The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields

of Moving Charged Particles

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism

Michael Dine
Department of Physics
University of California, Santa Cruz

March 2011

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials

We can derive the scalar and vector potential for a point charge
starting with the expressions we wrote for the scalar and vector
potentials,
Z
1 1
φ(~x , t) = d 3 x 0 dt 0 0
ρ(~x 0 , t 0 )δ(t − t 0 − |~x − ~x 0 |). (1)
|~x − ~x | c
Z
~ ~x , t) = d 3 x 0 dt 0 1 ~J(~x 0 , t 0 )δ(t − t 0 − 1 |~x − ~x 0 |). (2)
A(
|~x − ~x 0 | c
and the charge and current distributions we wrote for point
charges:

ρ(~x , t) = qδ(~x − ~xo (t)) ~J(~x , t) = q~vo (t)δ(~x − ~xo (t)) (3)

where ~xo (t) is the position of the particle at time t, and ~vo is its
velocity.

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
We just need to figure out how to do the integral over the
δ-function. For a δ-function, the most we care about is its
behavior near the point where its argument vanishes. We called
tR the solution to this condition,
1
tR = t − |~x − ~xo (tR )|. (4)
c
What is somewhat complicated about this equation is that it is
an implicit equation for tR . We can solve it, however, once we
know the trajectories of the charged particle. At time
t 0 = tR + (t 0 − tR ) near tR , we can Taylor expand the position:

~xo (t) ≈ ~xo (tR ) + (t 0 − tR )~vo (tR ) (5)

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Using this, we can write:

|~x − ~xo (t 0 )| ≈ |~x − ~xo (tR ) − (t 0 − tR )~vo (tR )| (6)

~ = ~x − ~xo (tR ); then
Call R

|~x − ~xo (t 0 )| ≈ (R2 − 2R

~ · ~vo (t 0 − tR ))1/2 (7)

R~ · ~vo
≈R− (t 0 − tR )
R
So finally, the argument of the δ-function is:

1 1 ~
R 1 ~
R
δ([t − R − tR ~vo · ] − t 0 (1 − ~vo · )) (8)
c c R c R

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Remember that t 0 is the integration variable and note that t 0
appears only in the second set of terms. The δ function still
vanishes when t 0 = tR . But what we also need is that:
1 0
δ(a(t 0 − tR )) = δ(t − tR )). (9)
a
So from this we obtain:
q
φ(~r , t) = (10)
R− 1~ ~
·R
c vo

~ ~r , t) = q~v 1
A( (11)
R− 1~ ~
·R
c vo
where in each case, the quantities on the right hand side are
evaluated at the retarded time.

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Evaluating the Fields

~
Our index notation is particularly effective in evaluating the E
~ fields of a point charge. We need to evaluate:
and B

~
~ = − ∂ A − ∇φ
E ~ ~ =∇
B ~
~ × A. (12)
∂t
We need to be careful, however, because tR is implicitly a
function of ~x . So when we take derivatives with respect to ~x , we
need to differentiate not only the terms with explicit ~x ’s, but also
the terms with tR . So we start by working out these derivatives.
Differentiating both sides of:

1
tR = t − |~x − ~xo (tR )| (13)
c

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Remembering that

|~x − ~xo (tR )| = ((xi − xoi )2 )1/2 (14)

gives
1 Ri ~
~vo (tR ) · R
∂i tR = − + ∂ i tR (15)
c R R

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Solving for ∂i tR :

Ri 1
∂ i tR = − ~
(16)
cR 1 − ~vo (tR )·R
R

It will also be useful to have a formula for ∂i R. From

R = c(t − tR ) (17)

we have
∂i R = −c∂i tR . (18)

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
So now we can start taking derivatives.
c ~ · ~v )
∂i φ = − ∂ (Rc − R (19)
~ · ~v )2 i
(Rc − R

Now
~ · ~v = ∂i (rj − xoj (tR ))ẋoj (tR )
∂i R (20)
= ẋoi − ẋoj2 ∂i tR − Rj ẍoj ∂i tR
So
qc ~ · ~a∂i tR − vi ) (21)
∂i φ = − (−c∂i tR + v 2 ∂i tR + R
~ · ~v )2
(Rc − R

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Using our expression for ∂i tR gives:
−qc h
~ · ~aRi − vi (R
~ · ~v − cR)
i
∂i φ = −c 2 Ri + v 2 Ri + R
(Rc − R~ · ~v )3
(22)
With a bit more algebra, one can show:
~
∂A qc
= (23)
∂t ~ · ~v )3
(Rc − R
 
~ R 2 2 ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
(Rc − R · v )(−v + Ra/c) + (c − v + R · a)v
c
and combining these, you obtain:
" #

n̂ − ~v

n̂ × [(n̂ − ~
v ) × ~˙]
v
~ ~r , t) = e
E( +e (24)
γ 2 (1 − ~v · ~n)3 R 2 (1 − ~v · ~n)3 R

~
where n̂ = R
R . All quantities on the right hand side are to be
evaluated at the retarded time.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Similarly,
~ = 1 R̂ × E(
B ~ ~r , t). (25)
c

~ and B,
Exercise: Fill in the details of the calculations of E ~
using the index notation as above.

