Review Article

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-019-0235-0

Self-healing soft electronics

Jiheong Kang, Jeffrey B.-H. Tok    and Zhenan Bao   *

Biological systems have the powerful ability to self-heal. Human skin can, for example, autonomously heal from wounds of vari-
ous degrees, allowing it to restore its mechanical and electrical properties. In contrast, human-made electronic devices degrade
over time due to fatigue, corrosion or damage incurred during operation, leading to device failure. Self-healing chemistry has
emerged in recent years as a promising method for constructing soft electronic materials that are mechanically robust and can
self-repair. Here we review the development of self-healing electronic materials and examine how such materials can be used
to fabricate self-healing electronic devices. We explore the potential new functionalities of self-healing electronic systems
that would not typically be possible with conventional electronic systems and discuss the current challenges in delivering self-
healing soft electronics for practical applications.

E
lectronic devices, which were once heavy and cumbersome, are
now compact and mobile. Flexible and stretchable electronic
devices are now also emerging1–3, which have potential applica-
tions in health monitoring, artificial skins and implantable bioelec-
tronics, and could allow electronics to be seamlessly integrated into
our everyday lives1–8. These devices have been developed through
various design approaches, including strain engineering6, ultrathin
nanomembranes9,10 and intrinsically soft polymers11,12. However,
the approaches are not resistant to unexpected mechanical damage
caused by repeated wear and tear and accidental cutting or scratch-
ing, which are the main causes of device failure6,10. As a result,
researchers have looked to create electronic devices that can self-
heal, and thus, like human skin1, can repair unexpected internal or
external damages and recover critical functions.
In recent years, considerable progress has been made in the
development of self-healable electronic materials13–16, which has led
to their successful integration into functional electronic devices,
including sensors, electronic skins, solar cells, field-effect transis-
tors, dielectric actuators and energy devices. In this Review Article,
we examine the advances in self-healable electronic devices that
will deliver the next generation of soft electronics (Fig. 1). We first
explore the different approaches for creating self-healable electronic
materials. We then consider the use of self-healable electronic
materials in the fabrication of functional components (insulators,
conductors and semiconductors), devices (sensors, transistors and
energy devices) and integrated systems. Finally, we discuss the chal-
lenges that exist in developing practical applications based on self-
healing soft electronics.
Artificial self-healing systems
Inspired by the autonomous wound-healing ability of human skin,
artificial self-healing systems were initially designed to mimic these
properties using clever polymer chemistry17–20. Self-healing poly-
mers can be broadly classified into two types: extrinsic and intrin-
sic21. Extrinsic self-healing occurs when dispersed healing agents
(or reagents) — typically consisting of reactive precursors and
catalysts in a polymer matrix — are released after damage. These
healing agents can then repair the wounded areas through auton-
omous polymerization reactions and the reconstruction of cross-
linked networks (Fig. 2a). Although this approach is highly reliable,
it unfortunately only allows the material to heal a limited number
of times and usually cannot repeat healing at the same locations. In
contrast, intrinsic self-healing materials do not require the addition
of healing reagents and the wounded regions are able to repeatedly
heal (even at ambient conditions in some cases) through the reor-
ganization of the polymer matrix. During this process, the poly-
mer matrix is rebuilt from the regeneration of dynamic covalent or
non-covalent bonds and the entanglement of polymer chains at the
damaged interfaces (Fig. 2b). These intrinsically healable materi-
als are usually soft (that is, they have a low elastic modulus) and
deformable. As a result, intrinsically self-healable polymer mate-
rials have drawn significant attention in the development of self-
healable soft electronics.
In this section, we focus on progress in the creation of intrinsic
self-healing polymers. Intrinsic self-healing capabilities in poly-
meric systems are based on two important features: the diffusion of
polymer chains and the reformation of broken dynamic bonds. An
intrinsically self-healing polymeric system typically has a low glass
transition temperature, which enhances the movement of poly-
mer chains, and abundant sites for dynamic interactions20, which
could be based on hydrogen bonding22, metal–ligand interaction23,
π–π stacking, hydrophobic interaction24, imine bonding25, disulfide
bonding or boroxine bonding26. The mechanical properties of such
a system can be tuned synthetically in various ways to meet require-
ments for applications. Some self-healing polymer systems can
achieve autonomous healing at room temperature, whereas others
can even heal in water after sustaining mechanical damage.
