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Milk Powder

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Kalyankar S.D., Deshmukh M.A., Chopde S.S., Khedkar C.D., Lule V.K. and Deosarkar S.S. (2016) Milk
Powder. In: Caballero, B., Finglas, P., and Toldrá, F. (eds.) The Encyclopedia of Food and Health vol. 3, pp. 724-
728. Oxford: Academic Press.

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 Author's personal copy
Milk Powder
SD Kalyankar, MA Deshmukh, and SS Chopde, Government College of Dairy Technology, Udgir, India
CD Khedkar, College of Dairy Technology, Pusad, India
VK Lule, National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal, India
SS Deosarkar, College of Dairy Technology, Pusad, India
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Milk is a nutritious food. Raw milk from healthy cows is sup-
posed to contain relatively few bacteria. Drinking of raw milk of
healthy cows reduces the health risk but it is highly perishable.
In history, mankind has made various attempts to preserve and
concentrate milk so as to extend its shelf life. Marco Polo in the
thirteenth century reported that soldiers of Kublai Khan carried
a dried milk on excursions. The belief is that part of the fat was
removed from the milk before drying and dehydration was
accomplished by solar heating. The first usable commercial
production of milk powder (MP) was invented by the Russian
chemist M. Dirchoff in 1832. In 1850, Birdseye concentrated
milk with added sugar until a solid was obtained. In 1855, T. S.
Grimwade filed a patent on process of drying of milk, though
William Newton had patented a vacuum-drying process as early
as 1837. The real beginning of the concentrated and dried dairy
product industry began in the nineteenth century when Nicolas
Appert, a French inventor, described his procedure for concen-
trating and drying milk. In 1909, Nicolas Appert developed
dried milk in tablet form by air-drying of milk solids concen-
trated to a ‘dough’ consistency. During the second half of the
nineteenth century, attempts were made to produce a dried
milk, which involved the addition of other dry products to
concentrated milk. Sugar, cereal products, and sodas, singly or
in combinations, were added.
The MP is a perfect solution to those who lack immediate
access to adequate refrigeration facilities. MP results from
extracting water content out of milk. The main purpose of
converting milk into MP is to convert the liquid perishable
raw material to a product that can be stored without substan-
tial loss of quality, preferably for some years. The MP has
various applications in confectionaries, bakeries, infant
formulas, nutritional foods, etc.
Production of MP has become an increasingly important
segment of the dairy industry, which is expected to grow further
because of its features such as better keeping quality, less storage
space, and lower transportation costs, which result in attractive
economics and convenience during industrial and domestic
formulation of composite foods. Nonfat dry milk serves the
same purpose for milk solids-not-fat that traditionally butter
has done for milk fat. The ultimate aim of the industry is to
obtain dry products, which if recombined with water give little
or no evidence of detrimental change compared to the original
liquid product. Various names have been applied to the same
dry milk product. For example, nonfat dry milk also has been
called skim MP (SMP), dried skim milk, nonfat dry milk solids,
and dehydrated skim milk. Dry whole milk, dry cream, dry
buttermilk, and others frequently are called dried or powdered
whole milk, according to their identities.
724 Encyclopedia of Food and Health
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 724-728
Today, MP is usually made by spray-drying. Alternatively,
the milk can be dried by drum (roller)-drying and freeze-dry-
ing. Freeze-drying preserves almost all the nutrients in milk but
it is very expensive.
China, the United States, and France are the major markets
for dried milk products. New Zealand is the largest exporter of
MP. Even though the United States, Australia, Argentina, and
European regions are the largest producers of MP, they do not
fall in to the category of largest exporters. The United Kingdom,
Germany, the Netherlands, and Brazil are the major importers
of the MP.
Definition and Composition
The internationally agreed definition of the MP is “milk prod-
ucts which can be obtained by the partial removal of water
from milk. The fat and/or protein content of the milk may have
been adjusted, only to comply with the compositional require-
ments in Section 3 of Codex Standard, by the addition and/or
withdrawal of milk constituents in such a way as not to alter
the whey protein to casein ratio of the milk being adjusted.”
