde”
4. Create graphical courses of partial vapour pressures in scale, axis giving
“x“ – values of diffusion resistances “Rdj“
“y“ – values of partial vapour pressures “pd“

5. If pdx > psat,x courses are intersected ⇒ occur of condensation
6. Determine the worst case condensation tangents that define
⇒ condensation zone
9 9
Rdsi = 0,1 . 10 m/s Rdse = 0,05 . 10 m/s
Since the resistance values for the transfer of water vapor on the inside "Rdsi" and the outside "Rdse" both of
the frame are very small in relation to the diffusion resistance layer structure, the calculations we neglect
them.
⇒ pdi = pdsi pde = pdse [Pa]
⇒ Rdo = Rd [m/s]
49
condensation
zone
tangents
Fig.8 Graphic determination of condensation zone
CONDENSATION ZONE DETERMINATION PROCESS
partial pressures of
water vapor pd,x
A.
First we need to calculate the characteristic temperatures in places construction according to
θx = θi - U . (θi – θe) . (Rsi + ∑Rx )
50
partial pressures of
water vapor psat,x
[Pa]
B.
SELF COMPARISON OF PARTIAL VAPOUR PRESSURES COURSES
pdx a psat,x
Transfer without condensation

(lines do not intersect)
C.
51
Theoretical limit of saturation at

median „m” – condensation point
(lines intersect at one point)
D.
CONDENSATION SCOPING
teoretical range
of condensation
E.
52
Determination of
condensation zone
condensation zone
F.
Fig.9 Graphic determination of condensation zone, steps A – F – process
2.2.5 Consequences and requirements for the building fabric
Moisture in the structures deteriorates their thermal properties. It is therefore necessary to design
building structures where possible, to avoid condensation. Depending on the type of internal
operations humidity in indoor environments can be divided into operations
dry ϕai ≤ 50 % moist ϕai ≅ 60 – 80 %
normal ϕai ≤ 60 % wet ϕai ≥ 80 %
From an economic point of view is not always possible to design structures without condensation.
If the condensed moisture in the structure does not interfere with the character design in terms of
static safety, durability or service life and so on. is possible within the construction permit a certain
amount of condensation. In no case is it possible surface condensation (with selected exceptions).
If construction occurs in the condensation must be satisfied.
Annual moisture balance
Calculation distinguishes: with solar radiation
without solar radiation
for ∆θa = θi - θe
53
annual period (365 days)
Fig.10 Determination of the diffusion flow rate at the beginning and the end of condensation zone
pdi − pdA
gdA =
RdA
p dB − p de
gdB =
RdB
annual balance according to the number of days with the duration of the occurrence of
characteristic temperatures in cloudy or clear sky "t" [s]
∆gd = gdA - gdB

2
[kg/(m .year)]
(+) condensate (-) vapour
gk = ∑ ∆gdk . t
gv = ∑ ∆gdv . t
if absolute value „gv“ is
gk < gv positive gk > gv negative
In terms of frequency of occurrence of temperatures to determine the duration of the annual moisture
balance of the territory of Slovakia is divided according to the calculation of outside temperature “θe” for two
zones table 3. [STN730540/3]
θe ≥ - 15 C θe < - 15 C
o o
distinguish between the frequency of the outside air temperature, for:
54
♦ overcast sky conditions „tz“ [s]
♦ clear sky conditions „tj“ [s]
althought is ⇒ t = tj + tz ≡ year-round abundance
The computational procedure for determining annual balance
a. without the solar radiation
Annual moisture balance without affecting the solar radiation is determined from the total duration of
temperatures in the abundance of selected "j" - intervals of ambient temperatures "θe". Usually determines
the difference ∆θe = 5 K in the range defined in Table 3. (from – 20 °C to 25 °C).
Σ ∆gj = (gdAj - gdBj ) . tj
for “j” - intervals ⇒

o o o o o o
from –20 C to –15 C, from -15 C to -10 C, from –10 C to –5 C,
o o o o o o
from -5 C to 0 C, from 0 C to +5 C, from +5 C to +10 C,
o o o o o o
from +10 C to +15 C, from +15 C to +20 C, from +20 C to +25 C,
condensation
evaporation
Fig.11 The moisture balance courses ∆g inside structure for different temperature intervals.
b. with solar radiation
The annual moisture balance of solar radiation, the calculation carried out in parts, taking only the frequency
of the outside air temperatures
♦ overcast sky conditions
♦ clear sky conditions
The part of calculation for overcast sky conditions is carried out without solar radiation, only the
calculation of values instead of the total abundance of "t" to insert the table 3 values “tz”.
The second part of calculation for clear sky conditions is realised with values “tj” from table 3 and outside air
temperature is enhanced by solar radiation and sol-air temperature “θej” is at stake. It is given by:
θej = θe + α . Im . Rse
55
with α - absorptivity of solar radiation by the outside surface

2
Im – main radiation intensity, [W/m ]
2
Rse – outside surface film resistance factor, [W/(m .K)]
Sol-air temperature “θej” is posed into calculation of the outside partial vapour pressure “pde”.
Another procedure of calculating the annual balance is similar as mentioned above.

In evaluating the annual balance of moisture, summary values are:
positive ⇒ condensation occurs, i.e.
amount of condensed water vapour during the year is „gk“
gk = ∑ ∆gdj . t > 0 alebo ∑ ∆gdj . tz > 0 ∑ ∆gdj . tj > 0
negative ⇒ condensation not occurs, i.e.
amount of evaporated vapour during the year is „gv“
gv = ∑ ∆gdj . t < 0 alebo ∑ ∆gdj . tz < 0 ∑ ∆gdj . tj < 0
annual balance of moisture is, when absolute value „gv“
gk < gv positive
gk > gv negative
Note:
If the annual moisture balance calculated without the impact of solar radiation is positive, such a
construction is still reserve for potential further drying in the course of solar radiation.
2.2.6 Building fabric evaluation of moisture limiting
Hygienic demand ⇒ The surface condensation indoors is not allowed.
critical surface temperature for the hygienic evaluation criteria, especially the critical details of relating it to
80% relative humidity at the inner surface of the structure, which is to prevent the formation of mould
“θsi,80”.
For solved surface:
p sat ,i
psat{ θsi,80 } ≥ > psi ;+
0,8
i. e., that the partial saturation vapour pressure “psat,si“ for surface temperature indoors “θsi“ have to be
higher value than the partial saturation vapour pressure “psat,ai“ for air temperature indoors “θai“ with relative
air humidity ϕai = 50 %.
for θai = 20 C a ϕai = 50 % ⇒ functional demand

o
Example:
psat{ θai =20 C } = 2336,74 Pa ⇒

o
2336,74 / 0,8 = 2921 Pa
⇒ 2921 * 0,5 = 1460,5 Pa ⇒ θsi,80 = 12,6 C < θsi

o
56
For the fixed value of partial vapour pressure p = 1460,5 Pa temperature is calculated in relation to the
saturation state θ = 12,6 C (equals to the dew point temperature θpd ).
o
For the fixed indoor conditions, critical surface temperature indoors “θsi,80“ is approximately given by:
 p 
237 ,3 . ln  di 
θsi,80 =  488,4  for pdi ≥ 488,4 Pa
 p 
17 ,269 − ln  di 
 488,4 
 p 
265,5 . ln  di 
 488,4 
θsi,80 =
 p 
for pdi < 488,4 Pa
21,875 − ln  di 
 488,4 
Under certain conditions, the structures there may be condensation. Condensation is undesirable in the
structures, in which the condensed vapour affects the required function (formation of mold, static strength,
reduced service, etc.). Therefore, full-year amount of condensed amount in the construction “gk“ should be
gk = 0.
tangents
Fig.12 Propose of vapour barrier prevents occur of condensation.
In structures where there is no threat desired function can accept a limited condensation of water vapour,
but during the whole year of operation, the annual balance of condensed water vapor “gk“ and evaporated
moisture “gv“ has to be positive.
gk ≤ gv
2
[kg/(m .year)]
The single-roofing is permitted during operation year-round condensation of water vapour
gk ≤ 0,1
2
[kg/(m .year)]
for the rest of fabrics
gk ≤ 0,5
2
[kg/(m .year)]
57
Ab
Definitions
δ - diffusion coefficient of vapour [s]
represents the amount of vapour in "kg", which passes by diffusion in the thickness of the
fabric of the unit "m" per unit of time in "s" in per unit difference of partial vapour pressure
in 'Pa'
δ = [(kg.m/(m .s.Pa)] ⇒ [kg/(m.s.N/m )] ⇒ [ kg/(m.s.kg.m/(s .m )) ]

2 2 2 2
δ ⇒ [s]
µ - vapour resistance factor [-]
expresses the relative ability of a material vapour transmittance. Indicate how many times
the diffusion resistance of the substance (layer structure) is larger than equal layer of air at
the same temperature. ⇒ for air µ = 1
µ = 1 / (N. δ) pre θstr = 10 C

9 o
N = 5,31215 . 10 [1/s]
transfer ⇒ µ . δ = 0,18824 . 10
-9
sd – equivalent diffusion thickness [m]
the air layer thickness, which is the same as the diffusion resistance of the material (foil,
cardboard)
sd =µ . d
2.3 Floor constructions performance
By the building physics floors are devided :
● ground floors,
● basement floors,
● outside floors above outer stand in terms of outside environment (ramps, terraces, etc.),
● outside floors above outer stand in terms of inside environment (ceilings etc.).
Performance metrics for floor constructions:

thermal resistance – thermal transmittance “U”
thermal effusivity – “b”
Performance quantities, metrics and values at building level from STN 73 0540-2:
58
● thermal resistance,
● thermal transmittance,
● surface temperature indoors,
● amount of condensed and evaporated water vapour of assembly in year round,
● air leakage of cavities and joints of assemblies,
● thermal effusivity of floors,
● net energy demand,
● thermal stability of the room.
These functional requirements will reflect the transfer of heat, moisture and air, building structure, thermal
stability of room and net energy demand.
Of these criteria, thermal properties of floor structures to ensure values:
● thermal resistance,
● surface temperature indoors,
● moisture tolerance,
● thermal effusivity,
● heat flow rate.
2.3.1 Building physics’ performance of the floor
In the design of the floor construction is necessary to pay particular attention to the following criteria:
● temperature difference of indoor air and surface temperatures in the upper floors because of this
difference depends on the amount of heat loss floor,
● choice of material walk able floor layer, which should have low thermal conductivity, and thermal
storage capability,
● appropriate choice and deployment of the individual layers of floor structure, due to the type of
operation and the use / purpose of the building.
Thermal effusivity of floor structures
Thermal effusivity is solved in terms of cold climate thermal transient response in winter, which is given:
The contact between foot and floor involves ⇒ sense of cool, sense of well-being heat, etc.
These senses are dependent on the average surface temperature of foot θs,n = 33 C by :
o
contact surface temperature of the floor ( calculation value θs,podl = 17 C )

o
a.
b. thermal effusivity of top layer of the floor (or of another layers)
59
c. time of foot contact with the floor ( constant T = 600 sec. )
Figure illustrates the decrease in contact temperature at the time. Some authors distinguish three stages in
surface temperature over the legs:
warm
drop in contact temperature
floor
cold
floor
Time (minutes)
1- cork flooring, 2- wooden floor, 3- PVC Ins, 4- concrete floor.