Despite significant progress in developing self-healing chemis-
try, only a limited number of self-healing polymeric systems have
been employed in electronic applications. This may be due to the
multitude of requirements of such applications (including combin-
ing mechanical and electrical properties, electrical and environ-
mental stability, and scalability) and a lack of understanding of the
necessary design rules. Nonetheless, several research groups have
recently reported strategies towards engineering mechanically
tough elastomers with reliable and repeatable self-healing proper-
ties, and some of these elastomers have shown considerable poten-
tial for building self-healable soft electronic systems27,28.
Mechanisms of self-healing in electronic materials
The self-healing process of electronically active polymeric materials
is due to the dynamic equilibrium of the cross-linking network and
percolation pathways in the polymeric system. The healing rate is
determined by the mobility of the polymer chains, the concentration

Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA. *e-mail: zbao@stanford.edu

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Review Article
Self-healable
electronic components
Conductor
Semiconductor
Dielectric
Mechanical sensor
Chemical sensor
ECG/EMG sensor
Actuator
Electrical function
Display
Energy device
Fig. 1 | Self-healing soft electronics. Schematic of a multifunctional self-healable soft electronic device on human skin. Self-healability of electronic
systems uniquely enables the fabrication of self-repairable electronics and modular and reconfigurable electronics. Self-repairable electronics can
autonomously restore their electrical and mechanical properties when they are mechanically damaged by scratching, poking, rubbing and tearing.
Modular and reconfigurable electronics allow users to customize their own electronic devices with various two- or three-dimensional shapes and multiple
functionalities by a simple mechanical cut and self-healing process.
of the broken dynamic bonds available and the activation ener-
gies for the exchange of dynamic bonds (Fig. 3a,b). In some cases,
solvent vapour is also needed to activate polymer chains to undergo
rearrangements12. Owing to the low conductivity of polymeric mate-
rials, design strategies for creating self-healing and high-perfor-
mance electronic materials have mainly focused on incorporating
electronically active fillers into a dynamic polymer matrix. We have,
for example, recently shown that the nanostructured conductive
networks based on one-dimensional wires, in contact with a cross-
linked self-healing polymer matrix, can be dynamically rearranged
to allow the recovery of its original percolation paths for electrical
conduction after mechanical damage29 (Fig. 3c). The size and sur-
face properties of the conductive fillers in a polymer matrix may
affect both the kinetics of self-healing and the electrical responses.
It is important to distinguish between mechanically tough self-
healing materials and flowable viscoelastic materials, as highly
flowable viscoelastic materials can be used as the polymer matrix
for self-healable electronics as well. In flowable viscoelastic mate-
rials, the healing is mainly due to the intermixing of the materi-
als at the ‘reconnected interface’, whereas in self-healing materials,
the recovery of broken cross-linking bonds occurs in addition to
inter-mixing. Flowable viscoelastic materials have the drawback of
undergoing essentially permanent plastic deformation, even after a
mechanical force is applied. In particular, even though interfaces
can be reconnected by external forces or intrinsic flowability, these
viscoelastic materials are not able to restore their original proper-
ties. In contrast, combining both strong and weak dynamic bonding
can result in elastic, yet tough self-healing materials.
The property of elasticity can assist in both efficient and autono-
mous self-healing recovery processes. One prominent effect of elas-
ticity on the self-healing process can be observed in leaves, which
can close wounds rapidly with the help of stored elastic stress built
within their underlying structure30. Inspired by leaves, a recent
demonstration of a self-healing polymeric system experimentally
confirmed the importance of elasticity for the self-healing process
by controlling its internal microstructures31. In this regard, mechan-
ically tough self-healing materials will be more suitable for fabricat-
ing robust electronics than highly flowable viscoelastic materials.