The standard specifies that only milk and cream are permit-
ted as raw materials for MP. However, the protein content of
the powder may be decreased by addition of lactose or
increased by addition of skim milk or partially skim milk or
by addition of the retentate or permeate obtained from the
treatment of milk by ultrafiltration (UF). The standard also lists
other permitted additives from within the following groups:
stabilizers, emulsifiers, acidity regulators, anticaking agents,
and antioxidants. No other additives are sanctioned. Standards
are also provided for thresholds for contaminants, production
hygiene, and product labeling. The composition of different
types of powder is depicted in Table 1.
Technology of MP Manufacture
The MPs are dairy products from which the water has been
removed to the greatest extent possible, thus creating hurdles
in the growth of microorganisms. Production of MP consists of
the processing steps like reception, clarification, cooling and
storage, standardization, heat treatment, evaporation, homog-
enization, drying, and packaging as shown in Figure 1.
Raw milk plays an important role in deciding the quality of
MP. Milk should be of high chemical, sensory, and bacterio-
logical quality. At reception point, chemical and bacteriologi-
cal tests are carried out before selection of raw milk. High
microbial load in raw milk adversely affects the solubility of
MP. After reception, the milk may be clarified or treated in
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00465-7
 Author's personal copy
Milk Powder 725

Table 1 Composition of milk powders

Powder form

Skim milk
No. Constituents Whole milk powder Partly skim milk powder powder

1. Milk fat Minimum 26% and less than 42% More than 1.5% and less than 26% 1.5% m/m
m/m m/m
2. Minimum milk protein in milk solids- 34% m/m 34% m/m 34% m/m
not-fata
3. Maximum watera 5% m/m 5% m/m 5% m/m
a
The water content does not include water of crystallization of the lactose; the milk solids-not-fat content includes water of crystallization of the lactose.
Source: Codex Alimentarius Commission (2011). Milk and milk products (2nd ed.). FAO & WHO.

Raw milk concentrated prior to drying; usually, a continuous multiple

Receiving, selection and clarification
Storage of chilled milk
Standardized milk
Heat treatment
Concentrate milk by evaporation
Homogenization
Drying
Packaging of milk powder
Storage
Figure 1 Generalized scheme for production of milk powder.
bactofuge to reduce the contamination by particulate matter
and bacteria. Nowadays, microfiltration technique is used for
manufacture of low-heat powders with very low bacterial
loads. To avoid subsequent growth of psychotropic bacteria,
clarified milk is stored under refrigeration until it ultimately
heat-treated. Raw milk is standardized by adding calculated
amount of skim milk or cream. Standardization of the protein
content involves addition of either permeate from the UF of
skim milk or retentate to reduce protein content, or retentate is
added to increase the protein content.
The heat treatments eliminate all the pathogenic organisms.
It also destroys saprophytic microorganisms, inactivates
lipases, and activates SH groups of b-lactoglobulin, thus
increasing resistance to autoxidation during storage. Milk is
effect evaporator is used. The concentrate is not always homog-
enized, especially in the case of spray-dried powders. Homog-
enization of concentrated milk increases its viscosity, which
leads to coarse droplets during atomization. The concentrated
milk is generally dried by roller-drying or spray-drying method.
There have been attempts to develop completely new dry-
ing methods. However, only spray-drying and roller-drying
methods are used for industrial production of MP. In the case
of roller-drying, concentrated milk comes in direct contact with
the hot drum surface, resulting in some irreversible changes
such as caramelization of lactose, Maillard’s browning, and
denaturation of proteins, which decrease the solubility of the
powder.
Spray-drying in the dairy industry dates back to around
1800, but it was not until 1850 that it became possible in
major scale to dry milk. All processes, however, required addi-
tion of sugar, sulfuric acid, or alkali, so that the end product
could not be considered pure. One of the first spray-drying
patents was applied for in 1901 by the German Mr. Stauf, who
sprayed the milk by nozzles into a chamber with warm air. The
first real breakthrough, however, was in the United States in
1913, when the American Mr. Grey and the Dane Mr. Jensen
developed a nozzle spray dryer and started to produce and sell
drying installations on a commercial scale. The first rotary
atomizer was developed by the German Mr. Kraus in 1912,
but not until 1933, when the Danish engineer Mr. Nyrop filed
his world patent, which was the real breakthrough of atomiza-
tion. The basis for the modern MP industry, formed by these
pioneers, has led to new developments, and the spray-drying
equipment installed nowadays is in most cases very sophisti-
cated and involves a highly technical and technological design.