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
More Covariant Derivation

The Green’s function can be written in a covariant-looking

fashion:
G(x) = 2δ(x 2 )θ(x 0 ) (26)
To check this, note

δ(x 2 ) = δ(t 2 − ~x 2 ) (27)

This has roots at t = ±|~x |; because of the θ function, we keep

only the positive root. Then using the rules for δ-functions of
functions,
1
G(x) = δ(t − |~x |)θ(t). (28)
t

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
So Z
µ
A (x) = d 4 x 0 G(x − x 0 )j µ (x 0 ) (29)

We can also write the current associated with a charge in the

covariant manner:
Z
j µ (x) = dτ u µ (τ )δ(x − x0 (τ )) (30)

(again, you should check the components if this is not familiar).

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
So we have
Z Z
4 0
µ
A (x) = 2e d x dτ u µ (τ )θ(x 0 − x00 (τ ))δ((x − x0 (τ )2 ) (31)

where we have used the δ-function in j µ . To do the τ integral,

we note:
∂
(x − x0 (τ ))2 = −2u µ (x − x0 )µ (32)
∂τ
so
u µ (τ )
Aµ = e (33)
u · (x − x0 )
which is what we found previously. (Note, due to the δ function,
R = 0).

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Some Checks of These Results

We should be able to reproduce our earlier results for radiation

by a dipole and for the fields of a particle in uniform motion.
Consider, first, a non-relativistic particle undergoing
acceleration. For E,~ we have

~ ~x , t) ≈ e n̂ × (n̂ × v̇ )
E( (34)
R
e ¨ ) − ~p
¨ ].
[n̂(n̂ · ~p
=
r
This is our earlier result (similarly for B; ~ again, everything on
the right hand side is evaluated at the retarded time).

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Particle in Uniform Motion

As in chapter 12 of Jackson, we consider a particle moving

along the x axis with velocity v , and observe its motion at the
point (0, b, 0) at time t. The crucial issue is to keep track of the
retarded time in our expression for E. ~ We can do this as in
Jackson’s 14.2, or we can proceed by actually solving for the
retarded time, which is instructive. The retarded position and
time can be labeled
(t 0 , vt 0 , 0, 0) (35)
and satisfies:
2
(t 0 − t)2 − (b2 + v 2 t 0 ) = 0; R µ = (t − t 0 , vt 0 , b, 0). (36)

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
This is a quadratic equation for t 0 . The solution is not
particularly pretty:
p
0 2t − 4t 2 + 4(b2 − t 2 )(1 − v 2 )
t = (37)
2(1 − v 2 )

(note that the negative sign root of the quadratic equation is

necessary so that t 0 < t).
p
= γ 2 t − b2 γ −2 + v 2 t 2

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
 ~
To determine the electric field, we need n̂ · R:

(−vt 0 , b, 0) v 2t 0
n̂ = √ ; n̂ · ~v = √ . (38)
b2 + v 2 t 02 b2 + b2 t 02

Also, n̂ · ~v R = v 2 t 0 , so
p
~ ) = (t − t 0 − v 2 t 0 ) = t − (1 − v 2 )t 0 =
(R − n̂ · Rv b2 γ −2 + 4v 2 t 2
p (39)
= γ −1 b2 + 4v 2 γ 2 t 2
So, for example,

eγb
Ey = (40)
(b2 + γ 2 v 2 t 2 )3/2

as expected.

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Energy Emission by an Accelerating Particle
In the frame where the particle is at rest at a given instant, the
energy emitted in a time interval dt is just what we found earlier
(and is given again by our formulas above)
2e2 2
v̇ dt
dE = (41)
3
The total momentum radiated in a similar time interval is zero.
This is easily seen by considering the stress tensor. The
momentum flux in the i’th direction.
1 ~2 ~2
Tij = Ei Ej + Bi Bj − δij (E + B ). (42)
2
So
1 ~2 ~2
ni Tij = − nj (E + B ). (43)
2
(We have used the transversality of the radiation field).
Integrated over angles, this gives zero (E ~ → E,
~ B~ → −B)
~ under
~n → −~n).
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
 0
So dP 0 is the time component of a four vector, but dPdt is the
same in any frame, i.e. it is a scalar. We can see this by writing:

e2 du ν duν µ 2e2 du ν duν µ

dP µ = −2 dx = − dx (44)
3 ds ds 3 ds ds
(check in rest frame!). We can write

dP 0 e2 dpν dpν
= −2 3 2 (45)
dt 3c m ds ds
(Lorentz invariant, as claimed earlier).