The high toughness of human skin and the high interfacial
toughness of tendons and cartilage to bone are all due to the self-
recoverable energy dissipation systems in our body32. Highly
Nature ElectronIcS
Self-repairable electronics Modular and reconfigurable electronics
Electronic modules
Cut Cut
Mechanical damage
2D assembly 3D assembly
Pick
Unexpected
damages Restoration
Durable Self-healing
process
Time
stretchable and tough hydrogel materials, as well as tough interfaces
with diverse surfaces including glass, metals and polymers, were
previously created by employing self-healing hydrated polymer net-
works that dissipate energy33,34. We have also recently demonstrated
a tough self-healing elastomer with dual-strength hydrogen-
bonding sites as cross-links27. Such materials can sustain large applied
strain, even when a notch is intentionally introduced27,28.
Self-healing functionalities in electronic materials
The dynamic cross-linking bonds responsible for self-healing prop-
erties can be optimized to provide additional useful properties to
self-healing materials. In addition, breaking such bonds by mechan-
ical loadings is a mechanism for energy dissipation, which can then
improve both the fracture toughness of the corresponding elasto-
mer and interface toughness with other layers.
A tough, self-healing elastomer is an ideal carrier material for
soft electronics, especially those subjected to significant wear and
tear over time. A carrier material with high toughness is tolerant
to damages or small cracks, and can thus significantly delay crack
propagation. For example, a film with high fracture toughness can
be efficiently sutured on soft animal skin or tissue without ruptur-
ing27. In contrast, commonly used soft substrates for biomedical
applications, such as covalently cross-linked polydimethylsiloxane,
can easily tear around the sutured location due to their intrinsic low
fracture toughness.
Multifunctional electronic systems have numerous interfaces,
such as those between the device and the substrate and those
between layers. The differences in surface chemistry and mechani-
cal properties of each layer can easily result in device failure due to
delamination under strain. If all of the components are based on
similar self-healing polymer networks, they can subsequently be
seamlessly integrated into a single system through the self-bond-
ing (the formation of dynamic bonds at interfaces between layers)
of the self-healing polymer, making the entire system mechani-
cally robust29. Thus, this self-bonding property can be important
for the efficient fabrication of three-dimensional-configured
electronic devices35.
Insulators. Since most polymers are insulating, an application of
self-healing polymers in electronics is as protective coatings, sub-
strates or encapsulation layers. A self-healing polymer derived from
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Nature ElectronIcS
a dynamically reconstructed to recover their original mechanical and
Extrinsic
Reactive self-
healing Liquid healing
precursor
reagent
Microcapsule Microcapsule
Healed area
Catalyst
Damage Polymerized
healing reagent
b indicated that the dynamic nature of a self-healing polymer that is
Dynamic Broken dynamic bonds Healed dynamic bonds
bonds Intrinsic
self-
healing
Damage
Fig. 2 | Artificial self-healing systems. a, Schematic of an extrinsic self-
healing system. Extrinsic self-healing refers to the presence of dispersed
healing agents consisting of reactive fresh precursors and catalysts in a
polymer matrix, which can be released when damage occurs and, thus,
repairing the wounded areas through the spontaneous polymerization
and reconstruction of the cross-linking network by chemical reactions.
b, Schematic of an intrinsic self-healing system. Intrinsic self-healing
materials do not require additional healing reagents. The wounded regions
are able to repeatedly heal autonomously through the reorganization of the
polymer matrix and the regeneration of dynamic covalent or non-covalent
bonds at the damaged interfaces.
commercially available fatty acids and urea was used as the encapsu-
lation layer of wires containing a liquid metal conductive channel35.