Fig.13 Curves of decrease in contact temperature at the time 10 minutes ∆θ10 .
● The initial stage - characterized by a nearly instantaneous drop in surface temperature on foot minimum.
● The first stage of the reaction - characterized by expression of the human body thermoregulation process.
The size of the supplied heat flux to the surface of the foot and the floor, the paid, either by foot surface
temperature increases (warm floors) or decreases (cold floors).
● The second stage reaction - characterized by either a new equilibrium legs or feet fall in surface
temperature to a level floor surface temperature.
2.3.2 Thermal effusivity performances of floor structures
Types of floor construction are usually multilayered. The layers below the top layer may contribute to
remove heat from the feet, which is involved in trapping heat in the floor as a whole.
Fig.14 The floors are applied numbering floor layers from the surface layer down
60
This affects the thermal effusivity of top layer of the floor (thermal inertia). The foot contact with the floor
surface to the touch with defined duration of contact t = 600 sec ⇒
2 .π b 1 d2 λ .c. ρ d2
.λ.c.ρ=R . ⇒
2 2 2 2 2
.
λ2
D =R .s =R . = =
t0 t FO t a .t
λj
cj . ρ j
with aj = thermal diffusivity of the layer “j“ of floor.
I. THERMAL EFFUSIVITY OF ONE-LAYER AND TWO-LAYER FLOOR STRUCTURE.
In calculation floor structure is solved as:
One-layer – if,
2
λ1 . c1 . ρ1
d1
≥ 3 ⇒
0,5 2
b = b1 = [W . s / (m .K)]
a1 . t
b = b1 = λ1 . c1 . ρ1 [W . s
0,5 2
/ (m .K)]
Two-layer – if,
2 2
d1 d2
≥ 3 ⇒
0,5 2
+ b = b1 . ( 1 + K1,2 ) [W . s / (m .K)]
a1 . t a2 . t
EQUIVALENT THERMAL EFFUSIVITY OF FLOOR STRUCTURES
K1,2 – coefficient expressing rate of influence of the second layer of the floor to remove
b d2 
f  2 , 1  = f ( x2, y1 )
 b1 a1 . t 
heat to the floor surface K1,2 =
Three-layer – if,
2 2 2
d1 d2 d3
≥ 3 ⇒
0,5 2
+ + b = b1 . ( 1 + K1,2,3 ) [W . s / (m .K)]
a1 . t a2 . t a3 . t
K1,2,3 – coefficient expressing rate of influence of the second layer, which is already influenced by third layer,
of the floor to remove heat to the floor surface.
61
 b2,3 d12 
  = f ( x2,3, y1 )
 1 
K1,2,3 = f ,
b a1 . t
EQUIVALENT THERMAL EFFUSIVITY OF FLOOR STRUCTURES
with
b d2 
f  3 , 2  = f ( x3, y2 )
 b2 a 2 . t 
b2,3 = b2 . ( 1 + K2,3 ) K2,3 =
In general:
Kj,j+1 can be determined from tables or by calculation from the following relation:
 x −1
∑  (
 . exp − n . y j ) d 2j
∞ n
b j+1 1
n −1  x + 1 
2
Kj,j+1 = 2 . xj = yj = =
b1 aj .t FO j
In terms of thermal effusivity we do not solve these types of floor structures, in which:
● the top layer of floor is fabric (carpet),
● surface temperature of top layer is higher than 26 °C.
2.3.3 Decrease in contact surface temperature of floor
When touching the floor with, foot can significantly cool down. To avoid this as much, be sure to have the
required design floor surface temperature. But even the appropriate surface temperature of the floor
structure does not eliminate feeling cold feet. It depends on the thermal effusivity of floor construction.
Thermal effusivity reflects the ability of agents to receive or release heat.
foot
floor
Fig.15 Representation of the foot contacts the floor structure
62
This figure represents a decrease of temperature θk touch the point in time t = 10 min. Contact temperature
can be characterized as temperature of feet in contact with the floor construction. ∆θ10 touch temperature
drop reflects the time period t = 10 min.
After foot contacts the floor there are two possibilities:
● a person moves freely in the room 1 ~ 2 min.,
● man stands unmoved 1 ~ 2 min. at one point, then change the position of several feet.
In the first case hits the floor after each step. Touch takes about 2 seconds. The latter takes a touch longer.
Sensations of heat and cold and heat loss in the body are both dependent on the temperature of the floor
and thermal properties of material the surface layer. The heat flow between the feet and the floor will vary
depending on the frequency of leg movements and duration of foot contact with the floor. The statistical
observation that the most frequently occurring contact time 2 min.
Active boundary layer of the floor, which participates in the heat exchange in the current multi-layer floor
construction is usually within the first two - three active layers and the thickness of the floor is typically less
than 3.0 mm.
Heat flow between the booted feet and the floor surface is different from the heat flow between bare feet
and the floor, that also depends on the material of shoes. Since footwear material is usually a bad conductor
of heat, the intensity of heat removal at ground tires lower leg.
Cooling or heating of different parts of the human body does not act as the overall condition of the body.
Hygienists aim to the harmfulness of removing heat from the feet to the floor. The feet are very sensitive to
the temperature of the floor surface and the flow of cold air above the floor. The measurements confirmed
that the change in temperature environment, the body temperature varies little, but the temperature of the
feet can change quite significantly. In addition, the temperature of the floor structure significantly affects the
mean radiant temperature in the interior. The temperature at the surface of the floor structure depends
mainly on the thermal properties of its layers, but also by its location (on the ground, above the basement,
the typical floor) and functions (e.g. floor heating). It is therefore very important to know what the
temperature on the surface of a person accepts the floor construction, during what long feet touch the floor
and in what kind of shoes.
The thermal effusivity of floor "b" is not possible to determine the temperature drop touch "∆θ 10" on the floor
during a standard duration of contact with feet t = 600 sec:
33 − θ s , podl
∆θ10 = b.
1117 + b
Table – Approximate values of contact surface temperature decrease in time 10 minutes.
Category of b – thermal Decrease of

effusivity contact surf.
floor structure
temp. “∆θ10“
(informative)
I.
Very warm below 350 ≤ 3,8
63
II. warm
351 to 700 3,81 to 5,5
III.
less warm 701 to 850 5,51 to 6,9
IV. cold 850 more > 6,9
Table from standard STN 730540-2
Table 5 – Values bN
Floor Type of space and building bN

categories 0,5 2
W.s /(m .K)
I. Daily room kindergartens and nurseries,
below 350
Hospital: room for sick children
very warm
II. residential buildings: living room, living kitchen, halls and other
spaces which are separated by a door from the living room,
warm
school: classrooms, drawer, features, gyms, cabinets,
Hospital: room adult patients, examination rooms, pantries,
surgeries, waiting rooms, corridors, service rooms, 351 to 700
other civic buildings: offices, office, theaters, concert halls,
cinemas, restaurants rooms, hotel rooms,
manufacturing industrial buildings: space residing persons with
sedentary work,
III. residential buildings: atrium before entering the apartment,

bathroom, toilet,
less warm
schools: a washing, changing rooms, laboratories, corridors,
toilets,
Hospital: stairs, hallways as waiting rooms, toilets,
701 to 850
other civic buildings: meeting rooms, hallways as waiting rooms,
exhibition halls, museums, dormitories, dance halls, grocery
shops, warehouses continuously manned,
manufacturing industrial building: rooms with permanent jobs
without heat insulation pads or hot prescribed shoes
IV. no demands
850 more
cold
Based on the theory of heat have been identified and experimentally verified the optimum temperature
values at the surface of the floor structures, as well as recommendations for various types of flooring.
64
The following table shows the optimum temperature of floor used by barefoot people who stand on the floor
for some time (1-10 minutes) without shoes.
Table - Optimum temperature of floor used by barefoot people
Optimum temperature of floor The recommended interval of