The feed is pumped from the product feed tank to the atomiz-
ing device, located in the air disperser at the top of the drying
chamber. The drying air is drawn from the atmosphere via a
filter by a supply fan and is passed through the air heater to the
air disperser. The atomized droplets meet the hot air and the
evaporation takes place, while cooling of the air happens
simultaneously. After the spray is dried in the drying chamber,
the majority of the dried product falls to the bottom of the
chamber and enters a pneumatic conveying and cooling sys-
tem. The fines, which are the particles with a small diameter,
will remain in the air, and it is therefore necessary to pass the
air through cyclones to separate them. The fines leave
the cyclone at the bottom via a locking device and enter the

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 Author's personal copy
726 Milk Powder
pneumatic system, too. The air passes from the cyclone to the
atmosphere via the exhaust fan. The two fractions of powder are
collected in the pneumatic system for conveying and cooling
and are passed through a cyclone for separation, after which
they are bagged off. The instrumentation comprises indication
of the temperature of the inlet and outlet air, as well as auto-
matic control of the inlet temperature by altering the steam
pressure and amount of oil or gas to the air heater and automatic
control of the outlet temperature by altering the amount of feed
pumped to the atomizing device. The spray-drying process has
become a highly acceptable method for drying milk. After dry-
ing, it is essential to cool the powder immediately to a temper-
ature below the melting point of fat to maintain better flavor,
body characteristics, and long shelf life.
The production of SMP slightly differs from the whole MP
(WMP). Pasteurization is the most intensive heat treatment by
low-temperature method to achieve the minimal detrimental
heat-induced changes like serum protein denaturation.
Homogenization is omitted and the milk can be concentrated
to higher solid contents. Sometimes, vitamin A preparations
are added by dry mixing. SMP is susceptible to humidity and
heat-induced changes, which can intensify the adverse effect on
the powder quality; therefore, it must be promptly cooled.
Powder should be packed in suitable containers that protect
it from moisture, air, light, etc. Common wrappings are paper,
multilayer boxes or bags with a polyethylene layer inside,
metal barrels with polyethylene bags inside, or tins covered
with aluminum foil at the contact surface. When planning the
quantity of wrapping material, it is necessary to consider the
bulk density of the product, because it is highly affected by
processing parameters and techniques. When the product is
intended for long storage, it is packaged in an atmosphere of
inert gas, mostly nitrogen, or in a partial vacuum (4.0–5.3 KPa)
to avoid oxidative changes of fat and other components. Prop-
erly produced and packed milk power, with low oxygen con-
tent, is stored at ambient temperature.
Instantization
Instant MP has better reconstitution properties than other MPs.
The instantization process patented by Peebles significantly
improved the quality and economical aspects of the drying
technology. The principal purpose of instantizing is to improve
the rate and completeness of reconstitutability of MP. The aim
of spray-drying process is to produce particles with a big sur-
face/mass ratio. The reconstitution of small particles of powder
in water is, however, difficult and requires intensive mixing for
their dispersion. One of the major objectives of new innova-
tions in the area of spray- and fluid bed-drying is to produce
instant powder by effecting agglomeration. Agglomeration
provides the structure of porous aggregates, which disperse
readily and quickly without vigorous agitation to produce
stable reconstituted milk. The properties of dried products
improved positively by the instantizing process include wetta-
bility, penetrability, sinkability, dispersibility, and dissolvabil-
ity. The process permits a better equilibrium among these
variables. An effective agglomeration is achieved by either
rewet or straight-through methods: the rewet process, where
the instantization is carried out after the powder is obtained in
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 724-728
dry form, and the ‘straight-through’ process, where instantiza-
tion is accomplished during drying.
Dry MP is the starting material for the rewetting procedure.
The powder is dispersed in the wetting chamber and gains a
water content of 5–10%, causing powder particle agglomera-
tion. The agglomerated product is transferred to the vibrating
fluid bed dryer and cooler, where it is redried in a hot air
stream at 90–120  C and immediately cooled to approximately
10  C. The final product from the fluid bed dryer has a water
content <4% (2–4%). Hot air, blown upward through the fine
perforated plate of the fluid bed dryer, ‘fluidizes’ the powder
and carries the smallest powder particles or fines to the
cyclone, where separation takes place. The air is discharged
into the atmosphere after heat and solids have been recovered
and the fines are returned to the start of the process. Instantiza-
tion process is complicated in the case of WMP as the surface of
particles is covered with milk fat layer. Free fat forms a hydro-
phobic layer on the particle surfaces, impregnating them and
decreasing their water-binding capability. In order to prevent
this and improve the recombination properties, powder parti-
cles are lecithinated by adding lecithin mixed with butter oil
during instantization. In this process, the powder is dried in
two stages and the fines are recirculated to the wet zone. The
lecithinated powder should be cooled and packed in a suitable
material to protect the agglomerates from breaking down.