After cutting the wires, the current flow could be re-established
and the mechanical properties could be recovered once the severed
edges were physically re-assembled. Self-healing polymers have also
been tested as dielectric layers. However, most of the self-healing
polymers to date are based on hydrophilic hydrogen bonds or
metal–ligand interactions, and they tend to absorb moisture and
become unstable under high electric fields36 (for this reason, they
are rarely used as dielectric layers). Recently, the toughness of self-
healable cross-linked networks has been tuned through suitable
molecular design and rational selection of metal–ligand bonds and
counter ions. This approach also led to the fabrication of materials
with stable dielectric properties without measurable ionic effects,
even at low frequencies37. Furthermore, water-insensitive tough
self-healing polymeric systems were recently demonstrated to be
highly promising as dielectric materials27,38.
Conductors. Conducting materials are essential for the develop-
ment of electronic devices, including sensors, displays, actuators,
circuits and energy storage devices. Therefore, self-healing conduc-
tors have been extensively studied in the past few years. Important
parameters that need to be optimized are conductivity, mechani-
cal strength recovery after mechanical damage and autonomous
self-healing. Mechanical self-healing is achieved when a mechani-
cally damaged cross-linking network (through cutting, tearing or
scratching) is able to efficiently recover its original network, usually
through the reformation of the broken bonds and intermixing of
polymer chains (Fig. 3c). The self-healing efficiency can be deter-
mined from the restoration of properties such as fracture strain and
its corresponding tensile stress. The kinetics of mechanical self-
healing can be readily investigated and tuned by tailoring molecular
structures, controlling microstructures and changing temperature.
In contrast, electrical self-healing has two distinct steps: first, the
conductive pathways can be re-established quickly just by physical
contact between two damaged surfaces (Fig. 3d) and second, they are
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Review Article
electrical properties. To date, most of the existing self-healable con-
ductive materials have focused on the instantaneous recovery of the
conductive pathways on physical contact, which can potentially be
achieved by using a soft conductive material. However, the conduc-
tive material must be rendered ‘dynamic’ to be able to also recover
the original mechanical properties (Fig. 3c,d). Our recent work has
in contact with a conductive network consisting of nanomaterials
can facilitate the recovery of both electrical and mechanical prop-
erties29. Such conductive self-healing composites were prepared by
combining a dynamically cross-linked polymer network with con-
ductive nanofillers (for example, metallic nanoparticles, metallic
nanowires39, carbon nanotubes or graphene). When the nanofiller
was mixed with the self-healing polymer matrix, the conductivity of
the composite was typically quite poor and unstable, limiting their
applications. For practical applications, the conductivity of self-
healing composites needs to be further improved40.
By embedding patterned silver nanowire (AgNW) lines within
a tough self-healing polymer, mechanically tough self-healing con-
ductive lines and patterns can be prepared29. Interestingly, though
AgNW lines that have been cut cannot effectively establish recon-
nection, the dynamic reconstruction of the conductive network is
possible: the dynamic nature of the self-healing polymer matrix can
facilitate the conductive lines to autonomously recover their origi-
nal electrical properties and mechanical properties. For example, a
completely cut conductive line can be again stretched up to 100%
strain while retaining high conductivity, after autonomous self-
healing at room temperature. The phenomenon of reorganization
of the conducting nanostructures after cutting was also observed
for carbon nanotubes (CNTs)29 and silver flakes as the conduc-
tive nanofillers. This implies that stretchable self-healing conduc-
tive (and potentially semiconducting) materials can be made, even
when the nanoelectronic materials cannot self-heal by themselves
mechanically or electrically. It thus significantly broadens the range
of approaches available to create self-healing electronic materials.
An ionic conductor is another emerging functional component
for soft electronic applications41. It has shown considerable promise
in stretchable ionic devices such as actuators, loud speakers42, trans-
parent touch panels43 and ionic skin44. Many ionic conductors, such
as hydrogels containing electrolytes and polymer gels swollen with
ionic liquids, are intrinsically stretchable and transparent. A trans-
parent, stretchable ionic conductor with autonomous self-healing
ability has recently been reported45. This polymeric material is com-
posed of a polar, stretchable polymer chain such as poly(vinylidene
fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) and an ionic liquid. The polymer
chains in the material interact with the ionic liquid through strong
ion–dipole interactions to form a self-healable cross-linked net-
work, which exhibits reasonable ionic conductivity. Furthermore,
this type of material can be used to build touch, pressure and strain
sensors capable of self-healing in aquatic environments46.