Flooring
1 min. 10 min. the floor temperature
Fabric 21,4 24,5 21,0 - 28,0
Crok 24,0 26,5 23,0 - 28,0
Pine wood 25,0 26,0 22,5 - 28,0
Oaken wood 26,0 26,0 24,5 - 28,0
PVC over concrete 28,0 27,0 25,5 - 28,0
Hard linoleum over wood 28,0 26,0 24,0 - 28,0
Aerated concrete 29,0 27,0 26,0 - 28,5
Site concrete 28,5 27,0 26,0 - 28,5
Marble 30,0 29,0 28,0 - 29,5
The floor temperature in normal operation using normal footwear (slippers, slippers) recommended 25 ° C
for occupant and 23 ° C for standing and walking pe ople.
When thus considered optimal floor temperature feels local thermal discomfort around 6% of users. The
relationship between percentage of dissatisfied and temperature floor graphically shown in Fig. 16. Based
on experimental measurements, it is recommended that for ease of operation (especially sitting), the floor
surface temperature in the range of 19 to 26 ° C.
PPD
floor temperature (°C)
Fig.16 Predicted percentage of dissatisfied as a function of floor temperature.
65
The confrontation with this proposal, Figure 16 shows that the thus selected range of temperatures on the
surface of the floor would be approximately 10% of dissatisfied users. The intensity of heat removal floor at
her feet touched is directly proportional to the temperature gradient in the shoe sole. The short contact is
greater than the debt. The time of uninterrupted touch of feet with the floor (i.e., one-touch) is mainly no
longer than 10-20 minutes.
The temperature of the floor surface depends on:
thermal properties of each layer (from the appropriate thickness of each layer), the fluctuations in external
temperatures, the temperature of the indoor air from indoor air flow, from time to temperatures of air, but
mostly on the material layer walk able floor structure that characterize the material capability walk able layer
in contact with the foot to absorb heat (determining the intensity of heat flow). In this context, it is necessary
to distinguish whether it touch the floor barefoot or booted feet.
Heat flow between the booted feet and the floor surface is different from the heat flow between bare feet
and the floor that also depends on the material of shoes. Since footwear material that is usually a bad
conductor of heat, the intensity of heat removal of the floor at the foot smaller tires.
Active boundary layer of the floor, which participates in the heat exchange in the current multi-layer floor
construction is usually within the first two - three active layers and the thickness of the floor is typically less
than 3.0 mm.
The pattern of changes of heat flow in each leg touching the tires is determined by the following boundary
conditions:
● intervals of continuous contact is constantly changing, moving legs is random, the length of contact need
not be repeated,
● foot in the shoe does not affect directly the floor, the heat flow takes place through the thick sole of about
2 ~ 3 mm,
● temperature field in the floor is due to the continuous contact time and geometry uncertain three-
dimensional shape of the sole.
Thermal effusivity among other things shows the change in surface temperature due to the development of
heat flow density on that surface.
Table – Thermal effusivity of some materials.
ρo (kg/m )
3 1/2 2
Material b (W.s /(m .K))
Reinforced concrete 2400 1811
Cement screed 2000 1309
Linoleum 1200 654
Hard wood 600 520
Carpet 160 140
66
The table shows that most (in this section referred to) building materials in terms of thermal effusivity of floor
construction is a textile flooring - carpet, reinforced concrete is the worst possible (one of the most
frequently used building materials for floor slabs).
As for the floor structure, what is its higher thermal effusivity, the more heat floor removes from foot and vice
versa. Floor construction is said of the more favorable terms, the smaller the amount of thermal effusivity
are (hence the need for their proposal to use the lightest materials, viz. Table). Such materials often have
other desired properties, which must have a floor structure (water resistance, impact, abrasion, etc.).
Therefore, floor slabs as proposed complex. It must comply with the principle: if you cannot layer with the
smallest amount of thermal effusivity placed first, then layer placed above it should have the minimum
thickness to be the least affected the value of the layer with low thermal effusivity. For this reason, sorting
plays an important role of the individual layers. It follows that the floor slabs, which have the same wear
layer, can have different levels of thermal effusivity and depending on the composition of layers beneath it.
2.3.4 Floor above grade
In considering the floor construction of heated area on the ground is based only on the requirements for
thermal resistance R, as the trial floor above grade structure in terms of thermal resistance causes less
uncertainty as assessed for UTS – i.e. thermal transmittance U.
This is because the value of thermal resistance depends on a smaller number of factors (thickness d, the
value of coefficient of thermal conductivity λ). In the case of thermal transmittance values U, enters the
calculation in addition to the thermal resistance R value and thermal resistance on the outside of Rse and Rsi
inside of the frame (in case the procedure laid down in standard EN ISO 13370 enters into the calculation of
many other factors).
Fig. 17 Scheme for calculation of thermal resistance R of floor above grade.
The evaluation used the following rules:
67
● Thermal resistance of floor construction on natural terrain shall be deposited in layers of hydro insulation
against soil moisture (see Fig. 17)
● The thermal transmittance of the structure in contact with the soil shall be determined according to STN
th
73 0540-4 or BS EN ISO 13370
The standards currently directly related to the design and assessment of structures and structural details of
the lower structure (and thus the floor construction) include:
● STN EN ISO 6946
● STN EN ISO 10211
● STN EN 12831
● STN 73 0540-1/4
envelope thickness
soil (grade)
floor structure
Fig.18 Scheme of the floor above grade.
2.3.4.1 Thermal transmittance of the floor above grade
Insulated and uninsulated floors installed on ground, which amount to, or near the amount of surrounding terrain
shall be evaluated in terms of heat-air-moisture for thermal permeance - "Ls" in accordance with STN EN ISO
13370. In terms of temperature difference, the contact of the floor with the building envelope or the foundations
creates two-and three-dimensional heat transfer. Heat transfer is involved in its thermal properties of each
element isolating structure (floor, cladding, base construction) - Fig. 4. 12.
In determining the heat losses in the energy balance of buildings should be based on the nature of three-
68
dimensional heat flow in contact with the floor and outer wall foundations. Therefore, heat transfer affect the
dimensions of the building, size and shape of the floor and thermal conductivity of the soil - the soil.
Floor above grade non-insulated or insulated over the whole surface
Cooling effect above grade, mainly due to its contact with the edge of the outer surface of the cooling
envelope structure is dependent on defining the proportion of floor area to the district and reflects the
"characteristic dimension of the floor - B' ",
B´= A/ 0,5 . P [m]
with:
P - outer perimeter of the building [m] that separates heated space from the outside or unheated
spaces (lobbies, warehouses unheated garage, ...).
A - floor space to the ground (outside dimensions of the building) [m2].
To simplify the expression of thermal permeance floor introduces the concept of "equivalent thickness",
which is equivalent to the thickness of the soil with the same thermal resistance, in the calculations stands
as the "equivalent thickness of the floor - dt".
The following procedure applies for calculating the floor bare or insulated evenly over the surface (the
construction, under construction or inside the structure).
dt = w + λ . ( Rsi + Rf + Rse) [m]
with:
w - total thickness of the outer wall containing all layers, m
λ – thermal conductivity coefficient of the soil, W/(m.K)
The values corresponding to the actual site, averaged over a depth corresponding to the width of the
building and corresponding to the normal moisture content;
when we know the kind of soil or soil type determines the values used in the following table, in other cases it
is used λ = 2,0 W/(m.K).
69
Table - Heat-air-moisture properties of soil
Thermal conductivity
λ (W/(m.K))
Category Specification
1 clay or loam 1,5

2 sand or gravel 2,0
3 homogeneous rock 3,5
Rf – thermal resistance of any insulating layers above, below and within the construction of floor
including the wear layer. Thermal resistance of the concrete layers and thin layers of landmines can be
neglected. Thermal resistance is calculated by a layer of waterproofing against ground moisture, older
buildings in the separation layer of the embankment (gravel, rubble, slag ...).
2
Rsi, Rse – the thermal resistance between interface and the outside, and the inside, m .K/W
A - Floor area
P - Outer perimeter of a building
N - Unheated space
O - Other heated spaces
Fig.19 Calculation scheme for determining characteristic dimension of floor B´.
2.3.4.2 Thermal transmittance calculation of floor above grade
To calculate the basic values of thermal transmittance 'Uo', the following relations according to the quality of
the insulation:
for dt < B´ (non-insulated and softly insulated floors)
70
2.λ  π . B´ 
. ln  + 1
 dt 
2
π . B´
Uo = W/(m .K)
for dt ≥ B´ (well insulated floors)
λ 2
Uo = W/(m .K)
0,457 . B´ + d t
for floors without thermal insulation
U = Uo W/(m2.K)
Steady-state thermal permeance is numerically equal to specific heat loss in winter.
Hg = A . Uo + P . Ψg W/K
Floor above grade with insulation only the edges. Floor above grade insulation can be placed around the
edges either horizontally or vertically on the perimeter of the floor. The procedure for calculating the usable
width or height "D" of insulation on the edge of a small in proportion to the width of the building.
First, determine the underlying value of the coefficient of heat transfer floor "Uo" according to the previous
procedure without considering the edge insulation. Subsequently, the loss determined correction factor
"Ψg,e” either for isolation of peripheral horizontal or the vertical peripheral isolation. Thermal transmittance is
then determined for the floor with insulation around the edges
U = Uo + 2 . Ψg,e / B´
2
W/(m .K)
e i w
Rf dn
Hg A
podlaha
podložie
Fig.20 Calculation scheme for steady heat transfer coefficient of soil (Hg) in different positions along the
edge of the insulation
71
In determining the loss factor correction '∆Ψ' in the evaluation shall include the additional impact of effective
thickness "d" "- induced by thermal insulation around the edges
d´= R´. λ
with:
λ - thermal conductivity coefficient of the soil, W/(m.K)
R´- additional thermal transmittance involved by edges insulation, i.e. the difference between the
2
thermal resistance of edges insulation and thermal resistance of soil (structure), m .K/W
R´= Rn – dn / λ
2
m .K/W
Rn – thermal resistance of horizontal or vertical insulation around edges (or fundamentals)
dn – thickness of insulation, m
In determining the loss factor correction “Ψg,e”:
with horizontal edges thermal insulation (above and below the floor or outside wall) is given by:
λ  D   D 
∆Ψ = .ln  + 1 ln  + 1  
π   dt   d t + d ´  W/(m.K)
with vertical position (inside or outside of fundamental wall) edges thermal insulation
λ   2D   2D 
∆Ψ = − .ln + 1 − ln + 1
π   dt   d t + d ´ 
W/(m.K)
2.3.5 Floors above basement and crawlspaces
The structural formation of the lower structure depends not only on the geological and hydrological
conditions, but also on climatic conditions and the difficulty of building top operation. The structures
surrounding interiors of buildings, most often touch the floor. The internal microclimate is influenced mainly
by inappropriate choice of the wear layer floor construction. Most of the existing floor structure is a ceramic
or silicate-based. It is therefore the cold floor of the structure. Among the most critical point of the floor
construction is the area around the outer envelope, where the bare floor structures leads to overcooling of
these structures around the perimeter.
2.3.5.1 Thermal permeance of floors above basement and crawlspaces
72
The floor surface without contact with the soil above crawlspaces – ventilated and unheated interior space
(basement, open spaces naturally ventilated outside air) - Fig. 4.15. provides thermal permeance - "Ls" as
follows
Ls = A . U [W/K]
Thermal transmittance U is given:
1 1 1
= + 2
[W/(m .K)]
U U f Ug + Ux
In determining the thermal transmittance of the floor "U" process is common as mentioned above. Calculate
the characteristic dimension of the floor 'b' "and the equivalent thickness of the floor "dg" in unheated spaces
dg = w + λ . ( Rsi + Rf + Rse) [m]
with: Rg - thermal resistance of any insulation on the underside of the space, usually in the basement
floor area is no insulation value and Rg = 0.
height of the upper edge

of the floor above the
surrounding terrain
Thermal resistance of floor - Rf
Basement
Thermal resistance of any

insulation on the underside - Rg
soil (grade)
Fig.21 Floor above crawlspaces
Uf – thermal transmittance of crawlspace floor between indoor environment and unheated space
2
under the floor, W/(m .K)
Ux - equivalent thermal transmittance between the area under the crawlspace floor and the outdoor
2
environment in which heat flow of walls and ventilation is accounted, W/(m .K)
h .U w ε . v . fw
Ux = 2 . ´
+ 1450 . 2
[W/(m .K)]
B B´
2
Uw - thermal transmittance of basement walls above ground level, W/(m .K)
h - height of the upper edge of the floor above the surrounding terrain, m
73
v - the main wind speed of 10 m above ground, m/s
ε - area of vent. slots covering the circumference of the floor , m2/ m
fw - shielding factor of wind, ( 0,02 = protected position, 0,05 = unprotected position,
0,1 = very unfavorable position)

2
Ug – thermal transmittance for heat flow of floor above grade, W/(m .K), if crawlspace is ventilated
and below the grade “z“
for z ≤ 0,5 m
 π . B´ 
. ln + 1
2.λ
π . B´ + d g  d 
2
 g 
Ug = [W/(m .K)]
for z > 0,5 m
z . P . U bw
Ug = U bf + 2
[W/(m .K)]
A
2
Ubf - equivalent thermal transmittance of floors in contact with soil, W/(m .K) depending on the
thermal insulation of the basement floor
- for non-insulated or softly insulated floors, if dt + 0,5.z < B´
2.λ  π . B´ 
. ln + 1 [W/(m2.K)]
π . B´ + d t + 0,5 . z  d t + 0,5 . z 
Ubf =
- for well-insulated floors, if dt + 0,5.z ≥ B´
λ 2
Ubf = [W/(m .K)]
0,457 . B´ + d t + 0,5 . z
2.3.5.2 Equivalent and efficient thermal transmittance of floors above

basement
2
Ubw – equivalent thermal transmittance of basement walls, W/(m .K) depends on total equivalent thickness
of walls in basement “dw“
dw = λ . ( Rsi + Rw + Rse) [m]