Properties of MP
The important properties of MP are particle size, shape and
surface density, flowability, dissolution, insolubility, and whey
protein nitrogen (WPN) index. These properties decide the
quality and the suitability of MP in specific applications.
Particle Size
Particle size is an important physical property of MP and can
relate to its appearance, reconstitution, and flow characteris-
tics. Particle size in MP can affect powder reconstitution prop-
erties. Difference in particle size can lead to stratification of the
powder with the higher solids concentrated at the top, which
will affect reconstitution of the dry product. Wettability and
dispersibility of MP can also be influenced by particle size.
Dispersibility decreases as percentage of fine particles below
90 mm increases. Flowability also depends on particle size and
shape. Large particles tend to flow more easily than smaller
particles. Shape and size of the particles will affect the closeness
of the particle pack, which in turn will affect the powder bulk
density. The particle of MP generally consists of a continuous
mass of amorphous lactose and other low-molar-mass compo-
nents in which fat globules, casein micelles, and serum pro-
teins are embedded. The particles also contain vacuoles of
occluded air where particle surfaces are not in contact. The
surface of spray-dried particles not only is usually smooth but
also may be wrinkled. Conditions such as higher inlet air
temperature and larger temperature differences between the
hot air and powder particles may contribute to wrinkles. The
presence of particles of different morphology in the same sam-
ple can be attributed to the different drying conditions to which
the individual particles were exposed. Particle size can be
 Author's personal copy
influenced by the milk characteristics, processing conditions,
and the type of equipment used in the drying process. Atomiza-
tion parameters influence product shape and size distribution of
powder particles making it possible to control powder particle
size. A spray-dried particle using centrifugal atomization will
give a larger particle than the pressure nozzle atomization.
Spray-dried powder particles usually are spherical with diame-
ters in the range of 10–250 mm. Rapid dispersion requires a
particle size of approximately 150–200 mm diameter. The parti-
cles in agglomerated MP are larger and irregular in shape and
contain very few separate small particles. Agglomeration causes
an increase in the amount of air incorporated between the
powder particles. The air is replaced by water during reconstitu-
tion. Hence, the agglomerates are readily dispersed and dissolve
quickly.
Density
Bulk density is a very complex product property for MP and is
of great importance for economical and functional reasons.
High bulk density is desirable for reducing shipping and pack-
aging costs. On the other hand, low bulk density, as seen in
agglomerated products, influences other powder properties
such as flowability and instant characteristics. Bulk density is
the weight of a volume unit of powder and is usually expressed
in g/cm3, kg/m3, or g/100 ml. Bulk density is usually deter-
mined by measuring the volume of 100 g of powder in a
250 ml graduated cylinder after exposure to compaction by
standardized tapping. The bulk density of nonfat dry milk
has a wide range, from 0.18 to 1.25 g ml 1. Regular spray-
dried nonfat dry milk is approximately 0.50–0.60 g ml 1,
while roller-dried nonfat dry milk is 0.30–0.50 g ml 1. The
bulk density of the final powder is a result of particle density
(occluded air and density of the solids) and the interstitial air.
Bulk density can be influenced by many different factors,
which include density of the solids, amount of air entrapped
in the particles (occluded air) or the particle density, and
amount of interstitial air (air between the particles). Occluded
air is one of the most important factors for controlling bulk
density.
Flowability
Flowability is the ability of a powder to flow freely without
forming lumps or aggregates. It can be measured as the time
necessary for a given volume of powder to leave a rotary drum.
Flowability depends upon particle size and shape, density, and
electrical charge. Larger particles flow more easily than smaller
particles with a diameter of <90 mm. Flowability can consider-
ably be improved by adding some inert very fine powders such
as SiO2, Na–Al–silicate, or Ca3 (PO4)2. Such additions are
applied, for instance, in MP for coffee machines.