Semiconductors. Semiconductors are essential elements for build-
ing diodes and field-effect transistors (FETs). However, making a
semiconducting layer self-healable, while also maintaining good
charge transport, is extremely challenging. In particular, because
the semiconducting layer for most devices is usually very thin (<100
nm), it is difficult to align the damaged areas properly for full heal-
ing. Moreover, polymer semiconductors are usually semicrystalline
and have high glass transition temperatures. These properties result
in essentially ‘frozen’ polymer chains at room temperature. Self-
healing can take place even in thin polymer semiconducting layers
that have hydrogen-bonding moieties. Specifically, nanosized cracks
formed by fatigue in such a polymer semiconducting film have been
found to heal by solvent annealing and thermal annealing, allowing
efficient recovery of its charge carrier mobility and stretchability12.
Review Article
a Self-healing polymer (electronically active polymer)
c Autonomous self-healing process of electronic devices
Mechanically damaged
(1) Diffusion of polymer chains
(2) Reformation of broken dynamic bonds
d
b Self-healing polymer composites
(self-healing polymer + nanomaterials)
Mechanical properties
Nanomaterial
Dynamic movements of nanomaterials
in self-healing polymer matrix
Fig. 3 | Self-healing process of electronic materials. a, Self-healing mechanism of a self-healing polymer (electronically active polymer). b, Self-healing
mechanism of a self-healing polymer composite. Self-healing composites are composed of self-healing polymer and electronically active nanomaterials.
c, Schematic of autonomous self-healing process of mechanically damaged electronic devices. d, The expected changes of mechanical and electrical
properties of soft electronic devices during the self-healing process. Mechanical properties are gradually recovered over time. In contrast, electrical
properties are recovered instantaneously on physical contact between two damaged interfaces and then gradually restored together with the self-healing
of mechanical properties. Panels adapted from: a, ref. 27, Wiley; b, ref. 29, Springer Nature Ltd.
Nanostructured semiconducting polymer networks or nanomate-
rials may follow the same mechanism as conductive nanomaterial
networks, for which the reconstruction of the network is facilitated
by the dynamic nature of a self-healing polymer.
Self-healing functional electronic devices
Self-healing electronic materials can be integrated into functional
electronic and electrochemical devices including sensors, FETs and
energy storage devices.
Sensors. Sensors are widely employed in our daily lives to detect phys-
ical (for example, pressure, strain, light, heat, humidity) or chemical
signals47. Self-healing sensors can potentially increase the lifespan of
such devices for both functional (such as sensing ability) and aesthetic
purposes. Most reported self-healable electronic sensors rely on the
changes of their conductive pathways by external stimuli for their
sensing function. Initial demonstrations of self-healable sensors were
made using a piezo-resistive self-healing composite (usually a mix-
ture of μNi microparticles and a self-healing polymeric material) as
the active material48. This material is both pressure and flexion sen-
sitive due to the change in μNi microparticle spacing when external
mechanical forces are applied (which results in a sizeable electrical
resistance change). It can therefore detect both a hand shake and arm
bending when laminated onto the palm and the elbow, respectively. In
addition to μNi microparticles, carbon particles and graphene can be
also used in pressure and flexion sensors49,50.
A capacitive touch screen was also constructed by laminating two
AgNW-based, self-healable polymer composite layers patterned in
rows and columns51. An active electrode was then coupled with a
neighbouring ground electrode to form a capacitor. Consequently,
capacitance changes occurred when a finger was in contact with the
electrodes. After sustaining mechanical damage, the touch screen
was able to recover its touch sensing function by heating to 80 ºC for
30 s to restore its conductive pathways.