2
RW - thermal resistance of the walls in the basement and net of all layers, m .K/W
2.λ    z 
. 1 +  . ln + 1
0,5 . d t
π .z  dt + z   dw 
2
Ubw = [W/(m .K)]
If dw < dt in relation is used value of dw, i.e. dt = dw
74
Efficient thermal transmittance “U´ “characterizing the whole of the basement in contact with the soil shall be
determined from the following relation
A . U bf + z . P . U bw 2
U´ = [W/(m .K)]
A+ z.P
? 1. What is a transient thermal response, what are the basic criteria for evaluation of
structures in terms of thermal transient response, what methods of calculation you know?
2. How do you determine occurs of interstitial condensation of water vapour or not? If

so, what are the methods of design verification and assessment of envelope structures in
terms of condensation?
3. Describe the basic criteria for the assessment of floor construction. What is
thermal effusivity of floor construction and how to detect?
4. How would you rate the floor structure above grade in terms of HAM
performance?
Σ
Summary
The prediction, the design and evaluation of building structures, this chapter deals with the
design and production of building enclosure in terms of thermal transient response. Step
by step explanation of the terms is unstable temperature condition (NTS), criteria of
evaluation, as assessed in terms of packaging design NTS, i.e. heat storage, heat
absorption, trapping, floor heat in terms of construction techniques, the differences in
evaluation of floor to the ceiling and floor on the ground. The result is knowledge - what
impact has the thermal inertia of building structures on the internal environment of
buildings.
75
3. Evaluation of structures in multi-dimensional heat transfer, thermal bridges and

thermal fields, transparent construction - windows and doors, air permeability of
joints and cavities
∆
Mission
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to the problems of multi-dimensional
spread of heat, which occurs in thermal bridges. This is the explanation of the
assessment of thermal bridges (edges, corners of rooms, construction joints with multiple
building materials, etc.). The chapter is transparent assessment of structures which are
windows and doors and assess the air permeability of building materials, structures and
joints and joints of windows and doors .
Objectives
- describe the basic types of thermal bridges,
- as there is a spread of heat in two-dimensional sense, ie the temperature fields
in a space called. 3D assessment of structures,
- explain the basic assessment criteria transparent filler structures such as
windows and doors,
- evaluate the building design in terms of mass transport - air, ie assess building
structures in terms of air permeability.
ζ
Introduction
This part of building physics, thermal construction techniques will be given a description
of heat and moisture flow, the movement of matter (air) - on the basis of temperature,
humidity, pressure and their changes.
The first chapter is devoted solely to thermal steady state, ie, when the temperature
change with time, but while there is a multidirectional spread the heat in the details of
building structures. This is the assessment of thermal fields, transparent panes
(windows, doors) and the installation of the packaging structures. Assessment of joints
and joints of these structures in terms of transfer of air - the air permeability of materials
as well as contacts and joints.
3.1. Thermal bridges
Building construction in the corners, corners, with holes and made of different materials (different λ) are
deformed temperature field. Heat transfer is characterized by a multidimensional, two-and three-
dimensional heat transfer.
76
Thermal bridges - are places in structures where there is a reduction in surface temperatures. Thermal
bridges usually occur mainly in places where the local place of higher thermal conductivity. Thermal bridges
are divided:
geometric - enclosures
material
combined
Fig.1 The basic types of thermal bridges - geometric shapes
Fig.2 The basic types of thermal bridges - material shapes
77
Fig.3 Combined thermal bridges
Q - heat flux
Fig.4 Surface temperatures (on the outer surface) of a typical thermal bridge
Fig.5 Change of surface temperature (for i-surface) of a typical thermal bridge from inside the insulation
78
Fig.6 Change of surface temperature (for i-surface) of a typical thermal bridge in insulation from the
outside
area A
[m2]
Fig.7 Multi-dimensional heat transfer
Increased heat loss due to thermal bridges

The result :
Change of heat flux
Changing the inner surface temperature
79
These structural parts usually brings an increase in thermal transmittance (increased heat loss) ⇒
additional heat loss, expressed by
Ψk – linear thermal dissipation factor bridge
χj – spot the heat dissipation factor bridge
Ψ=L - ∑ U i . li
2D
[W/(m.K)]
2D
L – thermal transmittance expressed in two-dimensional temperature field
Ui – product. heat transfer, and that part of the structure,
li – length cut detail
Ψ - indicates the thermal-rate differential behavior of the structure (fragment) of undistorted field of thermal
properties of thermal bridge. It expresses the additional heat loss in watts per 1 m length of the linear
thermal bridge at
∆θ = θi - θe = 1 K
heat loss expressed in ∆θ = 1 K ⇒ The specific heat loss of „H“ in W/K
3.1.1. Effect of thermal bridges in buildings, heat loss
In order to increase the quality of thermal packaging design to reduce heat loss (U - value in fragments but
the structures are below average for the bridges and corners are higher. On the basis of the linear and point
loss coefficients also increase. Therefore, the thermal insulation attention should be paid to the design detail
(= Usually deformed temperature field ⇒ thermal bridge caused by the highest heat loss transmissions).
The heat balance of buildings, bridges share heat to increase the total heat losses are between about 5 to
25%.
∆U = ( ∑ Ψk . lk + ∑ χj ) / ∑ Ai = ∆HTM / ∑ Ai
∑ Ai – areas for construction of the external dimensions

∆HTM – specific heat loss due to thermal bridges
EXTERNAL ANGLE A ROOM ENCLOSURES.
External corners and corners of the rooms are very sensitive to thermal technology in terms of the place in
which it is applied at least two-dimensional heat transfer, although the whole structure of a homogeneous
material. Temperatures can be calculated using the circuit temperature fields.
Causes of the reduction of surface temperatures in the inner corner:
a.)
Ai - area heated (bath)

Ae - surface cooled
80
Ai < Ae
low air velocity
Fig. 8 Corner of room
b.) the corners of the air flow is lower, so the value is in the corner „Rsik“ higher compared to the value of
„Rsi“ (heat transfer is attenuated in the corner)
Rsi < Rsik
The biggest drop in surface temperature is in the internal corner ⇒ θsi,min
temperature factor of the internal surface „fRsi“
fRsi = (θsi - θe) / (θi - θe)
θsi = fRsi . (θi - θe) + θe
2D
L
2D thermal field
Fig. 9 Determination of the linear loss factor
81
linear dissipation factor
ψe = L
2D
- UAB . PB – UCD . PD
ψi = L
2D
- UAB . AK – UCD . KC
editing the outer corner to increase the temperature in the corner - „θsi,k“
pipe of
heating
system
Fig.10 Different types of thermal bridges - parts and edit - the insulation and the like.
3.2. Multidimensional heat transfer - the temperature field

Building construction in the corners, corners, with holes and made of different materials (different λ) are
deformed temperature field. Heat transfer is characterized by a multidimensional, two-and three-
dimensional heat transfer.
Three-dimensional heat transfer Two-dimensional heat transfer (thermal field)
Fig.11 Different modes of heat transfer - in the space of three directions in the plane in two directions
82
Two-dimensional Fourier heat transfer differential equation describing heat conduction in the form
∂ θ ( x, y )  ∂ 2θ (x, y ) ∂ 2θ (x, y ) 
 + 
∂t  ∂x ∂ y 2 
=a. 2
provided that the time change in temperature is a constant ⇒ differential equation
 ∂ 2θ (x, y ) ∂ 2θ (x, y ) 
 +  =0
 ∂x ∂ y 2 
the homogeneous form 2
⇒ possibility of solving differential method
 ∆2xθ (x, y ) ∆2yθ (x, y ) 

 +  =0
 ∆ x2 ∆ 
 
2
y
Fig. 12 Cut a two-dimensional structure determination of heat transfer and heat flow determination
temperature calculation for node „θx,y“
thermal equilibrium ⇒ Φ1 + Φ2 + Φ3 + Φ4 = 0
Φ1 = (θx,y – θx,y+∆ ) . Ly+∆ Φ2 = (θx,y – θx+∆,y ) . Lx+∆
Φ3 = (θx,y – θx,y-∆ ) . Ly-∆ Φ4 = (θx,y – θx-∆,y ) . Lx-∆
Substituting the nodal equations:
(θx,y – θx,y+∆ ) . Ly+∆ + (θx,y – θx+∆,y ) . Lx+∆ + (θx,y – θx,y-∆ ) . Ly-∆ + (θx,y – θx-∆,y ) . Lx-∆= 0
83
expresses a general equation for the nodal temperatures „θx,y“
θ x , y + ∆ . L y + ∆ + θ x + ∆ , y . Lx+ ∆ + θ x, y −∆ . L y −∆ + θ x−∆ , y . Lx −∆
θx,y =
L y + ∆ + Lx + ∆ + L y −∆ + Lx − ∆
L - surface thermal conductance between two nodes generally

R – thermal resistance between nodes in the network
1 λ
L= .A = .A
R d
A – area of flow field between the nodes in the network
For the particular case of flow field between the nodes of the network surface thermal conductivity of the „L“
identifies the
In the following table:
TYPES OF HEAT FLOW
Calculation of surface thermal conductivity Type of flow field between the peaks of the
differential system in the direction away x and
direction y
1. homogeneous flow field:
1 λ
Lx-1 = .A = .A
R d
where A = S . 1
84
2. flow field on the surface structure
1 λ
Lx-1 = .A = .A
R d
∆y
where A = S . 1 =
2
3. heterogeneous structure of the material

parallel to the flow field
λ1 λ
Lx-1 = . A1 = 2 . A2
d d
where
A1 = S1.1
A2 = S2.1
4. flow field in the corner
Lx-e = 1/Rse . A1 v smere osi „y“
Lx-e = 1/Rse . A2 v smere osi „x“
where
A1 = S1.1
A2 = S2.1
5. flow field between the surface structure and

air
Lx-e = 1/Rse . A the outer surface
Lx-i = 1/Rsi . A the inner surface
85
3.2.1. Examples of calculations of temperature fields
Temperature course Zones with condensation
condensation zone
Fig.18 Cut a two-dimensional structure determination of heat transfer and the determination of isotherm
thermal insulation
thermal insulation
Fig.19 Cut a two-dimensional structure determination of heat transfer and determination of the isothermal
external wall insulation
86
Boundary conditions:
current state
Hygienic criterion
proposed state Boundary conditions:
Hygienic criterion
Fig.20 Addressing a two-dimensional heat transfer - details attic insulation before and after
current state Boundary conditions:
Hygienic criterion
Boundary conditions:
proposed state
Hygienic criterion
Fig.21 Addressing a three-dimensional distribution of heat - a detail from the attic insulation
87
3.3. Transparent parts design