Dissolution
When dissolving MP in water, it is dispersed, implying that the
powder particles will become fully wetted, which may take
some time. Subsequently, the soluble components dissolve,
and the colloidal particles (fat globules and casein micelles)
become dispersed in the solution. This will take several
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 724-728
Milk Powder 727
minutes. Generally, a small part does not dissolve. After a
solution is obtained, it may take about a day before its com-
position, especially the salt distribution, has more or less
reached equilibrium. This process may be accelerated by heat-
ing the reconstituted milk to 50–60  C and then cooling it
again.
Insolubility
Insolubility can be estimated in various ways. The powder is
dissolved in water under standardized conditions (concentra-
tion, temperature, and duration and intensity of stirring) and
centrifuged. The supernatant is removed and replaced by water
and is centrifuged again before reading the volume of insoluble
residue. The result is called the insolubility index. In WMP,
aggregates of coagulated protein with entrapped milk fat glob-
ules may float to the surface; the quantity involved usually is
more than the sediment. Hence, the insolubility found closely
depends on the method used.
Whey Protein Nitrogen Index
It measures the amount of heat treatment the powder has
received during processing. Whey proteins are denatured or
altered by heat. The test measures the amount of undenatured
whey protein present in the powder. After application of low
centrifugal forces under specified conditions, a high value
indicates that the whey proteins are more soluble and product
is therefore more soluble. WPN is expressed as milligram (mg)
undenatured WPN per gram of nonfat MP with a moisture
content of 3.16%. Casein and the heat-denatured whey
proteins are removed by filtration after precipitation of
the reconstituted milk with NaCl. The filtrate contains all
undenatured whey proteins. By adding HCl, the proteins dena-
ture and develop turbidity depending on the concentration of
the whey proteins. The turbidity is measured as percentage
transmittance, in a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of
420 nm. By using the standard curve, this reading can be con-
verted directly into milligram undenatured whey protein N/g
powder (WPN).
Sensory Evaluation of MP
In order to determine the temperature sensitivity of a reaction,
a Q10 model is often employed. This describes how much
faster a reaction will go if the product is held at temperatures
differing by 10  C; Q10 models can be used to predict quality
and nutrient loss, as well as shelf life of a product.
MPs, particularly SMP, are manufactured in large quantities
in the flush season and subsequently used in lean period in
reconstituted form to maintain milk supply. It has become an
important export commodity. MP has been graded on the basis
of bacterial, physicochemical, reconstitutional (i.e., when the
powder is dispensed in water to prepare reconstituted milk),
and organoleptic properties. These properties are basic ele-
ments of quality specifications. During drying, care should be
taken to preserve the natural properties of the original raw
milk. Evaluation of MP on the basis of its sensory characteris-
tics plays an important role toward its consumer acceptance.
 Author's personal copy
728 Milk Powder
Desirable Attributes and Defects in MPs
Whole Milk Powder
Upon rehydration, WMP should have clean, rich, sweet, fresh,
and pleasant flavor. Sensory defects may be due to use of either
poor quality ingredients, manufacturing conditions, drying
method, or abusive storage conditions. The development of
storage-based defects in WMP is most difficult to control. This
relatively rapid onset of off-flavors in WMP is primarily a func-
tion of the generation of lipid oxidation products. The product
should be free-flowing to some extent with absence of lumps.
The presence of hard lumps is a serious defect in WMP. The color
of WMP depending on the source of fat varies from white to deep
yellow. Tactile properties of WMP vary with the method of
manufacture, degree of concentration, particle size, and porosity
after drying. Spray-dried WMP may be extremely fine and uni-
form throughout, but two powder defects that may occasionally
be noted are lumpy and caked. Some common quality defects
encountered in WMP and their characteristics are the following.
Flavor defects
1. Stale: This is a characteristic age defect associated with
protein. This defect closely resembles the musty flavor com-
mon to casein. This defect is observed in MP after storage
for 9 months. When the defect is intense, it may be accom-
panied by a darkening of the product.
2. Rancid: Rancid WMP has bitter, soapy, unclean taste, which
is persistent after the sample has been chewed up and spit
out. The reason may be insufficient temperature used for
fore warming and the lipase enzyme that remains active and
causes rancidity.
3. Oxidized/tallow: It is the most troublesome flavor defect of
WMP. Many factors are responsible for the development of
this defect such as temperature, light, moisture, acidity,
metallic salts, condensation, and type of packaging.