Self-healable temperature sensors can be fabricated by incorporat-
ing ionic liquid into a microfluidic channel embedded in a self-healable
polymer matrix52. Because the ionic conductivity of an ionic liquid
Nature ElectronIcS
Restoring mechanical and electrical properties
(1) Damaged (2′) Physical contact (2) Self-healing
(1) (2) (1) (2′) (2)
Electrical properties
+
Time Time
increases at higher temperature, the changes in the ion conductivity of
the composite film can be used for temperature sensing. This concept
was further expanded to a self-healing near-infrared sensor, which was
fabricated by loading modified carbon nanotubes capable of efficient
photothermal conversion in the ionic liquid. The resultant near-
infrared sensor also exhibited repeatable self-healing properties52.
Humidity and chemical gas sensor devices with self-healing
properties have also been made based on the hybridization of
surface-modified CNTs and hydrophilic self-healing materials53.
When hydrophilic self-healing polymers were used, the compos-
ites showed moisture absorption capacity. As a result, the resistance
of the polymer composites responded to moisture changes in the
environment. A transparent CNT network coated with polyelec-
trolyte multilayers was found to specifically respond to only NH3,
compared with other volatile organic compounds. It also showed
repeatable healability of its sensing performance.
Transistors. Organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) have been
successfully integrated in sensors, memory devices and in the driv-
ing circuits for displays. Nowadays, multiple organic and polymer
semiconductors have exhibited field-effect mobilities exceeding
1 cm2 V–1 s–1, similar to the performance of amorphous silicon thin-
film transistors. Since OFETs are moving towards printable, flex-
ible and even stretchable electronics, they are more susceptible to
mechanical damages such as rubbing and scratching. To realize self-
healable OFETs, three self-healable components need to be devel-
oped concurrently: semiconductors; dielectrics; and source, drain
and gates. Individual bulk components with self-healing ability have
already been developed and their electrical performances are suf-
ficient to be integrated in OFETs. For example, electrically stable,
self-healable dielectric layers have been created by incorporating
metal–ligand bonds as cross-linking sites into a non-polar polymer
matrix37. By choosing suitable counter anions, these layers did not
exhibit double-layer capacitive effects caused by mobile ions, which
resulted in OFETs with hysteresis-free transfer characteristics.
OFETs have also been fabricated from healable semiconductors,
which were created by incorporating moderate hydrogen-bonding
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Nature ElectronIcS
Multifunctional fully self-healable device
Fully self-healable device
Complexity of electronic devices
Mechanical
sensor48
Self-healable active layer
Stretchable conducting wire35
2012 2013
Fig. 4 | Self-healing electronic devices. Recently reported self-healing electronic devices based on publication year and complexity of electronic devices.
Red, self-healable active layer; blue, standalone self-healable electronic devices; purple, multifunctional self-healable stretchable system. Images
reproduced from: left, ref. 48, Springer Nature Ltd; middle left, ref. 59, Wiley; right, ref. 29, Springer Nature Ltd.
moieties in a semiconducting polymer main chain. Nanosized
cracks in damaged devices were healed after solvent vapour and
thermal treatments, leading to the recovery of the transistor mobil-
ity12. Self-healing electrodes based on CNTs and AgNWs have also
been used to make source, drain and gate components29. However, it
is still technically challenging to fabricate fully self-healable OFETs
due to difficulties in the tedious fabrication process and limited
self-healing properties of dielectrics and semiconductors in bulk
or thick films. For OFETs, it is thus more practical to self-heal the
nanosized cracks formed from fatigue.