Transparent envelope parts provides mainly visual interior and exterior link. In terms of construction physics
in particular, provide
daily lighting of the interior of buildings
glare - insolation interiors of direct sunlight
natural ventilation of interior
Infill construction openings.
In terms of energy balancing is to be noted that the design of windows making the most significant share in
influencing heat loss.
3.3.1. Division of transparent parts
From a structural point of view can be divided into windows
Simple - one glass, with insulation double or triple
Double windows - with two glasses with three glasses with double insulating glass
windows on the inside, possibly with an additional third glazing
Double-glazed windows - with two lenses, a combination of single glazing with double
glazing, insulation, ...
Classic windows in the previous development had mostly wood frames. Recent trends in use of new
materials such as plastics, metals, and combinations thereof.
he thermal technology in terms of opening structures are inhomogeneous composition of his own
construction (frame, sash, glazing, filling, ...).
Furthermore, the structure with minimal thermal storage capacity (immediately react to changes in external
climate). When mounted in the circuit design arises deformed temperature field (inhomogeneous structure)
caused by increasing heat loss. These additional heat flows in the calculation of temperature fields quantify
the circuit parameter 'linear thermal transmittance - ψg ".
Thermal hole quality design expresses the heat transfer coefficient „Uw“ ntire window (or door), which
included the area frame, sash, and glazing panels. This is added to the linear thermal transmittance „ψg“.
The linear thermal transmittance of glazing reflects the impact of contact and wings to heat flow, which
increases at a given location.
The value of coefficient „ψg“ indicates the increase of heat flow in the „W“ n the meter contact the perimeter
of the window temperature difference ∆θ = 1 K between interior and exterior.
Where known, the thermal-parameters frame, type of glazing and linear dissipation coefficient „ψg“ is not
possible to determine heat transfer coefficient „Uw“ the window as follows.
88
3.3.2. Simple window
Single window with double insulating glass
U f . A f + U g . Ag + Ψg . l g 2
A f + Ag
U = Uw = [W/(m .K)]
where
2
Uf - thermal transmittance of frame and sash, W/(m .K)
2
Ug - thermal transmittance of glazing windows, W/(m .K)
ψg - Linear thermal transmittance of glazing contact, distance
profile and frame, W/(m.K)
lg - perimeter glazing sash windows, m
The calculation parameters are shown in the figure below
Fig.22 Diagram of the computational determination of geometric characteristics of the glass, frames and
glazing visible perimeter „l“.
To fill the openings (eg doors) and the opaque parts will add value for the calculation of the „Up“, „ψP“, „lP“ s
possible to determine the thermal transmittance „Uw“ follows
U f . A f + U g . Ag + U P . AP + Ψg . l g + ΨP .l P 2
Uw = [W/(m .K)]
A f + Ag + AP
where
2
Uf - hermal transmittance of frame and sash, W/(m .K)
2
Ug - thermal transmittance of glazing windows, W/(m .K)
2
UP - thermal transmittance of opaque panels, W/(m .K)
89
ψg - Linear thermal transmittance of glazing contact, distance

profile and frame, W/(m.K)
ψP - Linear thermal transmittance of opaque panels contact,
lg - perimeter glazing sash windows, m
lP - contact perimeter of opaque panels, m
Similarly, it is possible to do so in determining the thermal transmittance of doors with opaque and
transparent parts.
3.3.3. Double layered window
In determining the thermal transmittance of double windows should be based on the specifications of this
type of thermal compound window.
This calculation is useful in sealed boxes.
Fig. 23 Diagram of the computational determination of geometric characteristics of the double windows, the
definition Uw1 Uw2
1 2
Uw = [W/(m .K)]
1 / U w1 − Rsi + Rs − Rse + 1 / U w 2
where
2
Uw1 - heat transfer coefficient of the internal windows, W/(m .K)
2
Uw2 - heat transfer coefficient outside the window, W/(m .K)
2
Rs - hermal resistance of air layer glazing, m .K/W, standard values are listed in Table. Annexes.
90
2
Rsi - thermal resistance inside the outer box in his separate use, m .K/W
2
Rse - thermal resistance on the outside of the inner window in the case of single-use, m .K/W
3.3.4. Double window
Thermal transmittance of the double window consisting of a frame and two separate wings is calculated
from the basic equation
U f . A f + U g . Ag + Ψg . l g 2
A f + Ag
Uw = [W/(m .K)]
where Ug - glazing system is determined as follows
1 2
Ug = [W/(m .K)]
1 / U g1 − Rsi + Rs − Rse + 1 / U g 2
2
Ug1 - heat transfer coefficient of the internal glazing, W/(m .K)
2
Ug2 - heat transfer coefficient glazing, W/(m .K)
Rs - thermal resistance of air layer glazing, m2.K/W,
standard values are listed in Table. Annexes.
Rsi - thermal resistance inside the outer box
in his separate use, m2.K/W
Rse - thermal resistance on the outside of the inner window
in his separate use, m2.K/W
3.3.5. Multiple glazing
The multiple glazing heat transfer coefficient is determined
Rse + ∑
Ug =
dj
+ Rsj + Rsi
j λj
• distribution of solar radiation by double glazing
transfer of energy from solar radiation should be evaluated from two perspectives
a. in terms of light transmission
b. heat transfer from the glazing system - transmission
Examples of distribution of solar radiation insulation double
ordinary clear glass a glass selectively

ε1 = ε2 = 0,89 ε1 = 0,89, ε2 = 0,2
optical properties
τ = 76 % ρ = 14 % τ = 73 % ρ = 16 %
91
energy properties
2 2
Uok = 2,9 [W/(m .K)] Uok = 1,8 [W/(m .K)]
T = 61 % R = 11 % T = 54 % R = 13 %
A = 28 % g = 72 % A = 33 % g = 69 %
Fig.24 Schematic distribution of solar radiation by double glazing
3.3.6. Window with shutters
External shutters are an additional layer of air thermal resistance between the window and shutters, and
thermal resistance of the shutter itself.
Windows with lockable shutters - Calculation of thermal transmittance
1
1 / U w + ∆R
2
Uws = [W/(m .K)]
where
Uw – thermal transmittance of the window

∆R – additional thermal resistance of the shutters with an air gap between the window
92
Fig.25 Diagram of the computational determination of geometric characteristics with sealable window
shutters definition Uw Rw and below.
3.3.7. Examples of calculation of temperature fields in the installation of window
Fig.26 Calculation of the temperature during the - isotherm in single glazed window
Fig.27 Calculation of the temperature during the - isotherm in the window with double glass exterior and
interior
93
thermal insulation
Fig.28 Calculation of the temperature during the - isotherm in the original box, in detail, and detail the
insulation
3.4. Air permeability
Air permeability is to be distinguished from the diffusion of water vapor, which takes place at a partial
pressure difference of water vapor ≡ ∆pd. Therefore, it may be the case when pi = pe, but the diffusion
occurs. Building construction separates the air environment that is different when there is pressure to flow
from the higher to lower pressure. For air flow through the structure was allowed, they must be agents of
porous, allowing air redundancy relations and air-permeable joints are tight.
Building construction separates the air environment that is different when there is pressure to flow from the
higher to lower pressure. For air flow through the structure was allowed, they must be
substances from porous to allow air firing
connections and joints are leaking air-permeable
Causes of different air pressures on both sides of the structure are
due to temperature difference between internal and external environment (change in air density)
⇒ the influence of gravity
action of wind
air permeability should be distinguished from diffusion, which takes place at a partial pressure difference of
water vapor ≡ ∆pd. Therefore, it may be the case when pi = pe, but the diffusion occurs.
94
winter
summer
heat flux
diffusion flux
air mass transfer
exfiltration infiltration
difference of quantities
Fig.29 Heat, diffusion and mass flow of air through the envelope in winter and summer
differential pressure „∆pθ“ pressure differential „∆pv“

caused by gravity caused by wind
∆pθ = h . (ρae - ρai ) . g ∆pv = 0,5 . v . (An - Az ) . ρae

2
∆pθ =ρa = 353 / (273 - θa )
ρa = 353 / (273 - θa )
where: v – wind speed, [ m/s ]
ρa – air density, [ kg/m ]

3
An, Az – aerodynamic pressure
h – height of air cavity, [ m ] coefficients (An ≅ 0,6 windward
Az ≅ - 0,3 lee)
2
g - acceleration due to gravity, [ m/s ]
3.4.1. The air permeability of materials

The porosity of construction materials allow the penetration of air at a pressure difference. air permeability is
dependent on the construction and structure of substances of which the structure is made
an air permeable structure - most porous materials
95
an air impermeable structures - dense materials (glass, metal sheets, ...) the laminar flow of air
through the steady state density structure mass flow of air „qm“
∆p
qm = εm . = εm .
pi − pe 2
[ kg/(m .s) ]
d d
where εm - mass of air permeability coefficient [ kg/(m.s.Pa) ≡ s ]
εm ⇒ indicates the amount of air in kg, which goes for 1 second layer of the 1 m thickness of the
substance in air pressure differential of 1 Pa.
3.4.1.1. Moving of air through the structures
Effect of temperature on the air permeability of the structure
Assuming laminar air flow in steady state
∆p
∑
dj
qm = Rm = [ m/s ]
Rm ε mj
∆p – air pressure difference
∆p = ∆pθ + ∆pv
Rm - mass resistance to air permeability
Fig. 30 Effect of temperature on the air permeability of the structure
96
θsi,G = θae + ( θai - θae ) .