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
After some algebra,

dpν dpν
= m2 γ 6 [(v × v̇ )2 − v̇ 2 ] (46)
dτ dτ
and
dP 0 2 e2 6
P≡ = γ [(v × v̇ )2 − v̇ 2 ]. (47)
dt 3 c

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Comparison of Linear, Circular Acceleration
From these formulas, one can see that, for a given applied
force, particles in circular motion radiate much more rapidly
than particles in linear motion. Again writing

2 e2 dpµ dpµ
P=− (48)
3 m2 dτ dτ
we have, for linear motion,
2 2
2 e2 d ~p
 
dE
P= − (49)
3 m2 dτ dτ
dE d dp
but dτ = dτ γ = v̇ v γ 3 , while dτ = v̇ γ 3 so
"   2 #
2
2 e2 d ~p 2 dp
P=− −β (50)
3 m2 c 3 dτ dτ

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
So we can compare linear, circular acceleration.
Linear:
dE dp
dx ≈ dt , so
 2
2 e2 dp
P= 2 3
. (51)
3m c dt
Circular:
d ~p
| dτ | = γω|~p|, so
2 e2 c 4 4
P= β γ (52)
3 ρ2
Reason why circular accelerators for electrons problematic.

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Now we look at the radiation in more detail, particularly the
angular and frequency distribution. To do this we return to the
~ field (radiation part):
expression for the E
" #
n̂ × [(n̂ − ~
v ) × ~˙]
v
~ ~r , t) = e
E( (53)
(1 − ~v · ~n)3 R

~ = n̂|E|
and recall S ~ 2 , so

 n̂ × [(n̂ − ~v ) × ~v˙ ] 2
" #
2
~ · n̂ = e 1
S
 
(54)
4πc R 2 (1 − ~v · ~n)3 R
 
 

Note that in n.r. limit, denominator is one, but in ultrarelativistic

limit, the denominator vanishes in the forward direction – the
radiation is highly peaked.

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
It is convenient to change variables so that integrals over time (e.g.
for the total energy) are written in terms of the retarded time.
Z Z
∂t 0
dt = dt (55)
∂t 0
Recall
∂t 0
= (1 − n̂ · ~v )−1 . (56)
∂t
∂R
=−~ ~
v ·R
(from R = |~x − ~x0 (t 0 ), ∂t 0
R , so, since t 0 = t − R,

∂t 0 ∂R ∂t 0
=1− 0 , (57)
∂t ∂t ∂t
giving the result above. So, in particular,

dP(t 0 ) ~ · n̂(1 − ~v · n̂).

= R2S (58)
dω

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Motion in a straight line (linear accelerator)

d ~v
Here ~v × dt = 0.

dP(t 0 ) e2 2 sin2 θ
= v̇ . (59)
dω 4π (1 − v cos θ)5

For v → 1, the denominator is

1 1 γ −2
1 − v + θ2 ≈ (γ −2 + θ2 ) ≈ (1 + γ 2 θ2 )
2 2 2
again indicating the strong forward peaking; θ ∼ γ −1 .
Integrating over angles,

2 e2 v̇ 2
P(t 0 ) = γ 6 (60)
3 c3

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
The integrals above are elementary. For example

θ3 v̇ 2
Z
dθ (61)
2 (1 + γ 2 θ2 )5
∞
v̇ 2 x3 v̇ 2
Z
= γ6 dx = .
2 0 (1 + x 2 )5 24

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Circular motion
Highly peaked in angle as before. Take ~b⊥~v˙ . Evaluate:

dP(t 0 ) e2 |n̂ × [(n̂ − ~v ) × v̇ ]|2

= . (62)
dΩ 4πc (1 − n̂ · ~v )5

The numerator may be written, using our identity for ’s (in
~ × B|
particular, |A ~ 2 = |A|
~ 2 |B|
~ 2 − (A
~ · B)
~ 2 ):

|n̂ × [(n̂ − ~v ) × v̇ ]|2 = |(n̂ − ~v ) × ~v˙ |2 − |n̂ · [(n̂ − ~v ) × ~v˙ ]|2 (63)

= (1 + v 2 − 2n̂ · ~v )~v˙ − (n̂ · ~v˙ )2 − |n̂ · (~v × ~v˙ )|2 .