Energy devices. Energy storage devices are necessary for the opera-
tion of electronic devices. An early example of a self-healable super-
capacitor was fabricated by simply laminating acid-treated CNTs
films onto a self-healing substrate composed of TiO2 nanoflowers
and a self-healing polymer54. A polyvinyl pyrrolidone–H2SO4 gel
was used for both self-healable electrolyte and separator compo-
nents. The as-prepared flexible supercapacitors exhibited good
electrochemical performance with self-healing capability (85.7%
recovery in specific capacitance), even after cutting it for the fifth
time. In another example, a wire-shaped self-healing supercapaci-
tor was built using the same self-healing polymer. The electrode
was prepared by mixing an aligned graphene sheet, AgNWs and a
CNT network in fibres55. Performance was observed to be recov-
ered by 92% on self-healing at room temperature. Another interest-
ing approach based on using magnetic force for the reconnection
and alignment of the broken wires has also been proposed. Here, a
yarn-based supercapacitor was produced by covering a self-healable
polyurethane shell with magnetic microparticles56. Up to approxi-
mately 72% of the specific capacitance could be recovered after four
repeated cutting-and-healing cycles. New conductive inks contain-
ing ferromagnetic particles have also been developed and used to
fabricate magnetically self-healable electrochemical devices57. A
self-healing perovskite solar cell was created through the incorpora-
tion of polyethylene glycol chains in the active layer58. Self-healing
electronic active layers and devices are summarized in Fig. 4.
Self-healing integrated electronic systems
All the devices described above are only partially self-healable, as
only the active material in the device can undergo self-healing.
A fully self-healable flexible sensor device with multicomponents
was only recently reported57. All parts in this chemresistor, including
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Review Article
Stretchable device
Integrated
electronic skin29
Flexible device
Ionic e-skin46
Chemresistor59
54 29
Supercapacitor ECG, EMG sensor
Supercapacitor56
Electrochemical device57 Strain sensor27 LEC array29
Touch sensor51
52
Temperature sensor
Actuator45
Actuating layer36 Semiconducting layer12
Ionic conductor45
Perovskite solar cell Dielectric layer37
layer58
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Publication year
substrate, electrode and active layer, were self-healing and the
device was able to sense pressure and strain, as well as detecting
volatile organic compounds59.
Another example of a fully self-healing electronic system is a mul-
tifunctional integrated electronic skin using a mechanically tough
and autonomously self-healable semitransparent electrode29 (Fig. 5a).
This electronic skin was constructed with an electrocardiogram
(ECG) sensor for electromyography (EMG), strain sensors and a
light-emitting capacitor (LEC), so that it can effectively monitor phys-
iological signals and display feedback information through closed-
loop communication between the user and electronics. Furthermore,
every part (including interconnects) was autonomously self-healable
and stretchable up to 100%. For example, the standalone LEC can
completely be healed to recover its original mechanical and electrical
properties, even after suffering a complete cut. After healing, the LEC
was observed to continue emitting light even at 100% strain.
Realizing self-healing in electronic devices with multilayer
structures is extremely difficult because each layer has different
mechanical properties, and it is challenging to achieve perfect align-
ment between different layers in the multilayer stack when they are
mechanically cut. However, if each layer has high inherent tough-
ness, it will be easier to achieve better alignment with high yield. We
note that high toughness may also contribute to a much cleaner and
less-deformed surface when a layer is mechanically cut. In particular,
in materials that are not mechanically tough, mechanical damages
will result in significant permanent plastic deformation (especially
on the surfaces), which will make it difficult to effectively reconnect
the damaged surfaces through the self-healing process. In addition,
high toughness will impart a ‘shape memory’ effect to system, hence
promoting the autonomous self-healing process31.
Modular and reconfigurable integrated electronic systems
Self-healing chemistry is not only useful for building mechanically
robust and durable electronics, but also opens up opportunities for
constructing soft electronics in unique ways. For example, we recently
demonstrated the concept of stretchable modular and reconfigurable
electronic systems60, in which multiple electronic modules are electri-
cally interconnected and can digitally communicate with each other
(Fig. 5b). The conductive interconnects were fabricated on a tough,
stretchable, self-healable substrate, which allowed the components to
be cut, reconfigured and reconnected. Commercial electronic chips
were placed on flexible polyimide islands with printed circuits. The
Review Article
a
10 mm
Multifunctional self-healable
electronic skin
b c
Wearable modular electronics Inter-integrated circuit
digital communication
(four conductive lines)
2 cm
Fig. 5 | Self-healing electronic system. a, Optical image of a multifunctional self-healable electronic skin system consisting of a strain sensor with a
capacitive structure, an ECG sensor and LEC array29. b, Optical image of stretchable modular wearable electronic device composed of five modules and
four connectors on a human arm60. c, Optical images of reconfigurable assembly of electronic devices with modules and connectors60. Panels reproduced
from: a, ref. 29, Springer Nature Ltd; b, ref. 60, Wiley; c, ref. 60, Wiley.