( )
exp c.q m .R / − 1
exp(c.q m .Ro ) − 1
c - specific heat capacity of air
/ 2
R = Rx-e + Rse [m .K/W]
Ro = Rsi + R + Rse
In practice, assessing the rate of decrease of surface temperature due to air infiltration
∆θsi,G = θsi,G - θsi < 0,2 K
3.4.1.2. Air permeability of joints and cavities

Leaks from joints allow air to filter through the gaps that produce the natural exchange of air between the
interior and exterior.
When defining the characteristics of air permeability of windows and doors is not possible to determine the
amount of the replaced air „Vv“ in the room.
Vv = Σ (i . l) . ∆p
m 3
= n . Vm /3600 ( m /s )
n = 3600 . Vv / Vm (1/h)
n = 3600 .[ Σ (i . l) . ∆p ]/Vm
m
specific heat loss by infiltration „Hv“ in (W/K)
Hv = Vv . ρ . c = Vv . 1,205 . 1010
Hv ≅ 1200 . n . Vm /3600 . 0,8
Hv = 0,264 . n . Vm
3 n
where i – gap of air permeability coefficient, ( m /(m.s.Pa )
l - ength of the joints of filtration, (m)
n – the air exchange rate for infiltration, (1/h)
3
Vm - volume of air in the room, (m )
(koeficent 0.8 = conversion from external dimensions )
3
Vv - volume flow of air, (m /s)
Basic hygiene requirements for complying with the state of the internal environment is adequate air
exchange for the operation of the internal environment of residential buildings
n N ≥ 0,5 1/h
97
the multi-storey buildings there is a filtration of air to the building of a change of air pressure difference „∆p“,
so the upper floors there may be unwanted exfiltration of air corridors and rooms below. therefore requires
internal doors, entrance doors to the flats of common corridors and the like. air permeability coefficient
values were „i“
i ≤ 0,5 . 10
-4 3 0,67
m /(m.s.Pa )
exfiltration
infiltration
Fig.31 Distribution of high pressure building

infiltration
Fig.32 Sample passage of air through cracks windows, seal in contact with the frame and sash
98
Fig.33 Sample passage of air through cracks in the contact window frame and sash
3.4.1.3. Effect of air exchange on the humidity indoors

In the indoor environment from human activities leads to deterioration of air breathing as well as work
activity, increases the concentration of pollutants. In one breath and exhaled water vapor and increases
moisture in the air.
In addition, the relative humidity increases further production of water vapor:
a person at rest 50 g/h,
a person-light physical work 100 g/h,
boiling water (3 l) 500 g/h,
washing the floor (m2) 175 g/h,
a person per day (24 h) 1000-2000 g/h,
aquarium, one square meter area 40 g/h
Especially in winter, low outdoor air temperatures are higher relative humidity „ϕe“, but the absolute water
vapor content is lower
(for θe = 0 C je g= 4,85 gr/m and for θi = 20 C je g = 17,28 gr/m ).

o 3 o 3
Therefore, in the winter when ventilation occurs while drying the indoor air.
99
Ab
Definitions
where εm - mass air permeability coefficient [ kg/(m.s.Pa) ≡ s ]
εm ⇒ indicates the amount of air in kg, which goes for 1 second layer of the 1 m
thickness of the substance in air pressure differential of 1 Pa.
3 m
where iL - coefficient of air Škárová prievzdušnosti [m /(m.s.Pa ) m≡cca 2/3]
? 1. Give examples of thermal bridges the divide-by-aspects, how would you assess
the thermal bridge construction.
2. You know how there is a spread of heat in two-dimensional sense, ie the

temperature fields and the so-called space. Are considered as 3D building structures
when considering two-and three-dimensional distribution of heat?
3. Explain the basic assessment criteria transparent filler structures such as doors
and windows of thermo-technical point of view?
4. Spread the air structures, air permeability of materials, joints and joints.
Σ
Summary
This part of building physics, construction techniques, the heat given to the description of
heat and moisture flow, the movement of matter (air) - on the basis of temperature,
humidity, pressure and changes in multidirectional spread the heat and moisture in
building structures and their elements.
This chapter has been paid to the stable temperature condition, ie, when the temperature
change with time, but while there is a multidirectional spread the heat in the details of
building structures. This is the assessment of thermal fields, transparent panes (windows,
doors) and the installation of the packaging structures. Assessment of the details of these
structures in terms of transfer of air - the air permeability of materials, materials, building
structures, focusing also on transparent panels and their connections and joints.
100
4. Thermal comfort, thermal balance in summer and in winter, net energy

demand and gross energy demand
∆
Role
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to the issue of continuing the
constant temperature condition. In the previous section are described some of the
principles of design of structures in terms of transient thermal conditions. This chapter
is continued, pointing to the assessment of internal comfort conditions, evaluate the
thermal stability of confined spaces, depending on physical factors in the summer and
winter climate period. Given that many areas do not accumulate sufficient internal
environment, it is necessary to address issues of overheating due attention to design
and carry out construction works so that we avoid this unpleasant phenomenon. A
similar situation is in winter when there is a disrupted heating and thermal stability and
inertia of packaging structures is small. This concluding chapter is the description of
the calculation of energy needs for heating. This is a brief overview of the calculation,
given that this issue during his studies at Faculty of Civil Engineering, particularly in the
field of building construction will be paid attention to many subjects. Conclusion The
entire chapter consists of the basic conditions that are imposed on the building
structures in terms of building thermal techniques.
Objectives
- Describe the basic physical factors affecting the thermal comfort of indoor environment
in summer and winter,
- How should we assess the thermal stability of confined spaces in the summer,
- Basic approaches to the evaluation of thermal stability in intermittent heating in winter,
- Evaluate the building design in terms of needs (heat) and energy needs for heating -
the basic principles of the approach to evaluation in project preparation (so-called
envelope method),
- Explain the basic criteria for evaluation of structures in terms of building thermal
techniques (such as a summary of previous lectures).
ζ
Introduction
It was mentioned several times that the main task is to protect human buildings from
adverse weather conditions and to create him an environment in summer and winter to the
confined space of the interior the best feeling. It is not always such a simple matter. The
building has provided sufficient thermal storage and thermal inertia properties, it is
necessary to help the technology environment. The building thermal technology but in
101
packaging structures of buildings and their physical properties have prescriptive rules that
must be met to ensure that we design to ensure a suitable environment in summer and
winter. Chapter shows such approaches to packaging design of the building structures, at
the end of the table, the basic principles of assessment of energy needs for heating
buildings and such mentioned above, there are basic criteria that must be a designer in the
design of buildings in terms of construction physics and especially to meet the thermal
protection of buildings.
4.1. Thermal comfort
Every room in relation to packaging structures has its own thermal state. Thermal comfort - determine the
thermal properties of structures that surround the room.
Thermal comfort of human is steady state with a sense of satisfaction with the thermal state of the
environment. People in such an environment do not feel either cold or excessive heat. t. no. the metabolic
heat produced by man in his work is in balance with heat removal from the body surface at a given clothes
without sweating).
The thermal balance of human - may be affected by the environment in a work activity of human ⇒ thermal
discomfort
4.1.1. Factors affecting the thermal comfort
Factors affecting the thermal comfort are:
Environment related:
indoor air quality ( optimum air ventilation )
air temperature indoors “θai“
surface temperatures indoors “θsu“
relative humidity indoors “ϕai“
air speed “vai“
Subject related:
physiological, psychical and others
human activity, working effort (physical load)
( 1 clo ≡ R ≅ 0,155 m .K/W )

2
clothing
Optimum conditions of thermal comfort in winter
102
θai + θsu ≥ 38
o
C
θsu =
θ s1 . A1 + θ s 2 . A2 + θ s 3 . A3 + ... ∑θ . Aj
∑
j
with: =
A1 + A2 + A3 + ... Aj
ϕai ≅ 40 ÷ 60 % vai ≤ 0,15 m/s
for residential spaces must be secured:
⇒ ∆θi = θai - θsi ≤4K for walls
∆θi = θai - θsp ≤ 3 K for floors
otherwise ⇒ cold radiation
Optimum conditions of thermal comfort in summer
θai + θsu ≤ 51
o
C
θai ≤ 27 θsu ≤ 27
o o
with C C
ϕai ≅ 35 ÷ 50 % vai ≤ 0,15 m/s
optimum air temperature indoors in summer θai = 24 C

o
4.2. Gross energy demand for heating
Gross energy demand for heating „Q“– depends on heat-air-moisture performances at entire building level
and heating system (= necessary heat generated in the production, distribution and supply, but is not
directly useful in providing thermal comfort environment), which provides thermal comfort when the activity
in the interior of the building. Thermal comfort can disrupt especially outside weather conditions.
103
Net energy demand

Gross energy demand
building
building and build. services
Fig.1 Balance scheme of gross energy demand for heating
Balance equation of gross energy demand for heating „Q“
Q + Qr = QT + Qv - η (Qi + Qs) + Qw + Qt = Qh + Qw + Qt [W]
Gross energy
with Qr – recovered heat from the appliances and surroundings, kWh

demand
Qw – energy demand for domestic hot water, kWh
Qt – heat loss of heating system, kWh
QT – net energy needed for covering transmission heat transfer trough the all envelope and separation
parts, kWh
Net energy
demand
Qv – net energy needed for covering ventilation heat loss, kWh
Qi – net energy obtained from the indoor gains, kWh
Qs – net energy obtained by solar gains trough the transparent parts, kWh
Qh – net energy demand for heating, kWh
104
Net energy demand for heating “Qh“ depends on heat-air-moisture properties at building and building
envelope level. It does not include properties of the heat source and heating system. Calculation of net
energy demand for heating is determined by the theoretical standard conditions for comparative and
reference heating season (= the value of a comparative evaluation of heat-air-moisture buildings´
performance). It expresses the amount of heat required to be delivered of room (to compensate for heat
loss through the building envelope) for maintaining the indoor air temperature. This value is the real power
consumption during operation of the building.
The purpose of net energy demand for heating calculation is

♦ To compare the variants of thermal protection of buildings and then make the optimal choice of heat-
air-moisture material properties
♦ To map out the current level of heat-air-moisture buildings´ performance
♦ To explain possible measures to improve the thermal protection in the reconstruction of existing
buildings
♦ To assess the heat-air-moisture performance at building level with required standard values.
losses gains
ENERGY DEMAND
Fig.2 Balance scheme of net energy demand
with Qh – net energy demand for heating
QT – net energy needed for covering transmission heat transfer trough the all envelope and separation
parts,
Qv – net energy needed for covering ventilation and infiltration heat loss
105
Qs – passive solar gains (through the windows, transparent parts)
Qi – net energy obtained from the indoor gains
η = 0,95 – utilization coefficient
4.2.1. Calculation methods
Generally, the calculation methods to prediction the gross energy demand for heating energy can be divided
according to the method of expressing the net energy demand (heat output to maintain thermal comfort
conditions)
simulation methods - in which is balanced the gross energy demand usually at intervals of h = 1 ⇒
describe thermal transient response,
simplified calculation methods - when the net energy demand is balanced from the monthly main
values of variables, if necessary from entire the heating season ⇒ average steady-state conditions
evaluating.
Specific net energy demand is determined from the reference of standard conditions
per ∆θ = 1 K is given:
The same number of climate degree days ⇒ D = 3422
(number of days with characteristic temperatures = same heat loss)
D = d . ( θais - θes ) [K.day]
Number of days of reference heating season d = 210
air exchange rate must always be greater than the hygienic minimum,
• n ≥ 0,5 for residential and non-residential buildings
Enclosing surface “Ab“ determined by floor spaces of heated floors calculated by outer dimensions
Protected volume “Vb“ determined by building outer dimensions (outlines)
Net energy demand calculation - STN 730540 – 4
106
indoor thermal comfort
heating season
daydegrees
n = lenght of heating season n = 210 days
month
Fig. 3 Determination of degree days
4.2.2. Total net energy demand for heating
Total net energy demand for heating “Qh“ (boiler and all systems have infinite capacity) is given:
Qh = QT + Qv – 0,95 . (Qs +Qi ) = 82,1 . (HT + Hv ) – 0,95 (Qs + Qi ) [kWh]
The transmission heat transfer coefficient “HT“
HT = ∑Uj . Aj + ∆HTM + Hu +Ls [W/K]
∆HTM = ∆U. ∑Aj – enhance transmission heat loss by thermal bridges
Aj – surface of all envelope parts by outer dimensions, approximately in STN
Ls – thermal permeance of floor above grade
∆U = 0,05 W/(m .K) for continuous insulation on outer surface