Taking ~v along the z axis, and ~v˙ along the y axis, and
n̂ = (cos θ, sin θ cos φ, sin θ sin φ)),

dP(t 0 ) e2 |~v˙ |2 sin2 θ cos2 φ

= [1 − ]. (64)
dΩ 4πc 3 (1 − v cos θ)3 γ 2 (1 − v cos(θ))2

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Again, highly peaked in forward direction. Integrating over
angles as before,
2 e2 |~v˙ |2 4
P(t 0 ) = γ . (65)
3 c3
To compare with linear acceleration, we write in terms of

d ~p
= γm~v˙ (66)
dt
so
2 2 e2 2 ˙ 2
P(t 0 ) = m 3 γ ~p . (67)
3 c
This is larger than the linear case by γ 2 for the same force.

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Distribution in Frequency (and angle)
I’ll follow Jackson and define (not to be confused with the vector
potential)
 1/2
~ = c
A RE ~ (68)
4π
so
dP
= |A(t)|2 . (69)
dΩ
Fourier transforming, following Jackson’s convention:
Z ∞
1
f (t) = √ dωe−iωt f (ω) (70)
2π −∞
we have, for the total energy radiated during the course of the particle
motion: Z ∞
dW ~ 2
= |A(ω)| dω (71)
dΩ −∞
Z ∞ 2
d I(ω, n̂)
≡ dω
0 dωdΩ
~
where, since A(ω) =A ~ ∗ (−ω)
d 2I ~ 2
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and dωdΩ
Magnetism
= 2|The
A(ω)| . (72)
Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
 ~ directly given knowledge of the trajectory.
We can calculate A
" #
 2 Z ∞
e n̂ × ( n̂ − ~ β̇
β)
~
A(ω) = eiωt dt (73)
8π 2 c −∞ (1 − β~ · n̂)2

(I have given in and used Jackson’s β~ notation). Note that the

quantities on the right hand side are to be evaluated at the
retarded time, but here we can just change variables in the
integral.
dt 0
= (1 − β~ · n̂)−1 . (74)
dt
0 −R(t 0 )/c 0
When we do this, we replace eiωt by eiωt ≈ eiωt−n̂·~r (t ) (~r
is the position of the particle).

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
So we are left with
1/2 Z ∞
"
~ β̇
#
e2

~ iω(t−n̂·r (t)/c) n̂ × (n̂ − β)
A(ω) = dte (75)
8π 2 c −∞ (1 − β~ · n̂)2

Amazingly the term in braces is a total derivative

~ × β~˙
" #
d n̂ × (n̂ × β) ~ β̇
n̂ × (n̂ − β)
= ,
dt (1 − β~ · n̂) (1 − β~ · n̂)2

and after an integration by parts one obtains:

Z ∞
d 2I e2 ω 2 ~ iω(t−n̂·~r (t)/c) dt|2 .
= | n̂ × (n̂ × β)e (76)
dωdΩ 4π 2 c −∞

As long as there is some component of ~v˙ not parallel to ~v , this

dominates and at any instant, the motion can be treated as
circular. One then obtains expressions for the radiation by a
“straightforward" integration.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
Brief aside: It is interesting that eqn. 75 doesn’t involve the
˙
acceleration. But it better vanish if β~ is zero. This is easy to
see; the integrand, if β~ is a constant, is
" #
d n̂ × (n̂ × β) ~
eiω(t−n̂·~r ) (77)
dt 1 − n̂ · β~

(here, and above, it is important that ~r˙ = β).

~ The integral thus
vanishes.

Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge
To set up the problem, it is helpful to set up coordinates, e.g. as
in Jackson, and to work out explicitly the various quantities
appearing here. Taking

~r = x̂ sin(ωt/ρ) + ŷ cos(vt/ρ) (78)

and taking the vector n̂ in the (x, z) plane

n̂ = x̂ cos θ + ŷ sin θ (79)

(I am following Jackson in making a slightly unconventional

choice for θ, but it makes θ → 0 the region where most of the
radiation lies). It is also helpful to define two polarization
vectors:
ˆk = ŷ ; ˆ⊥ = ẑ sin θ − x̂ cos θ (80)
one can work out all of the quantities appearing in the
integrand. The results can be expressed as modified Bessel
functions.
Physics 214 2011, Electricity and Magnetism The Lienard-Wiechart Potentials and the Fields of Moving Charge