4. Scorched: This flavor is produced in products that have
been subjected to excessive heat during the drying stage
or have been permitted to remain in the drying chamber
for too long period of time. It is usually accompanied by a
large number of scorched specks in the product and some-
times by a dark discoloration typical of overheating.
Body and texture defects
1. Lumpy: A lumpy powder lacks homogeneity. This defect is
found frequently in the spray process product. Lump for-
mation is due to insufficient drying, dripping from spray
nozzles, or exposure to moisture-laden air. Hard lumps
ranging in size from a grain of wheat upward may be
interspersed throughout.
2. Caked: Usually, this defect is not observed in WMP, but
when it does occur, the product loses its powdery consis-
tency and becomes a rock-like solid. When the mass is
broken up, it remains in chunks, thus failing to return to
the original powder state. This defect is serious since such
milk solids have lost their sales value for human
consumption.
Color defects
Normal dry whole milk is light yellow in color but varies
reasonably with the color in the fat from a creamy white to a
deep yellow:
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 724-728
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1. Browned or darkened: When the defect is present, the normal
creamy color has been replaced by a distinct brown. The
defect is usually associated with an old, stale flavor.
2. Scorched: Discoloration due to browning of the milk solids
is usually associated with the roller process. The powder
may vary from light to dark brown.
3. Lack of uniformity: This defect may be due to either partial
discoloration after packaging or partial scorching during
the manufacturing.
Skim Milk Powder
The flavor of good quality SMP, when reconstituted, should be
similar to that of fresh skim milk, that is, normally a flat taste
because of practically no fat in it. Otherwise, the flavor is clean,
sweet, and pleasant and may have a slightly cooked or heated
perception. The common flavor defects of SMP are stale/stor-
age, neutralizer, oxidized, and scorched. Instant SMP is usually
quite granular, the product pours readily somewhat like that of
corn meal. SMP prepared by spray-drying process is very fine,
light, and dusty and has flow characteristics similar to the flow
of corn meal. Scorched off-flavor is developed due to exposure
of MP to abnormally high heat during processing. Cake for-
mation is the most frequently occurring defect related to tex-
ture of SMP. Sometimes, the defect is so serious that the
product looks as hard as a rock. The color of SMP should be
uniform and showing complete absence of foreign specks,
scorched particles, and browning. The product should have a
creamy white or light yellow color.
See also: Condensed Milk; Dairy Products: Dietary and Medical
Importance; Protein: Food Sources.
Further Reading
Caric M (1994) Concentrated and dried dairy products. New York: VCH Publishers.
Carunchia Whetstine ME and Drake MA (2007) The flavor and flavor stability of skim
and whole milk powders. In: Cadwallader KR, Drake MA, and McGorrin R (eds.)
Flavor chemistry of dairy products, pp. 217–252. Washington, DC: ACS Publishing.
Codex Alimentarius Commission (2011) Milk and milk products, 2nd ed. FAO & WHO,
Rome, Italy.
Hall CW and Hedrick TI (1971) Drying milk and milk products, 2nd ed. Westport, CT:
AVI Publishers, 338 pp.
Hunziker OF (1947) Condensed milk and milk powder, 7th ed. La Grange, IL: OF Hunziker.
Kieseker FG (1982) Recombined evaporated milk. In: Proceedings of the of seminar an
recombined milk and milk products, pp. 79–88. Brussels: IDF.
Nieuwenhuijse JA and vanBoekel MAJS (2003) Protein stability in sterilised milk and
milk products. In: Fox PF and McSweeney PLH (eds.) Advanced dairy chemistry.
Proteins, vol. 1, pp. 947–974. New York: Kluwer 3rd ed., Part B.
Patton S (1952) Studies of heated milk. 4. Observations on browning. Journal of Dairy
Science 35: 1053.
Singh H and Newstead B (1992) Aspects of proteins in milk powder manufacture.
In: Fox PF (ed.) Advanced dairy chemistry, pp. 735–765. New York: Elsevier
Applied Science.
Relevant Websites
www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3396e/i3396e.pdf.
http://lait.dairy-journal.org/articles/lait/abs/2004/03/L03998/L03998.html.
www.nutritiondata.self.com/facts/dairy-and-egg-products/84/2.
www.usdec.files.cms-plus.com/dgn/abstractpdfs/nutrcompofsmp.pdf.