2
a)
∆U = 0,10 W/(m .K) for brick, panel and sandwich wall, light envelope parts, timber framed parts
2
b)
107
unheated space
heated space
Fig.4 Determination of typical reduction actors
Ls – thermal permeance of floor above grade determinate by an independent calculation by embedding into
the ground and the solution of contacting envelope structures.
Hu = ∑bx . (Uj . Aj ) - heat transfer coefficient to the unheated spaces
with - reduction actors “bx“
bx = 1 - exterior walls, windows, doors, floor above grade, the ceiling above the open subway, roof
bx = 0,8 under-roof floor space (attic), walls between heated space and under-roof space
bx = 0,5 walls or ceilings of unheated space (basement)
bx = 0,35 walls or ceilings tempered space (garage, ...)
walls and openings in unheated space for
bx = 0,7 simple glazing
bx = 0,6 double glazing
insulation duoble glazing Ug ≤ 2,0 W/(m .K)

2
bx = 0,5
108
4.2.3. Average thermal transmittance
The average thermal transmittance "Um" through the heat transfer envelope area "Aj" (building enclosure),
characterizing the heat loss of built-up space of protected volume "Vb"
∑b .U j . A j + ∆U .∑ A j
∑A
HT
∑ Aj
xj 2
Um = = [W/(m . K)]
j
Fig.5 Building envelope area
Building envelope area is the enclosure that surrounding the protected volume of residential floor space
heated from all sides (outer dimensions).
N.P. ≡ unheated space
Vb ≡ volume of heated spaces
Aj ≡ cooled outer
The building envelope surface is building envelope area, and it is calculated from outer dimensions of the
building.
4.2.4. Ventilation heat transfer coefficient, passive solar gains, gains from
appliances and apparatus
ventilation heat transfer coefficient “Hv“
Hv ≅ Vv . ρ . c = Vv . 1,205 . 1010 = 1200 . n . Vm /3600 . 0,8
109
Hv = 0,264 . n . Vb [W/K]
3
with Vb – protected volume (from outer dimensions) [m ]
Vm – air volume of the room, (coeff. 0,8 = recalculation from outer dimensions)
n– average air ventilation rate, (minimum n = 0,5 [1/h] )
average air ventilation rate in terms of natural infiltration
n = 25 200 .
∑ (i LV . l)
[1/h]
Vb
2 0,67
with iLV – air-leakage coefficient [m /(s . Pa )]
l – length of leaks [m]
thermal gains “Qi“
Obtained by internal heat sources “Qi“ ( for reference heating season )
Qi = 24 . 210 . qi . Ab /1000 = 5 . qi . Ab [kWh]
with Ab - specific floor area of heated floors
determined from outer dimensions
Thermal gains for
qi ≤ 4 W/m
2
residential house
qi ≤ 5 W/m
2
apartment building
qi ≤ 6 W/m
2
public building
passive solar gains „Qs“
behind the transparent parts for calculation heating season simplified:
Qs = ∑ Isj . ∑ (F . gw . Anj ) ≅ ∑ Isj . ∑ (0,5 . gw . Anj ) [kWh]
with
2
Anj – transparent part area of opening structure [m ]
F = Fs. Fc . Ff ≅ 0,5 – actors diminishing solar gains (shading, shielding parts, window frames, …)
110
gw – total solar energy transmittance glazing, time-variable value of the normal permeability
gn = 0,85 for simple glazing
gn = 0,75 for double glazing
⇒ gw ≅ 0,9 . gn
2
Isj - Heat gains from solar radiation energy on the surface of 1 m of glazing in the orientation of the cardinal
2
points (in tables) [kWh/m ]
2
Table: Heat gains from solar radiation energy on the surface of 1 m of glazing in the orientation of the
cardinal points.
surface orientation of the energy from sol. rad. notes

cardinal 2
Isj “ in kWh/m
1. away from the beam normal to the
south 320
surface is smaller than the 22.5°
southwest, southeast 260 2. tilt sunroof <30 ° ⇒ as a horizontal
surface
east, west 200
3. shielded facade ⇒ the northern
northeast, northwest 130 orientation
north 100
horizontal 340
Compactness – equals the ratio between the enclosing surface and the protected volume of building.
compactness =
∑ Aj
[1/m]
Vb
specific net energy demand for heating is by STN 730540–4 for total net energy demand
3
- related to 1 m of protected volume “E1“
E1 =
Qh
= 82,1 . Um .
∑ Aj
+ 21,674 . n -
0,95 . (Qs + Qi )
[kWh/m ]
3
Vb Vb Vb
2
- 1 m of specific floor surface heated floors “E2“ determine from outer dimensions
Qh 2
E2 = or E2 = hk,pr . E1 [kWh/m ]
Ab
Note: if the heat generated from internal sources lasted more than 25 W/m2 of internal space assessment of
specific net energy demand is not required!
111
Required standardized value can be determined

3
The "E1, N" [kWh / (m .year)] determined by calculating
for the renovated building E1, N = 30.714. (∑ / Vb) + 15.786

for new buildings E1, N = 25.43. (∑ / Vb) + 10.27
NOTES:
1) Consumption determined by the standards used for mutual comparison of project design of buildings
takes into account the effect of embedding property in the world by heat-air-moisture material properties.
There is no assessment of actual energy consumption in terms of specific embedding of the building
2) Compactness S/V in 1/m determined according to STN 73 0540-4 equals the ratio between the enclosing
2
surface "A", which are conducted heat loss and heat gain) in m and the protected volume of building "Vb" in
3
m.
Intermediate values of S/V is determined by linear interpolation of tabulated values or are calculated
according to STN 73 0540-4
The calculated values are rounded to tenths.
Extensions are evaluated according to criteria established energy requirements for new buildings
The "E1, N" [kWh / (m3.year)] values determined by calculating
for the renovated building E1, N = 30.714. (∑ / Vb) + 15.786
for new buildings E1, N = 25.43. (∑ / Vb) + 10.27
4.3. Thermal balance in winter
Heating in winter, maintains thermal comfort indoors at the required level.
Occurs during heating and intermittent heating - heat supply. If the heating is interrupted for some time,
there is a drop in air temperature and decrease in surface temperature structures ⇒ under cooling
If the thermal state of the environment in a period of time the heating is interrupted within the acceptable
range
⇒ thermal stability θM (t) = θai (t) + θsu ≥ 32 o

C
Process of cooling in structure can happened in two ways
112
A/
Fig.6 Unevenly cooling of – envelope part
B/
Fig.7 evenly cooling of – separation part
When assessing the thermal stability of buildings selected characteristics are audited - critical rooms in
terms of cooling (with the highest value "U") to be evaluated for thermal stability. Evaluated room will be
considered thermally stable if, during the cooling of the room at a time "t" (usually t = 8 hours = 28800
seconds) resulting decrease room temperature "∆ θ v" the
∆θv = θi - θv(t) = θv(t=0) - θv(t) ≤ θvN (t= 28800)

o
[ C]
θi = θv(t=0) = 20 C
o
with
113
θi – calculation air temperature at the cooling of beginning
t“ – duration of heating interruption ( cooling of duration ) of room
θ ai (t ) − θ e θ (t ) − θ e o
θv(t) = θai(t) – 650 . V . = θai(t) –0,1806 . n. Vm . ai
∑R ∑R
[ C]
Aj Aj
sij sij
θv(t) - final indoor air temperature of the cooling time “t“

o
with [ C]
( eventually at the end of heating interruption )
3
V = n . Vm /3600 volumetric air-flow into the room (inflow) [ m /s]
∑. Aj / Rsij - sum of the surfaces of the room structures and indoor thermal surface film resistance
θe - calculation air temperature outdoors, during the cooling of as a constant
o
[ C]
3
Vm - air volume in the room [m ]
(heated volume indoors – protected volume)
Vm = 0,75 . Vb for new residential houses
Vm = 0,85 . Vb for renewed buildings in original condition
Vm = 0,80 . Vb for the others
Indoor air temperature “θai (t)“ in the room in time „t“
θai(t) = θe - ( θai(t=0) - θe ) / exp ( Φ . t / W )
With heat loss of the room [kW]
θi − θe
Φ = ( HT+Hv ) .
1000
HT - transmission heat transfer coefficient [ W/K ]

Hv = 0,33 . n . Vm = 0,264. n. Vb - ventilation heat transfer coefficient
θi, θe - indoor and outdoor calculation air temperature [ C]
o
n - ventilation rate [1/h]

W - accumulated heat in structures that enclosing the room [ kWh ]
114
∑c . ρ k , j . d k , j . θ k , jm
n
∑A
m k, j
j =1
W= k . [ kWh ]
k =1 3,6 . 10 6
2
with Ak - area of ´”k“ part [m ]
ck,j - specific thermal capacity of “j” layer in “k” part [ J/kg.K ]
ρk,j – density of “j” layer in “k” part
3
[ kg/m ]
dk,j – thickness of “j” layer in “k” part [m]
θk,jm – main temperature in of “j” layer in “k” part
o
[ C]
4.4. Thermal balance in summer

Summer climatic conditions
A specification of summer ⇒ energy source SUN (excess energy)

⇒ energy controlled atmospheric ratios and orientation of the surface structure
Overheating of the interior depends on the
a. outdoor weathering
b. the heat-air-moisture at building envelope level
c. orientation of buildings to the cardinal
a. Outdoor weathering
Increasing air temperatures is caused by solar radiation - the intensity of global solar radiation
2
Ig = IP + ID [ W.m ]
The surfaces of various building envelope absorb solar energy and due to the orientation ⇒
coefficient of absorption of solar radiation “α“
Ig absorption is influenced by air flow around a surface and air humidity and moisture in material.
Complex effect of external influences can be expressed approximately
α . Ig ϑo
Sol-air temperature θes = θae + -
he he
b. Building overheating analysis
Building overheating depends on heat-air-moisture performances at building envelope level
♦ Thermal storage
♦ Thermal inertia
115
roof
temperature
amplitude window
envelope
Fig.8 Thermal gains in summer
Transparent parts – “1“
Overheating occurs immediately, as the glazing transmits short-wave solar radiation
Opaque parts – “2“, “3“
overheating does not take place immediately, but is time-shifted (ψ) and energy from sunlight is cushioning
the thermal inertia (ν). The intensity of overheating being different depending on the orientation of surfaces -
"2" and "3"
The energy passing through the structure (overheating) in the room "QiT" is expressed
Asi = Av / ν ⇒ QiT = hi . Asi

2
[ W/m ]
Av - Temperature (outdoors) damping amplitude [ K ]

Av - is given by vector summing of temperature amplitudes
Ae = air temperature outdoors