islands were then bonded onto a self-healing substrate with multiple
self-healable conductive lines. Each module had multiple self-healing
conductive lines and could readily interconnect with each other via
the self-healing process. With this approach, two modular electronic
systems based on non-return to zero and inter-integrated circuit digi-
tal communication protocols were demonstrated.
Existing soft electronics are not malleable, intuitively pro-
grammable or adaptable to rapidly changing social and mechani-
cal norms, due to their inherent mechanical stiffness and lack of
freedom for user design and construction. In contrast, modular
electronics using self-healing interconnecting technologies with
inherent flexibility and stretchability could allow flexible position-
ing of modules on three-dimensional surfaces and structures, thus
offering a variety of skin electronic design possibilities.
Outlook
Self-healing soft electronics materials and devices have progressed
rapidly in recent years. However, several challenges need to be
addressed before such electronic devices can be seamlessly inte-
grated into our daily life.
Fabrication. In general, the fabrication processes of self-healing
materials are incompatible with existing electronic technologies. In
particular, patterning self-healing materials with the small feature
sizes required for integrated electronics applications remains chal-
lenging and tedious. Therefore, the development of photo-pattern-
able or self-healing electronics materials will be necessary.
Properties. Despite the exciting developments in the field, the avail-
ability of functional materials for applications remains limited, espe-
cially semiconductors and conductors. Furthermore, the electronic
properties of current self-healable devices are not yet comparable
to non-healable functional electronic devices. New design concepts
Nature ElectronIcS
Strain sensor
Strain sensor
ECG sensor
ECG sensor
LEC array
LEC array
Self-healing substrate
Flexible conductive cable
Building blocks
Assembly ‘S’ for modular electronics Assembly ‘U’
Connectors
Modules
for self-healing electronic polymers or hybridization of self-healing
polymers with high-performance inorganic nanomaterials will be
necessary to improve their electronic properties.
Process. It should also be noted that the healing process remains
relatively slow and non-autonomous. Specifically, heating, light
exposure or solvents are needed for the rapid healing of some mate-
rials and devices. Therefore, the development of an autonomous
self-healing system like a human body would be ideal. In addi-
tion, the development of an on-demand self-healing system, which
allows the selective triggering of the self-healing process in desig-
nated locations, will be useful in integrated electronic systems.
Large-area. When the size of damages is larger than the thickness
of layers, it is challenging to realize an efficient self-healing pro-
cess. Therefore, the self-healing process is currently limited to only
small-area damages.
Thermal stability. As most intrinsic self-healing polymers are based
on dynamic non-covalent cross-linked bonds, their mechanical prop-
erties are sensitive to temperature. Therefore, their thermal stability is
potentially poor. Strategies to construct thermodynamically stable
self-healing systems will help to make them more reliable and stable.
Self-healing chemistry is a valuable approach to constructing
soft electronics as if offers self-bonding, as well as functionalities
such as robustness, modularity and reconfigurability. The resulting
self-healing soft electronics are of potential use in wearable elec-
tronics and bioelectronics applications due to their ability to accom-
modate varying external strains caused by dynamic movement. The
materials could also be of use in the development of more stable bat-
teries, where they could, for example, act as silicon anode binders59
and lithium metal coatings61. Self-healing materials will, we believe,
help deliver the next-generation of soft electronics.
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Nature ElectronIcS Review Article
Received: 13 December 2018; Accepted: 19 March 2019; 35. Palleau, E., Reece, S., Desai, S. C., Smith, M. E. & Dickey, M. D. Self-healing
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