Ag = global solar radiation
116
Fig. 9 Vector summing of temperature amplitude
Av = Ae2 + Ag2 + 2. Ae . Ag . cos α
for T.O. “A“ Ae = 6,7 K
for T.O. “B“ Ae = 7,7 K
thermal balance of room in summer
In order to not disturb the thermal comfort in summer due to overheating of the internal environment without
air conditioning is determined by evaluating the parameter
⇒ maximum air temperature rise of the day in room ∆θai“
∆θai = θai,max - θai,min
1. assumption θai,max = θsu,priem = 51/2 = 25,5

o
C
2. assumption θai,min = θae,priem
⇒ for T.O. “A“ θa e,priem = 20,5 C

o
⇒ for T.O. “B“ θa e,priem = 18,2 C

o
maximal allowed – standard values “∆θai,max,N“ for residential buildings are
for T.O. „A“ ∆θai,max,N = 25,5 – 20,5 = 5 K
for T.O. „B“ ∆θai,max,N = 25,5 – 18,2 = 7,3 K
2
for other buildings with boiler to 25 W/m
117
for T.O. „A“ ∆θai,max,N = 7, 5 K
for T.O. „B“ ∆θai,max,N = 9,8 K
The procedure to calculate the maximum temperature rise in the room
∆θai,max,N = 24 . [1 – exp (-Q/W)] [K]
with Q - constant heat gain of the room [ kWh/day ]
Q = Qs + Q i + Qe – Qv
Qs – passive solar gain of rooms by orientation of windows and shieldings
Qsj = Isj. A. F. gw [ kWh/day ]
Aj - net transparent area for “j” orientation
F = F s. F c . F f –
factors reducing solar gains ( approximately F ≅ 0,5 ), ( shading, shielding parts, window frames, …)
gw - total solar energy transmittance of glazing, time-variable value (monthly averages for all impact angles
of radiation correction Fw ≅ 0.9)
normal permeability gn = 0,85 for simple glazing
gn = 0,75 for double glazing
⇒ gw ≅ 0,9 . gn
Isj - available energy of sunlight, depending on orientation and temperature

2
in the summer – table value [ kWh/(m . day) ]
Qi - internal gains
Qi = 0,024 .qi .A [ kWh/day ]
2
A - room floor area (inside dimension) [m ]
qi ≤ 4 W/m
2
thermal gains houses
qi ≤ 5 W/m
2
apartment buildings
qi ≤ 6 W/m
2
public buildings
118
Qe - thermal gains trough the opaque parts with the orientation
Qe = ∑0,012 . Aj . Avj . Uj [ kWh/ day ]
2
Aj - surface of “j“ envelope part ( by inside dimensions ) [m ]
Avj – the resulting amplitude of ambient temperature according to orientation

and the temperature - tabulated value [K]
2
Uj - thermal transmittance “j“ envelope part [ W/(m . K) ]
Qv - energy exhausted from the room by ventilation
Qv = 3,61 . 10 . n . Vm. t. (θai - θae,m)

-4
[ kWh/ day ]
n - air exchange rate [ 1/ h ]
for opened windows at one side n = 0,5 ÷3,0
for opened windows at two sides n = 2,0 ÷7,0

3
Vm - air volume in the room ( of inside dimensions ) [m ]
t - time in hours – if: θai > θae,m
recommended t ≥ 8 hours ( mainly at night )
θai - θae,m < 4 K approximately t = 8 hours (during the day)
W - accumulated heat in structures that enclosing the room

– With heat accumulation for internal structures is considered only in half
thickness of the structure and only the layer of insulation, max. in depth 10 cm.
∑c . ρ k , j . d k , j . θ k , jm
n
∑A
m k, j
j =1
W= k . [ kWh ]
k =1 3,6 . 10 6
2
with Ak - area of ´”k“ part [m ]
ck,j - specific thermal capacity of “j” layer in “k” part [ J/kg.K ]
ρk,j – density of “j” layer in “k” part

3
[ kg/m ]
dk,j – thickness of “j” layer in “k” part [m]
θk,jm – main temperature in of “j” layer in “k” part [ °C ]
119
FACTORS AFFECTING THERMAL STABILITY IN THE SUMMER
At the design stage to decide on the thermal stability of the interior in summer.
Overheating indoors affects the architectural, design and layout solutions of the building. The factors
affecting internal comfort:
a. The orientation of the building - the façade with the most windows oriented to the cardinal, with
smaller values of the "IG" (S, S, SZ). Contrast, the largest heat gains are "JZ", "J", "Z", "N".
b. Adjustments to the outer surfaces of packaging design - absorption of solar radiation is affected by
properties of substances on the external surfaces of the packaging structure (texture, color, tend to the
impact of solar radiation, ...), airflow
- Absorption of solar radiation - α = 0.89 concrete, limestone. plaster α = 0.93,
- Asphalt. cardboard α = 0.93, oxide. sheet α = 0.83, deceit. steel surface (Al), α = 0.20,
- Water, ice α = 0.92, clear of buildings. Glass α = 0.11 to 0.2, ....
c. breakdown of the outer surface of the packaging design - smooth surface = higher airflow, creating
a "corridor" of flow (vertical) air.
d. Optimizing the ratio of glazed and opaque packaging structures - windows minimal accumulation
ability, glazing transmits short-wave solar radiation than ⇒ the greenhouse effect.
e. Screening of the glazed structure - shielding elements can form different shielding devices (blinds,
curtains, ...), but also its own structure (awning, balcony, cornice, ...). The highest efficiency ⇒ mounted
outside.
f. Using special glasses - reflective, absorptive, photogram, ...
g. Ventilation - The easiest system (increasing the air flow around the body = heat transfer increases
the surface!). Avoid drafts!
h.
2
Solar radiation intensity [ kWh/(m .day) ]
Orientation Thermal region A Thermal region B
north 1,737 1,711
east, west 3,030 2,779
south 2,792 2,603
horizontal surface 5,579 5,125
southeast, southwest 3,089 2,691
northeast, northwest 2,344 2,245
120
surface orientation to the energy from solar. rad. notes

cardinal 2
„Isj “ v kWh/m
1. away from the beam normal to the
south 320
surface is smaller than the 22.5°
southwest, southeast 260 2. tilt sunroof <30 ° ⇒ as a horizontal
surface
3. shielded facade ⇒ the northern
east, west 200
northeast, northwest 130 orientation
north 100
horizontal 340
Ab
Definitions
Building envelope area is the enclosure that surrounding the protected volume
of residential floor space heated from all sides
(determined from external dimensions of the building).
Compactness - equals the ratio between the enclosing surface and the
protected volume of building.
The limit value is a criterion that at any given time in the company and the
territory is considered borderline between satisfactory and unsatisfactory
condition. The choice is always a compromise.
121
? 1. Evaluation of structures in terms of gross and net energy demand for heating -
the basic principles of approach to the evaluation in design process (so-called
envelope method)
2. Describe the basic physical factors affecting the thermal comfort of indoor
environment in winter with intermittent heating?
3. How do you determine the thermal stability of the internal environment of the
climate during the summer?
4. Explain the basic criteria for evaluation of structures in terms of heat-air-

moisture performance.
Σ
Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to introduce students to the issue of continuing the
thermal transient response. In the previous section are described some of the
principles of design of structures in terms of transient thermal conditions. Chapter
includes a description of the calculation of gross energy demand for heating. This is a
brief overview of the calculation, given that this issue during his studies at Faculty of
Civil Engineering, particularly in the field of building construction will be paid attention
to many subjects. The conclusion of this chapter is basic conditions that are imposed
on the building design in terms of heat-air-moisture performance in the evaluation of
net energy demand for heating buildings.
Continuation of this issue and its conclusion, the assessment shows the internal
comfort conditions; evaluate the thermal stability of confined spaces, depending on
physical factors in the summer and winter climate period. Given that many areas do
not accumulate sufficient internal environment, it is necessary to address issues of
overheating due attention to design and carry out construction works so that we avoid
this unpleasant phenomenon. A similar situation is in winter when there is a disrupted
heating and thermal stability and inertia of building envelope is small.
122
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Book · December 2012

Dušan Katunský Marek Zozulák

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Architecture in Extreme Environment View project

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prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc.

Moderné vzdelávanie pre vedomostnú spoločnosť/

prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc.

Táto publikácia vznikla za finančnej podpory z Európskeho sociálneho fondu v rámci

Prioritná os 1 Reforma vzdelávania a odbornej prípravy

Autor: prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc.

Rukopis neprešiel/prešiel jazykovou úpravou.

Názov: Building physics, (CD)

2.3.4.1 Thermal transmittance of the floor above grade 68

1. Introduction to Building Physics, steady state temperature, calculation of

List of symbols and abbreviations

∆ θsi The safety margin K

θse outer surface temperature °C

µ diffusion resistance factor 1

c specific heat capacity J/(kg.K)

x, y, z spatial coordinates of the points examined m

1.1 Basic physical factors

1.1.1 Criterions for assessment

As criteria are also concepts that have the following characteristics:

1.1.2 Physical units

Derived units are those which are:

A. in the title only basic units

• ohm (electrical resistance) : Ω / m .kg.s .A

t .. Celsius temperature (θ,υ)

Fig. 1. View the different scales of temperature - a comparison

0° C melting point of ice, or 23°F

100°C boiling point of water, or 212°F

Fig. 2 The pressures and their comparison

kelvin – a unit of thermodynamic temperature, is 273.16 - the part of the thermodynamic

1.1.3 Conversion of units – multiples and submultiples

1.1.4 Factors affecting the thermal properties of building materials

Thermal conductivity „λ“ is an essential feature of thermal matter.

for air λ ≅ 0,028 W/(m.K) in pore size cca 0,1 mm

λ ≅ 0,071 W/(m.K) in pore size cca 2,0 mm

2. moisture agents for water λ ≅ 0,58 W/(m.K)

for ice λ ≅ 2,3 W/(m.K)

3. temperature of the substance with increasing temperature increases the value of λ

5. effect of chemical composition of the substance inorganic substances, in general, lead to

values "λ" as alkaline substances (limestone, sandstone, ...)

♦ for the fixed part and a confidence level

♦ appropriate reasonable expected service life under normal conditions

a. design-calculated value of thermal values - values of thermal properties of building material

1.2 Development of the Department of Building Thermal Engineering

Objective – to ensure proper heat and humidity inside the climate-comfort.

evaluation of steady-state temperature

II. stage of development

evaluation of thermal transient state

III. stage of development

Evaluation of thermal stability of buildings (winter - cooling, summer - overheating)

IV. stage of development

Since 1980 - The trend of energy saving - thermal insulation of buildings

assessment of savings for heating buildings

Since 2005 - Low energy buildings

1.3 Basic models of heat transfer

Fig. 4 Dissemination of heat conduction - heat flow change

A – area through which heat transfers

Fig. 5 Temperature gradient - change in heat flux and temperature change